READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY FIELDS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Introduction to Political Science Understanding
the concept of State, Governance and
Constitution Part 1
This section outlines the significance of
political science in understanding the concept of
state, government and constitution. It also
tackles the interrelationship of political science
and history.
What is Political Science?
• It is the systematic study of political
life.
• Political scientist seek answers to such
questions as “What reason justify the
actions of government? "and “Whose
interest are served by governments?”
• They study various forms of
government as well as political parties,
pressure groups, elections,
international relations, and public
administration.
• all these are activities of individuals and
groups; and involve basic human
relationship. It also deals with such
fundamental values as EQUALITY,
FREEDOM, JUSTICE, and POWER
The study of political science has increased
greatly with the growth and spread of
democracy during the modern times. In every
democratic country, political science is essential
in the process of government. The political
science studies these processes and the
operations of government agencies and
departments. The work of political scientists
provides a factual basis for criticism and reform
– probably the most important elements of
democratic government. Political scientists also
develop useful materials for the education of
young people. Without that kind of training for
our future citizens, a democratic society could
not prosper.
POLITICAL THEORY AND PHILOSOPHY
● Are usually dealt with historically. Most
political scientists believe that the history of
political thought forms the basis of all political
studies. They consider the reading of great books
on political theory and philosophy to be essential
for a broad education in politics.
● The writers of these works include PLATO,
ARISTOTLE, CICERO, SAINT AUGUSTINE, SAINT
THOMAS AQUINAS, NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI,
THOMAS HOBBES, JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU,
JOHN LOCKE, MONTESQUIEU, IMMANUEL KANT,
GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH HEGEL, AND KARL
MARX.
● Careful attention is also given to the writings
of JEREMY BENTHAM and JOHN STUART MILL.
● The classic political and philosophical works
help political scientist explore and understand
many issues of empirical politics. With this
understanding, political scientist can establish
correct generalizations based on verified facts.
These generalizations deal with such subjects as
how power is gained or lost and the problems of
representative government.
COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT
An understanding of political reality may be
achieved by comparing the political institutions
and practices of two or more countries. Some
scholars in comparative government specialize
by studying the countries of a particular area of
the world.
INTERNATIONAL RELATION
It includes diplomacy, international law, and
international organization. Since 1945, much
emphasis has been placed on the study of the
United Nations. During the 1960s and 1970s,
specialists in international relations became
increasingly interested in China and the
developing nations of Africa, Central and South
America, the Middle east and Southeast Asia.
Vital forces in the modern world, including
imperialism and nationalism, are important
subjects of international relations. This field
political science also deals with defense policies
and a wide range of problems connected with
peace and war. In addition, political scientists
examine the effects of economic pressures on
international relations.
NATIONAL GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
• Is a field to which political scientist
generally give special attention. They
feel it is necessary to study their own
government’s development more
deeply than that of other governments.
• READ the link on moodle with the title
The Rajahs and Sultans of Pre-colonial
Philippines.
https://www.esquiremag.ph/long-
reads/features/rajahs-sultans-pre-colonial-
philippines-a2212-20191216-lfrm3
(see the content of this link at the end of part 4)
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
It is actually part of a comparative government
and of domestic government and politics. It is
separated from those fields because of the range
and complications of modern administrative
activities. Public administration deals with such
tasks of public officials as accounting, budgets,
and personal management. Public officials often
work closely with political scientists who are
expert in administration. These experts study the
many departments of national governments.
They analyze how the organization and internal
politics of government departments aid or
hinder putting political decisions and programs
into effect.
POLITICAL BEHAVIOR
Is the field that explores the way people respond
to certain political conditions or influences. For
example, the political scientist may take note of
how many voters favor a candidate who looks
good on television. Behavioral studies are the
most recent trend in political science. They have
been influenced by developments in such
behavioral sciences as anthropology,
psychology, and sociology. Political scientists
have developed ways to study certain key
behavior pattern in politics. Studies have been
made in communications, propaganda, voting
behavior, and other activities.
The Development Of Political Science
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle
called political science the “master science”. He
considered politics the highest science because
he thought all other sciences depended on it. For
many years, most scientist laughed at this idea.
But today, many scientists share Aristotle’s
opinion because they realize that a nuclear war
could wipe out humanity. They are convinced
that the knowledge of how to control the results
of scientific work politically – in other words,
how to maintain peace – is probably the most
important of all human endeavors. Aristotle and
his teacher, Plato, believed that the main task of
political science was to work out a model
political order. This political order would
establish maximum justice while remaining
completely stable. Plato was primarily a
philosopher of ideas. He derived his insight
chiefly from abstract speculation (thinking
about concrete things). Aristotle, on the other
hand insisted on empirical studies (investigation
based on experience) in order to construct his
political theories
 Readings in Philippine History
Introduction to Political Science
The development of Political Science
PART 2
Greek Philosophers
Plato, abstract speculation
Aristotle, empirical studies Father of Political
science
SCHOLASTICISM
It was a major philosophical movement
during the late Middle Ages. It followers, often
called scholastics, undertook to fit the Greek
tradition of political science into the religious
framework of Christianity. Their main concern
was to harmonize the power of government with
ethics and moral laws.
The greatest scholastic was St. Thomas Aquinas.
He ranked all other political subjects below law.
In one of his most important works, Summa
Theologica, he elaborated on Aristotle’s theories
adapted them to Christian purposes. He
emphasized certain rights and duties of
individuals in the processes of government. He
also stressed that government should rule in
accordance with those rights and duties. By
stating that government was limited by law.,
Aquinas helped lay the foundation of modern
constitutionalism.
“God Himself is the rule and mode of virtue. Our
faith is measured by divine truth, our hope by the
greatness of His power and faithful affection, our
charity by His goodness. His truth, power and
goodness outreach any measure of reason. We
can certainly never believe, trust or love God
more than, or even as much as, we should.
Extravagance is impossible. Here is no virtuous
moderation, no measurable mean; the more
extreme our activity, the better we are.” ― St.
Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 5 Vols
SECULARISM
The theories of the medieval philosophers were
challenged in the 1500s and 1600s. Niccolo
Machiavelli, a famous Florentine politician,
pushed aside Christian idealism in favor of
realistic power politics. Machiavelli’s ideas were
generalized by Thomas Hobbes, an English
philosopher. Hobbes claimed that a person’s
entire life was a “ceaseless search for power.”
This approach became known as secularism
because it separated politics from religion. Three
writers who put those ideas into legalistic form
were Jean Bodin, a French jurist; Johannes
Althusius, a German political scientist; and Hugo
Grotius, a Dutch lawyer who was the founder of
science of international law.
CONSTITUTIONALISM
It is a political system in which the powers of the
government are in fact limited by law or
tradition. It developed during mid-1600s. It was
a reaction to absolutism – that is, absolute ruled
by one person. The reaction was especially
strong in England, where it was climaxed by the
Glorious Revolution of 1688. several English
writers influenced the basic theories of Western
constitutionalism. These writers included
Richard Hooker, John Milton, and James
Harrington. John Locke, perhaps the most
influential political writer of the time,
emphasized basic human rights and believed
that people should revolt against the
governments that violated those rights. His
book Two Treatises of Government (1690)
greatly influenced political thought in the
American colonies. Locke’s ideas helped shape
the Declaration of Independence and the United
States Constitution. (Discussion in Philippine
Constitution after this development)
LIBERALISM
It developed as a political philosophy
largely from the theories of John Locke.
Liberalism represents a
willingness to change ideas, proposals, and
policies to meet current problems. Locke’s
theories were
given a broader base by Montesquieu, one of a
group of French writers called philosophie.
Liberal theories were reinforced by the
radical individualism of Jean-Jacques Rousseau
and utilitarian theories of David Hume, a
Scotsman, and Jeremy Bentham, an Englishman.
Individualists believe that freedom of the
individual is as important as the welfare of any
community.
Utilitarian believe that the goal of politics is “the
greatest happiness of the greatest number”.
John
Stuart Mill, a prominent English philosopher and
economist, summarized most of the liberal ideas
that had developed up to his time.
Three great German philosophers
contributed to liberal ideas that were somewhat
different from classic liberalism. They were
Immanuel Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte and
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. The liberalism of
Fichte and Hegel included ideas of socialism and
nationalism. Kant’s liberalism included a theory
of universal peace through world organization.
Kant explained his theory in a brief classic, On
Eternal Peace, published in 1795.
Three great German philosophers
Democracy and Socialism
Some of Rousseau’s writings carried his political
theories beyond radical individualism. In the
Social Contract (1762), Rousseau became the
theorist of democracy. He emphasis on the
collective – the general will, as Rousseau
described it – gave it rise to socialism. Eventually,
the theories about democracy became divided.
Liberal, constitutional, democratic ideas were
followed in the United States. Socialist
democratic ideas became predominant in
Europe. Socialism was further developed by Karl
Marx, a German philosopher and economist. He
first expressed his socialist ideas in the
Communist Manifesto (1848), which he wrote
with his colleague Friedrich Engels.

Communism in the Soviet Union was based on

Marxist doctrines as interpreted and modified by
V.I. Lenin, who led the Russian Revolution in
1917. The rulers in China and other Communist
countries still follow Marxist-Lennist principles.
Marxism-Lennism is significantly different from
the Marxist doctrines followed by democratic
socialists in many of the countries of Western
Europe.

CONTEMPORARY IDEAS

Since about 1900, most political scientist have

sought increasingly to strengthen the empirical
basis of their work. They have been returning to
Aristotle’s view of basing political theories and
methods on experience. As a result, much
progress has been made in descriptive and
analytical work, and in quantitative studies.
Today, political scientist makes practical
improvement and political reform their major
concerns. The modern approach of using
empirical methods in political science is being
taken up in one country after another. Many
political studies consider most nations and the
world. Such global interests find expression in
the International Political Science Associations.
 Introduction to Political Science
Understanding the concept of State,
Governance and Constitution
Part 3
Relationship of Political science with other
studies
The relationship of political science with other
branches of learning especially the social
sciences, makes political science more
meaningful and significant as it draws strength
and energy from them. Experts in politics who
are deeply interested in the political system
show much interest in knowing the impact of
history, economics, sociology, psychology,
geopolitics, philosophy and other studies upon
political science.
Political Science & History
Whenever political scientist make a study of a
state and its political institutions, they depend
on history knowing its origin, its growth and
development, and its institutions. An analysis of
the CAUSES and FACTORS that influence the
state’s growth and development makes it
necessary for political writers to rely on historical
facts. Thus, knowledge of historical foundations
of the state will help political thinkers in
analyzing and describing present political
phenomena, and consequently enables them to
provide, through the lessons of the past
direction to and meaning for the future.
The centralization of government in the
Philippines for example, can be traced back to
the barangay government in pre-Spanish
Philippines where all powers of government
were centered on the local executive, the datu.
It can be stressed that all political institutions can
be understood in their STRUCTURE,
ORGANIZATION and OPERATION, in their laws
and constitution by employing historical
approach.
“Political science without history is hollow and
baseless; history without political science has no
fruit; and political science without history has no
root.” Dr J. Seeley
POLITICAL SCIENCE & ECONOMICS
Sociology is the study of a society as a whole. It
is a social science course that enriches political
science by its contributions to the study of social
problems which are problems of the
government. The sociologist’s investigations and
inquiries, marital relations problems, juvenile
delinquency, housing problems, etc. are data
available to the political scientist to evaluate,
and which may later become interesting and
basic subject of legislation.
POLTICAL SCIENCE & PSYCHOLOGY
It has been said by some political writers that
psychology is the foundation for political science.
The study of political behavior is a good example
of how these men used psychology in their
theories about politics. Jeremy Bentham, father
of utilitarianism in 19th century England,
formulated a theory of political behavior on the
fundamental reality that men act always in
pursuit of their self-interest. This view was
earlier explored by Thomas Aquinas and Thomas
Hobbes who expounded their theories of morals
and politics on a solid foundation of reality by
recognizing the fact that man’s instinctive desire
is to preserve himself.
POLITICAL SCIENCE & ANTHROPOLGY
There is also close association of political science
with anthropology. Students of politics are
benefited by the anthropological theory of the
state. Anthropologists believe that the state
evolved from the family, and from the clan into
bigger or more extensive groupings and finally
the nation, bound by common ideas and goals.

While Aristotle writes that man is by nature a

political animal, the anthropologist helps the
students of political science to understand this
Aristotelian view to mean that man is rational,
civilized and cultured being.

POLITICAL SCIENCE & GEOGRAPHY

The knowledge of geography is very useful in the

study of political science, especially those
aspects related to external political problems,
frontiers or boundaries, national power, and
trade relations, which have led to the
galvanization (stimulate) of regional
arrangements or associations. An example is the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
Perturbed by external problems the member
nations sought new approaches that would keep
the association operationally viable, strong, and
dynamic.

Geopolitics is a science which emphasizes that

the domestic and foreign policies of a state are
dependent upon its physical environment. It is a
study in political science which considers the
location of a state as a very important factor in
growth, development, and survival.

POLITICAL SCIENCE & PHILOSOPHY

Political theories about the origin of the state,

individualism, democracy, communism, the
separation powers of the government branches,
and others are but a few examples of the
personal philosophies of those who advocated
them. These theories have widened the horizons
of knowledge of students in political science.
Indeed, political philosophy has presented to
many alternative visions of the state. The study
of political science lacks substance without
political philosophy infusing certain values in the
political theories.
 Introduction to Political
Science
Understanding the concept of State,
Governance and Constitution
Part 4
Methodology of Political Science
OBSERVATIONAL OR EMPIRICAL METHOD
The scientific attitude toward government has
made the empirical method an essential way of
observing actual political institutions and their
processes. These political institutions are
“laboratories” of empirically oriented political
scientists where they experiment on the
workings of these political institutions. Every
change in their operation and structure, every
method in the formulation and determination of
their laws and policies, and every new system of
administration in a state has a great significance.
Thus, the institution of a new system of
government in the Philippines, which combined
the elements of both presidential and
parliamentary systems, was experimental in
character. It tried to determine whether it would
become an effective transition instrument that
would pave the way for a parliamentary
government.
HISTORICAL METHOD
The historical method enlightens the students of
politics on the origin and evolution of the state
and its institutions, by seeking to explain what
they are and what they will be. The historical
approach is not merely expository but
interpretative. Thus, the historical approach will
make the students interested in knowing not
only the origin of the state, its government and
practices, but also the forces and factors
influence its growth and development.
COMPARATIVE METHOD
In the study of political science it brings into
focus on contemporary political institutions and
practices of various countries at different
periods of history. From this focus, students can
draw similarities and differences in the
structures and systems of the governments of
these countries, in their laws, and constitutions.
ANALYTICAL METHOD
This field of endeavor is aimed at discovering the
significant or essential elements of political
institutions in an attempt to analyze and
examine their WORTH and VALUE and how they
work. The analytical method when used by the
political scientist would force him to make a
detailed study of these political institutions,
evaluating their interrelations in the exercise of
their powers and performance of their functions
for maximizing government in their relations
with other functional groups in society.
SIGNIFICANCE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
• The primary objective in the offering
of political science courses in college
is to educate students for
citizenship.
• To understand the complexities of
modern government
• To know the civic skills and humane
ideals requisite for RESPONSIBLE
participation in the political and
social life of a democracy.
• Prepare the students about the
education of law, foreign service,
public administration, politics,
teaching, economics, etc.
PART 1
The Powerful Rajahs and Sultans of Pre-Colonial
Philippines
The Philippine archipelago was a collection of
diverse political entities before the arrival of the
Spanish.
There is a common misconception that the
Spanish “discovered” the Philippines. That, prior
to Spanish conquest, the Philippines had nothing
but savage indios who needed the civilization of
the West to enlighten it.
Of course, we now know just how far that notion
is from the truth. We now understand that
Filipino culture and society existed way before
colonization, and slivers of it sometimes appear
in popular culture: A TV show is set during the
era or a discussion on pre-colonial heritage pops
up now and then.
The fact is, the Philippine archipelago was a
collection of diverse political entities before the
arrival of the Spanish. One could probably draw
comparisons to Ancient Greece with its various
city-states, though the truth is a bit more
complicated than that. A single article would
hardly do justice to describing the full extent of
pre-colonial politics, but let’s try to at least get
an overview:
The Seafaring Datus of the Visayas
A lot of what we know of pre-colonial culture and
politics comes from the Visayas, mainly thanks to
early Spanish sources like Fr. Chirino and Miguel
de Loarca. Because the Spanish first landed in
the Visayas before settling in Manila, a lot of
effort was made to understand the rules of the
strange land and its people.
The most prominent of these was by far
the Rajahnate of Cebu. Ruling from the central
seat of power in Cebu, the Rajahnate was an
important trading hub between the Sultanates of
Mindanao and the Kingdom of Borneo to the
south, the Rajahnates of Luzon to the north, and
the Chinese Empire to the west.
The Kingdom of Cebu also had ties with the
outside world. Founded by a minor prince of
Sumatra, Sri Lumay, Cebu grew to become a
major player in the archipelago’s local politics, By
the time of Magellan in 1521, Rajah
Humabon was the undisputed ruler of Cebu.
Some 40 years later, Humabon’s cousin Rajah
Tupas met the conquistador Miguel Lopez de
Legazpi, and was the last Rajah of Cebu.
Although Cebu was a central polity in the
Visayas, it was by no means the only one.
Humabon famously had a rival in Lapu-Lapu,
who ruled in the island of Mactan. Some sources
assert that Lapu-Lapu was even stronger than his
rival, on account of controlling a key position in
the Visayan trade route.
This would be a common theme, with each island
in the Visayas ruled by its own Datu. Chronicles
from the time of Spanish arrival talked of
dealings with people like Datu Urrao of
Samar, Datu Bankaw of Limasawa,
and Sikatuna in Bohol. Legazpi famously had a
blood compact with Sikatuna to signify their
alliance. This was the Spanish way: Ally with local
Datus when they could and crush them when
they could not.
The Spaniards also recorded other major players
in the area at the time of their arrival: In the
island of Mindoro, was the Kingdom of Ma-I,
which had trade links with China as early as 972
CE, while the island of Panay was home to
the Confederation of Madja-as, unique in its
description as an alliance of local barangays in
the area. The (now-famous) Datu Puti was the
first known ruler of Madja-as.
The Rich Sultans of Mindanao
South of the Visayan islands lies the region of
Mindanao, home to the Lumads, the Moros, and
the seat of four major powers: the Rajahnate of
Butuan, the Sultanate of Lanao, the Sultanate
of Maguindanao, and the Sultanate of Sulu.
Butuan was one of the first polities that the
Spaniards came into contact with. Chroniclers
described the place as so abundant with gold
that the houses were decorated with gold. One
chronicler even claimed that Rajah
Siagu’s alipin had gold jewelry, something
unheard of in Europe. Butuan was regarded to be
one of the richest states not just in the Philippine
archipelago, but in Southeast Asia.
On the other side of Mindanao were the Muslim
sultanates. Islam was first established in the
Philippines in 1380 when Muslim traders set foot
in the shores of Sulu and Jolo. The Sultanate of
Sulu was founded on November 17, 1405,
by Sharif ul-Kisham and quickly rose to become
a maritime power, with close ties to the greater
Muslim community in Mindanao and the
Kingdom of Borneo. Sulu was rightfully feared by
the Spanish for her pirate fleets that controlled
the Celebes Sea.
The spread of Islam continued with the rise of
the Sultanate of Maguindanao under Shariff
Mohammed Kabungsuwan. Maguindanao was a
proud state that was able to resist Spanish
colonization, most famously under Sulat
Kudarat from 1619 to his death in 1671.
Up north, near Lake Lanao, was a confederation
of Maranao states. The history of the “men of
the Lake” was deeply intertwined with
Maguindanao: Sharrif Kabungsuwan was the one
who influenced them to turn to Islam. The
Maranao states eventually formed a sultanate
with Balindong Bsar of House Masiu as its first
Sultan.
Lanao and Maguindanao crossed paths again
thanks to the Spanish. Spanish incursions into
Mindanao threatened the Maranao way of life. It
was Sultan Kudarat who rallied the men of the
Lake into defending against the foreign
incursion. The Spanish retreated within months.
 Tondo was the famous Lakandula, who lost to
the Spanish in the fateful Battle of Bangkusay.
Maynila ultimately shared a similar fate against
the Spanish, though its Rajahs hoped that their
blood relations with the Sultanate of Brunei
would save them. In one incident, the “Young
Prince” Ache fought with his cousin, the Lakan of
Tondo, who was encroaching on territory
belonging to Maynila. Ache, exhorted by his
mother to keep the peace, went to ask his
grandfather, the Sultan of Brunei for assistance.
The Sultan gave Ache command of a naval force.
The Old Rajahs of Luzon

Apart from the Datus of the Visayas, the Ache was on his way back to Maynila to exact

kingdoms of Luzon had the most contact with the revenge on his cousin when he came upon the

Spanish, though much less is written about remnants of the Magellan expedition, which he

them. Political power in Luzon was concentrated attacked in hopes of expanding his fleet. Ache

near the banks of the Pasig River, where trade was captured but was released after paying a

from China made its way across the archipelago. high ransom, whereupon he returned to his

The major players near the Pasig River were Kingdom. Not much is known after that incident.

the Kingdom of Tondo and the Rajahnate of Ache had another brush with the Spanish in the

Maynila. The two states shared a complex 1570s. Now known as Rajah Matanda, Ache and

relationship, ranging from friendly to at war. his counterpart in Tondo, Lakandula, tried to

An old state that existed as early as 900 CE, defend their kingdoms against Spanish invasion.

Tondo engaged in trade and exerted its influence Maynila was burned to the ground and the

to as far as modern-day Laguna, Bulacan, and Spanish built Intramuros in its place.

Pampanga through trade and war. The Outside of the Tagalog regions states and polities

relationship between Tondo and the other were just as abundant. The state of Ibalon ruled

polities was less that of a feudal lord and its in the Bicol peninsula and is known as the first

vassals, and more of an alliance between a senior Spanish settlement in Luzon. The Epic of Ibalon is

and lesser partner. still widely known in the Bicol region as a

Tondo was ruled by a Lakan who, by the time of celebration of oral history and a creative blend

Spanish arrival, shared power with the Muslim of fact and fiction.

Rajahnate of Maynila. One of the last Lakans of

Going north, Rajahs had a complex relationship
with native highland tribes. The Igorot
of Benguet frequently exchanged gold with
Chinese wares from Pangasinan while fighting
Ilocanos in Samtoy. Pangasinan, particularly, is
home to the legendary warrior-princess Urduja,
who was said to have ruled in the 13th century.
There are more states now lost to history before
Spanish arrival and thousands more stories from
the people who lived and ruled during this
period. But what’s important to remember is
that we must always look at our past critically if
we are to have an appreciation of our Filipino
culture and heritage today.

https://www.esquiremag.ph/long-
reads/features/rajahs-sultans-pre-colonial-
philippines-a2212-20191216-lfrm3