Edge Waves on a Sloping Beach

Author(s): F. Ursell
Source: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Aug. 7, 1952, Vol. 214, No. 1116 (Aug. 7, 1952), pp. 79-97
Published by: Royal Society

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 The crystal growth of n-hectane n-ClOOH202 79
The author wishes to thank Professor J. Monteath Robertson, F.R.S., for his
continued interest and encouragement in the course of this work. Imperial
Chemical Industries in providing a Research Fellowship and the Rockefeller
Foundation in providing funds for equipment have, by their generosity, made the
experimental work possible. Professor Stenhagen very kindly supplied a pure
specimen of the paraffin n-hectane. Thanks are due to Mr C. Hancock for his
assistance with the enlargements and diagrams.

REFERENCES

Bunn, C. W. & Emmett, H. I949 Disc. Faraday Soc. no. 5 (Crystal growth), p. 119.
Burgers, J. M. I939 Proc. Acad. Sci. Amst. 42, 293.
Dawson, I. M. & Vand, V. I95I Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 206, 555.
Frank, F. C. I949 Disc. Faraday Soc. no. 5 (Crystal growth), pp. 48, 186.
Mott, N. F. I949 Disc. Faraday Soc. no. 5 (Crystal growth), p. 11.
Muller, A. I932 Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 138, 514.
Stranski, I. N. I949 Disc. Faraday Soc. no. 5 (Crystal growth), p. 75.
Volmer, M. & Schultze, W. I93I Z. phys. Chem. A, 156, 1.

Edge waves on a sloping beach

BY F. URSELL

Trinity College, University of Cambridge

(Communicated by Sir Geoffrey Taylor, F.R.S.-Received 27 February 1952)

The set of eigenfrequencies of a mechanical system forms its spectrum. A discussion is

given of systems with discrete, continuous and mixed spectra. It is shown that resonance
occurs at discrete points of the spectrum, and at cut-off frequencies (end-points of the con-
tinuous spectrum). The motion in a semi-infinite canal of finite width closed by a sloping
beach has a mixed spectrum. The inviscid theory predicts that at a discrete frequency the
resonance is confined to the neighbourhood of the beach (inviscid edge wave), while at a cut-
off frequency the resonance extends a long way down the canal. The latter resonance is
confined to the neighbourhood of the beach (viscous edge wave) by viscosity which is
important near a cut-off frequency. Especially large resonances are predicted for a series of
critical angles, of which the largest is 300. The theory is verified experimentally in the fre-
quency range 100 to 17c/min for the angles 37-6 and 29.50.

INTRODUCTION

When a non-dissipative mechanical system is disturbed from a position of stable

equilibrium in a conservative field of force, a motion results which has long been the
object of investigation. When the disturbance is small enough, co-ordinates can
often be chosen in terms of which the dominant terms of the equations of motion
are linear. When non-linear terms are neglected, one is then led to a theory of
asymptotic validity, the classical theory of small oscillations of which the concepts-
degrees of freedom, normal modes, eigenfrequencies, resonance-are well imown.
In particular, it is known that with a mechanical system performing small oscillations

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 80 F. Ursell

there is associated a set of eigenfrequencies, the spectrum. For systems with a finite
number N of degrees the spectrum contains in general N frequencies; for continuous
systems an infinite number which may form a discrete, or a continuous set, or a sum
of both. Given the mechanical system, the problem arises of finding the nature of
the spectrum, and here the theory is still incomplete, but experience with special
cases has appeared to indicate the main results. For instance, for low gravity waves
(Lamb 1932, chap. 9) at the surface of a fluid contained in a vessel, the spectrum
seems to be discrete and enumerably infinite when the free surface is bounded by
a curve of finite length, although there is no satisfactory published proof of this.
When the volume of the containing vessel tends to infinity in such a way that the
longest diameter of the horizontal bounding curve tends to infinity, it has always
been supposed that the spectrum tends to become continuous; see the discussion by
Sommerfeld (I9I2; I949, p. 188). The possibility that part of the spectrum might
remain discrete has been overlooked, until it was shown recently' (Ursell 1951) that
the theory of gravity waves provides examples under suitable conditions, the
simplest being the edge wave on a sloping beach of Stokes (1 846), although neither
Stokes nor Lamb (I932, art. 260) realized its significance. The present paper will
begin with a brief discussion on spectra and their measurement by resonance in an
ideal inviscid fluid. After this the modifications to be expected from viscosity will
be discussed, and then three experiments on edge waves will be analyzed in the
light of the theory. It has been found possible to correlate some of the main features
of the measurements with the theory, although some, for example the amplitude
at resonance, remain, about which the theory in its present state gives no informa-
tion. The existence in a real fluid of Stokes edge waves is shown, as well as of a wider
class of edge wave (p. 84); there are also viscous edge waves at cut-off frequencies
where viscosity completely changes the character of the motion. An understanding
of edge waves may help towards an understanding of beach phenomena, as has
recently been suggested by Isaacs, Williams & Eckart (I95I); it appears probable
that the resonance studied in the present paper will play a part.

The spectrum
Consider first a system of a finite number, N, of degrees of freedom. With it there
is associated a set of characteristic modes, the normal modes; each with a char-
acteristic frequency or eigenfrequency. In general there are N modes and N fre-
quencies, some of which may be coincident. The set of eigenfrequencies is called the
spectrum, and is important in the description of both free and forced motion.
Each normal mode is of the form
0(x, y, z; t) - CnQ (x, y, z) ean t (n = 1, 2, ..., N),
where (x, y, z) runs through the co-ordinates of the material points of the system,
0 is an amplitude, C. is a complex constant, oj/27T are the spectral frequencies, and
the real part is to be taken. Thefree motion, generated by an external agency, which
is no longer acting, is the sum of normal modes
N

0 e m n t l(X yt Z) e fu s p m
n-1

A frequency anlalysis of the free motion thus leads to the frequencie

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 Edge waves on a sloping beach 81

To define a periodic forced motion suppose that there is a simple harmonic

forcing agency, of frequency o/27r not belonging to the spectrum. The mot
consists of free modes, and of a simple harmonic motion of frequency o12ir, he
called the periodic forced motion. (If the system is slightly dissipative, only the
periodic forced motion strvives after a long time.) If the frequency of the forc
agency is changed while its other properties are kept constant, the amplitude of the
periodic forced motion at a given material point is a function of o- and in general
becomes infinite when oj12T approaches one of the spectral frequencies o/127T, t
infinity being of order i o- - o I-1. The forcing agency is then said to be in resonan
with the system. A measurement of resonances thus leads to the frequencies of the
spectrum. The amplitude can remain finite only for special forcing agencies which
leave the amplitude of the nth mode indeterminate. For proofs of the foregoing
statements the reader is referred to Whittaker (I927, chap. 7).
For spectra containing an infinite number of frequencies there is not yet a com-
plete theory. Some of the cases which may arise are illustrated in the following
examples of wave motion under gravity in a canal of constant width and (i) of finite
length and uniform depth, (ii) of infinite length and uniform depth, (iii) of infinite
length and non-uniform depth. The spectra are respectively discrete, continuous
and mixed. It will be assumed throughout that the linear theory given by Lamb
(I932, chap. 9) is applicable.
Let the x-axis be taken along the length of the canal, the y-axis vertically dow
wards, and the z-axis across the canal. In cases (i) and (ii) it will also be assumed that
the canal is of infinite depth. This assumption has no influence on the character of
the spectrum.
(i) In the canal of infinite depth, bounded by the vertical planes x = O, x a;
z 0 z = b; the normal modes are given by the velocity potentials

mn(z (X,y,Z) lrmCmn

y z) e1irnn tMnTX
COS n7TZ
a COS e
bF //M2
exp +n2\e2e10m
L 2-h/W m,

where m, n are integers, 0mn is a complex constant,

2 //m,2 n2\
an= (1)T

and the real part of the expression on the right is taken. (For a derivation see
Coulson I947 p. 75.) The frequencies 0mn/27T given by (1) form the spectrum w
is therefore a discrete enumerable set tending to infinity, and it is easily verified th

0 < 0-m, n ,- m, n < 1g7ra, (2)

independent of b. The free motion is of the form

0(x, y, z; t) = E &mn(x, y, z) e?Imnt, (3)

m n

and a frequency analysis leads to the spectral frequencies. The forced motion is
defined as in the first paragraph of this section, and consists of free modes together
with a periodic forced motion having a frequency ojr2fT equal to the forcing

Vol. 214. A. 6

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 82 F. Ursell

frequency. The amplitude of the latter component of the motion in general

approaches infinity as o-/2ir approaches a spectral frequency, while the other
properties of the forcing agency are kept constant. A measurement of resonlances
thus leads to the spectrum, and it appears that the motion in case (i) is exactly
analogous to that in the finite case.
(ii) Suppose the length of the canal becomes infinite, a -->o. Equation (2) suggests
that the spectrum becomes continuous, and this is easily verified. The normal modes
are r i 2V
(x, y, z; k) eian(k)t

where 0r,2(k) = gj(k2+fb2),

and k is any positive number. For two-dimensional modes (n = 0) all real values of
o are eigenvalues, for three-dimensional modes (n > 0) all real O > V(gnIr/b). When
n is given, there is thus a lower limit (cut-off frequency) below which there are no
normal modes.
The free motion is now of the form

n7Tzf~~%~,1~1[//7 n2rr2\
qS(x,y,z; t)= Ccos n1e1nC((k))coskx e2 n 3eOX(ktdk. (4)
When the variable of integration is changed to a, the integrals become Fourier
integrals in t for fixed x, y, z. Therefore each integral - 0 for fixed finite x, y, z as
tV-- oo, by the Riemann-Lebesgue theorem (see Titchmarsh I948, p. 1). So the
amplitude at all finite points tends to zero and the whole energy is ultimately
transferred to infinity by radiation. As for the periodic forced motion, it can now b
defined either as before, or alternatively as the periodic motion which is approached
asymptotically as t->-oo. It can be determined uniquely from the motion of the
boundaries together with the radiation condition discussed in detail by Sommerfeld
(I9I2). Resonances no longer occur at all spectral frequencies but only at the cut-off
frequencies, as can be seen from Green's function (see appendix A). Near a cut-off
frequency oj/27T the amplitude is 0(1 o- - 41), while near a discrete frequency
a'2/2r in (i) it was 0(1l- - ). Resonances of this type occurring in the theory of
electromagnetic wave-guides are described by Stratton (I94I, p. 541).
(iii) The continuity of the spectrum in (ii) depends ultimately on the relation
(2), and for other boundaries there is no obvious reason why the corresponding
spectrum should not tend to a mixed-partly discrete and partly continuous-
spectrum as the longest dimension of the canal tends to infinity. It is one aim of thi
paper to emphasize that the theory of gravity waves provides examples of mixed
spectra under suitable conditions, and to point out the consequences. To the discrete
frequencies in a mixed spectrum will correspond modes of finite energy Vmn eiumnt,

with jJ{ I grad q.mn 12 dxdydz < oc. The free motion is the sum of a double series and

a series of integrals. That part of the energy which has gone into the series of
integrals is ultimately radiated to infinity, while the energy in the double series
remains in the finite part of space, although our prejudices, derived from case (ii),

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 Edge waves on a sloping beach 83
suggest that the whole energy goes to infinity whenever there is a way left open for it.
The discrete modes are also relevant to the discussion of uniqueness, for they satisfy
the homogeneous boundary conditions and also the radiation condition (trivially
since each mode is small at infinity). Thus uniqueness implies a continuous spectrum,
and conversely; if there are discrete modes the radiation condition is insufficient to
exclude them or determine the amplitude of the ultimate inviscid motion as distinct
from the periodic forced motion. As for the latter, it seems clear that resonance

occurs at discrete frequencies, of amplitude 0(1 - C-2 1 -1), and at cut-off frequen
of amplitude 0(I | C- K o i).

Inviscid edge waves

An example will now be given of a system with a mixed spectrum. Consider the
three-dimensional normal modes on a sloping beach of angle ac closing a semi-
infinite canal. The velocity potential 0 is defined in the region 0 y x tan a,
O < z < b, where it satisfies V20 0;
the boundary conditions are

0r2 +gaO y -=O,

a= tancz, y=xtana,
ay ax

_o = O z=0 and z = b.
az

The last boundary condition shows that the potential is of the form

mnTZ
0 = e1tcos f fm(X, y)

(see Lamb 1932, art. 260). If qS is anti-symmetrical about z = b, as will be assumed

henceforth, the series reduces to

e-t eitEcos (2r-1)'7 f2r_(n y))

rb
where f2r-i satisfies
L a~ 2 72j
X2 2(2r 1)2 bjf2ri(x,y) = 0,

and the first two boundary conditions. It is seen that the case r _ 1 is typical, for

(with a differento-2) f2r l(x y) = f[(2r - 1) x, (2r - 1) y],

so that attention can be confined to r = 1. (This argument does not apply to

symmetrical motions where the two-dimensional mode m = 0 must be considered
separately.) Consider then solutions of the form

0 = cos kz F(x, y) e'ct

where k = Ir/b. A solution is

= cos kz exp [-k(x cosc-t + y sin c)] eii, (5)

6-2

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 84 F. Ursell

where from the first boundary condition

CU2 gk sin x.

The mode (5), due to Stokes (I846), will here be called the Stokes edge wave; since

jJf grad 12 dxdydz is finite, the frequency o/2r = (gk sin a/4n2) = V(g sinx/4rb)
is a discrete frequency of the spectrum, but this was not observed by Stokes. There
is also a continuous spectrum gk < cr2 < oo (see Hanson I926 and A. S. Peters I952).
The discrete frequency lies outside the continuous spectrum, and it is not yet
known whether the theory of gravity waves provides an example of a discrete
frequency embedded in a continuous spectrum.
For small oc the Stokes edge wave is not the only discrete mode, but only the first
of a sequence. Consider the potential

a e" cos kz e-k(x osx+y sinx)

n

+ E

which satisfies the second andc third boundary conditions identically. The first is
also satisfied if m tan(n-r+l)(
Anxn (~)r-1 tan (n+r)- a
U2= gksin (2n + l) a.

The velocity remains finite as x- in the sector, whenc

Stokes edge wave corresponds to n = 0. These modes show the qualitative behaviour
of spectra when the parameter a is varied. Suppose a decreases from fJ. Near
a = pr the spectrum is continuous in gk < 2 < oo, and near and below the cut-off
frequency there is a discrete frequency given byo.2= gcksin x, corresponding to the
Stokes mode n = 0. As a decreases, the discrete frequency moves down the cr-axis.
When a reaches a critical angle given by (2n+ 1) ar = n - 1 (whence a = c)
a new discrete frequency appears at the cut-off frequency, and moves down the
or-axis as a decreases. A new discrete frequency appears when ac -yl in, and so on.
For any acute angle a the number of modes is the greatest integer contained in
i + (7nT4a), if all possible discrete modes are given by the previous formula.
While edge waves on a sloping beach provide the simplest example of a mixed
spectrum, modes apparently occur in all three-dimensional motions in a canal. For
instance, they occur round a submerged horizontal cylinder, where they were
called trapping modes by the present writer (I95i). The spectral behaviour of the
sloping beach suggests that for small radii there is just one discrete mode (with
a factor cos kz). As the radius increases, it passes through critical values at which
the number of discrete modes increases by one. As the highest generator of the
cylinder approaches the free surface the number of discrete modes probably tends
to infinity.
It has not been found possible to give a simple expression for Green's function
at angles near a critical angle where the resonances at the cut-off frequency and the

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 Edge waves on a sloping beach 85

discrete mode tend to coincide. The amplitude near the critical frequency is

abnormally large, probably 0(I a - - ). The determination of Green's

for a sloping beach has been solved in principle by Peters, who, however, has not
remarked the existence of the critical values.

Application to a real fluid: viscous edge waves

It has been seen that in an ideal fluid the spectral frequencies of the discrete
modes can be measured either by a frequency analysis of the ultimate free motion,
or by measurement of the resonance frequencies of the forced motion. Near a discrete
resonance frequeney o2/27T the amplitude is of the form (o- o2)-1 F, where the
amplitude distribution F is given by the corresponding discrete mode. F is large
only near the source of energy, whence the name edge wave. Resonance also occurs

at a cut-off frequency near which the amplitude is of the form I C - a-, fF, whe
the amplitude distribution F approaches a constant non-zero value at infinity;
corresponding to a standing wave with crests parallel to the x-axis. How far are
these results relevant to the motion of a real fluid? The ultimate free motion is
clearly zero, while non -linearities and dissipation prevent the amplitude of the
forced motion from becoming infinite, and the notion of resonance can no longer
be precisely defined. Even so, in a real fluid of small viscosity the forced motion
would be expected to correspond closely to that of the associated ideal system,
except that near a resonance the ideally infinite amplitude must be replaced by
a finite though large amplitude depending on non-linearity and dissipation. This,
however, is a dubious argument. It is true that most of the known difficulties in
applying the inviscid theory are associated with the separation of bolndary layers;
which would not be expected to be serious here, because of the oscillatory character
of the motion, and which in fact has little influence on resonance phenomena (but
further consideration is required for second-order drift phenomena due to con-
vection and diffusion of vorticity). Nevertheless viscosity is not negligible, for it
will be shown that near each cut-off frequency there is a narrow frequency band which
is dominated by viscosity. The predictions of the inviscid theory relating to cut-off
frequencies, which were summarized at the beginning of the present section, will
therefore have to be re-examined.
Consider the effect of viscosity on a regular three-dimensional wave train
travelling down a semi-infinite canal of constant width and depth. The source of
energy is near the origin; at a distance of a few depths from it end-effects can be
neglected. If the depth is greater than the wave-length, the inviscid velocity
potential is L
55 = f-e-K cos kz cos [Srt - x V(K2 -

where gK = -r2, bk = -T, L is the amplitude. If t

the body of the real fluid the velocity vector
(u, v, w) = e--Igrad ?, approximately, (6)
where Kl and kl are both large. It is shown in appendix B that, when K> k and
v is the kinematic viscosity, 7T (K - k2)
1 (2K2 - k2) k V(vl2o-)'

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 86 F. Ursell

provided that Ki and kl are large. But when k/K is near 1, the formula gives a small
value for k1, and it is clear that the effect of viscosity is then not small. It will be

assumed that (6) gives a first approximation even when K2 - k2 I < k2, and that

l--lo, K -*k,

with the limiting length 1 either independent of v or O(vi). In either case the
attenuation with distance is rapid, and the cut-off mode is a viscous edge wave.
This effect would be expected from a physical argument of which appendix B is
a more precise form. Suppose that the attenuaticn is small near the cut-off frequency
(Ki > 1). Then 0 represents a standing wave with crests parallel to the x-axis:

e-ky cos kz eiot.

(Also L -* oo because of resonance.) The total dissipation in a region x > xo is th

large, because it takes place over many wave-lengths. But at the cut-off frequency
the group velocity in the x-direction vanishes, and so no energy can reach the distant
parts of the canal from the wave-maker. The last two statements are contradictory,
and the motion cannot therefore be even approximately of the form (6), where
Ki > 1. The actual attenuation must therefore be rapid, but it does not follow that
the dissipation is large; the influence of viscosity is indirect.
As the actual cut-off mode is now seen to be an edge wave there is no longer any
reason why the resonance amplitude should be smaller than for the inviscid edge
wave. This is confirmed by experiments I and II.

EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION

The theoretical discussion has now gone far enough to make possible an analysis
of the three experiments below, designed to illustrate the behaviour of inviscid and
viscous edge waves.
The first experiment shows that theoretical and measured frequencies agree, the
second that the corresponding modes are edge waves. In the last experiment the
cut-off frequency coincides with a frequency of the discrete spectrum, and a large
amplitude results at this resonance. The frequency range goes from 100 to 170 c/min.
In this range only resonances corresponding to r = 1 occur (see p. 83).

Experimental arrangement

The experiments were made in a canal of length 370 cm, width 14 5 cm and depth
23 cm, closed at both ends and filled with water. It was desired to set up edge waves
on a sloping beach closing the canal at one end, the motion to be anti-symmetrical
about the vertical plane of symmetry normal to the shore-line, hereafter called the
mid-plane. Such edge waves would be set up by a lateral motion of the side-walls
of the canal near the sloping beach, but as this is impracticable two false movable
walls are required which must be placed symmetrically inside the tank parallel to
the side-walls and as near to them as possible. When the false walls are given similar
Tmotions with identical phases, the motion is anti-symmetrical about the mid-plane.

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 Edge waves on a sloping beach 87

The actual arrangement is shown schematically in figure 1, not to scale. A plane

beach was fixed with its lower end on the floor of the canal and its upper end well
above the water-line. A rectangular plate A1B1B2A2 of nearly the same length as
the beach and nearly the same width as the canal moved parallel to the beach and
had a fixed point F in the mid-plane, near the floor of the canal. This was achieved
by making the plate turn about a normal axis FP through F fixed to it, one end to
the axis resting on a bearing on the beach (which is actually used only to hold the
bearing), the other end turning in a journal bearing fixed at an appropriate point

_- _-V

V LD

FIGURE 1. Wave-maker (not to scale). C1D1, C2D., false walls; V

plane; FG, axis of rotation; WW, shore-line. 0102 = 11-4 cm.

in space. The plate could oscillate in its plane with small amplitude. The moving
plate carried along its two long sides A1B1, A2B2 the false walls, vertical plates
close to the vertical walls of the tank. There was no clearance between the moving
plate and the false walls. To obtain an anti-symmetrical simple harmonic motion
in the canal it was only necessary to give a simple harmonic motion to the base-p
A1B1B2A2. The separation between the walls A1A2= B1B2 = 11- 4cm, the len
Al B measured along the beach = 40- 0 cm. Fixed false walls C1Dl,C,QD2were plac
just outside the wave-maker, with CQ as near to B,. and C2 as near to B2 as possib
they extended half-way down the canal. When they were in position the motion d
to the wave-maker was in effect set up in a canal A1D1D2A2 of uniform width
A.,A2= DLD2 = 11-4 cm. The wave motion beyond D1D2 was always small and an
absorber was not required at the end of the canal. The walls were of Duralumin,
2 mm thick.
The simple harmonic motion driving the wave-maker was obtained from a pulley
wheel driven with a uniform adjustable velocity and carrying a slightly eccentric
peg, which carried one end of a long wire of which the other end was elastically
joined to a fixed point by a spring. As the wheel turned, every point on the wire at

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 88 F. Ursell

some distance from the pulley wheel performed a simple harmonic motion. The
wave-maker was driven by joining the wave-maker to the wire by a cross-bar. To
exclude unwanted effects it was necessary to have the motion as accurately simple
harmonic as possible, and since the amplitude of motion of the wave-maker was
small (about 0-02 cm near the shore-line), the pulley wheel had to be well made, with
good bearings. The peg was firmly screwed to the pulley, and carried a bearing to
which the wire was joined. (It would have been helpful to have a continuously
adjustable moving peg.) It was found most important to eliminate all play in the
bearings and to have the axis of the peg nearly parallel to the axis of the pulley
wheel. The inaccuracies of the experiment were mainly due to the imperfections of
the pulley system. The frequency was measured by counting the revolutions of the
pulley wheel during 2 minutes.
The water motion was measured by a si'mple optical system. A lens formed a real
image of the reflexion in the water surface of a fixed point light source, and this
image was observed through an eyepiece. The system was arranged so that the
optical plane VV (containing the light source, its reflexion and the eyepiece) was
vertical and normal to the side-walls; also, the line from the reflexion to the eyepiece
crossed the water surface at a point lying in the mid-plane of the canal. When a wave
motion was set up, the reflexion of the point source and the image in front of the
eyepiece moved. The component of the latter movement parallel to the shore-line
WW was measured by a micrometer in the image plane; a measure was thereby
obtained of the component parallel to WW of the normal to that surface element
which is in both the mid-plane of the canal and the optical plane.
It was found that measurements could be made consistent by keeping the surface
of the wave-maker wet above the water-line. This was done by treating the wave-
maker before every measurement with fine emery paper. This precaution was
particularly necessary near the resonances where the amplitude was in one case
reduced by one-third when the surface had not been treated. The accuracy of the
measurements can be judged from the spread on figures 2 and 3. It was satisfactory
except at large amplitudes where the water surface developed ripples which spread
the image of the point source. The maximum inclination of the water surface in
figure 2 was of the order of 10.
Three sets of measurements will now be discussed in detail.

Experirment I. Comparison of theoretical and measured frequencies

The angle of the beach to the horizontal was 37.60. The false walls were in
position. The canal is thus of internal width b1 = 114 cm. The inviscid theory
predicts resonance at

(1) o12ir = V(qsin 37.60/4nbl) = 123 c/min (Stokes edge wave),

(2) o-/2ir =I(g/4nabl) 157 c/min (cut-off mode).
The amplitudes at resonance are of the same order (see p. 86). The next resonance
J(3g sin 37-60/4nbl) = 212 c/min is outside the range of measurement.
The measurements are shown in figure 2.

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 Edge waves on a sloping beach 89
Comparison of theory and experiment
(i) It is not immediately clear what is meant by agreement of theory and experi-
ment. The theory predicts only the frequency at which the amplitude is infinite,
whereas in a real fluid there is a resonance peak of finite width and height. The
frequency giving the maximum amplitude might be defined as the resonance
frequency, but if this definition is adopted, slightly different frequencies are obtained
according as the measured amplitude relates to displacement, velocity, acceleration
or inclination. The same thing occurs in electrical circuits where the theory can be
fully worked out and where it is shown that the different resonance frequencies
agree with each other to within a half-width of the resonance peaks. In the present
set of experiments agreement of the theoretical and measured frequency will by
analogy mean a difference less than the measured half-width of the resonance peak.

4w 4 -l'? ?O

b
c3 _
oI o
~~~~o 0
x ~ ~l
~ ~~f
I x

xl ~~~~~~~~~~

02 x x

x~~~xc;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~c
X

4 I I I I O 1
100 120 140 160
frequency (c/m<)

FIGURE 2. Beach at an angle 37.60. x, experiment I; 0, experiment II.

(ii) According to the definition given in (i), the first resonance is in good agreement
with the theoretical prediction. The second resonance differs from its predicted
value by about 3 %. Also the resonance curve is very much steeper on the left than
on the right. The reason is this. The motion is measured in only one plane, in fact
at only one point, and the behaviour there may not be typical in every respect. In
the present instance it was shown by direct visual observation that the place of
observation is near a node of inclination near the frequency 150 c/min. If the optical
plane were moved farther down the canal the resonance curve would show a lower
peak at 123 c/min and a more symmetrical peak at 157 c/min; a detailed verificatio
(not given in this paper) was made for experiment III, where abnormally low
amplitudes occurred at 140 c/min (see figure 3 below) which disappeared when the
optical plane was moved down the canal. In view of this, it is permissible to increase
all the amplitudes on the left-hand side of the peak and to assert agreement of
experiment and theory for the second resonance also. (By making the optical plane

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 90 F. Ursell

coincide with the nodal plane at 157 c/min the second resonance can be completely
annihilated.)
(iii) The discussion in (ii) also shows that the relative size of the peaks depends on
the position of the optical plane which in the experiments was chosen so that the
two peaks were nearly equal. (By accident the difficulty in (ii) then occurred.) But
a more objective meaning could be given to the amplitude at the peaks. The motion
of the water surface along A2B2 (see figure 1) was measured along the slope, and it
was found that the maximum amplitude near the second peak was about two-thirds
of the maximum amplitude near the first peak. Since the second motion has a nodal
line at about 5 cm from the beach, it may be said that the two motions are roughly
of equal magnitude. See also Lamb (I932, art. 261) for the existence of a nodal line
on a beach of angle 30?, but the predicted distance from the beach is 3 cm, and
should be less for larger angles. The discrepancy, due presumably to the other modes
present, requires further investigation.

Experiment II. The motions at resonance are edge waves

The angle of the beach was 37 6?. The false walls C1D,, C2D2 (see figure 1) were
removed. The canal has width b1 = 11 4 cm at the wave-maker, width b2 = 14*5 cm
elsewhere. Length of wave-maker AIB1 along the slope = 40 cm.
The inviscid theory predicts

(1) Resonance at oj2lT = V(g sin 37.60/47Tbl) = 123 c/min (Stokes edge wave).
For the edge wave does not extend into the wide part of the canal and so depends on
the width at the wave-maker.

(2) Resonance at oj127r = V(g14nbO2) = 139 c/min (cut-off mode).

For the cut-off mode depends on the width in the wide part of the canal.

(3) A large amplitude at oj127T = V(g/47Tb1) = 157 c/min.

(A survival from the cut-off frequency in experiment I.) Viscosity reduces the
cut-off modes to viscous edge waves (see p. 85). This will affect (2) and (3).

Comparison of theory and experiment

The measurements are also shown in figure 2. It is seen that they lie on the same
curv-e as in experiment I. The first resonance requires no explanation. The experi-
ment shows that the mode does not extend into the wide part of the canal.
(i) The second resonance does not occur. For at the frequency 139 c/min the
cut-off frequency for propagation along the narrow part of the canal has not been
attained. Therefore little energy reaches the mouth B1B2 of the wave-maker (see
also (ii)). But this little energy would cause a resonance in the wider part if this
were not effectively reduced in length from infinity to 10 (see p. 86). The measured
values wouild be quite different if the source of energy were placed in the wide part
of the canal.
(ii) The mode at 157 c/min is a viscous edge wave in the narrow part. Any energy
reachinig B1B2 can radiate freely since the length 1 (see p. 85) is about 10 m (it is

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 Edge waves on a sloping beach 91

here that the precise value of I is needed). The agreement of experiments I and II
means that little energy reaches B1B2, and this shows that the mode is really an
edge wave. For the unsymmetrical form of the resonance see experiment I, note (ii).
There is in this experiment a striking difference between the prediction of the
inviscid theory and the measurements. The second resonance is moved as much as
18 c/mim throughthe inflaence of viscositywhichhas suppressed (2) andincreased (3).

Experiment III. Resonance at a critical angle

The same as experiment I, except that the angle of the beach was 29 5?. It is
known (p. 84) that 30? is a critical angle.
The inviscid theory predicts resonance at

(1) o-/27T = V(g sin 29 50/47Tb1) = 1 10 c/min (Stokes edge wave),

(2) o-/2T = V(y sin 88.50/47Tbl) = 157 c/min (inviscid edge wave, see p. 84),

(3) o-/2T = V(g1/47Tb) = 157 c/min (cut-off mode).

x Ix
'p.I 6 x x

i4 - x
Q I I x I x
-pS lxx x

4o4I
2 - x I x
x

.~~~ ~~~ I ~x XXX I

100 120 140 160
frequency (c/min)

FIGURE 3. Beach at an angle 29 5?. x, experiment III. The amplitude

was off scale near 157 c/min.

Viscosity reduces the cut-off mode to a viscous edge wave. The effect of two
nearly coincident resonances is to be investigated. The amplitude at 157 c/min is
expected to be large.

Comparison of theory and experiment

The measurements are shown in figure 3. The theoretical and experimental
frequencies are in good agreement (which also proves that the shift at the second
resonance in experiments I and II was not real), and the second resonance looks
larger than the first, as would have been expected from two nearly coincident
resonances. In fact, the amplitude was so large and the surface so disturbed that
the top of the resenance curve could not be measured. But is this effect real? To
test this, the amplitude on the shore-line was measured, as in experiment I, n-ote
(iii). The maximum amplitude near the second resonance was nearly three times as

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 92 F. Ursell

great as near the first resonance. It may be concluded that when two resonances
coincide there will be an abnormally large amplitude, as was to be foreseen from the
argument on p. 85. This would also have occurred if the angle of the beach had been
slightly greater than 300.
CONCLUSION

It has been shown experimentally

(1) that resonance occurs under suitable conditions, and that the frequencies are
correctly predicted by the inviscid theory, except for an important correction due
to the action of viscosity at cut-off frequencies;
(2) that the modes at resonance are edge waves, confined to the neighbourhood
of the shore-line;
(3) that exceptionally large resonances occur at a critical angle predicted by the
inviscid theory.
The experiments covered the frequency range 100 to 170c/min, and. angles
37-6 and 29.50.
It remains to be seen whether these conclusions have an application to the fluid
motion on a real beach, where the waves are incident on the beach from infinity and
not generated on the beach. Also, real beaches have generally a gentle slope, with
a consequent increase in the effect of viscositywhich will tend to suppress resonances,
while the large number of critical frequencies will work in the opposite direction.
It has been suggested by Isaacs et al. (I95I) that surf beats can be identified wit
edge waves, but no quantitative analysis has yet been made of the measurements.
It has also been suggested that non-linear effects are important, in particular the
mass transport in waves.
On the theoretical side, more work is needed on the effect of viscosity. It has been
seen that the theory at present is unable to give an estimate of the attenuation in
a viscous edge wave, and even above the cut-off frequency the calculations involve
unproved assumptions, the validity of which should be investigated.

I am indebted to Sir Geoffrey Taylor, F.R.S., for encouraging me to undertake

this experiment, for experimental facilities, and for many discussions; to Mr T. H.
Ellison, whose generous help throughout the experiment is here gladly acknow-
ledged; and to Sir Lawrence Bragg, F.R.S., for permission to work in the Cavendish
Laboratory. I am also obliged to Dr Carl Eckart of the University of California
for valuable discussions which led to the discovery of the critical angles, to Professor
Garrett Birkhoff of Harvard University for many helpful discussions, and to the
United States Office of Naval Research for making possible a stay at Harvard
University and at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography.

APPENDIX A. RESONANCE AT THE CUT-OFF FREQUENCY

Suppose that an anti-symmetrical three-dimensional wave motion is set up in

a semi-infinite canal by the small motion of a flexible vertical board. In mathe-
matical terms, a velocity potential qS is to be found defined in 0 < x < oo, 0 <
0 < z < b, and satisfying V20 = 02

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 Edge waves on a sloping beach 93

and the boundary conditions

0,20 +gao -0) y =0,

a80-O,y-h,
a)y hi
ayh

0, z 0 and z = b,

ao = U(y) cos 1Tb sin ot, x = 0.

The general anti-symmetrical motion can be expanded in a Fourier cosine series in

z, of which only the first term is being considered. Put k = 7r/b. The potential can
be expanded in the form

cos kz[Ao cosh ko(h-y) cos {x V(ko - k 2) - o-t}

+sincotEA'cos
n
Qh-y) exp x (k"+ k2)1], (A1)
where ? ko ? ikli, +ik ..., +ikc, ... are the roots, known to be real or pure
imaginary, of -2 = gk tanh kh.
It is assumed that ko > k. This expansion satisfies the differential equation and
the first three boundary conditions, and also the Sommerfeld condition that at
infinity the waves travel away from the origin. The condition on x = 0 is also
satisfied if

U(y) = AO A(k2 -1k2) cosh ko(h-y)-E A' J(k12 + k2) cos 1c(h-y);
n

but the set {cosh ko(h - y), cos k(h - y)} is a complete orthogonal set, whence
h

4ko f U(y) cosh ko(h - y) dy

A (2koh + sinh 2koh) V(ko - k2)'

h
- 4k' U(y) cos k(h - y) dy

n (2k'h + sin 2k'h) V(k'2 + k2)

which define the coefficients in the expansion (A 1). Now suppose that ko - k +
i.e. the cut-off frequency is approached from above. Then the coefficients A' remain
finite and the series in (A 1) remains uniformly convergent. But clearly AO -s o and
the first term in (A 1) tends to infinity like (ko - k2)-4. A similar argument holds when
ko approaches k from below and the first term in (A 1) is replaced by an exponential.
Green's function for a singularity at depth f is obtained by putting U(y) = 6(y -f),
where d(x) is the Dirac 6-function (Dirac I947, p. 58). An alternative expression for
Green's function is given by Ursell (I95I, equation (10)), when h is infinite.

APPENDIX B. ATTENUATION OF WAVES IN A DEEP CANAL

It is necessary to consider in more detail the effect of viscosity on a three-

dimensional wave train travelling on a semi-infinite canal of uniform width and
depth. As on p. 85, the source of energy is near the origin, and end-effects are

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 94 F. Ursell

neglected. The inviscid ideal motion can be expanded in a Fourier cosine series
in z, and if the motion is anti-symmetrical about the mid-plane z = lb, and the
frequency is above the first and below the second cut-off frequency, only the first
term propagates: L
(D = - e-KY cos kz cos [ot -x (K2_ k2)],
0'
where K = -2/g, k = 7T/b. The remaining terms represent end-effects.
The energy transmitted across any plane x = const. in a period 2r/o- is (cf. Lamb
I932, art. 237)
r29/f ?fT/k r aq) aq)
-pJ0dtJ dzJ dy a 8 2pgL2J(K2-k2)/4kK2. (B 1)

It is reasonable to suppose that in a real fluid of small viscosity the velocity is

approximately U = e-x/1grad 4, l>bb = (B 2)

i.e. the principal effect of viscosity is to cause a slow attenuation of the waves as
they move away from the source of energy. In this appendix an estimate is given
of the magnitude of 1. It will be seen that if the linear theory is applicable the motion
is to a first approximation irrotational, except near the boundaries where boundary

layers of thickness J(v/lo) are formed. The dissipation takes place

(1) in the boundary layers near the solid walls of the canal,
(2) in the boundary layer at the free surface,
(3) in the body of the fluid.

In terms of the kinematic viscosity these contributions are respectively of order

vI, vu and v, so that for a first approximation the contributions from (2) and (3) may
be neglected. If the depth is greater than the wave-length, the dissipation on the
floor of the canal is small and need not be considered, and so the vertical walls
contribute most of the dissipation.
Let U(x, y, z; t) be the velocity vector, simple harmonic in t. It is convenient to
consider the complex function u defined by

u(x, y, z) e'-t=U(x, y, z;t)-iUTz y7, ; t+2).

(It is easy to see that the right-hand side is a multiple of eiTt.)

If the linear theory is applicable, the Navier-Stokes equations become

io-u --gradp+vV2u, (B 3)
p

where p is the (constant) density, p the pressure (Lamb I932, art. 328).
The equation of continuity is divu 0.

On taking the divergence of (B 3) V2p 0,

and (B 3) can be rewritten

(ic- VV2) (u- gradp) =0,

i.e. u = Ul + U2,

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 Edge waves on a sloping beach 95

where ul = grad (ip/op) is irrotational and satisfies d

of (P- vV2) u = 0, i.e. a boundary layer. By subtraction, divu2-0. (On taking
real parts, U= U1 + U2, where div U1 = div U2 = 0.) Denote the components of
u1 by (u1, vl, w1), and similarly the components of the other velocities. Conside
motion near one of the walls, z 0. The boundary condition on the wall is
u (u, v, w) = 0. Denote by (u0, vo, wo) the components of ul on z -0; t
functions of x, y and t. Then, on z = 0 u2=-(uo, vo, wO).
The equation for u2 is

(' - 8Z2 - = V +_ %2 (B 4)
and u2 is small outside the boundary layer. It is now assumed that the variation of
u2 in the x- and y-directions is much slower than in the z-direction. The boundary
layer approximation to (B 4) is thus

( 2 2

with the boundary conditions u2 u0

U2 =-U exp [1+i) z(2)].

Similarly v =V exp -(I +i)z

and so a2 -u(l +i)JQ2) exp[-(1 +i)zJ(2)]'

av2 _r
- vo(l+Vi) V)exp (I++i)z^ /jJ (B5)
The gradients of U2 and v2 across the boundary layer are thus large, while

aW2 _ U2 aV2
az ax ay

is not large On substitution for U2 and v2 an equ

aw2 iau avo r

az
aa2=
ax
+ (0u+v vO exp [- (1+i)z|2f)v

whence 2 ( ex - (I [ i) z (B 6)
which is small.
It is known that in an incompressible fluid mechanical energy is dissipated at
the rate

raU\ 2 V 2 ~W\2 IW V\2 /U W\2 -+ aU 2

lU[ 22 (Uv)2+2
aXeyay a (a)2+
a Z a( ax
Y)+
e a \j2+ (
per unit volume per unit time (Lamb I932, art. 329), where U, V, W are the
components of the original motion.

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 96 F. Ursell

The main contribution is from U2 in the boundary, whence the rate of dissipation
per unit time in a given volume is

2pvfff [(X722+(X)2 dxdydz.

~~~~) (
The dissipation in time 27r/I
2n1ro ~ aU2 2 (a) dVdyd
1pv dt + L_ dxdydz
f2rrICJ tfF ~2 aV2 2'
-I dtJo JJ-L + az j dxdydz.
The last integrand is no longer time-dependent.
From the expression (B 5) the dissipation in time 27r1o- is

Ipv-f dz j dxdy(l i 12 IVo 12)-exp (-z ))

= vP (2)fdxdy(iuO 12 + I vo 12),

where the integration is over the part of the boundary layer under consideration.
A new assumption is now needed. When calculating the dissipation in a region
<X < x2 where X2- < b, it will be assumed that the irrotational component U1 of
the motion is given to a sufficient approximation by

L -KY cos kz cos [t-x V(K2- V)],

whence ul= grad eKY exp {- ixV(K2_ k2)-

|U 12? + 1 Vo 12_ e-2L2 (2K2-k2)

The total dissipation in time 2r/o- on z -0, 1 < x < X2 0<Y < y< i

-1r t V ~g2L2 I (2K2 - k2) (x2-

4\2o]o-2 2K (2-X)
where L is a mean amplitude in xl < x < x2.
Because of the energy dissipation a larger amount of energy enters xl < X x2
across x = x1 than leaves across x x2. The energy crossing x x1 is calculated on
the assumption that it is transferred mainly by the irrotational component U1, and
that the energy transferred across x =x is given by (B 1), where for L is substituted
the local amplitude L1. This is probably permissible at all frequencies somewhat
higher than the cut-off frequency.
The energy balance for the region X1 < x S X2

(energy entering across x = x,) - (energy leaving across x = x2)

- energy dissipated in the region,
is then

__ 22)-Li
4IcK2 - 22L2
(K )(L-~ (2K2-k2)
2 ~O_/ r2 (X2-X1)

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 Edge waves on a sloping beach 97

(There are two walls on which dissipation takes place.) Also 0-2 = gK, and so

- L2-L2 _ 211v (2K2 -k2)k

;1X2 -T 4 _

but by definition (cf. B 2) the length I is - L(dL/dx)-1, whence

I= i V(K2-k2)
k(2K2- k2) V(v/2of)
This argument is only valid when a large amount of energy is transferred by the
irrotational component of the motion. For instance, it does not apply below the
cut-off frequencywbere the energy transmission is of order Pi. In fact, if it is assumed
that in this case the inviscid theory gives the correct attenuation, the boundary
layer dissipation can be found as before, and hence the energy transmission can be
found from the energy balance. Another method of finding the dissipation is to take
the value w1 = -w2 from (B 6) and to use this to find the energy withdrawn from U1
per unit time. But this does not give the correct energy balance, and so it would
appear that ul has singularities large enough to absorb energy along the lines whe
the free surface meets the walls, and along the intersections of the floor and the
vertical walls. These singularities are cancelled out by opposite singularities in u2.
Another result which may be found by the method of this appendix is the
following:
The attenuation of the two-dimensional wave train

gL
D = e-KY cos (ot-Kx)

travelling on a canal of width b is exp (-xll), where

1 = b/K J(v/2o).

The argument of Lamb (I932, art. 349) gives I = o-/4vK3 when there are no walls,
in which case the attenuation is due to dissipation in the body of the fluid. The
effect of the walls is therefore negligible only if
b/K V(vl2c) > IojvK3,
i.e. if the width of the boundary layer V(vl/c) is much greater than (2~ bK2)-l.

REFERENCES

Coulson, C. A. I947 Waves, 4th ed. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.

Dirac, P. A. M. I947 Quantum mechanics, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press.
Hanson, E. T. I926 Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 111, 491.
Isaacs, J. D., Williams, E. A. & Eckart, C. I95I Trans. Amer. Geophy8. Un. 32, 37.
Lamb, H. I932 Hydrodynamics, 6th ed. Cambridge University Press.
Peters, A. S. I952 Comm. Pure Appl. Math. 5, 87.
Sommerfeld, A. I912 Jber. dtsch. MatVer. 21, 309.
Sommerfeld, A. I949 Partial differential equations in physics. New York: Academic Press.
Stokes, G. G. I846 Rep. Brit. Ass. part 1, p. 1 (Collected papers, 1, 167).
Stratton, J. A. I94I Electromagnetic theory, 1st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Titchmarsh, E. C. I948 Introduction to the theory of Fourier integrals, 2nd ed. Oxford
University Press.
Ursell, F. I95I Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 47, 348.
Whittaker, E. T. I927 Analytical dynamics, 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press.

Vol. 2I4. A. 7

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