NATURE OF RESEARCHING

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

STEP 1 STEP 5
The Researcher decides on the topic or Methodology is formulated to answer research
problem to be investigated for which s/he has questions based on information from literature
no answer. review.

STEP 2
STEP 6
The research topic or problem is converted into
Guided by methodology, data is gathered,
precise and measureable research question(s).
coded and collated.

STEP 3
STEP 7
A hypothesis is formulated based on what the
The data is analyzed and interpreted to
researcher expects to find an answer to the
determine if answers to the question(s) have
question(s).
been found.

STEP 4 STEP 8

Existing literature, related to the issue, is Researcher determines whether hypothesis has
searched to find possible solution to the been supported or not and whether there is
research problem. need for further research.

NATURE OF A RESEARCH

Researching has many stages:

1. Systematic
 Maintain an ethical stance in the collecting, analyzing and the reporting of the
information
 Have questions relevant to the research being conducted
 the following are features of a real research:
(i) identifying a problem that impacts human development

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 (ii) formulating research questions or hypotheses, by devising a set of
questions or concerns that focus on what the researchers want to be
informed about
(iii) conducting a literature review to inform the researcher about as many
aspects of the topic as possible by the employment of a variety of sources
(iv) choosing a suitable data collection strategy
(v) analyzing the data collected using research questions as a guide
(vi) Interpret the data and consider the implications and then make
recommendations that will contribute to human development.
2. Reliability
 Reliability is the degree to which an instrument is interpreted in the same way, by
all subjects being interviewed. This is how accurately and consistently data
collection methods or research instruments perform by measuring the factors for
which it was designed.
 When questioning sources, the researcher must have a ready set of question
[interview protocol] that should not vary from one source to the next
 Thus questions should be so stated that they are not ambiguous and open to a
variety of interpretations
 Thus reliability ensures that data collected is faithful to what the researchers are
interested in find out

3. Validity
 Validity, to the researcher, refers to the extent to which the data collection methods or the
research instruments, such as the questionnaire, interview and observation, actually
measure what they are supposed to measure.
 This means how well your investigation, procedure and measurement instruments do
what they are supposed to do.
 For validity to be achieved, the researcher has to ensure that s/he correctly applies and
manipulates those variables that are relevant to the investigation. S/he must also control
the effect of irrelevant or extraneous variables that could invalidate the results of the
investigation. In forming research questions, the researcher can enhance validity by so
forming these questions that specific variables are defined as well as the expected
relationship between them.
 Research questions are considered to be valid when the questions asked and the methods
used are likely to produce relevant answers to the questions posed by the researcher
 Questions must only be about what is being studied

PURPOSE OF A RESEARCH

1. Generate new knowledge 3. Predict an event/outcome

2. Solve a problem/clarification 4. Test a theory

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RESEARCH TYPES/DESIGNS
1. Experimental/Scientific Research 
As the name suggests experimental research involves conducting an experiment to test a
hypothesis. There are two types of experimental research designs: field and lab. Both types of
research require two groups/samples. One group is used as a control group, while the other is the
experimental group. The experimental group is that part of the sample to which treatment is
administered. 
For instance a research to determine whether a variety of teaching methods would improve
performance in Communication Studies at the sixth form level; firstly, one group of sixth form
students in a special programme would be selected and use a variety of methods on this group.
Another group of sixth formers would be observed but they would not get any special treatment.
At the end of the programme, the performance of both will be determined and conclusions
drawn.
2. Survey 
This design is used to establish a cause and effect relationship or to gather quantitative data. In
other words, you are trying to establish patterns of relationship between variables. For example,
you want to find out the extent to which transportation affects punctuality at school or the extent
to which socio-economic conditions affect absenteeism at school. Your variables would be
'transportation' and 'punctuality' in the first example and 'socio-economic conditions' and
'absenteeism' in the second example.
Survey is also referred to as an investigation and is usually theoretical in nature. Unlike the
experimental design, the researcher does not intervene in the organisation and observe the effects
of the intervention. There are two types of surveys.
a) Social Surveys seek to establish cause and effects of a social phenomenon, for example,
the impact of cellular phones on students' relationship to their peers or the impact of chat
rooms on the socialisation of teenagers.
b) Public Opinion Surveys seek to find out what people think about a particular issue. For
example, how do people feel about issuing condoms in high schools? How do Jamaicans
feel about legalising ganja?
3. Qualitative Research 
The emphasis is on individuals' interpretation of their environment and of people's behaviour.
This type of research cannot be quantified and is often referred to as social research. They are
similar to case studies and require intense study of the behaviour and careful recording of
information gathered.
Qualitative research does not use any hypothesis and does not set out to prove anything, but to
carefully examine and interpret behaviours. In qualitative research questions and problems most
often come from real-world observations, dilemmas and questions. For example:
 Why is the teacher substitution programme working so well at X School but not at other
schools?
 What are the various techniques used by trade union groups as they try to influence
government policy?
 How do school-parent community relations affect the performance of students?
 How effective is capital punishment in deterring crime in Jamaica?
 How do students in grades 7 - 9 react to Mid-year Examinations at Flower Valley High
School?
4. Case Studies 

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This involves the detailed examination of one, or a small number of cases. It is in fact a special
type of qualitative research. It examines a social unit as a whole. The unit may be a person, a
family, a social group, a social institution or a community. The purpose is to understand the life
cycle or an important part of the life cycle of the unit. The case study probes deeply and analyses
interactions between the factors that explain present status or, that influence change or growth.
For example:
 A study of the life style of a drug don in East Kingston.
 A study on Louise Bennett-Coverley: The woman and her poetry.
 A study of the dance hall phenomenon in Jamaica.
 The Rastafarian movement and its contribution to music in Jamaica.
5. Action Research 
In Action Research, the researcher is involved in conjunction with members of the organisation
in dealing with and solving a problem that arises at the organisation. The problem is identified
and all participants set out to investigate the reasons for the problem and to arrive at solutions to
the problem. For example: 
 An investigation into the causes of poor staff morale at Flower Valley High School. 
 An investigation into the causes of the high level of staff turnover at Flower Valley High
School. 
 An investigation into the causes of high failure rate in Information Technology in rural
high schools. 

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

 Researchers must begin by identifying a topic/theme that is worthy of study. From that
topic they develop a narrow focus and thus isolate a problem/issue that is impactful
 The researcher must be interested in the chosen topic or it will not be done
wholeheartedly
 After identifying a topic, the researcher must ensure that the research is focused and not
too wide; the researcher should also find out if there is enough information on the topic
and if it is accessible
 Time must be properly allocated and managed. Time management helps to determine
which data collection instrument will be used to ensure reliability and validity
 The researcher should always plan from the beginning how they will conduct their
research

Once you have decided on a topic, you are ready to search for data relating to your topic.
However, before we go on with the research, ensure that your topic has the following
characteristics: 
 It should ask about the relationship between two or more variables. For example, within
this topic 'The Impact of Incest on Student Performance in Jamaican Schools', there are
three variables: impact of incest; student performance and Jamaican schools.

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  You will need to provide definitions for each of these variables and this can be done
through a review of related literature. 
 It should be stated in the form of a question, either direct or implied. 
 It should be testable, that is, you should be able to collect data to answer the question
asked. 
 It should not be about a moral or ethical position. For example, 'Is lying a bad thing to do
under all circumstances?' This is not an appropriate topic. 

In normal research process, you are advised to use the following checklist as a guide:

1. Is the problem significant enough to be worth the time, effort and resources to be
researched?
2. Is your hypothesis likely to be supported/unsupported based on your research and can it
be tested?
3. Are there ethical issues concerning your research that will adversely affect other people?
If so, is it proper and responsible to go through with it?
4. Is your topic narrow and focused enough for you to achieve a result given the time and
resources available to you, the researcher?
5. Is your research design the most appropriate one to investigate your topic and support or
disprove your hypothesis?

Considering Variables

A variable is anything (person, event, or setting) in your research topic that can affect the
outcome of your research because of its ability to change or to take on different values. Variables
must be measurable and observable. Some of the most common variables that researchers
consider are age, class, gender, time and behaviour.

Variables are what are used to measure or test the hypothesis. Variables help to decide the best
way(s) to gather data on your topic. For example, gender, age, location and testing methods are
crucial in the topic “The Performance of Boys from a Rural Primary School in St. James in the
2003 GSAT Examination”.

Types of Variables

Variables are classified depending on their use in the research process and these include:

 Independent variable - refers to any variable that is manipulated by the researcher to

affect the outcome of the research. It is believed to cause or be responsible for the
outcome.
 Dependent variable - which is so called since its influence on the outcome of one’s
research depends on the way in which the independent variable is manipulated.

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 Manipulation refers to an action done to the experimental group by the researcher that is
not done to the control group. Thereafter, the two groups are measured to see whether the
experimental group was affected by the independent variable.
 Controlled variable - which refers to those factors that have to be controlled or held
constant or held constant so that their effect on the outcome of one’s researched is
neutralized.

Relationship between Variables

There are two main relationships between variables that will affect the type of outcome that the
researcher can expect and on which s/he can base his or her hypothesis. These are causal and
associational.

 Causal - it is assumed that one factor in a series of factors is the cause or is responsible
for whatever change(s) are observed in the other factors. If in the topic mentioned above,
the boys in the rural primary school were performing poorly, it might be presumed that
there is a causal relationship between the type of school they attend and their
performance. There may also be a causal relationship presumed between the gender of
the students and their performance.

 Associational relationships - assume that an increase in the magnitude and scope of one
factor will result in a corresponding increase in the magnitude and scope of other related
factor(s). For example, workers in a factory are experiencing low and declining
productivity. This is linked to the fact that each month the manager has been laying off
workers. If workers in the factory have no job security and are being laid off on a
monthly basis, there might be an associational relationship between low productivity and
growing insecurity.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES/QUESTIONS

 These are essential sub-components of the research problem identified and are used to
focus the enquiry into the problem
 These should be: (i)relevant (ii) directly linked to research problem (iii) informed by
sources (iv) clear
 The research questions directly influence data collection as the researcher takes each
research question and make sub-questions which help to create/develop the questions in
the questionnaires, interviews and other forms of data collection

HYPOTHESES

This is an expectation or prediction about the relationship between two variables in a research
study. The hypotheses can be upheld or rejected by the outcomes of the research

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SOURCES OF DATA;

 Sources should always be: (i) adequate (ii) relevant (iii) objective (iv) trustworthy
 When doing a quantitative research objectivity is essential; while trustworthiness is
essential in an qualitative research
 Understanding how the research will be conducted helps to determine the best sources for
the research
 The researcher should also be aware of the pros and cons of each type of source

With topic in hand you are ready to identify the sources of data and collect the data. This
involves the selection and use of data collection tools appropriate to the nature of the problem
being investigated. You must summarise the data collected from various sources and be sure to
identify each source. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOURCES
All the sources available for the generating of the data may be grouped into two categories:
primary and secondary sources.

Primary Data Sources:

 They are eyewitness accounts of first records of the event. They are written, created or
recorded during the period or context under investigation.
 They are original sources on which interpretation, analysis and studies are based.
 They exist in any media or genres which include: poems, diaries, journals, scientific
research, interviews, autobiographies, works of art, publications, official and private
records, legislative bills, pictures and maps, artefacts, furniture, clothing, oral history
etc.
 They tend to be narrative in style rather than analytical or evaluative. They consist of the
collation of facts, impressions and observations.
 They tend to be subjective in nature reflecting the viewpoint and individual or group bias
of the recorder(s) of the event.
 They tend to reflect the social, political and philosophical worldview and styles of the
epoch or period in which they are written or produced.
 They are obtained chiefly through observation, survey, experiments and through
documents.

Characteristics of Secondary Data Sources:

1. They are usually written or produced after the event that they purport to comment.
2. They comment on primary sources offering explanation, evaluation, and interpretation of
them as well as other secondary sources.
3. They may offer answers and solutions to queries and questions raised by primary sources.

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 4. They tend to be analytical and interpretative in style.
5. They may attempt to be objective and balanced depending on their purpose and the
author.
6. They could reflect the bias and attitude of the worldview in which they are written.
7. They are obtained mainly through documentary media.

Sources of information:
The main sources of information available to any researcher are the library, the internet and
surveys.
LITERATURE REVIEW and EVALUATION

Once you have chosen a topic it is very important to READ everything you can about your
chosen topic and the aspect of the topic that you will be researching. Chosen literature should be
relevant, valid and adequate; however, when the work is being presented, considerable efforts
should be made to avoid plagiarism.

In evaluating your sources of information, you need to bear to in mind that you are in effect
evaluating the sources themselves, the content from each source, the context in which the
information is derived from the source and the medium or media through which the source
disseminates the information. The sources of your information should be valid, credible and
reliable.

You can begin evaluating a book or an article for instance, even before you have the physical
item in hand. Appraise a source by first examining the bibliographic citation. This is the written
description of a book, journal article, essay or some other published material that appears in a
catalogue or index. Bibliographic citations characteristically have three main components:
author, title and publication information. These components can help you determine the
usefulness of this source for your research. If you are using a website, examine the home page
carefully. Learning how to determine the relevance and authority of a given resource for your
research is one of the core skills of the research process.

In your initial appraisal ask yourself the following questions: 

1. Author
 What are the author's credentials/institutional affiliation?
 Is the book or article written on a topic in the author's area of expertise?
 Have you seen the author's name cited in other sources or bibliographies?
 Is the author associated with a reputable institution or organisation? 
2. Date of Publication: 
 When was the source published?
 Is the source current or out-of-date for your topic? 
3. Edition or Revision: 
 Is this a first edition of this publication or not?
 If you are using a web source, do the pages indicate revision dates? 

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 4. Publisher: 
 Is the source published by a university press? If so, the information is likely to be
scholarly. 
5. Title of Journal: 
 Is this a popular or scholarly journal? This distinction is important because it indicates
different levels of complexity in conveying ideas. 
 Having made an initial appraisal, you should now examine the body of the source, that is,
you need to analyse the contents.
 Read the preface to determine the author's intentions for the book.
 Scan the table of contents and the index to get a broad overview of the material it covers.

Evaluating Source Content

There are a number of considerations that will affect the trustworthiness of the information that
you gather from different sources. The following must be considered for print, electronic and
research sources:

1. The Authorship

The author and publisher of a printed or electronic source will determine the kind of information
contained in the source. Critically examine whether the author has clearly stated bias or if there
is an implied bias that affects the information presented. Remember bias can be social, political
or it can be cultural. Ensure that the author is identifiable. This adds to the credibility of the
content. Be very wary of sources that have no stated author. Is it that no one wants to take
responsibility for the information?
Where the author is acknowledged, investigate whether such an individual, corporation or
agency has the authority and expertise to competently provide the information. To do so, look for
evidence of the author’s education and training. The jacket of some books and web pages contain
biographical information on the author/contributor. It will be useful to know the author’s job
position and how he or she is regarded by other experts in that field. If the authorship is credited
to an organization or agency, find out what you can about their interests and mission. Content is
more believable if the author is seen to have the credentials and specialized knowledge to make
the claims contained in the information. Be sure to try and distinguish when an author is
speaking in an official capacity and when s/he is dealing in a private capacity.

2. The Purpose for Writing

A writer’s purpose for writing has a big influence on what is written and how it is
communicated. Check if the writer has stated his or her purpose. If he has, check for bias obvious
from the statement. If the writer has not clearly stated a purpose, could there be a strategic
reason? Most responsible interest groups, agencies and spokespersons will not release a message
to the public without acknowledging the source and the purpose.
Examine whether the author intended the contents to be for information or entertainment. Is the
publication intended to be viewed as ‘scholarly’ or ‘popular’? There are significant differences

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between the level of research and evidence that a scholarly publication is expected to contain as
opposed to a ‘popular’ publication. The tone of the information should offer clues as to the
writer’s purpose. Is the tone serious, satirical or humorous? If it is either satirical or humorous,
expect to have less emphasis on solid evidence and facts and more on the techniques of
entertainment. For example, the title used by authors can give a clue to whether you are expected
to take the content seriously and expect well-researched and reasoned arguments. So if the topic
of an article on alcoholism is entitled, “Alcoholism: The Silent Epidemic” you would expect it to
be a more serious discourse than if it were entitled “Happy Juice”.

3. Intended Audience
 What type of audience is the author addressing? 
 Is the publication aimed at a general or specialised audience? 
 Is the source too elementary, too technical, too advanced, or just right for your needs? 
If you fail to consider the audience that the information was intended to benefit, then you may
misjudge the usefulness and cogency of information. Always seek to ascertain for whom the
message is intended. If a writer is addressing those who subscribe to his or her beliefs, the tone to
the “faithful” will be more motivational and the evidence less compelling and comprehensive
than will be the case if the message were intended for opponents. Information intended for
general public readership will have different features of vocabulary, content, and style of
presentation than will information intended for a specialized group of say technicians and
scientists. This, in turn, differs from information intended specifically for children. As a
researcher, you will have to distinguish between what information has a specific and perhaps
limited application to a target audience and which you may generalize to be relevant to your
work.

4. The Scholarship

Good scholarship will be obvious in thorough and careful research, balanced and fair treatment
of views that disagree with one’s own, proper documentation and crediting of all sources of
information that are used, well-supported claims, and the use of current information. The depth
and thoroughness of the research done should help you determine the trustworthiness of
information from a source. It is a mark of poor scholarship when a source gives the impression
that the only valid views are his or her own. In the interest of fairness, a source will acknowledge
the merits of an opposing point of view while explaining why the writer does not agree with it.
Thorough research will result in well-supported arguments and claims. Be on guard for wild and
exaggerated claims that are not logically and reasonably supported.

5. The Accuracy of the Information

Accuracy of information is one of the hallmarks of a reputable source. Accuracy means that the
information is up-to-date, factual, detailed and comprehensive. One test of accuracy is whether

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the information from the source can be cross-checked with other sources that are competent in
that field.
There are certain signs that should trigger your scepticism as to the accuracy of sources. These
include carelessness with expression and facts, the absence of a date on the document, a writer’s
tendency towards hasty and sweeping generalizations, a limited and one-sided view that fails to
acknowledge opposing views, and the length of the document. Some sources are not of adequate
to length to develop and provide supporting details for the claims that are made.

6. The Reliability

Simply because a person is reputed to be a “reliable source” and a newspaper or website claims
its information is from a ‘reliable source’ does not make it so. Be sure your sources are
dependable and well-respected in the particular area for which they claim knowledge. A reliable
source will consistently provide information that is accurate and can be trusted. Reliable sources
usually have quality control. Most newspapers have editors who ensure the veracity of the
information. Also take care to differentiate between factual stories and opinion articles in a
newspaper.
Do not assume that the opinions of contributing journalists represent the position of the
newspaper. Outside of the editorial and stories written by staff writers, the views presented in a
newspaper may not represent the editorial policy of the paper. Reliable websites are usually
organizational sites which are regularly updated. Private Websites and those that have no
credited author are likely to have less quality control. A good indicator that a source is reliable
and trustworthy is whether it is willing to publish correction and amendments.

7. Objective Reasoning: 
 Is the information covered fact, opinion, or propaganda? It is not always easy to separate
fact from opinion. Facts can usually be verified; opinions, though they may be based on
factual information, evolve from the interpretation of facts. Skilled writers can make you
think their interpretations are facts. 
 Does the information appear to be valid and well-researched, or is it questionable and
unsupported by evidenced? 
 Are the ideas and arguments advanced more or less in line with other works you have
read on the same topic? 
 Is the author's point of view objective and impartial? 
 Is the language free of emotion-arousing words and bias? 
8. Coverage: 
 Does the work update other sources, substantiate other materials you have read, or add
new information? You should explore enough sources to obtain a variety of viewpoints. 
 Is the material primary or secondary in nature? Primary sources are the raw material of
the research process. Secondary sources are based on primary sources. Choose both when
you have the opportunity. 
9. Writing Style: 
 Is the publication organised logically?

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  Are the main points clearly presented?
 Do you find the text easy to read, or is it stilted or choppy?
 Is the author's argument repetitive? 

10. The Tone of the Information

The tone of the information from a source is one of the most reliable indicators of whether the
information is presented in a fair and balanced way. If the tone seems angry, contemptuous,
sarcastic or mocking, be on your guard. Consider whether the tone is making opponents seem
illogical, unreasonable or even idiotic. If this is so, how is it being done? The tone of the
information is less likely to be manipulative if it is calm, reasoned and balanced than if it seems
intended to sway you emotionally and to stoke strong feelings against an opponent or one’s
argument. A balanced tone will avoid ‘name calling’, sweeping generalizations and exaggerated
claims.

11. Consider How You and Your Source Quote Other Sources

No matter how relevant information is to your purpose, if it is quoted incorrectly or unfairly its
reliability and validity vanish.

12. Consider if Your Source Can be Corroborated

There is a greater probability that the information is true if the claims of a source are supported
by other sources. In comparing and contrasting information from different sources on a research
topic, you will be able to evaluate the nature of the disagreements are minor, referring to style
and expression. Others are substantial referring to methodology and interpretation. By cross-
checking information from various sources, you will be better able to draw your own conclusions
after considering all the available evidence on the issue.
Evaluating Field Research
If the information from your source is the result of field research, many of the preceding points
will still be useful in evaluating the information but there will be other considerations.

1. Consider the Researcher’s Methodologies

The researcher’s method of collecting data and conducting research has a significant influence
on the veracity of the findings. If the researcher explains the methodology that he used to gather
his information, critically examine the methodology to see if it is scientific and sound.
Areas of possible weaknesses are improper sampling, inadequate data collection techniques and
the ethical practice of the researcher. If the sample is not sufficient or representative of the total
population that has been surveyed, then the generalization that the researcher makes will be
unreliable. Question whether the data collection techniques are the best that the researcher could
have used for the purpose. Remember that a combination of different collection techniques is a
more reliable way of ensuring that the techniques capture the data intended. Look for indications
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that the researcher is adhering to ethical practices in the collection of data for the research. Was
permission granted from respondents to use them in the study? Especially for studies of sensitive
issue, researchers have been known to be less than honest in their determination to collect data.
Consider if the researcher has used the information confidentially and that no harm or distress
comes to the participants.

2. Consider if the Research Findings are Warranted

The finding that a researcher makes at the end of a research is merely the end product of a chain
of events known as the research process. Each phase of this process impacts on the other.
Findings should never be accepted without careful scrutiny of the process that led to the findings.
So before you conclude that information from field research is valid and reliable, consider the
following. Question whether the researcher’s conclusions fit the data that have been collected. Is
the conclusion warranted because there is sufficient data to support it? Can you detect a bias on
the part of the researcher that has influenced the way the data has been interpreted?

For more information on how to critically analyse sources go to the following:  URL:
<http://www.library.cornell.edu/okuref/research/skill26.htm> 

COLLECTING DATA

 After the research questions are created, the researcher will know exactly: (i) what
information is needed (ii) the depth (iii) the emphasis
 How the researcher interprets the research questions will determine the methods used to
collect data and sources for data collection. There are a number of things to consider
when collecting data, for instance the sample.

DATA COLLECTION INSTUMENT

SAMPLING

This is a subset of the target population. The subset/sample should be an amount that is
representative of the target population. If the sample is representative then the findings can relate
to the entire target population.

Types of Sampling

1. Random Sampling
 There are two types of sampling procedures: (i) probability (ii) non-probability.
Random Sampling is an example of probability procedure.

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  In random sampling, every member of the target population has a chance to be
selected to be in the study
 Due to the random nature of the selection of subjects/participants, there should be
no bias and the target population will be represented; therefore the findings can be
generalized.
2. Systematic Sampling
 The researcher may decide to collect data from every 5th or 8th person that comes
along. Therefore the researcher could have a large sample of 1000 persons, but
only collects data from every 10th person etc.
3. Multistage Sampling
 Involves selecting a sample from another sample
4. Snowballing
 Involves using personal contacts to build up a sample of the group
5. Convenience Sampling
 This is a popular method, where the researcher is limited by convenience or
economy; the researcher will therefore choose a site or subjects nearby, or the first
to come along/become available
 This type of sampling uses the non-probability procedure; it is therefore
sometimes referred to as a non-probabilistic sample.
 Findings from this research cannot be applied to anyone or any site not included
in the study; thus generalizations for the entire population cannot be made.

NATURE OF THE SAMPLE

This is where an explanation of the persons, groups or cases is given and is important to be very
specific.

1. How many people will be selected?

2. Where will they be acquired and how?
3. Was there assistance given to identify/locate the sample?

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

The most widely used methods are surveys and survey data: (i) questionnaires (ii) structured
interviews (iii) observations

1. Interview is a conversation between the researcher and a selected person; this is a

qualitative method of enquiry, because the questions are usually opened ended.
2. The researcher could be a participant observer, where he would live at the site or
temporarily become a member of the group
3. Questionnaires are intended to measure: (i) attitudes (ii) perceptions (iii) opinions. Forced
choice questionnaires are easier to analysed

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 4. Checklist is a table where observations [covert or overt] are recorded

Questioning as Data Collection Tool

It is important to carefully structure the questions used to elicit information.

 Questions should be clearly and specifically stated to avoid vagueness and ambiguity.
 They should be constructed with the respondent’s intellectual ability in mind. There is no
sense constructing questions that sound nice but are not understood by respondents.
 The language of the questions should be simple and easily understood.
 They should be logically and sequentially presented to the respondents whether in written
or verbal form.
 The language of the questions should be objectively expressed so as not to reveal the
researcher’s bias.
 Individual questions should not require more than a single response. Questions requiring
multiple responses (double-barrelled questions) tend to confuse respondents.
 The structure of questions should not lead or mislead respondents to believe that the
researcher is looking for or is interested in a particular response.

Types of Questions
There are two categories:

1. Open-ended/free response: - requires the respondent to construct the answer by

themselves and allows for free recall and self explanation.
2. Closed-ended/convergent questions: - requires a single or acceptable “correct” answer
and because there can be no variation in or alternative to the acceptable answer, it is also
referred to as the objective type questions.

Types of Open-Ended Questions

 Short answer
 Essay type question

Types of Closed-Ended Questions

 True or False/ Yes or No  Fill in the blanks

 Matching or Associating  Multiple choice

Questionnaires 

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There should be no less than 15 questions and no more than 25 questions. The questions should
be relevant and valid and structured in a manner that they provide information for the research.
Questionnaires usually have three parts:

 An introduction – where you tell the respondent what your research is about and you ask
for their cooperation
 Personal information – you may have questions designed to outline basic facts about the
respondents.
 The questions - questions should be both closed and open ended; however there should be
other options than yes or no in the closed ended questions.

They are used when factual information is required. When opinions are required an opinionnaire
is used. This is constructed in a similar manner as a questionnaire. A questionnaire is used with
all research designs. There are approximately three ways in which a questionnaire can be
administered:
* Personally * Via the telephone * Via the mail * Via electronic mail

Strengths of Questionnaires

• Good for measuring attitudes and eliciting other content from research participants.
• Inexpensive (especially mail questionnaires and group administered questionnaires).
• Can provide information about participants’ internal meanings and ways of thinking.
• Can administer to probability samples.
• Quick turnaround.
• Can be administered to groups.
• Perceived anonymity by respondent may be high.
• Closed-ended items can provide exact information needed by researcher.
• Open-ended items can provide detailed information in respondents’ own words.
• Ease of data analysis for closed-ended items.

Weaknesses of Questionnaires

• Reactive effects may occur (e.g., interviewees may try to show only what is socially
desirable).
• No response to selective items.
• People filling out questionnaires may not recall important information and may lack self-
awareness.
• Response rate may be low for mail and email questionnaires.
• Data analysis can be time consuming for open-ended items.

Interviews 
These can either be structured or unstructured. They are a list of questions administered to the
respondent face to face. The structured interviews comprise a set of precisely formulated
questions, which are asked of a respondent. The unstructured interviews allow the respondent to
respond to a stimulus question. It is very informal and allows for the respondent to speak for as
long as he/she wants. These are used in qualitative research and case studies, but can be useful in
surveys- especially social surveys.
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Strengths of Interviews

• Good for measuring attitudes and most other content of interest.

• Allows probing and posing of follow-up questions by the interviewer.
• Can provide in-depth information.
• Can provide information about participants’ internal meanings and ways of thinking.
• Closed-ended interviews provide exact information needed by researcher.
• Telephone and e-mail interviews provide very quick turnaround.
• Can use with probability samples.
• Relatively high response rates are often attainable.

Weaknesses of Interviews

• In-person interviews usually are expensive and time consuming.

• Reactive effects (e.g., interviewees may try to show only what is socially desirable).
• Investigator effects may occur (e.g., untrained interviewers may distort data because of
personal biases and poor interviewing skills).
• Interviewees may not recall important information and may lack self-awareness.
• Perceived anonymity by respondents may be low.
• Data analysis can be time consuming for open-ended items.
• Measures need validation.

Observation Schedule 
The researcher records observations in terms of a predetermined schedule. This is used in action
research as well as case studies.

Strengths of Observational Data

• Allows one to directly see what people do without having to rely on what they say they do.
• Provides firsthand experience, especially if the observer participates in activities.
• Can provide relatively objective measurement of behaviour (especially for standardized
observations).
• Observer can determine what does not occur.
• Observer may see things that escape the awareness of people in the setting.
• Excellent way to discover what is occurring in a setting.
• Helps in understanding importance of contextual factors.
• Can be used with participants with weak verbal skills.
• May provide information on things people would otherwise be unwilling to talk about.
• Observer may move beyond selective perceptions of people in the setting.
• Good for description.
• Provides moderate degree of realism (when done outside of the laboratory).

Weaknesses of Observational Data

• Reasons for observed behaviour may be unclear.

• Reactive effects may occur when respondents know they are being observed (e.g., people
being observed may behave in atypical ways).
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 • Investigator effects (e.g., personal biases and selective perception of observers)
• Observer may “go native” (i.e., over-identifying with the group being studied).
• Sampling of observed people and settings may be limited.
• Cannot observe large or dispersed populations.
• Some settings and content of interest cannot be observed.
• Collection of unimportant material may be moderately high.
• More expensive to conduct than questionnaires and tests.
• Data analysis can be time consuming.

Attitude or Sentiment Scales 

These are used to measure attitudes, beliefs and opinions of a respondent. They can be used with
all types of research, but more specifically with surveys and action research. 
Focus Groups
A focus group is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about their
perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a product, service, concept, advertisement,
idea, or packaging. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where participants are free
to talk with other group members.

Strengths of Focus Groups

• Useful for exploring ideas and concepts.

• Provides window into participants’ internal thinking.
• Can obtain in-depth information.
• Can examine how participants react to each other.
• Allows probing.
• Most content can be tapped.
• Allows quick turnaround.

Weaknesses of Focus Groups

• Sometimes expensive.
• May be difficult to find a focus group moderator with good facilitative and rapport building
skills.
• Reactive and investigator effects may occur if participants feel they are being watched or
studied.
• May be dominated by one or two participants.
• Difficult to generalize results if small, unrepresentative samples of participants are used.
• May include large amount of extra or unnecessary information.
• Measurement validity may be low.
• Usually should not be the only data collection methods used in a study.
• Data analysis can be time consuming because of the open-ended nature of the data.

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Secondary/Already Existing Data

Strengths of Documents and Physical Data

• Can provide insight into what people think and what they do.
• Unobtrusive, making reactive and investigator effects very unlikely.
• Can be collected for time periods occurring in the past (e.g., historical data).
• Provides useful background and historical data on people, groups, and organizations.
• Useful for corroboration.
• Grounded in local setting.
• Useful for exploration.

Strengths of Archived Research Data

• Archived research data are available on a wide variety of topics.

• Inexpensive.
• Often are reliable and valid (high measurement validity).
• Can study trends.
• Ease of data analysis.
• Often based on high quality or large probability samples.

Weaknesses of Documents and Physical Data

• May be incomplete.
• May be representative only of one perspective.
• Access to some types of content is limited.
• May not provide insight into participants’ personal thinking for physical data.
• May not apply to general populations.

Weaknesses of Archived Research Data

• May not be available for the population of interest to you.

• May not be available for the research questions of interest to you.
• Data may be dated.
• Open-ended or qualitative data usually not available.
• Many of the most important findings have already been mined from the data.

REFERENCES

 These are intended the give readers as much information as possible, as it relates to text
and articles that were consulted; therefore it allows others to source the same material

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  Referencing let others know if the study is based on wide or limited sources; and if
variety was used
 Referencing acknowledges the authors and thus avoid charges of plagiarism [using
someone’s words/work/ideas without crediting them]
 The most common referencing style is the American Psychological Association [APA]:

On this page ALL sources used for the research will be listed in alphabetical order under
appropriate headings; these headings are Articles, Internet Sources, Texts.
Sometimes an article may not have an author, in that case only the name of the article will be
listed and the year if there is any. Articles are sometimes taken from the internet; in that case the
articles will be listed under Internet Sources.
When listing sources taken from the internet, the entire URL must be listed and at the end in
bracket the retrieval date will also be listed.
When listing text the format is: Author [last name first], the Name of the text [underlined].
Publishing City: Publisher, Year.
APPENDIX

In this section relevant maps, illustrations and pictures etc. are appropriately placed and labelled.
This means items in the Appendix must have a heading and a note identifying it – eg. Appendix 1
or Picture 1 etc.
Additional information pertinent to the research is listed in the Appendix, for example maps or
pictures etc.

 Appendices are usually labelled by a letter: Appendix A, B etc.

 They should be presented in the order they were referenced in the research. Each
appendix should have a title and they should mentioned in the contents

ACTIVITY

Let us see whether you can apply the appropriate type of research and data collection method(s).
Here is a question. Read the information and answer the questions which follow. 
Kishauna is conducting research into the kinds of television programmes students at her school
prefer to watch. 
(1). Name two sources from which Kishauna could gather background information on the
research topic. (2 marks)
(2a). State two methods of data collection, other than a questionnaire, that Kishauna could use in
this research. (2 marks)
(2b). Choose one method of data collection identified in (a) above, and discuss one strength and
one weakness of this method. (4 marks)

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(3). Name two sources from which Kishauna could collect data for her research. (2 marks) 

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