642061

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SPS0010.1177/0266351116642061International Journal of Space StructuresGaß

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International Journal of Space Structures

Physical analog models in 2016, Vol. 31(1) 16­–24
© The Author(s) 2016

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DOI: 10.1177/0266351116642061
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Siegfried Gaß

Abstract
The contribution presents design approaches based on analog models and experiments in architecture and science and
on the works of Frei Otto and his teams, in particular. Starting with the classification of self-forming processes, three
thesis are described to show the influence of the physical experiment on the quality of the design. The first thesis -
the design tools define the architecture - opposes T-square and compass versus self-forming physical experiments,
tracing back the invention of the grid shell to the search for a tool to define the proper shape of compression stressed
shell structures. The second - in working with self-forming processes, the will to design a particular shape is linked to
the understanding of the influence of boundary conditions - emphasizes that the use of self-forming processes never
holds you from making design decisions. The third - in shapes, defined by self-forming processes, the balance of power
according to the principle of minimal energy expenditure results in a harmony of form - reflects on the esthetical quality
of shapes, deriving from self-forming processes. The verification is given by an example of evidence: describing the design
process for a tent according to the form of a minimal surface the interplay between willful decisions and inherent laws
within the shape are show. The choice of suitable boundary conditions results in a shape which does equal justice to the
original design ideas and the structural specifications. Finally its shown that the role of physical design models in times of
computer-based virtual 3D models appear as three dimensional sketches.

Keywords
analog model, self-forming processes, design, minimal surface, esthetical quality

Still have to speak what I cannot know: structures and unusual spatial configurations which
That I may understand whatever involve handling forms and materials in a way which dif-
Binds the world’s innermost core together, fers from that laid down in traditional rules. Models and
See all its workings, and its seeds, experiments permit the built reality to be simulated in
Deal no more in words’ empty reeds. advance under almost real conditions.
Beyond the context of this role, experiments and models
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Faust Part I, Scene I: Night have an even more important function in the design and
development of lightweight structures which have been
Introduction and basics advanced among others, in particular, by Frei Otto and his
teams since the 1950s.i To recognize the relationships
Even in the time of the opportunities of three-dimensional between the form of a structure and the forces which act in
(3D) modeling in the virtual world, analog models and it or can be transferred by it, and do graphically represent
experiments play an important role in the development of
architectural designs and in translating them into practica-
ble structures. Besides producing a 3D representation of an Professor Dr.-Ing. Architect, Nürtingen University, Germany
architect’s ideas and concepts, their importance is mainly
Corresponding author:
based on the possibility of limiting the material require- Siegfried Gaß, archcon, Uhlbergstraße 18, D-72631 Aichtal-Aich,
ments and the potential damage in the event of a failure as Germany.
a result of scaling down when developing innovative Email: info@archcon.de
Gaß 17

the parameters relevant to the design, the fundamental rela-

tionship between the form, force, and mass of a structure is
investigated by means of experiments where the form of a
structure can develop freely by the equilibrium of forces as
a function of the properties of the material used. In these
experiments—which show an assumed law for an individ-
ual case and thus confirm or disprove a hypothesis by syn-
thetic design—the forms of innovative structures resulting
from the flow of force emerge by themselves.
In this connection, the use of a model or, respectively, an
experiment to present an architectural concept is of second-
ary importance; its main function is to find the form of a
structure in the self-forming process controlled by the laws
of nature. A wide field of research opens up in considering
Figure 1.  Tenside lamella as four-point minimal surface, Klaus
the manifold forms that may develop from self-forming pro-
Bach 1987, IL-Archive 3.48.108.
cesses which goes far beyond the direct application in archi-
tecture. Some clues as to the history of evolution of material
objects found can be given in science, in particular in biol-
ogy, based on the knowledge of the relationships between
the process of formation and the forms freely created as a
function of different boundary conditions. Conversely, the
forming processes which are suitable for implementing an
architectural or structural idea can be selected on the basis
of the knowledge of the forms created by self-forming pro-
cesses and the boundary conditions influencing them.
These physical models which solve the problem of find-
ing the appropriate form for a given design task are deter-
mined by selecting a material for the experiment with
physical properties analogous to the problem. The most well-
known example is the search for the minimal surface within
any chosen boundaries while designing, for example, tent
structures: the most important property of this surface for Figure 2.  Tenside lamella with complex boarder conditions,
design purposes—besides the smallest possible surface—is Klaus Bach 1987, IL-Archive 3.48.63.
the equal distributed stress at any point and in each direction
of the surface, resulting from the lowest possible energy of symbols, the world of imaginations and definitions, or
level. This problem is solved with the aid of tenside lamellae the physical world.
which are tensioned within the given boundary in such a way
that the form of a minimal surface is produced by the equilib-
rium of flow of the molecules (Figures 1 and 2). Reduction feature
The various architectural models, which differ greatly with Generally, models do not cover all features of the original
regard to their type and the requirements placed on them, can they represent but only those deemed relevant for an eval-
be used as demonstration models to illustrate relationships, as uation of the properties and relationships studied. The
experimental models to determine or check hypotheses, as typical reduction in an abstraction of reality usually makes
theoretical models to provide logically conclusive findings, or it easier to gain knowledge, due to the fact that it allows
as operative models to assist in decision-making and planning. casual connections to be shown. On the other hand, it
In all these cases, they have fundamental features in common requires a careful selection of the features to be reproduced
which can be classed under three main features.ii in order to avoid wrong interpretations.

Reproduction feature Pragmatic feature

Models always reflect something, and they represent natu-
ral or artificial originals which, in turn, can also be models.
In this connection, it is irrelevant whether the reality they
reflect has been created naturally, made technically, or is
given otherwise. Basically, models can be part of the field
Models are not clearly assigned to their originals: they per-
form their reproductive function only as a function of an
acting person, at a given time, and for a particular purpose.
They can therefore be considered as universally valid and
transferable only up to a certain degree.
18 International Journal of Space Structures 31(1)
These three main features of all models lead to the
epistemologically important realization that models can
always only be a reproduction of a reality (no matter
what kind), but at the same time are also a reality and are
therefore subject to their own laws. This is particularly
true for those experimental models which serve to deter-
mine or check hypotheses or provide information for
verification of theoretical ideas in a logically conclusive
manner. Nevertheless, demonstration models in architec-
ture are also affected, especially when the structural
shape which was empirically found also becomes the
space-defining contour of a building. In such cases, it is
not possible to draw a screen-line between the individual
types of models because a form-finding model also
allows statements to be made concerning the spatial qual-
ities of a planned structure. On this basis of system the-
ory, physical models may be produced with the aim of
obtaining information on the development of the form of
structures out from the “free play” of forces, determining
the forming forces and the materials required to perform
the design task, and finally incorporating the information
obtained into the architectural design.
The experiments and methods describing the typical
forms which may be produced by self-forming processes
can also be used in developing shapes in architectural
design. Once the principles of their development are
known, the influence exercised by the boundary conditions
can be explored so as to obtain an overview of the diversity
of forms which may develop by themselves—in living
nature without the genetic coding of the form, solely by the
determination of the structural principle, and in technology
without man’s will to shape.iii The broad spectrum of mor-
phological knowledge of the canon of forms developing
under the principles of natural science and the forming
processes can then be used as the basis for the synthesizing
activity of designing and constructing and for the analyz-
ing the activity of phenomenological definition.
Comparing the objects which have developed from self-
forming processes, it is noticeable that many of the charac-
teristic forms appear within a quite different context, meaning
that the shaping principles may provide information on pos-
sible common features during forming process: objects
which have a similar form may have developed in a similar
way and may also serve similar purposes similarly well.
In order to obtain an overview of the many possible
experiments and processes for the development of form in
nature and technology, two basically different classifica-
tion systems can be developed. The first system is geared
to the force which acts in a structure, can be transmitted by
it, or was active during its development. The other system
is geared to the form of the developing object because this
form is the essential criterion in the evaluation of struc-
tures based on the “lightweight principle”.iv
The distinction on the basis of the force determining
the form acting as a tensile, compressing, or bending
force (Figure 3) reflects the finding that the loading
capacity of objects is mainly determined by the type of
force acting. If the capability of different material
objects to transmit forces over a distance is assessed as
a function of the amount of material required, a mini-
mum amount of material is needed to transmit tensile
forces and the expenditure for compressive and bending
forces is much higher; for slender compressive stressed
structures, no difference can be found compared with
bending structures due to the necessity of geometrical
stability.
Classification according to the form of the developing
structures (Figure 4) is based on the importance of the
form for the capability of a structure to withstand stresses
and transmit forces, on the one hand, and on the need for
visual differentiation of the numerous different objects,
on the other hand. Besides the space they occupy, their
proportions—as relative dimensions—are a key criterion
for the description of the form. According to the usual
classification, objects whose spatial extent is mainly
determined by one, two, or three dimensions are distin-
guished according to linear, flat, or spatial elements,
without neglecting the fact that objects existing in reality
are always 3D. This is extremely important for light-
weight structures and their stability in particular.
In-keeping with the increasingly complex forms, the list
ends with a group of structures in space and time whose
characteristic feature is the motion in space and a shape
which recurs periodically as a function of time.
Thesis 1: “The design tools define the
architecture.”
In one of the lectures at Stuttgart University, which the
audience were always enthralled by, Frei Otto started with
the critical comment that the tools of design define the
architecture showing a slide with T-square, triangle, and
compass—the typical working table of an architect in
those days.
Looking at the beginning of the development of grid
shells, dating back from 1958 when Frei Otto started a
series of experiments about the appropriate shape of
compression-stressed shell structures using the suspen-
sion form at Washington University in St Louis, there is
an interesting finding: the experiments started like the
ones Heinz Isler made in Switzerland in the 1950sv
(Figure 5) with homogeneous flat elastic membranes. But
unlike Isler, who loaded the membrane with hardening
material (plaster of Paris), Frei Otto used nails that hung
underneath the membrane which was marked with an
orthogonal grid in order to visualize the deflections in the
membrane (Figure 6).
Back in Berlin, Frei Otto continued the investiga-
tions together with John Koch at the Development
Office for Lightweight Structures looking for an
Gaß 19
Figure 3.  Structures developing from self-forming processes, classified according to the generating forces (Gaß, 1990, IL 25 page 2.17).1
appropriate and easy way to define the optimum shape
of compression-stressed shell structures. In 1961, the
first experimental model of a continuously curved sur-
face made from a textile squared mesh loaded and stiff-
ened by polyester resin was built. Typically, the
synclastic curved surface was not created by elastic
deflections but by shifting of angles of the mesh threads
(Figure 7).vi
This experimental model building method was then the
beginning of the development of the architecturally suc-
cessful structural type of the grid shell (Figure 8), a struc-
ture that was fundamentally investigated in the
Japanese–German research project “Equal meshed com-
pression stressed grid shells” at the Institute of Lightweight
Structures (IL) in 1971 to 1973vii and culminated in the
building of the Mannheim Hall for the Federal Garden
Exhibition in 1975.viii
Thesis 2: “In working with
self-forming processes, the will to
design a particular shape is linked to
the understanding of the influence of
boundary conditions.”
The sequence of self-forming processes is determined
by the set boundary conditions, meaning that the result
of an uncontrolled forming process can be influenced by
varying the boundary conditions. If the parameters
determining the form and their influence on the devel-
oping form are known, a “desired” form can be designed
deliberately—by the proper selection of these. The
architect and designer do not surrender to the form
developing by itself, but this form is subject to his vol-
untary decision to cause the correct form for the overall
design concept to develop “by itself” by selecting the
20 International Journal of Space Structures 31(1)
Figure 4.  Structures developing from self-forming processes, classified according to the generated forces (Gaß, 1990, IL 25 page 2.25).1
proper self-forming process and the corresponding
boundary conditions.
To illustrate the idea that self-forming processes never
hold you from making design decisions, an example from
the fields of tensile-stressed structures where minimal sur-
face soap film lamellae are used in the design process is
given: in the soap film experiment, a flat surface without
any curvature with circular-shaped edges is formed as the
minimal surface between three reference points with flexi-
ble edges (Figure 9). In most cases, this surface is unsuitable
for use in building because forces acting transverse to its
plane—such as wind or snow loads—can only be transmit-
ted with considerable deflections. The membrane will flut-
ter in the wind causing excessive dynamic loads to fittings
and anchor points, or a rapidly growing water sag will occur,
leading to the collapse of the structure in the worst case.
If, despite this, a three-point surface is desired for design
reasons and the construction of a rigid slab is excluded, the
double-curved surface required for load transmission can be
produced by specifying a rigid spatially curved edge, by add-
ing a further suspension point along one of the edges, or by
combining several interacting surfaces (Figure 10).
In order to obtain the double-curved surface desired for
structural reasons, the length of the edge becoming the
ridge must be selected so that no intermediate lamella
occurs in the soap film experiment. This means that the
angle of contact between the two lamellae must be greater
than or equal to 120°.ix
Thesis 3: “In shapes, defined by self-
forming processes, the balance of
power according to the principle of
minimal energy expenditure results in
a harmony of form.”
Concentrating on the principle of “transmitting forces” as
a factor decisive for design within the reflections in this
Gaß 21

Figure 8.  Suspended net and photographical inversion to

Figure 5.  Stiffened form-finding model for a compression-
the upright standing grid shell, SEIBU-Team 1973 IL-Archive
stressed concrete shell to cover the stands of the open air
2.37.60.
theater at Grötzingen (D), Heinz Isler 1977.

Figure 9.  Minimal surface between three reference points

Figure 6.  Suspended form of a shell structure, St Louis, Frei
with flexible edges: flat surface without any curvature with
Otto 1958, IL-Archive 1.11.7.
circular-shaped edges, Klaus Bach, 1989, archcon-Archiv.

Figure 7.  First model of a grid shell, built from a suspended Figure 10.  Minimal surface between three reference points
and stiffened mesh, Developing Office for Lightweight with flexible edges, combining interacting surfaces: double-
Structures, John Koch 1961, IL-Archive 1.17.42. curved surface, Klaus Bach, 1989, archcon-Archiv.

context emanates from the age-long desire to overcome inventions in the field of construction as, for example, in
gravity with the aid of architecture. This has always found the Gothic period, or in the field of creative spatial expres-
adequate expressions, either by way of trail-blazing sion as found, for example, in the Baroque structures of
22 International Journal of Space Structures 31(1)

Baltasar Neumann—which, concerning the cupolas, have

a high structural background too.
The search for architectural forms developed to rela-
tive perfection using the means available at that particular
time and which express the main notions and ideas of the
age results in “classical forms” which can only be
improved to a certain extent. As structures being the result
of self-forming processes show the principle of “transmit-
ting forces” in general, they may be considered as “classi-
cal forms” as well.x
Concerning the high esthetical quality of these clas-
sical forms, it is worth considering the idea that the
equilibrium of the forces which results according to the
principle of the minimum expenditure of energy within
the structure is reflected in a harmony of the form. The
esthetical quality of shapes, deriving from self-forming
processes, might then be an inherent property of these Figure 11.  Design model of the student tent on a scale of
self-forming structures. 1:50 using hexagonal mesh to show the stress distribution in
the surface—view from west showing the entrance situation,
Rainer Lange, Gerhard Ritter 1988, IL-Archive 18332/16.
Example of evidence
The design process for a tent approximated to the shape of
the minimal surface is used to verify the above-mentioned
theses. Thereby, the interplay between the willful decisions
of the architects (in this case, a group of students working
backed by the author under the guidance of Frei Otto in
1988) and the laws inherent in the form and resulting from
the self-forming processes can be presented as a general
approach. The choice of the suitable boundary conditions
made it possible to find a shape which does equal justice to
the original design ideas and the structural specifications,
resulting in a design of high esthetical quality.xi
The design of tent to cover an area of about 150 m2 in
front of a students’ meeting point was defined by the aim
of the task to realize a lightweight roof capable of being
used for a wide range of student activities and which
marks the location in the center of the university campus
in Stuttgart-Vaihingen.
The basic solution developed from the numerous indi- Figure 12.  Design model of the student tent on a scale of
vidual solutions is founded on a double-curved minimal 1:50 using hexagonal mesh to show the stress distribution
surface subject to pre-stressing as the loading case perma- in the surface—view from north showing the unequal stress
distribution at the high point, Rainer Lange, Gerhard Ritter
nently acting on it. Thus, the structure is stressed at each
1988, IL-Archive 18332/9.
point in each direction to an identical extent, and so the
material is loaded uniformly. In keeping with the small
size of the project, a so-called sail surface is selected As you can see from the elliptical deflection of the hex-
whose spatial curvature results from guy points at the edge agonal mesh in the surface, there is a much higher tension
at different heights, without support within the surface. stress in the direction toward the mast than in the ring
One high point is located at a cut-in edge of the surface, direction, due to the original design idea that the mast
thus creating a spiral edge line which, together with the should reach a height of about 10 m to make it visible from
curved mast, marks the center. In the evenings, when the all over the campus center. In all the other regions of the
sun is low, it shines through this opening into the tent. Of surface, the more or less circular-shaped meshes are repre-
particular challenge are the structural problems of this senting equally distributed stress. So, the will of the archi-
mast, which is stabilized without any guys just by the edge tects to build a tent with a peak at 10 m height resulted in a
cables which come together tangentially at the tip of the structure not any longer being a minimal surface. The
mast (Figures 11 and 12). minimal surface set up by a soap film lamella within the
Gaß 23
Figure 13.  Soap film model of the original tent design in
parallel light to enable precise measurement, Rainer Lange,
Gerhard Ritter 1988, IL-Archive 18322/11.
Figure 14.  Soap film model of the optimized tent design in
parallel light to enable precise measurement, Rainer Lange,
Gerhard Ritter 1988, IL-Archive 18331A/5.
same boarder conditions shows a form quite different in
the area of the high point: the two edge threads join up
over a long way and lead to a “high” point lower than the
other guy points (Figure 13).
Investigation of the boundary conditions which permit
the creation of a minimal surface with the intended high
point and spiral edge line was then carried out in numerous
stages in which the length of the edge threads and the loca-
tion of the high point were varied on a circular area. Once
the principles have been determined which are applicable
to reach the desired result, the overall form was simulated
again and optimized according to the overall boarder con-
ditions (Figure 14). Finally, it was possible to “find” the
design of a minimal surface closely resembling the
Figure 15.  Soap film model of the optimized tent design—
view from west showing the entrance situation, Rainer Lange,
Gerhard Ritter 1988, IL-Archive 18335/2.
Figure 16.  Design model of the tent on a scale of 1:25 using
square mesh set under tension by spiral strings to show the
shifting of angles between warp and weft in the surface, Rainer
Lange, Gerhard Ritter 1988, archcon-Archiv.
original design by slightly lowering the central high point
and varying the remaining suspension points (Figure 15).
In order to convert the design into a buildable structure,
further models were built, for example, the square mesh
model to show the shifting of angles between warp and
weft to change the flat surface of the membrane into a dou-
ble-curved one. Due to political reasons, the tent was never
built, but the final design model (Figures 16 and 17) shows
the high esthetical quality of the design—and by that the
reward to the efforts of the students due to Frei Otto’s
insisting on the truth of the soap film lamella and so on.
Epilogue
Looking back to the times, when physical models were the
only possibility to come up with the relevant information
24 International Journal of Space Structures 31(1)
Figure 17.  Design model of the tent on a scale of 1:25 using
square mesh set under tension by spiral strings to show the
shifting of angles between warp and weft in the surface, Rainer
Lange, Gerhard Ritter 1988, archcon-Archiv.
needed to build lightweight structures, it is obvious to see
that today’s possibilities of using virtual 3D computer mod-
els give new opportunities in design and realization. In par-
ticular, the questions of tolerances due to measurement
exactness and of further possibilities like the optimization of
the shapes of structures due to different loading conditions
and others make it well advised to use computer modeling.
But nevertheless, physical design models are still impor-
tant in finding and investigating forms of non-conventional
structures; particularly in the early design stage when ideas
are to be developed and are to be communicated, physical
models can do a successful job as 3D sketches.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Notes
i. A comprehensive overview of these experiments is given in
Gaß.1
ii. The model concept and its variety of applications are
described in Stachowiak.2
iii. Besides the description of the concept by the author in IL
25, an initial comprehensive summary is given in Otto.3
iv. The “lightweight principle” describes the relation between
the form, force, and mass of a structure; this is presented
in detail in Schaur4 and Information of the Institute for
Lightweight Structures: IL 24—Lightweight Principle.5
v. The numerous concrete shells built by Heinz Isler and his
design ideas are documented in Ramm and Schunck.6
vi. The working process is described in Drew (p. 43).7
vii. The research project is documented in Hennike, J. et al.8
viii. The process of design and building of the up-till-today big-
gest grid shell is described Bächer, M. et al.9
ix. Detailed information about the design rules relevant in using
soap film lamellae as design tools is given in Information
of the Institute for Lightweight Structures: IL 18—Forming
Bubbles, Stuttgart 1987.
x. A first cautious concept of this idea is presented in Otto.10
xi. The project “Tent above Students’ Meeting Point” is docu-
mented in detail in Gaß (p. 7.4 f).1
References
1. Gaß S. Experiments – physical analog models in architec-
tural design. In: Otto F (ed.) Information of the Institute
for Lightweight Structures: IL 25 Experiments. Stuttgart,
1990, p. 288.
2. Stachowiak H. Allgemeine Modelltheorie. Vienna and New
York, 1973, p. 495.
3. Otto F. Selbstbildung - Physikalische und konstruktive
Entstehungsprozesse, die auf die entstehung, Ausbildung
und den Wandel organischer Objekte Einfluß haben und die
auch für Technik und Architektur von Bedeutung sein kön-
nen. In: Sonderforschungsbereich 230 (Hrsg.): Konzepte
SFB 230 2. Stuttgart, 1984, p. 212.
4. Schaur E. Basics. In: Otto F (ed.) Information of the Institute for
Lightweight Structures: IL 21 Basics. Stuttgart, 1990, p. 190.
5. Information of the Institute for Lightweight Structures: IL
24—lightweight principle. Stuttgart, 1990.
6. Ramm E and Schunck E. Heinz Isler Schalen. Stuttgart,
1986, p. 107.
7. Drew P. Frei Otto form and construction. Stuttgart, 1976,
p. 160.
8. Hennicke J, Matsushita K, Otto F et al. Grid Shells. In:
Otto F. (ed.) Information of the Institute for Lightweight
Structures: IL 10 – grid shells. Stuttgart, 1974, p. 346.
9. Bächer M, Beigel F, Bredow B et al. Multihalle Mannheim.
In: Otto F (ed.) Information of the Institute for Lightweight
Structures: IL 13 – Multihalle Mannheim. Stuttgart, 1976, p.
276.
10. Otto F. Natürliche Konstruktionen. Stuttgart, 1982, p. 136.