BIOMOLECULES

Carbohydrates and Proteins

Organic Chemistry
• Friedrich Wohler, a German chemist, tried to make and “inorganic” salt,
ammonium cyanate but instead lead to the synthesis of urea, and organic
compound present in the urine of animals.
• Organic vs. Inorganic compounds

Why is CARBON special among elements?

• Carbon atoms have unique ability to bond to other elements in variety of ways due
to its valence electrons.
• Carbon can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms.

Hydrocarbons and Hydrocarbon Derivatives

• A hydrocarbon is any compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen and one
or more additional elements.
➢ Saturated vs. unsaturated carbons
➢ Acyclic vs. cyclic hydrocarbons

Functional Groups
• Each has certain properties, such as shape and charge, that cause it to participate
in chemical reactions in a characteristic way.
• In other cases, chemical groups are directly involved in chemical reactions; such
groups are known as functional groups.
• The seven chemical groups most important in biological processes are the hydroxyl,
carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl groups.
• The first six groups can be chemically reactive; of these six, all except the sulfhydryl
group are also hydrophilic and thus increase the solubility of organic compounds in
water.
• The methyl group is not reactive, but instead often serves as a recognizable tag on
biological molecules.
 Chemical Group Group Properties and Compound Examples
Names
Hydroxyl group (––OH) Is polar due to electronegative oxygen. Ethanol, the alcohol
(may be written HO––) Forms hydrogen bonds with water, helping present in alcoholic
dissolve compounds such as sugars. beverages.

Compound name: Alcohol (specific name

usually ends in -ol)
Carbonyl Group (>C ═ O) Sugars with ketone groups are called Acetone, the simplest
ketoses’ those with aldehydes are called ketone.
aldoses. Propanal, an aldehyde.

Compound name: Ketone (carbonyl group

is within carbon skeleton) or aldehyde
(carbonyl group is at the end of a carbon
skeleton)
Carboxyl Group (––COOH) Acts as an acid (can donate H+) because Acetic acid, which gives
the covalent bond between oxygen and vinegar its sour taste.
hydrogen is polar.

Compound name: Carboxylic acid, or

organic acid
Amino Group (––NH2) Acts as an acid can pick up an H+ from the Glycine, an amino acid
surrounding solution (water, in living (note its from carboxyl
organisms). group)

Compound name: Amine

Methyl Group (––CH3) Affects the expression of genes when on 5-Methylcytosine, a
DNA or on proteins bound to DNA. component of DNA that
Affects the shape and function of male and has been modified by
female sex hormones. addition of a methyl group.

Compound name: Methylated compound

Polymers
• A polymer is a long molecule consisting of similar or identical building blocks
(monomers) linked by covalent bonds.

Carbohydrates (CHO)
• Are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules. (1:2:1)
• Are organic compounds that serve as the main source of energy in all organisms.
• Most of the matter in plants, except water, is carbohydrate material.
MONOSACCHARIDES
– Simple sugars with only one sugar unit.
• They are identified based on the number of carbon atoms they are made up of.
• Highly soluble in water
• Building blocks of complex sugars.
EXAMPLES
✓ Triose – 3 carbon atoms
✓ Pentose – 5 carbon atoms
✓ Hexose – 6 carbon atoms

Triose Sugars
H O H
C │
│ H –– C –– OH
H –– C –– OH │
│ C ══ O
H –– C –– OH │
│ H –– C –– OH
H │
Glyceraldehyde H
Dihydroxyacetone

Both have the same general formula C3H6O3 but different structures (and different physical and
chemical properties). This makes them structural isomers.

Pentose Sugars
DISACCHARIDES
– complex sugars made up of two molecules of monosaccharides chemically joined
together.
• Two monosaccharides are joined together to form a disaccharide with the loss of
water molecule is called condensation or dehydration synthesis.
• Sugars are connected through glycosidic bonds.
• A disaccharide can be broken down into its component units by adding water
molecule through the process called hydrolysis or hydrolytic reaction.
POLYSACCHARIDES
– complex sugars made up of chains or branches of monosaccharides formed by
condensation reaction.
• Polysaccharides are capable of acting as energy storage or structural molecules
as parts of cell structures.
• Starch and Glycogen are examples of storage polysaccharides.
• Cellulose and Chitin are examples of structural polysaccharides
Storage Polysaccharides
▪ Starch is a storage polysaccharide containing only glucose molecules.
▪ It is easily digested by animals because the enzyme amylase is present in
animals.
▪ Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide containing only glucose molecules that
branches out and is commonly found in animals.
Structural Polysaccharides
▪ Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on Earth, it is a structural
polysaccharide found in plant cell walls.
▪ Chitin is structural polysaccharide in outer coverings of crustaceans, mushrooms
and spider web.
Proteins (CHON)
• Proteins are polymers made of monomers called amino acids
• All proteins are made up of 20 different amino acids linked in different orders
• Proteins are used to build cells, act as hormones and enzymes, and do much of the
work in a cell
20 Amino Acid Monomers

Essential Conditionally Non-Essential Non-Essential

Histidine Arginine Alanine
Isoleucine Cystine Asparagine
Leucine Glutamine Aspartate
Lysine Glycine Glutamate
Methionine Proline Serine
Threonine Tyrosine
Tryptophan
Valine
Structure of Amino Acids
– Amino acids have a central carbon with 4 things bonded to it:

➢ Amino group –NH2

➢ Carboxyl group –COOH
➢ Hydrogen –H
➢ Side group –R
Linking Amino Acids
– Cells link amino acids together to make proteins
– The process is called condensation or dehydration
– Peptide bonds form to hold the amino acids together

GLOBULAR PROTEINS
1. Proteins as Enzymes

• Many proteins act as biological catalysts or enzymes.

• Thousands of different enzymes exist in the body.
• Enzymes control the rate of chemical reactions by weakening bonds, thus lowering the
amount of activation energy needed for the reaction.
• Their folded conformation creates an area known as the active site.
• The nature and arrangement of amino acids in the active site make it specific for only one
type of substrate.
2. DEFENSE PROTEINS

• An antibody, also known as an immunoglobin, is a large, Y-shaped protein produced mainly

by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize the pathogens such as
bacteria and viruses.

3. REGULATORY OR SIGNAL PROTEINS

• A hormone is any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in

multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant
organs to regulate physiology and behavior.

4. TRANSPORT PROTEINS

• Embedded in the plasma membrane to serve as channels/carriers for molecules to enter

or exit the cell.
• Hemoglobin

FIBROUS PROTEINS
5. STRUCTURAL PROTEINS

• Proteins from the structural parts of the cells or tissues.

• Collagen in connective tissues that support the skin, tendons, and ligaments.
• Keratin hair and nails.

6. CONTRACTILE PROTEINS

• The cytoplasm of cells is a colloidal network of contractile proteins or Microtubules. Actin

filaments are the major components of this network. Other contractile proteins interact with
these filaments to create structural rigidity and movement such as Myosin.

7. STORAGE PROTEINS

• Storage proteins serves as reserves of amino acids that can be used later on to nourish
growth and development of organisms.
Protein Structure
• The primary structure is the specific sequence of amino acids in a protein.

Protein Structures and Conformations

Denaturating Proteins
Changes in temperature & Ph can denature (unfold) a protein so it no longer works.

Other Important Proteins

• Blood sugar level is controlled by a protein called insulin.
• Insulin causes the liver to uptake and store excess sugar as glycogen.
• The cell membrane also contains proteins.
• Receptor proteins help cells recognize other cells.