Computer Networks(ECO-1A)

Prepared By: Er. Vikas Goyal

A.P. (ECE department, PIET)
 Course Outcomes

CO1: Understand the basic concepts of computer networks and physical

layer.
CO2: Compare OSI model and TCP/IP model.

CO3: Illustrate the process of data link layer and medium access sublayer.

CO4: Analyze the concept and design issue of network , transport and
session layer.
CO5: Evaluate the cryptography and data compression technique .

CO6: Analyze the concept and design issue of application layer.

 Syllabus
Unit – I
• Introduction: Introduction to Computer Networks, Protocols and standards,
Network Models: The OSI Model, TCP/IP protocol suite, Introduction to
addressing.
• Physical Layer and Media: Guided &Unguided media, Circuit Switching and
Packet Switching, The Telephone System, ATM.
Unit -II
• The Data Link Layer: Data Link Layer Design issues, Data link control:
Framing, Flow & Error control, Noiseless channels, Noisy channels, HDLC,
Point to Point protocols.
• The Medium Access Sublayer: Aloha Protocols, LAN Protocols: wired LAN’s,
Wireless LAN.
Unit -III
• Network Layer: Forwarding, Flow Control, Error Control, Multicast routing,
IPv4 addresses, IPv6 addresses, internetworking, SNMP, ARP
• Transport & Session Layer, Presentation Layer: Flow Control and Congestion
Control at the Transport Layer, Transmission Control Protocol – Basic
Features, TCP Congestion Control, cryptography
 Syllabus
Unit-IV
• Application Layer: Design issues, file transfer, access and management,
electronic mail, WWW & HTTP
• Text Books:
• Forouzan B.A, Data Communications and Networking, Tata-Mc-Graw Hill, 4th edition.
• Tanenbaum A.S, Computer Networks, PHI.
• Reference Books:
• Stallings W, Data and Computer Communications, PHI.
• Leon –Garcia, Computer Networks, Mc Graw Hill
 Unit 1

Introduction
 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
The term telecommunication means communication at a
distance.
The word data refers to information presented in whatever
form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the
data.
Data communications are the exchange of data between
two devices via some form of transmission medium such
as a wire cable.
Topics discussed in this section:

▪ Components of a data communications system

▪ Data Flow
Components of a data communication system
1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures,
audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message.
It can be a computer, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message.
It can be a computer, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path
by which a message travels from sender to receiver.
Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves
 Protocol
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
• It represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
• Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating.
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
determines what is communicated, how it is communicated and
when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are
syntax, semantics and timing
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
 Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-
way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the
other can only receive.
Examples:- Keyboards and traditional monitors are
examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce
input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can
use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
 Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive,
but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other
can only receive, and vice versa.
Examples:-When cars are traveling in one direction, cars
going the other way must wait. In a half-duplex transmission, the
entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two
devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies is half-duplex
systems.
 Full-Duplex
In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in
both directions at the same time. In full-duplex mode, signals going
in one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals going in
the other direction.
Example:- full-duplex communication is the telephone
network. When two people are communicating by a telephone line,
both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is
used when communication in both directions is required all the
time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided
between the two directions.
 COMPUTER NETWORKS

Computer network consists of two or more computers

that are linked in order to share resources, exchange data files or to
allow electronic communication. The computers on a network may
be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites or
infrared light beams.
There are two aspects of computer networks – hardware
and software.
Hardware includes physical connection between two machines
by using adaptors, cables, routers, bridges etc.
software includes a set of protocols. Protocols define a formal
language among various components. It makes hardware usable
by applications.
 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying information.

Topics discussed in this section:

▪ Network Criteria
▪ Physical Structures
▪ Categories of Networks
1.15
 Network Criteria
• Performance
• Depends on Network Elements
• Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
• Reliability
• Failure rate of network components
• Measured in terms of availability/robustness
• Security
• Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
• Errors
• Malicious users
 Physical Structures

• Type of Connection
• Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
• Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
• Physical Topology
• Connection of devices
• Type of transmission - unicast, multicast, broadcast

1.17
Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
 Categories of topology

• The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is

laid out physically. One or more devices connect to a link; two or
more links form a topology.

• The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the

relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called
nodes) to one another.

• There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.
 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
• In mesh topology every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device.
• The link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
• Duplex-mode
• Advantages:
• Guaranteed dedicated links
• Eliminates traffic problems
• Privacy and security
• This makes fault identification easy
• Disadvantages:
• Cabling and number of IO ports required
• wiring is greater than available space
• Hardware is required for each link – expensive
For example: connection between telephone regional offices.
 A star topology connecting four stations
• In star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller called hub.
• The controller acts as an exchange: if one device wants to send data to another , it
sends the data to controller, which then relays the data to the another connected
device.
• Advantages:
• Less expensive
• Robustness – if one link fails, only that link is affected, other links remain
active.
• Disadvantages:
• Dependency of the whole topology on one single point.
• Star requires less cabling than mesh. But each node is linked to the hub, so
more cabling required as compared to other like ring or bus topologies.
 A bus topology connecting three stations
• A bus topology is a multipoint .
•One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in the network.
• Nodes are connected by bus cable by drop line and taps.
• A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable
• A tap is a connector that either splices or punctures.
• Advantages:
• Easy of installation
• Disadvantages:
• Difficult reconnection
• Addition of new devices require modification or replacement of the
backbone.
• Signal energy getting transformed as heat as signal travel across the
backbone line and taps. That limits the no of taps in a line.
 A ring topology connecting six stations
•In ring topology each device has a point-to-point connection with only the two devices
on either side of it.
•A signal is passed along a ring in one direction, from device to device until it reaches
its destination.
•Advantages:
•Easy to install and reconfigure
•To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections. The only
constraints are media and traffic.
•Disadvantages:
•Unidirectional
•A break in a ring can disable the entire network(can be solved by dual ring)
A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
 Network Models/Hardware
• Local Area Networks
• Metropolitan Area Networks
• Wide Area Networks
 Local Area Networks(LANs)
• LANS are privately-owned networks within a single building or
campus of up to few kilometers in size.
• LANS are distinguished based on
– Their size
– Their transmission technology
– Their topology
• LANS are restricted in size
• LANS use a transmission technology consisting of a single cable
to which all machines are attached like telephone company lines
once used in rural areas.
• LANS run at speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps, have low delay and
make very few errors.
 Local Area Networks

Two broadcast networks: Client Client

• Bus
• Ring Client Client

Client Client
 Wide Area Networks
• WANs spans a large geographical area, often a country
or continent.
• It contains collection of machines for running user
applications, called hosts or end user.
• WAN can be as complex as the backbones that
connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up line that
connects a home computer to the Internet
• The first called as a switched WAN and to the
second as a point-to-point WAN
• The hosts are connected by communication subnet or
subnet. The subnet carries message from host to host.
WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
 Wide Area Networks
• The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually
comprise a router (internetworking connecting device) that
connects to another LAN or WAN.
• The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a
telephone or cable TV provider that connects a home
computer or a small LAN to an Internet service provider
(ISP).
• This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet
access.
 Metropolitan Area Networks(MAN)

• MAN is basically a bigger version of a LAN and normally uses

similar technology.
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size
between a LAN and a WAN.
• It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
• It is designed for customers who need a high-speed
connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have endpoints
spread over a city or part of city.
• A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone
company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to
the customer.
A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network
STANDARDS AND PROTOCOLS
2. Communication Protocols
Definition
• Protocol is a set of rules that govern all aspect of data
communication between computers on a network
• These rules include guidelines that regulate the following
characteristics of a network:
access method, allowed physical topologies, types of
cabling, and speed of data transfer
• A protocol defines what, how, when it communicated.
• The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and
timing.
 Elements of protocol
i) Syntax
The structure or format of the data.
Eg. A simple protocol;

Sender Receiver
data
address address

8 bits 8 bits 64 bits

ii) Semantics
• Refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
• How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken
based on that interpretation.
• Eg. Does an address identify the route to be taken or the final of the message?
iii) Timing
Refers to two characteristics:
a. When data to be sent
b. How fast it can be sent
e.g. If a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process
data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and data
will be largely lost.
 Standards and Organizations For
Communication Standards
• Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and
competitive market for equipment manufacturers and in
guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes.
• Standards are developed by cooperation among standards creation
committees, forums, and government regulatory agencies.
Standards Creation Committees
a) International Standards Organization (ISO)
b) International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
c) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
d) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
e) Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
f) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 International Standards Organization (ISO)

• A multinational body whose membership is drawn mainly from

the standards creation committees of various governments
throughout the world
• Dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards
in a variety field.
• Currently includes 82 memberships industrialized nations.
• Aims to facilitate the international exchange of goods and
services by providing models for compatibility, improved
quality, increased quality, increased productivity and decreased
prices.
 International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
• Also known as International Telecommunications
Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T)
• An international standards organization related to the
United Nations that develops standards for
telecommunications.
• Two popular standards developed by ITU-T are:
• i) V series – transmission over phone lines
• ii) X series – transmission over public digital networks,
email and directory services and ISDN.
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

• A non-profit corporation not affiliated with US

government.
• ANSI members include professional societies, industry
associations, governmental and regulatory bodies, and
consumer groups.
• Discussing the internetwork planning and engineering,
ISDN services, signaling, and architecture and optical
hierarchy.
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• The largest national professional group involved in
developing standards for computing, communication,
electrical engineering, and electronics.
• Aims to advance theory, creativity and product quality
in the fields of electrical engineering, electronics and
radio.
• It sponsored an important standard for local area
networks called Project 802 (e.g. 802.3, 802.4 and
802.5 standards.)
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
• An association of electronics manufacturers in the US.
• Provide activities include public awareness education and lobbying
efforts in addition to standards development.
• Responsible for developing the EIA-232-D and EIA-530 standards.

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

• Concerned with speeding the growth and evolution of Internet
communications.
• The standards body for the Internet itself
• Reviews internet software and hardware.