Unit 2.5.

Factors affecting Solubility

Learning Objetives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to,

1. Define the solubility and explain the factors that affect solubility.
2. Define colligative property and describe the colligative properties of solutions.
3. Diffrentiate the colligative properties of electrolyte and nonelectrolyte solutions.
4. Solve problems related to the colligative properties of solutions, and
5. Describe some applications of colligative properties.
Key Terms:
 Solubility- the amount of a substance that will dissolvein a given amount of a
solvent to give a saturated solution under specified conditions.
 Seeding-The process of inducing crystallization to occur by adding a crystal to a
supersaturated solution
 Molal Boiling Point- It is a constant that is equal to the change in the boiling
point for a 1-molal solution of a nonvolatile molecular solute
 Elevation Constant- the elevation in boiling point produced when one mole of
solute is dissolved in 1 kg
 Colligative Property- properties that depend upon the concentration of solute
molecules or ions, but not upon the identity of the solute
 Osmosis- the spontaneous passage or diffusion of water or other solvents
through a semipermeable membrane (one that blocks the passage of dissolved
substances.

Solubility
The solubility of a substance is the amount of
substance that dissolves in a given amount of solvent
at a given temperature to produce a saturated solution.
Solubility is usually expressed in grams of solute in
100g of solvent. Any solution that contains less solute
than a saturated solution is unsaturated. A solution
that contains a greater amount of solute than a
saturated solution is said to be supersaturated.
This solutions can be prepared by saturating a
solution at a higher temperature and then carefully
cooling it to a temperature where the solute is less
soluble. Supersaturated solutions have very unstable
conditions. Adding a small cystal of the solute ( a seed
crystal), or shaking the container causes crystallization Fig. 1. A state of dynamic equilibrium
to occur rapidly, leaving a saturated solution. The in a saturated solution where the rate
process of inducing crystallization to occur by adding a of solvation ( dissolving) is equal to the
crystal to a supersaturated solution is called seeding. rateof crystallization.

Factors Affecting Solubility

The extent to which a substance dissolves in another substance depends on the
nature of the solute and the solvent , the temperature, and for gases, it includes
pressure.

Solute-Solvent Interactions
The relation between the solute and solvent is
very important in determining solubility. Strong
solute-solvent attractions equate to greater
solubility while weak solute-solvent attractions
equate to lesser solubility. In turn, polar solutes
tend to dissolve best in polar solvents while non-
polar solutes tend to dissolve best in non-polar
solvents. In the case of a polar solute and non-
polar solvent (or vice versa), it tends to be
Fig. 2. Hyrdogen bonding interactions insoluble or only soluble to a miniscule degree. A
between (a) ethanol molecules and (b) general rule to remember is, "Like dissolves like."
between water and ethanol molecules.
 Water dissolve in each other as a result of two attractive forces. Water, which is a
dipole, attracts the polar end of alcohol. In
addition, hydrogen bonding can also occur
between these two molecules.
An ion-dipole interaction is the result of an
electrostatic interaction between a charged ion
and a molecule that has a dipole. It is an
attractive force that is commonly found in
solutions, especially ionic compounds dissolved
in polar liquids. A cation can attract the partially
negative end of a neutral polar molecule, while
an anion attracts the positive end of a polar molecule. Ion-dipole attractions become
stronger as the charge on the ion increases or Fig. 3. Ion-Dipole interaction between
as the magnitude of the dipole of the polar (a) Na+ ion and H2O molecules, and
molecule increases. (b) Cl- ion and H2O molecules.

Table 1. Effect of the Nature of Solute and Solvent on Solubility

Solute Polar Solvent Nonpolar Solvent
Ionic Soluble Insoluble
Polar Soluble Insoluble
Nonpolar Insoluble Soluble

Temperature

Solids

The effects of temperature on the solubility of solids differ depending on whether the
reaction is endothermic or exothermic. Using Le Chatelier's principle, the effects of
temperature in both scenarios can be determined.

1. First, consider an endothermic reaction,

2. Second, consider an exothermic reaction,
Fig.4. The solubility of some
solids in water.
increasing the temperature results in a stress on
the reactants side from the additional heat. Le
Chatelier's principle predicts that the system
shifts toward the product side in order to
alleviate this stress. By shifting towards the
product side, more of the solid is dissociated
when equilibrium is again established, resulting
in increased solubility.
increasing the temperature results in a stress on
the products side from the additional heat. Le
Chatelier's principle predicts that the system
shifts toward the reactant side in order to
alleviate this stress. By shifting towards the
reactant's side, less of the solid is dissociated
when equilibrium is again established, resulting
in decreased solubility.

Gases

Temperature is a measure of the average

kinetic energy. As temperature increases, kinetic
energy increases. The greater kinetic energy
results in greater molecular motion of the gas
particles. As a result, the gas particles dissolved in
the liquid are more likely to escape to the gas
phase and the existing gas particles are less likely
to be dissolved. The converse is true as well.
Fig.5. The solubilities of certain
gases in water as a function of
temperature at 1 atm pressure.
 Le Chatelier's principle states that the process of dissolving gas in liquid is usually
exothermic. As such, increasing temperatures result in stress on the product side
(because heat is on the product side). In turn, Le Chatelier's principle predicts that the
system shifts towards the reactant side in order to alleviate this new stress.
Consequently, the equilibrium concentration of the gas particles in gaseous phase
increases, resulting in lowered solubility.

Liquids

In the case of liquids, there is no defined trends for the effects of temperature on the
solubility of liquids.

Pressure
Pressure has almost no effect in the solubilityof solids
and liquids, but has a strong effect on the solubility of
gases. William Henry (1774-1836), studied the solubility
of gases in liquids. He found out that the solubility of a
gas in a liquid at a given temperature is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas over the
solution. This is known as Henry’s law.

Fig.6 William Henry

Colligative Properties of Solutions

Colligative properties of solutions are properties that depend upon the concentration
of solute molecules or ions, but not upon the identity of the solute. Colligative properties
include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and
osmotic pressure.
Solutions can be classified as electrolytes or nonelectrolytes based on the
dissolution of solute in the solvent. An electrolyte solution contains solutes that
dissociate into ions when dissolved and are able to conduct electricity. On the other
hand, a nonelectrolytes solution contains solutes that do not conduct electricity. The
larger the number of molecules of dissolved particles contained in a solution, the greater
its impact on the colligative properties.

Vapor Pressure Reduction

The equilibrium vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by its gaseous
phase when vaporization and condensation are occurring at equal rates. Dissolving a
nonvolatile substance in volatile liquid results in a lowering of the liquid’s vapor
pressure. This phenomenon can be explained by considering the effect of added solute
molecules on the liquid's vaporization and condensation processes.

The purposes of understanding the lowering of a liquid's vapor pressure, it is

adequate to note that the more dispersed nature of matter in a solution, compared to
separate solvent and solute phases, serves to effectively stabilize the solvent molecules
and hinder their vaporization. A lower vapor pressure results, and a correspondingly
higher boiling point.

The relationship between the vapor pressures of solution components and the
concentrations of those components is described by Raoult’s law: The partial pressure
exerted by any component of an ideal solution is equal to the vapor pressure of the pure
component multiplied by its mole fraction in the solution.
Where PA is the partial pressure exerted by component A in the solution, PºA is the
vapor pressure of pure A, and XA is the mole fraction of A in the solution.

Recalling that the total pressure of a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of partial
pressures for all its components (Dalton’s law of partial pressures), the total vapor
pressure exerted by a solution containing i components is

A nonvolatile substance is one whose vapor pressure is negligible (Pº ≈ 0), and so the
vapor pressure above a solution containing only nonvolatile solutes is due only to the
solvent:

Example:
The vapor pressure of H 2O at 28 deg. Celcius is 28.3 mmHg. Find the vapor pressure
of a solution containing 100 g of sugar, C12H22O11, in 500 g of H2O at 28 deg. Celcius.

Solutions

1. Solve the number of moles of sugar and water. The molar mass of sugar is 342
g/mol and that of water is 18 g/mol.

1 mol
nSugar= 100g X =0.29 mol
342 g

1mol
nH20= 500g X
18 g
=27.78 mol

2. Solve for the mole fraction of sugar and water.

nB 0.29 mol
nSugar= XB= = =0.01
n A − nB 27.78 mol −0.29 mol

nB 27.8 mol
nH20= XA= = 27.78 mol −0.29 mol =0.99
n A − nB

3. Solve for the vapor pressure of the solution using Raoult’s law:

Psol’n=XAPA °=Xsolvent Psolvent

=(0.99)(28.3 mmHg)=28.02 mmHg

Or using the vapor pressure depression:

ΔP=XBPA °=(0.01)(28.3 mmHg) = 0.283 mmHg

Psol’n=PA °-ΔP=28.3-0.28.02 mmHg

Boiling Point Elevation
Boiling point elevation occurs when
the boiling point of a solution becomes
higher than the boiling point of a pure
solvent. The temperature at which the
solvent boils is increased by adding any
non-volatile solute. A common example of
boiling point elevation can be observed by
adding salt to water. The boiing point of
an electrolyte solution is normally higher
than the boiling point of a nonelectrolyte
solution because of a higher number of
moles of solute dissolved in the electrolyte Fig.7. Phase diagram for a pure solvent and
solution. solution

The boiling point elevation of a solution, ΔTb, is directly proportional to the number of
solute particles. For dilute solutions, ΔTb is proportional to molality, that is,

ΔTb=Kbm

Where Kb is the molal boiling point elevation constant of the solvent and m is the
molal concentration of the solution.

Freezing Point Depression

Freezing point depression is the phenomena that describes why adding a solute to
a solvent results in the lowering of the freezing point of the solvent. When a substance
starts to freeze, the molecules slow down due to the decreases in temperature, and the
intermolecular forces start to take over. The molecules will then arrange themselves in a
pattern, and thus turn into a solid.

ΔTf=Kfm
Where ΔTf refers to the freezing point lowering ,
Kf,the freezing point depression constant, and m, Fig.8. The use of salt in homemade ice
the molality of the solution. cream.

Example:

Fig.9. Boiling Point Elevation Constant (Kb) and Freezing Point Depression Constant (Kb)
for some solvents

A solution is prepared by dissolving 2.40 g of biphenyl, C12H10 (molar mass=154

g/mol), in 75.0 g benzene. Find the (a) boiling point and (b) freezing point of the
solution.

Solution
From Fig.9. bpC6H6 = 80.1 °C fpC6H6 = 5.5 °C
Kb = 2.53 °C kg/mol Kf = 5.12 °C kg/mol

A. Boiling point of solution:

1. Calculate the molality of the solution.
 1 mol
2.40 g C 12 H 10 X
nsolute 154 g C 12 H 10
m= = = 0.208 m
kg solvent 1 Kg
75 g X
1000 g

2. Calculate the boiling point elevation

ΔTb=Kbm= (2.53°C/m)(0.208 m) = 0.526°C

3. Calculate the boiling point of the solution.

bpsol’n = bpsolvent + ΔTb
= 80.1°C + 0.526 °C
=80.6°C

B. Freezing point of solution

1. Use the value of m from (a) for Step 2.
2. Calculate the boiling point depression.

ΔTf=Kfm=(5.12°C/m)(0.208 m)=1.06°C

3. Calculate the freezing pointof the solution.

Fpsol’n = fpsolventn- ΔTf
=5.5°C - 1.06°C
= 4.44°C

Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic pressure is a solutions
that is observed using a
semipermeable membrane, a barrier
with pores small enough to allow
solvent molecules to pass through
but not solute molecules or ions. The
net flow of solvent through a
semipermeable membrane is called
osmosis (from the Greek osmós,
Fig.10.Osmosis is the movement of a solvent from
meaning “push”). The direction of one compartment to another through a
net solvent flow is always from the semiipermeable membrane, toward the higher
side with the lower concentration of concentration of solute
solute to the side with the higher
concentration

The osmotic pressure is similar to the ideal gas law since both relate the pressure of
the solution to its concentration and temperature.

πV=nRT (similar to PV=nRT)

n of solute
π= RT
Vof solution

π=MRT
Where R is the gas constant, T is temperature on the Kelvin scale, and M is the
molarity of the solution.

Example:
The average osmotic pressure of blood at 25°C is 7.7 atm. How many grams of
glucose ( C6H12O6) is needed to prepare a 110-L solution that is isotonic with blood at
25°C?
 Solution
1. Find the molar mass of glucose, and convert 25°C to K scale.

molar mass of C6H12O6 = 180 g/mol 25°C + 273= 298 K

2. Substitute the values in the osmotic pressure equation.

π=MRT

( )(
msolute
7.7 atm= 180 g
1L
0.0821
L. atm
mol . K )
( 298 K )
7.7 atm(180 g)
msolute = = 56.6 g
24.47 atm

References:
LibreTexts Libraries. (2020). Solubility and Factors Affecting Solubility. Retrieved
From
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textb
ook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Equilibri
a/Solubilty/Solubility_and_Factors_Affecting_Solubility

MyJoVE Corporation. (2022). 12.8: Vapor Pressure Lowering. Retrieved From

https://www.jove.com/science-education/11367/vapor-pressure-lowering

Helmenstine A.M. (2019). Boiling Point Elevation. What Boiling Point Elevation Is and
How it works. Retrieved From.https://www.thoughtco.com/understanding-boiling-
point-elevation-609180

Baguio, S. (2017). Breaking Through General Chemistry for Senior High School. C & E
Publishing, Inc. p.g. 63-p.g.85.