INORGANIC CHEMISTRY (A new approach)

Ways to study inorganic chemistry effectively:

1. For reaction based questions.

• Grouping of reagents and substrates as oxidizing and reducing agents.
• Categorizing the oxidizing and reducing agents as mild and strong ones.
• Tabulating the oxidation and reduction products of these reagents and substrates.
2. For trend based questions
• Focus on concepts determining the specific properties.
• Make trend based charts.
3. For text based preparation questions:
• Summarize the figure based laboratory and industrial preparations.

CONTENTS
1. Basics of inorganic chemistry
2. Hydrogen and its compounds
3. Metals and metallurgical process
4. Alkali metals and alkaline earth metals (S-block)
5. Group 13
6. Carbon and group 14
7. Nitrogen , phosphorus and group 15
8. Oxygen, sulphur and group 16
9. Halogens and group 17
10. Inert gases group 18
11. Bio inorganic chemistry (basics in biology)
12. Transition metals
13. Heavy metals
BASICS OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Iv) point to be added MS oxidized to MSO4
X- oxidized to X2 (X= halogens except F)
vii) Thermal stability ∝ bond strength ∝ 1/bond length
Miscelleanous:
 HYDROGEN

- discovered by Henry Cavendish and named by Lavoisier .

-Placed in group 1 but resembles both alkali metals( has only 1 electron in Valence shell) and halogens (
needs only 1 electron to complete duplet ) in properties thus called as rogue element .

Preparation
A) Active or atomic hydrogen : it is the simple atomic form of hydrogen having tendency to form a molecule.

Properties :

1. Represented by H
2. has very short life of 0.3 s
3. Reduces metallic salt and oxides to metals .

Usage :

Used in atomic hydrogen welding . It's used as oxy- hydrogen flame .

B) Nascent hydrogen :

It is newly born in situ hydrogen , associated with some energy at birth.

It's more reducing than dihydrogen H2.

This is shown by its reducing action with KMNO4,FeCl3 , K2Cr2O7 which are not reduced on passing
dihydrogen .

d) NaHg + H2O = NaOH +[H] + Hg

Reacivity : Atomic hydrogen > Nascent hydrogen > Molecular hydrogen

C. Occuluded or Adsorbed hydrogen :Adsorbed H is hydrogen present at the outer surface of metal.

Golden points :
Atomic hydrogen can be produced at very high temperatures but nascent hydrogen is formed even at
ordinary temperature.

Hydrogen as fuel: Hydrogen is an efficient fuel in space shuttle's main rocket engine.

1. Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell: In a fuel cell, the chemical energy of a fuel is· converted directly into.
electricity without burning the fuel Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell was discovered by William groove .
2. Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is a galvanic cell in which one of the reactants is a traditional fuel such as
hydrogen.
 3. contains porous carbon electrodes impregnated with metal catalysts usually platinum and an
electrolyte consisting of hot (200°C)aqueous KOH or molten Na2C03.
4. Hydrogen and oxygen flow into separate cell compartments where gaseous hydrogen is oxidised at
anode and O2 is reduced at the cathode.

5. At anode :
6. The hydrogen ions (H+) then migrate through a 'special proton exchange membrane (PEM), which
works as an electrolyte and move to the cathode.

7. At cathode :

Advantages :

1. Converts about 75% of bond energy to electricity .

2. Has only by-product water which doesnt pollute the environment
3. Doesn't need electrode to be replaced
Disadvantages
1. Can't be used in cars .
2. Costive installation

Heavy water D2O

Ordinary water has 1: 6000 of D2O : H2O
D2O is prepared by repeated electrolysis of H2O.
Properties
 Dissociation constant of heavy water < dissociation constant of water

Chemical properties are same as water just the H is replaced by D.

Electrolysis

Applications :

(i) As a neutron moderator:, Fission in uranium-235 is brought by slow speed neutrons. The substances
which are used for slowing down the speed of neutrons are called moderators. Heavy water is used for this
purpose in nuclear reactors also Graphite used as moderator .

II)For the preparation of deuterium: Heavy water on electrolysis or by its decomposition with metals
produces deuterium

. iii) As a tracer compound

Iv) in NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance ) imaging .

.
Chapter-3 Metals and metallurgical process
Metallurgy is the branch of chemistry deals with the method of extraction of metals from their ores.

Pyrometallurgy
Extraction of metal from ore by
heating. Applied to many general
metals. Like Cu(mainly pyro),Fe,Sn

Hydrometallurgy(using water)
Metallurgy includes complex formation and applied to passive
metals. Like Ag,Au,Pt, Cu

Electrometallurgy
Applies electrolysis of metal salts
for highly electropositive metals. Like S-
block, Al

Note: Electroreduction is used for active and highly electropositive metals Electrolysis of aqueous solution is applied for
the extraction of least electropositive metals like Cu,Au,Ag,Pt

Minerals Ores
Naturally occurring Minerals from which metals can
inorganic solids. be extracted economically
All minerals are not ores All ores are minerals
Both Clay and Bauxite are minerals of Al but only Bauxite is its
ore since from Bauxite it can be extracted economically

Gangue or Matrix Flux Slag

The earthy particles(impurities) The chemical reagent added to The fusible mass of ore obtained
present in ores Infusible ore mass to make it fusible after the addition of Flux
Golden points:

1. The main use of both calcination and roasting is to convert the metal into metal oxide but also serves to remove
moisture.
2. Mixture of sand and coal can be separated by washing.
Chapter -4 Alkali Metals and alkaline earth metals

Comparative features of alkali metals (IA) and alkaline earth metals (IIA)

Property Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals (abundant in earth crust)

Physical state 1 electron in outer orbit and represented as nS1 2 electron in outer orbit and represented as nS2
Atomic size(r) Largest in period and order: Li<Na<K<Rb<Cs Increases as: Be < Mg < Ca < Sr < Ba
BP and MP Li>Na>K>Rb>Cs M.P. : Be > Ca > Sr > Ba > Mg
B.P. : Be > Ba > Ca > Sr > Mg
M.P and B.P. α Strength of metallic bond α Number of valence shell e-.
Ionization Minimum in the period. It is more than alkali metals.
energy. I.E. α1/ r Order of I.E.: Li>Na>K>Rb>Cs Order of I.E. :Be>Mg> Ca>Sr>Ba
Density Li<K<Na<Rb<Cs Ca<Mg<Be<Sr<Ba
Due to different types of lattice
Flame test Li-Crimson red Ca-Brick red
(Due to low Na-Golden yellow Sr-Crimson red
ionization K-Violet Ba-Apple Green @BAG
energy) Rb-Red violet Cs-Blue Be and Mg give no flame color
Reactivity α Li<Na<K<Rb<Cs Be<Mg<Ca<Sr<Ba
1/I.E.
Action of air Get tarnished in air, forming oxides so kept Except Be all other elements react with air to
in kerosene. form both nitrides and oxides
4Na + O2 → 2Na2O Mg + N2 + O2→ Mg3N2 + MgO
With moist air
Na+H20 +CO2 → Na2CO3
Oxides Li forms oxide only (Li2O) Alkaline earth metals reacts with O2 to form
Na and K form both oxide, peroxide M2O2 'MO' type oxides.
K,Rb,Cs forms superoxide MO2 Basic properties increases from BeO to BaO
Stability of oxides M2O>M2O2>MO2 BeO → amphoteric
MgO→ weak basic
In IIA only Ca,Sr,Ba form peroxide.
Action of H2 M + H2 → 2MH Except Be all the alkaline metals forms MH2
(Form ionic Thermal stability and basic property increases type hydrides on heating with H2.
hydride) down the group BeH2 is prepared by heating BeCl2 with LiAlH4
. BeCl2 +LiAlH4 → BeH2
BeH2 and MgH2 are covalent, other are ionic.
B.P. of Hydrides :
For ionic hydrides (MH or MH2 +H2O → MOH or M(OH)2+ H2
Action of Water M +H2O → MOH +H2 M + H2O → M(OH)2 + H2 (Slow reaction)
Be does not reacts with water.
Reactivity of metals and basicity of hydroxides increases downwards
Halide formation Alkali metals (M) react with X2(halogens) Give MX2 type halides.
(ionic character directly to form MX type halides. Hydrolysis tendency of these halides
increases down No hydrolysis decreases from BeCl2 to BaCl2 due to decrease
the group) LiCl is covalent and thus it is hydrolysed. in covalent nature.
Except Li all form amalgam with Hg
Action of Dry M+NH3 → MNH2 -
ammonia
Action with M+ NH3(liq) → M(NH3)x+ + e(NH3)-
liquid Ammonia the solution is reducing, paramagnetic and blue colored due to ammoniated electron.
Nitrides and Do not react with N and C directly. React with N and C directly to form nitrides and
carbides carbides. But Ca doesn’t react with C.
 Nitrides when heated give off nitrogen but do Nitrides when heated give off nitrogen but do
not give NH3 with water.(Ba alaso behaves not give NH3 with water.
the same) Mg3N2 + H2O→ MgO + NH3
Na3N → Na + N2
Stability of Carbonates of alkali metals do not Insoluble in water and decompose on heating.
Carbonates decompose on heating (except Li) but are CaCO3→ CaO +CO2
soluble in water and give alkaline solution. Stability order: BaCO3>SrCO3>CaCO3>MgCO3
Order: Li2CO3<Na2CO3<K2CO3<Rb2CO3 Solubility order: BaCO3<SrCO3<CaCO3<MgCO3
Solubility order: Li2CO3<Na2CO3<K2CO3
<Rb2CO3
Bicarbonates Alkali metal bicarbonates decompose on Alkaline metal bicarbonates(exist only in
heating to give CO2 solution) on moderate heating give carbonates
NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O +CO2 but on strong heating they form oxides.
Solubility order: NaHCO3<KHCO3<RbHCO3 CaHCO3→ CaCO3 + H2O +CO2 (moderate heating)
CaHCO3 → CaO +CO2+H2O
Solubility: Mg(HCO3)2<Ca(HCO3)2<Ba(HCO3)2
Stability of Nitrates of alkali metals when heated give Nitrates of alkaline earth metals when heated
Nitrates nitrite and oxygen give metal oxide and nitrogen.
NaNO3 → NaNO2 + 1/2O2 Ca(NO3)2 → CaO +N2
Hydrated They do not form hydrated compounds They form extensively hydrated compounds
compounds (except Li)
Extraction of Sodium

a. Down’s cell :
Fused mixture of NaCl and CaCl2 (2:3) is electrolysed .Fused salts lowers the melting point of NaCl from 800°C to
600°C.
Aqueous sodium chloride cannot be used for preparing sodium by electrolysis. Because instead of metallic
Na,H2 gas will be liberated at cathode.
99.8% pure Na is obtained
Cathode Anode
Iron Graphite
Na+ + e- →Na 2Cl- → Cl2(By-product)
+ 2e

Uses of Sodium
1. Sodium can be used to make alloys
2. As sodium vapor light to emit yellow light.
3. As heat transfer medium in nuclear reactors

NaOH
Preparation by Diaphragm Cell
Porous Diaphragm or asbestos sheet separates the cathode and anode compartments.
Property Cathode Anode
Electrode Steel Graphite
Reaction 2H2O+2e-→ H2 + 2OH- 2Cl-→ Cl2 + 2e-
 Preparation by castner kellner’s cell(mercury cathode cell) :
Outer compartments Inner(central) compartment
Hg-cathode and graphite anode Fe-cathode and Hg-anode
Contains brine solution Contains water and NaOH formed

Properties:
1. It is deliquescent white crystalline solid.
2. It absorbs CO2 from air forming Na2CO3.
3. NaOH is strong base
4. Reaction with non-metals: no reaction with H2, N2 and C

5. With amphoteric metals it reacts to give salt and hydrogen.

6. Reaction with salts :Formation of insoluble hydroxides, e.g.

FeCl3 + 3NaOH ⎯→ Fe(OH)3  + 3NaCl

7.

Uses

(i) In the manufacture of soap, rayon, dyes, paper and drugs.

(ii) In petroleum refining.

Na2Co3.10 H2O (washing soda)

Preparations (solvay’s Ammonia process)

1. Raw materials : NaCl(brine), ammonia and CO2

2. Getting CO2 from CaCO3 in lime klin

3. Concentrated aqueous solution of NaCl is saturated with NH3. NH3 is obtained as

4.

Potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3) cannot be prepared by solvay process as it is soluble in water.

Other methods include : Leblanc Process,

Properties :

1. Efflorescent solid that forms monohydrate on exposure to air.

2. Hydrolysis :Aqueous solution of Na2CO3 is alkaline in nature due to anionic hydrolysis

3. With CO2 it reacts in aqueous medium to give NaHCO3.

Uses
1. It is used in water softening, laundering and cleaning.
2. It is used in glass,paper, paints and textile industries.
Quick lime (CaO)

CaO + 3C → CaC2 + CO

It is used as basic flux, for removing hardness of water, for preparing mortar (CaO + sand + water).
Slaked lime Ca(OH)2

1. Preparation : CaO + H2O →Ca(OH)2 + heat

2. Action of CO2 : Lime water turns milky on passing CO2gas and the milkiness goes on adding excess of CO 2

3. It reacts with Cl2 to give bleaching powder, CaOCl2.

Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 ⎯→ CaOCl2 +H2O

CACLIUM SULPHATE CaSO4.2H2O (GYPSUM)

Occurs naturally .
Acxtion of heat:

Setting of plaster of paris is due to hydration.

Bleaching powder(CaOCl2):

Preparations

Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → Ca(OCl)Cl + H2O

Manufactured by Hasenclever’s plant and Beckmann’s plant

Properties:
Golden points:

1. For sulphates :
Order of solubility – BeSO4 > MgSO4 > CaSO4 > SrSO4 > BaSO4
Ionic nature or thermal stability: BeSO4 < MgSO4 < CaSO4 < SrSO4 < BaSO4
2. Solubility order: BeCl2 > MgCl2 > CaCl2 > SrCl2 > BaCl2
3. Burning Mg continues to burn in CO2 forming MgO (because reducing nature Mg > C)
2Mg + CO2→ 2MgO + C
4. Chile saltpeter : NaNO3
5. Indian saltpeter : KNO3
6. Glauber’s salt: Na2SO4  10H2O
7. Microcosmic Salts: (Na(NH4)HPO4. 4H2O)
8. NaOH is called as caustic soda(KOH called as caustic potash or Lye) since it breaks down the proteins of
skin to fleshy mass.

11. Oxone/Soda-bleach = Na2O2 +dil. HCl

12. Sand + NaHCO3 acts as dry fire extinguisher.
13. NaHCO3 + NaOH doesn’t exist in a solution.
14. Na2SO4 +4C → Na2S
15. Black – ash : Na2CO3 + CaS
16. When Na2O2 is exposed, it comes in contact with moist air and turns white due to formation of NaOH and
Na2CO3. Thus
Na2O2 + 2H2O→ 2NaOH + H2O2 and 2NaOH + CO2→Na2CO3 + H2O
17. When carnalite (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O) is heated it gives MgO not MgCl2

18. Mg is used in photographic flash light.

19.
CHAPTER-5 **Group 13 (aluminium family)

1. Order of Radius : B<Al>Ga<In<Tl

2. Strength of ions : B3+ > Al3+ > Ga3+ > In3+ > T13+
B+ < Al+ < Ga+ < In+ <Tl+
3. Boiling Point order : B>Al>Ga>In>Tl
4. Ga has very low melting point and is a liquid metal used in high temperature thermometry (to measure furnace
temperature)
5. Generally they form covelent halides MX3 but all MF3 are ionic except BF 3.
6. The compounds of this group have their geometry same with their hybridization.
7. Action with acids : B reacts only with oxidizing acids to give H3BO3.
HNO3 rendeers Al passive .(Passivity of metals certain metals like Fe,Al,Co,Cr,Ni and Ga are rendered
passive by oxidizing compounds like HNO3,conc H2SO4,KMnO4)
8. Action of Alkalies:

Boron

B2O3 +Al → B +Al2O3

Properties :

Boric acid (H3BO3)

H3BO3 is a weak monobasic Bronsted acids that doesn’t give H+ but accepts OH- ion.

Diborane( B2H6)

3LiAlH4 /LiBH4 + 4BF3 ⎯⎯⎯→ 3LiF/3BF3 + 3 AlF3+B2H6

Fig: structure of B2H6

Borax(Na2B4O7.10H2O )

Ca2B6O11 + Na2CO3 → Na2B4O7 + CaCO3

(Coelamanite) (borax)

Borax is used as antiseptic in medicinal soaps

 Aluminium (Al)

Ores : chief ore is Bauxite - Al2O3.2H2O

Alumina- Al2O3

Putification processes:

Baeyer Process: for brown bauxite or Fe impurity (@ बेकार फेको )

Serpeck’s Process for Si impurities (@सरपे Silica)

Hall’s Process if both impurities are present (Hall ma sab hunxan)

Refining of Al
Done by Electrolytic refining via HoopE’s (@E-E) Process
Alumina + Cryolite(Na3AlF6) + Flurospar (CaF2)is electrolysed
This mixture lowers the melting point of Alumina.
Moreover Cryolite produces increases the conductivity and provides AlF 3.

Alums
Alums are double sulphate s with their general formula R 2SO4.M2(SO4)3.24H2O where R = monovalent radical like
Na+ , K+, NH4+ and M = Trivalent radical like Al+3, Cr+3. Fe+3
In any true alum the metal atoms are surrounded by 6H2O atoms of each.
Common alum : K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O
Uses of Alums
1. Stops bleeding
2. Used as water purifying agent (coagulator)
3. Used as mordant
4. Used in leather tanning
CHAPTER-6 GROUP 14 (Carbon family)

Order of ionization energy: C>Si>Ge>Pb>Sn

Order of melting point: C>Si>Ge>Pb>Sn (since Sn and Pb are metals and extent of metallic bonding decreases
down the group)
The lower elements shows stable lower oxidation state +2 where as the upper ones show stable +4 O.S. due to
more prevalent inert pair effect in Pb.
Pb4+ compounds are more reducing agents.
Order of hydrolysis of chlorides:CCl4<SiCl4<GeCl4<SnCl4< PbCl4
Mpt order: SnH4>GeH4>CH4>SiH4
Allotropes of carbon:

Diamond
hardest substance, sp3
hybrid ,bond length 1.54A
thermally less stable

Crystalline Graphite
1.sp2 hybrid carbons with
1 delocalised e- around
each atom.
2. Thermally most stable
Amorphous
Carbon 1. Anthracite-purest
2. Charcoal- most active
3. Bituminous - most common
4. Peat - most impure
5. Fullerene/buckyball (C60) =
latest discovered and prepared
by passing electric spark on
charcoal. Sp2 carbon
Golden points:

1. CO is a poisonous gas prepared by the action of K 4[Fe(CN)6] with conc H2SO4.

2. Charcoal used in sugar industry = Animal charcoal

3. Boron nitride> Diamond> Boron carbide> Silicon carbide (hardness)
4. PbCl2 is more ionic than PbCl4.
5. The solution of lead acetate is sweet in taste and is known as sugar of lead but it is poisonous in nature.
6. Graphite(Plumbago/black lead) +KMnO4 ⎯⎯⎯→ C6(COOH)6 (mellitic acid)
7. Butter of tin or oxymuriate of tin SnCl4·5H2O is used to make fire proof cotton
8. The dissolution of lead in water is known as plumbosolvency (Increases in presence of soluble salts like NO3-,
organic acids and NH4+ salts, decreases on adding SO4--,CO3--,PO43-)
9. SnCl2 is used to make Purple of Cassius (colloidal solution of Gold)
10. Pb pipes are not in use since Pb salts are poisonous nature.
11. PbO=litharge or massicot
12. Pb3O4 = Minium , sindur, mixed oxide
1. Uses of silica and glasses(supercooled liquid)
Type of glass Composition Features
Water glass Sodium silicate Water soluble
Soda/Soft glass Sodium and calcium silicates Can be easily shaped into different forms
Potash/hard glass Potassium and calcium(Ca) silicates Somewhat resistant to action of water and acids
Flint glass Potassium and lead(Pb) silicates High refractive index,used in optical devices
Pyrex/Jena glass zinc, barium borosilicates and alumino Heat resistant,suitable for lab glassware
silicates
Crooke’s glass Glass containing CeO(cerium oxide) Acts as UV filter
 CHAPTER-7 NITROGEN FAMILY/PNICOGENS (GROUP VA)

1. Increasing radius,density, metallic character

2. Physical state : Nitrogen exists as N2 with triple bond having high bond energy and thus N 2 acts as inert in general
conditions . All other elements exist as tetratomic molecules like P 4,As4,Sb4 since pπ- pπ bonding is not possible
3. Maximum covalency shown by nitrogen is 4 (due to absence of d-orbitals) whereas others show maximum
covalency of five or six
4. Oxides : The acidic nature of oxides increases with oxidation state for same element and acidic nature decreases
down the group. N2O3<NO2<N2O5
N2O3>P2O3>As2O3>Sb2O3>Bi2O3
Sb2O3 is amphoteric and Bi2O3 is basic
5. Hydrides : The hydrides of group VA are basic in nature and their basic nature decreases down the group due to
ease in breaking of bond. Basic nature: NH3>PH3>AsH3>SbH3>BiH3
Boiling point and melting point order: BiH3>SbH3>NH3>AsH3>PH3
6. Halides (Basic character: NI3>NBr3> NCl3>NF3 for same halide NCl3>PCl3>AsCl3>SbCl3>BiCl3

All elements give trihalides with all halogens. Nitrogen doesn’t form any pentahalides

Phosphorus forms pentahalides(PCl5, PF5, PBr5)

As,Sb and Bi form pentahalides only with F.

Hydrolysis of halides:

NCl3 + H2O →NH3 + 3HCIO

PCl3 + H2O →H3PO3 + 3HCI
AsCl3 + H2O →H3AsO3 + 3HCI
SbCl3 + H2O →SbOCl + 2HCI

BiCl3 + H2O → BiOCl + 2HCI

PCl5 +H2O →H3PO4 +HCl

Nitrogen

Preparation:

1. By heating ammonium salts except (NH4)2SO4

NH4NO2 → N2 + 2H2O (Purest N2)
(NH4)2Cr2O7 → N2
2. By heating azides of Na and Ba
Ba(N3)2 ⎯⎯ →Ba + 3N2
3. Oxidizing ammonia

4. NH2CONH2 + 2HNO2 → 2N2 + CO2 + 3H2O

5. Fractionally condensed from air by using Claude’s apparatus.
 Properties:
1. It is chemically inert under ordinary conditions due to high bond energy.

2.

Ammonia (NH3)

Preparation:

1. Lab preparation: By heating ammonium salts with bases.

2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 ⎯→ CaCl2+ 2NH3+ 2H2O

2. Synthesis by Haber’s Process:

3. By hydrolysis of nitrides :
AlN +3H2O →Al(OH)3+NH3
Li3N + H2O→ NH3+ LiOH
4. Alkali metal Nitrate or nitrite reduction:
NaNO3+Zn/Al + NaOH ⎯⎯⎯→ NH3
Note: the so obtained NH3 can't be dried by acidic compounds H2SO4, P2O5 (both form salts)and anhydrous
CaCl2
Properties:
1. Pungent smell
2. Highly soluble in water (1 vol water absorbs 1300 vol NH 3)
NH3 + H2O → NH4OH
3. Basic nature: forms ammonium hydroxide on dissolving in water and shows slightly weak basic nature.
4. Reducing nature (Oxidation reaction)
 5. Action of moist NH3 i.e. NH4OH
a. With Ag,Cu,Zn salts
Ag+ salts take up 1 molecule of NH3 group to form complexes
AgCl +NH4OH → [Ag(NH3)2]Cl
Cu2+ and Zn2+ salts take 2 molecules of NH3
CuSO4 + NH4OH →[Cu(NH3)4]SO4
b. With HgCl2and Hg2Cl2
HgCl2+2NH4OH → HgNH2Cl (white ppt) + NH4Cl +H2O

6. Action with Nessler’s reagent :

4KI+HgCl2 → K2HgI4 + 2KCl
Alkaline solution of K2HgI4 (K2HgI4+KOH) is called Nessler's reagent

7. Action with IA metals, Sr,Ba

Nitric Acid (HNO3)

Preparation:

a. Birkeland and Eyde Process (preparation from air):

This NO is used in making HNO3

b. Ostwald Process:
 Here the amount of NH3 and O2 used are 1:9 volume

Properties:

1. Turns yellow on exposure to sunlight due to formation of NO2

2. Strong acid .
CaO + 2HNO3 ⎯⎯⎯→ Ca(NO3)2 + H2O
Na2CO3 + 2HNO3 ⎯⎯⎯→ 2NaNO3 + H2O + CO2
NaOH + HNO3 ⎯⎯⎯→ NaNO3 + H2O
3. Oxidizing property:
It oxidizes various non-metals to their corresponding highest oxyacids and NO2 is released.
Metals are oxidized as below:

Oxides of Nitrogen
Name of oxide Preparation Details
Nitrous oxide/ NH4NO3 →N2O + 2H2O neutral to litmus. insoluble
Laughing gas (N2O) in hot water but soluble in
cold water.
Nitric oxide (NO) Used as catalyst in lead
chamber process.
2NO + X2 →2NOX
(nitrosyl halide)
Nitrogen dioxide Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2 Brown gas and mixed
(NO2) anhydride .

Dinitrogen trioxide Dark blue gas,

(N2O3)
(O = N – O – N = O)
Dinitrogen
tetroxide (N2O4)

Dinitrogen 2HNO3 + P2O5 → H3PO4 + N2O5 No existance in gas phase

pentoxide (N2O5) N2O5 + Na → NaNO3 + NO2 exist in solid as [NO2]+ [NO3]–

Phosphorus (P)
Allotropes of phosphorus:
a. White/yellow phosphorus b. Red phosphorus c. Black phosphorus
Order of reactivity : White>red> Black
Order of stability,density,conductivity : White<red< Black
White phosphorus Red phosphorus
Leads to phossy jaw if smelt for long No phossy jaw
Shows phosphorescence and burns at room No phosphorescence.
temperature to give P2O5.
Reacts to NaOH to give phosphine. No action
P4 +NaOH(aq) → NaH2PO2 + PH3
Soluble in CS2 Insoluble

Phosphine (PH3)

Preparations:

1. PH4I + KOH ⎯⎯⎯→KI + PH3 + H2O

(PH3 + HI)
2. 2AIP + 3H2SO4 ⎯⎯⎯→Al2(SO4)3 + PH3
3. Ca3P2 + 6H2O →3Ca(OH)2 + PH3

Properties:

1. Colorless,poisonous gas with rotten fish smell.

2. It is weakly basic in nature.
It is used to prepare smoke screens in warfare. A mixture of CaC2 and Ca3P2 is used in Holme’s signals
Orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4)

Preparations:

P4O10 + 6H2O → 4H3PO4

PCl5 + 4H2O →H3PO4

Lab preparation: P +HNO3→ H3PO4 + H2O + 5NO2

Properties:
Used in the lab prepsaration of HBr,HI

3NaBr + H3PO4 → Na3PO4 + 3HBr

3NaI + H3PO4 → Na3PO4 + 3HI

Insert the table of oxyacids of phosphorus.

Chapter-9 Oxygen family (group VIA)
O,S,Se,Te,Po

1. Increasing order of atomic mass, radius, atomic density, metallic property, Boiling and melting points
2. Oxygen exists as O2 (O=O) but Sulphur exists as S8 (S-S) due to strong pπ-pπ interactions of O making O=O
more stable
3. Electron affinity order: S>Se>Te>O
4. Catenation is shown by O,S and it is more pronounced in sulphur.
5. Order of reactivity along the group.
O> S > Se > Te > Po (due to tendency of forming anion decreases downwards)
6. Hydrides(H2O, H2S, H2Se,H2Te) :
Order of Boiling points :H2S<H2Se<H2Te<H2O (due to vanderwaal forces and H-bonding in H2O)
Order of acidic nature or reducing nature (ease of giving H +∝bond length): H2O<H2S<H2Se<H2Te
Thermal stability (∝ bond strength ∝ 1/bond length ): H2O>H2S>H2Se>H2Te
7. Oxides :
Acidic nature of oxides are as SO2>SeO2>TeO2 and SO3> SeO3 > TeO3

OXYGEN
Exists in 3 isotropic forms O16, O17and O18 the abundancy order O16>O18>O17
A. Preparations of oxygen :
1. Lab preparation
i) by heating KClO3 (MnO2 is used as catalyst)

ii) Without heating :

2MnO2 + 2H2SO4 ⎯⎯→ 2MnSO4 + 2H2O + O2
2. Other preparations:
i. Action of water on peroxides: 2Na2O2 + 2H2O ⎯⎯→ 4NaOH + O2
ii. Alkali metal nitrates on heating give out oxygen
2NaNO3 ⎯⎯→ 2NaNO2 + O2
iii. Thermal decomposition of oxides of (Hg,Ag,Mn)
2BaO2⎯⎯→ 2BaO + O2
3. Pure O2 is obtained from:
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5H2O2 ⎯⎯→ K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 5O2

B. Properties :
1. Paramagnetic , diatomic gas.
2. Sparingly soluble in water and absorbed by Alkaline Pyragallol solution (also absorbs CO 2)
3. On heating with metals or non-metals it readily forms oxides.
 Oxides

Neutral
Basic CO,NO,N2O are the Amphoteric
Acidic Most of the metal oxides neutral non-metalic The oxides of
are basic and form oxides Sb2O3,ZnO,BeO,SnO,
Oxides of non-metals are
generally acidic and are bases(Lewis bases) with Pb2O3,Al2O3
the anhydrides of several water @Sb Zn ki Bulaawa
acids. Eg SO2, SO3, Eg: Na2O,CaO,MgO SuNo PraBhu ALlah
CO2,NO2

Ozone (O3)
• It is an unstable allotrope of Oxygen formed in upper atmosphere by the action of UV rays on O 2
Lab Preparation: By passing silent electric discharge through cold,
dry oxygen in ozoniser. And it gives a mixture(ozonized oxygen) of Ozone (5-10% by volume) with
oxygen.
The 2 most common ozonisers are: Broodie’s ozoniser(electrolyte H2SO4 used) and Sieman’s ozoniser(tin foil used)
• Ozonised oxygen is also obtained when F reacts to water .
5F2 + 5H2O →10HF + O2+ O3

Properties
1. It is a pale blue,diamagnetic gas with a characteristic strong smell that causes headache and nausea on exposure.
2. It is slightly soluble in water but more soluble in turpentine oil, glacial acetic acid, or carbon tetrachloride.
3. Highly unstable and decomposes as:
O3 → O2+[O] - this gives ozone a highly oxidizing property.
4. Oxidizing properties
i. MS + 4O3 ⎯⎯⎯→ MSO4 + 4O2 [M = Pb, Cu, Zn, Cd]
ii. 2HX + O3⎯⎯⎯→ X2 + H2O + O2 [X= Cl, Br, I]

iii. O3+ Moist I2 ⎯⎯⎯→ HIO3 + 5O2

iv. O3 + dry I2 ⎯⎯⎯→ I4O9

v. 2Hg + O3 ⎯⎯⎯→ Hg2O + O2 (Tailing of mercury)

vi. 2KOH + 5O3 ⎯⎯⎯→ 2KO3 + 5O2 + H2O

vii. O3 + colored items ⎯⎯⎯→ Colorless items (bleaching by oxidation)

viii. O3 +Starch iodide poaper (I-) ⎯→ Blue colour (I2)

ix. O3 + KI (neutral) ⎯→ I2

x. O3 + KI (alkaline) ⎯→ KIO3
 xi. It turns an alcoholic solution of tetramethyl base violet

Uses

a) Used in sterilizing of water.

b) Detection of position of the double bond in the unsaturated compound.

Note: Bond length order: O2 < O3< H2O2

Sulphur(S)

Rhombic/αSulphur
Most stable form of
sulphur.
Crystalline
Monoclinic/βSulphur
least stable form of Sulphur.

Allotropes of
Sulphur Plastic Sulphur/γsulphur
: least soluble allotrope
formed by pouring
melted S in H2O

Amorphous Colloidal/∂ Sulphur

Prepared by the
Oxidising the S of H2S

Milk of Sulphur
Also called as
medicinal sulphur

The transition temperature of α – β sulphur is 95.6℃

All the allotropes of S except Plastic S is soluble in CS 2

HYDROGEN SULPHIDE (H2S)

1. Prepared in Lab by Kipp’s Apparatus

FeS + H2SO4 ⎯⎯⎯→ FeSO4 +H2S ↑

The gas is then dried over fused CaCl2 or P2O5. Conc. H2SO4 can’t be used for drying purpose because H2S oxidize to S
Properties

1. Colorless gas with rotten egg smell, poisonous in nature

2. Combustion:
 2H2S + 3O2 ⎯⎯⎯→ 2H2O + 2SO2 (high O2)
2H2S + O2 ⎯⎯⎯→ 2H2O + 2S (less O2)
3. Strong reducing agent and self oxidised (due to O.S. =-2 is lowest possible)
i. SO2 + 2H2S ⎯⎯⎯→ 3S + 2H2O
ii. H2O2 + H2S ⎯⎯⎯→2H2O + S+ 2H2O
iii. H2S + X2 ⎯⎯⎯→2HX + S
4. Acidic nature: Acts as a weak dibasic acid
5. Action on salts (precipitating action) : Refer to ionic equilibrium chapter

6. Turns lead acetate paper black

Pb(CH3COO)2 + H2S ⎯⎯⎯→PbS (black ppt) +CH3COOH

USES
1. It is an important laboratory reagent for the detection of basic radicals in qualitative analysis.
2. Used as reducing agent

SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO2)

Preparation :
1. S + O2 ⎯⎯⎯→ SO2
2. MS + O2 ⎯⎯⎯→  + SO2 (where M= Cu,Fe,)
3. 2CaSO4 + C ⎯⎯⎯→2CaO + 2SO2 + CO2
4. SO32- + 2H+ ⎯⎯⎯→  + SO2

Properties
1. Colorless , suffocating gas
2. Acidic in nature and dissolves in weater to give sulphurous acid
SO + H O ⎯⎯⎯→ H SO
2 2 2 3

3. It turns lime water milky due to the formation of calcium bisulphite. However, in excess of SO 2 milkiness
disappears due to the formation of calcium bisulphite.
Ca(OH)2 + SO2 ⎯⎯→CaSO3 + H2O
CaSO3 + SO2+ H2O ⎯→ Ca(HSO3)2
4. Due to intermediate Oxidation state(O.S. =+2) it acts as both reducing and oxidizing agent
Reducing property :

Oxidising Property :
Metals are oxidised by SO2.
SO +2H S ⎯⎯⎯→ 2H O+ 3S 
2 2 2

SO +2CO ⎯⎯⎯→ 2CO +S

2 2

5. Bleaching Property :
 By oxidation or Permanenet bleach: by
chemicals that release nascent oxygen[O]. Eg:
CaOCl2,H2O2,O3
Bleaching

By reduction or Temporary bleach: Done by the

chemicals that release nascent hydrogen [H]. Eg: So2

6. SO2 + Cl2⎯⎯→ SO2Cl2 (Sulphuryl chloride)

Uses :
a. Used as disinfectant to kill germs and insects
b. As antichlor to absorb the excess Cl2.
c. Used in refining Petroleum, sugar

SULPHURIC ACID/OIL OF VITRIOL (H2SO4)

Preparation:
a. Lead-chamber process

Catalyst used is NO
b. Contact Process:
It has got three sections:
i. Pyrite burner: Here the metal pyrite is burnt in air to give SO2.
4FeS2 + 11O2 → 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2
ii. Purification units :
Hereby the prepared SO2is purified against several impurities.
Arsenic impurity is purified using Fe(OH)3.
Test box is used to check the presence of dusts and its based on Tyndall effect.
iii. Pre-heater and contact tower:
The mixture of SO2 and O2 is heated to 400℃

SO3 + H2SO4 ⎯⎯⎯→ H2S2O7 (oleum)

H2S2O7 +H2O ⎯⎯⎯→ S
The H2SO4 so obtained is 98% pure.
Properties:
1. Strong acidic nature:
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3 + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + H2O + CO2
2. Strong oxidizing agent :
H2SO4 → H2O + SO2 + O
 This nascent O oxidises metals and non-metals
3. Dehydration:
Charring of Sugar:
C12 H22 O11+ H2SO4→ 12C + 11H2O
4. BaCl2 test
BaCl2+ H2SO4→ BaSO4↓ + HCl
5. H2SO4+PCl5→ SOCl2
6. K4[Fe(CN)6] + 6H2SO4 + 6H2O → CO
Uses
(a) In the manufacture of fertilisers like ammonium sulphate, calcium superphosphate etc.
(b) As a drying agent
c. for cleansing metals(Pickling) before electroplating, enameling, galvanizing(coating Zn) etc.
INSERT table for oxyacids of sulphur

SODIUM THIOSULPHATE/Hypo (Na2S2O3·5H2O)

Preparations:
1. Na2SO3 + S → Na2S2O3
2. NaOH + 4S → Na2S2O3+Na2S
3. Na2S +Na2SO3 +I2 → Na2S2O3 + 2NaI
4. 2Na2S + 2O2 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯→ Na2S2O3 + 2NaOH

Properties:

2AgNO3 + Na2S2O3 ⎯⎯⎯→ Ag2S2O3 + 2NaNO3

Ag2S2O3 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯→ Ag2S + H2SO4
Uses:

Chapter- Halogens
General Preparation:
 5KX + KXO3 + 6HCl → 6KCl + 3X2 + 3H2O [ where X= Br,I]

General Properties:
1. F2 and Cl2 exist as gas , Br2 as liquid and I2 exists as solid

2.
3. Electron affinity order: Cl > F > Br > I
4. Bond dissociation energy: Cl2>Br2 > F2>I2
5. Reactivity: F2>Cl2>Br2>I2
6. F2 and Cl2 can’t be oxidized but in general upper elements oxidise the lower ones from their halides:
MgBr2 +Cl2 → MgCl2 +Br2
MgCl2 + Br2 → no reaction
7. The lower elements reduce the upper ones from their oxidized compounds.
KClO3 + Br2 → KBrO3 + Cl2 [CEE 2021]
8. Oxides : Stability increases with oxidation state.
9. Halides: All fluorides are soluble in water except CaF2,SrF2 ,BaF2

10.

11. Halogens act as oxidizing agents and oxidise :

X2 + any element or compound → Oxidised Compounds

Fluorine (F2)
Preparation:
Electrolysis of fused KHF2 and H2F2

At cathode: 2H++2e→ H2

Properties:
1. 2F2 + 2H2O ⎯⎯⎯→ 4HF + O2 + O3
2. 3F2 + NH3 ⎯⎯⎯→ NF3 + 3HF +N2
3. F2 + 2NaX → 2NaF + X2 (X =Cl2,Br2,I2)
4. 2F2 + 2NaOH (dil.) ⎯⎯⎯→ 2NaF + OF2 + H2O
2F2 + 4NaOH (conc.) ⎯⎯⎯→ 4NaF + O2 + 2H2O
 5. Xe + F2 → XeF2 (in presence of Hg arc)
Anomalous behaviour:
1. Forms 2 series of salts i.e. Na2F2,NaHF2
2. Doesn’t form any polyhalide
3. Forms SF6 (No other halides form SX6)
Uses : F2 is used as an insecticide.

Chlorine (Cl2)
Ores of chlorine:
Sylvine : KCl
Carnalite MgCl2.KCl.6H2O
Rocksalt : NaCl
Preparations:
1. In Lab: by oxidizing HCl with MnO2 or KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7
2. Deacon’s process:
3. Weldon’s process:

4.
5. CaOCl2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + Cl2

Properties:

1.
2. Action with water :

Coloured matter + [O] ⎯→ colourless matter. [ bleach by oxidation]

3. CO + Cl2 →COCl2 (Phosgene)
4. CS2+ Cl2 ⎯→ CCl4
5. Ca(OH)2+ Cl2 ⎯→ CaOCl2
6. SO2 (dry) +Cl2 ⎯→ SO2Cl2
7. Oxidising properties
a. H2S + Cl2⎯→ 2HCl + S
b. SO2 + 2H2O + Cl2 ⎯⎯⎯→ H2SO4 + 2HCl
Oxides of Chlorine
2Cl2 + 2HgO ⎯⎯⎯→ HgO.HgCl2 +Cl2O

Uses of Chlorine : It is used as a bleaching agent, disinfectant and in the manufacture of CHCl3 ,CCl4 ,DDT , anti-
knocking compounds and bleaching powder.

BROMINE (Br2)
Preparation:
1. From carnallite mother liquor (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O): it has got 0.25% bromine present as
bromocarnalite.
MgBr2 + Cl2 → MgCl2 + Br2
2. From sea water : Cl2 +bromides → Chlorides + Br2
IODINE (I2)
Preparations:
 1. From see weeds (Remember Sea-wateR = bRomine and Sea wEEds- IodinE)
2. From Caliche or Chile saltpetre(NaNO3) as it contains NaIO3 as impurity.
The ionic oxides of iodine are I4O9 and I4O5
Hydracids of Halogens
Hydrofluoric acid (H2F2)
1. Prepared by Heating Potassium Hydrogen Fluoride (KHF 2)
KHF2 → K2F2 + H2F2
2. It exists as liquid and shows minimum reactivity due to strong hydrogen bonding.
3. HF attacks the silica of glass to give Hydrofluorosilicic acid(etching of glass)
SiO2 + H2F2 → H2SiF6
4. It doesn’t form any ppt with AgNO3 or lead acetate paper (due to soluble fluorides) whereas other
haloacids do give ppt.
5. It forms white ppt (BaF2) with BaCl2 while others do not form
For other Haloacids:
Acidic character : HI>HBr>HCl>HF
Boiling point : HF > HI > HBr > HCl
Thermal stability : HF>HCl>HBr>HI
Reducing order: HI>HBr>HCl>HF
For Oxyacids of halogens:
Thermal stability and acidic strength : Cl > Br> I but for HXO 3 type (HIO3>HClO3>HBrO3)
For same element thermal stability and acidic strength α Oxidation number
Oxidising power: HClO >HClO2 >HClO3 >HClO4

Information HCl HBr HI

Preparation All prepared in lab by the action of
acids on their halides.
2NaCl+H2SO4 → Na2SO4+ 2HCl
Action With NH3 NH4Cl is formed
Action with White ppt of AgCl insoluble in HNO3
AgNO3 but soluble in NH4OH
Action of Pb White ppt of PbCl2 that dissolves in Hot
acetate water
Confirmation test Chromyl chloride test mixture of
chloride and K2Cr2O7is heated with
conc.H2SO4 gives red chromyl
chloride(CrO2Cl2) that forms yellow ppt
of PbCrO4 with lead acetate. (not given
by chlorides of Hg, Pb,Ag,Sn,.Sb)
@Hum PASS
HBr and HI(strong reducing acids) can’t be prepared by Conc
H2SO4 since they get oxidized to Br2 and I2. So they are prepared
by orthophosphoric acid H3PO4
3KX + H3PO4 → K3PO4 + 3HX [X=Br,I]
They can be prepared by the hydrolysis of their trihalides.
PBr3 + H2O →H3PO3 +HBr
NH4Br is formed NH4I is formed
Yellow ppt of AgBr insoluble Deep yellow ppt of AgI
in HNO3,sparingly soluble in insoluble in both
NH4OH
White ppt of PbBr2 that White ppt of PbI2 that dissolves
dissolves in Hot water in Hot water
Aqueous solution on Aqueous solution on treatment
treatment with Cl2 gives with Cl2 gives violet color (I2)
Brown color (Br2)
Chapter -10 Inert gases and group 18

1. The elements of group are least reactive colorless and odorless gases 1st isolated by William Ramsay.

2. Abundance : Ar > Ne > He > Kr > Xe [remember Ar , then Ar भन्दा तलको then Ar भन्दा माथिको]
3. Melting point, boiling point , solubility in water : Xe>Kr>Ar>Ne>He
4. Density order : Ne<He<Ar<Kr<Xe
5. Extraction by coconut charcoal method:

6. Barlett first discovered compound of inert gases.

7. Stranger element – Xe
8. Compounds of Xe.

Oxidation and hydrolysis of Xe compounds

XeF2 + H2O ⎯⎯→ Xe + HF +O2
XeF6 + H2O ⎯⎯→ XeO3 +HF
XeF4 + H2O ⎯⎯→ Xe + HF + XeO3+O2
Uses of Inert gases :

1. He is used in filling balloons and as breathing mixture (He + O ) as He is less soluble than N2 in blood.
2

2. Ne is used in advertising lights and botanical gardens

3. Ar is used in filling electric bulbs and as runway light

Golden points :

1. He and Ne do not form clatharate compounds

2. Ne forms interstitial compounds
 Metals (coinage metals + heavy metals)
Ores of certain metals:
 General extracxtion process:

Metal Flux used Reducing agent, Furnace Miscelleanous Points

Cu SiO2 Self reduction (CuO+CuS → Cu) , Poling used for refining of metal,
Bessemer converter used blister Cu (98% Cu with air holes)
blast furnace give matte copper(CuS+FeS or 50%Cu)
Fe CaCO3 Coke [Ore:Coke: CaCO3= 8:4:1], Blast Temperature Zones in blast furnace(low to up):
furnace used Zone of combustion (1600℃): C+ O2 → CO2
Zone of Fusion(1300℃): Fe +C→Fe3C(cementite)
Zone of Slag formation(1000℃):
CaO+P2O5 → Ca3(PO4)2 (Thomas slag ,fertilizer)
Zone of reduction(700℃):Fe2O3 +CO→ Fe3O4
Hg No flux but Hg purified Shaft Furnace used
by 5% HNO3
Zn Coke [Ore:coke = 2:1] , vertical retort used Spelter (impure Zn)
Golden points:
A. Passivity of metals: inertness of metals (Fe, Cr, Co, Ni, Al) in strong oxidizing agents like chromic acid,
KMnO4, conc.H2SO4,etc. is their Passivity.
B. During electrolytic refining of metals the metal is obtained at Cathode and some less active metals settle at
anode which are called as anode mud. Anode mud includes Ag,Au (mainly)
C. Cu:
1. Cu in moist air (H2O,O2 ,CO2) gives basic copper carbonate.
2. Vergidis used as green pigment is basic copper acetate Cu(OH) 2.Cu(CH3COO)2
3. Cu2O (red oxide) is less stable than CuO (black oxide).
4. CuSO4 +KCN → K3[Cu(CN)4] + K2SO4
D. Fe:
1. Purity of iron: Wrought iron > Cast iron > pig iron.
2. Rusting: Rusting is the electrochemical gradual degradation of metal into combined state . General
formula of Rust is 2Fe2O 3·3H2O.Rusting is favored by moisture, acidity in atmosphere.
Methods of preventing rusting:
i. Cathodic Protection: Connecting a more active metal as anode. Such that the active metal corrodes
first.
ii. By coating thin film of Zn(galvanization), Al or Cr
3. During extraction of iron Spiegeleisen (Fe+Mn+C) is added to regulate the carbon content.
4. Steel and its heat treatments: steel is prepared from scrape iron in Open-hearth process.
Heat treatment:
i. Quenching: Steel is heated to red hot temp. and is then cooled suddenly by plunging into either cold
water or oil. It makes steel hard and brittle.
ii. Annealing: The steel is heated to red hot temp. and then cooled slowly. It makes steel soft and
durable
iii. Tempering: Quenching followed by annealing is called as tempering.
iv. Nitriding: Heating the steel in the atmosphere of NH3.
v. Case hardening: Process of giving a thin coating of hardend steel, by heating steel in contact with
charcoal followed quenching in oil.
E. Zn :
1. Philosopher’s wool: ZnO
2. Rinmann’s Green: Cobalt zincate (ZnO.CoO)
3. Lithopone = ZnSO4 + BaS → BaSO4 +ZnS (used as white pigment)
4. ZnSO4 is used in eyedrops and ZnCO3 in ointment.
F. Hg :
1. Calomel = Hg2Cl2 (reference electrode)
2. Corrosive sublimate = HgCl2