Communication, culture and Negotiation

According to Judge and Robinson, (2007), communication is simply the transference and
understanding of meaning. Rugman and Collinson, (2006) also defines communication as
the process of transferring meaning from sender to receiver. Deresky, (2006) defines
communication as the process of sharing meaning by transmitting messages through
media, such as words, behavior, or material artifacts.The three definitions above indicate
a common word, “meaning”. If there appears any interruption or disruption for which
reason the message does not produce the positive feedback, then it could be described as
noise. In her definition, Deresky indicated the medium through which communication
could be done. She mentioned, words, behavior or material artifacts.

Both spoken and written communication could be effective through the knowledge of the
the language of communication in the society the manager finds him or herself. I also
believe that communication through artifacts could be done through a non-verbal means.
For instance if one to the indigene Ghana, and I handed one a calabash of water, one
would interpret it immediately as being welcomed. Non-verbal communication
according to Deresky, (2006) is the behavior that communicates without words. Deresky,
observes that people would usually believe what they see over what they hear (a picture
is worth a thousand words). She further observed that research has it that these subtle
messages account for between 65-93 percent of interpreted communication. Non-verbal
communication could be categorized in to kinesic behavior where communication is done
through body movements like postures, gestures, eye contacts, facial expressions. It is
said that while the American would maintain an eye contact with the other party, looking
elsewhere to the British indicates a concentration and assimilation. The proximics has to
deal with the influence of proximity during communication. It is believed that getting
close to a person or touching in communication is a sign of intimacy in the Arab world.
Paralanguage refer to how something is said. Was it said with a high or low tone. Again
it would not be out of place to communicate on top of one’s voice with an Asian, which
behavior would mean anger to an American.
Communicating through artifacts could be termed as object language. For instance a
Nigerian would offer cola as a sign of welcoming a stranger before communication is
started. It is important to note that noise could be created by cultural differences. Culture
as defined by Rugman and Collinson, (2006), is the sum total of the beliefs, rules,
techniques, institutions and artifacts that characterize human population. To be able to
effectively communicate across cultures, the manager needs to at least be informed about
the culture of communication in the particular group of people or else, it would become
noise to the receiver. In such a case the international manager may not be able to
coordinate or even evaluate activities and performances. Deresky, (2006) states that the
culture of a society comprises the shared values, understanding, assumptions and goals,
that are learned from earlier generations, imposed by present members of society and
passed on to succeeding generations.

She then goes on with the observation that it is this shared outlook which result in a large
part, in common attitude, code of conduct and expectations that subconsciously guide and
control certain norms of behavior. Culture according to Deresky, results in a basis for
living grounded in shared communication, standards, codes of conduct and expectations.
These are important truths which must be known to the international negotiator, for
effective negotiations.

Negotiation, is defined by Robbibson and Judge, (2007) as a process in which two or

more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for
them. Deresky, (2006) on her part defines negotiation as the process of discussion by
which two or more parties aim to reach a mutually acceptable agreement.

How does non-verbal behavior affect the negotiation process?

The earlier a negotiator knows that every negotiation goes through a process the better.
These processes include; preparation, relationship building, exchange of task-related
information, persuasion and concessions and agreement, Deresky, (2006).

Preparation
According to Dersky (2006), the preparation stage is when a negotiator may gain a
distinct advantage through familiarizing themselves with the entire context and
background of their counterpart negotiator in addition to the specific subjects to be
negotiated. In order to understand differences in negotiating styles of people from other
cultures, managers first need to understand their own styles and then determine how their
style differs from the norm in other countries Deresky, (2006). An effective negotiator at
this stage is expected to do some research to develop a profile of their counterparts so that
they are prepared for various situations as they arise. I subscribe to Deresky’s suggestion
that managers should find out as much as possible before hand about the kinds of demand
that might be made, the composition of the opposing team, and the relative authority the
members possess. Managers then gear negotiation strategy toward the other side. Indian
negotiators are generally humble, patient, respectful of the other parties, and very willing
to compromise. Comparing these profiles is useful. An important difference between
Arab negotiators and those from most other countries is that they are mediators, not the
parties themselves, thereby avoiding confrontation. Successful Swedish negotiators are
conservative and careful in dealing with factual and detailed information.

Relationship Building

Relationship building according to Deresky, (2006) is often considered to be more

significant in most parts of the world than it is in America. In her submission, she said
that countries, like Mexico and China, see personal commitments to individuals as the
basis for enforcement of contracts, rather than the legal system, unlike what pertains in
the U.S. She therefore recommended that a “fresher” in negotiation may use the services
of an intermediary—someone who already has the trust and respect of the foreign
managers involved. Posturing, she said can be used as a bridge between the more formal
stages of negotiating and the stages of relationship building. For the negotiation to reach
the anticipated result of cooperation, negotiators must use words like “respect” and
“mutual benefit” rather than language that would suggest arrogance, superiority, or
urgency.

Exchange of task-related Information

In the exchanging task-related information stage, each side typically makes a presentation
making known its stance as observed by Deresky, (2006). According to her this stage
sees more questions with answers expected, with alternatives issues discussed. From an
American perspective, this represents a straightforward, objective, efficient, and
understandable stage. Copeland and Griggs on the other hand have observed that
negotiators from other countries continue to take a more indirect approach at this stage.
Adler suggests that negotiators should focus not only on presenting their situation and
needs but also on showing an understanding of their opponents’ viewpoints. Focusing on
the entire situation confronting each party encourages the negotiators to assess a wider
range of alternatives for resolution, rather than limiting themselves to their preconceived,
static positions. She suggests that to be most effective, negotiators should prepare for
meetings by practicing role reversal.

Persuasion

Persuasion is said to usually be where intense bargaining begins with both parties gearing into the
persuading mode. Studies of negotiating behavior have revealed the use of certain recognizable
tactics, like promises, threats, etc, which is often identified and used by skilled negotiators
usually among Japanese, Americans, and Brazilians. The study also indicates that Japanese and
Americans tend to use these behaviors, whereas the Japanese and the Brazilians are less alike.
While Brazilians use fewer promises and commitments Japanese or Americans use only half as
many of that of Brazilians. They rather use commands far more often.
What seem like dirty tricks to Americans may be used in the persuasion stage of negotiation,
including rough tactics designed to put negotiators in a stressful situation physically or
psychologically.

Concession and Agreement

In the last stage of negotiation, tactics vary greatly across cultures. Well-prepared
negotiators are aware of various concession strategies and have decided ahead of time
what their own concession strategy will be. Research in the United States indicates that
starting with extreme positions attains better end results.

Again, at the final stage of agreement and contract, cultural values determine how these
agreements will be honored. Whereas Americans take contracts very seriously, Russians
often renege on their contracts. The Japanese, on the other hand, consider a formal
contract to be somewhat of an insult and a waste of time and money in legal costs, since
they prefer to operate on the basis of understanding and social trust.