Project Report

On

SELF MEDICATION : CONCEPTS , MEASUREMENTS AND DETERMINANTS

(Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree

of Master of Business Administration)

In Specialisation of:

Human Resource Management

Submitted By:

VAISHNAVI PRADEEP BANTE

Academic Guide:

Dr.Vaishali Rahate
(Dean Academics, DMIMS)

Datta Meghe Institute of Management Studies

Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj
Nagpur University with NBA Accredited Autonomous MBA Program

2020 – 2021

1
 Nagar Yuvak Shikshan Sanstha’s

Datta Meghe Institute of Management Studies

Atrey Layout, Nagpur--- 440 022
Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University with
NBA accredited MBA program

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that the Project Report title “ Self Medication –

Concepts , Measurements and Determinants ” Submitted in partial
fulfilment for the award of MBA Degree of Datta Meghe Institute of
Management Studies, Atrey Layout, Nagpur, was carried out by
Vaishnavi Pradeep Bante under my guidance. This has not been
submitted to any other University or Institution for the award of any
degree/diploma/certificate.

Dr.ShineyChib Dr.VaishaliRahate

Name of Director Name of Academic Guide

Date:

2
 Nagar Yuvak Shikshan Sanstha’s

Datta Meghe Institute of Management Studies

Atrey Layout, Nagpur--- 440 022
Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University with
NBA accredited MBA program

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this Project Report titled“ Self Medication –

Concepts , Measurements and Determinants ” ,Submitted by me, to
Datta Meghe Institute of Management Studies, Atrey Layout, Nagpur, is
a bonafide work undertaken by me and it is not submitted to any other
University or Institution for the award of any degree / diploma / certificate
or published any time before.

Name of the Student

Vaishnavi Pradeep Bante Signature of the Student

Date:

3
 Nagar Yuvak Shikshan Sanstha’s

Datta Meghe Institute of Management Studies

Atrey Layout, Nagpur--- 440 022
Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University with
NBA accredited MBA program

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is really a great pleasure to have this opportunity to describe the feeling of

gratitude from the core of my heart. I convey my sincere gratitude to Datta Meghe

Institute of Management Studies for giving me the opportunity to prepare my Project

Work in“ Self Medication – Concepts , Measurements and Determinants ” I am

thankful to Dr. Vaishali Rahate for her guidance during my Project Work and sparing

her valuable time for the same.

I express my sincere obligation to Datta Meghe Institute of Management

Studies and thanks to all the Faculties of DMIMS for their valuable advice in guiding

me at every stage in bringing out this report.

Name of the Student

Vaishnavi Pradeep Bante Signature of the Student

4
 INDEX
CHAPTER NO. CHAPTER NAME Page No.

1. Introduction 7

2. Objectives 14

3. Literature Review 17

4. Research Methodology 28

5. Analysis and Results 32

6. Discussion and conclusion 38

5
7. Hypothesis 40

8. Bibliography 42

9. Annexure 44

6
Chapter 1

7
Introduction:-
Self-medication is a human behaviour in which an individual uses a

substance or any exogenous influence to self-administer treatment

for physical or psychological ailments. The most widely self-

medicated substances are over-the-counter drugs and dietary

supplements, which are used to treat common health issues at

home. On the one hand, Self-medication is viewed as a large

component of Self-care, which relies heavily on the consumer’s

expertise in terms of experience of the consumer, when it comes to

medication use. In recent times, it has been extensively debated in

developing countries where the associated risk factors have been

highlighted in almost every survey carried out. Irrational use of

medicines particularly self-medication with antibiotics has been cited

by the WHO as a major cause of antibiotic resistance . Also, the over-

prescription of drugs by doctors, illogical combinations of drugs

(multiple forms of antimicrobials within a single medication) and the

availability of sub- standard drugs in the market place adds on to the

8
dangerous effects of medicine usage thus causing serious

complications. Some of the major problems associated with self-

medication are wastage of resources and increased resistance of

pathogens . Self medication poses dangers in the form of drug side

effects, allergic reactions and toxic poisoning . It can also lead to drug

addiction and abuse if not managed properly. Self-medication in

some cases also masks symptoms of the underlying condition in a

patient and can result in overdose because of inappropriate use of

the substance .

Self-medication has been defined as the use of medication (modern

and/or traditional) for self-treatment without consulting a physician

either for diagnosis, prescription, or surveillance of treatment . It

involves obtaining medication without prescription and taking

medicines on advice of and from friends and relatives. Self-

medication is common in both developed and developing countries

but higher in developing countries, due to wider increase of drug

availability without prescription . Self-medication increases the

possibility of drug abuse and drug dependency. It also masks the

9
signs and symptoms of underlying diseases, hence complicating the

problem, creating drug resistance, and delaying diagnosis . Self-

medication has been reported to be on the rise globally . The World

Health Organization (WHO) emphasized that self-medication must be

correctly taught and controlled in other to avoid drug-related issues

such as antimicrobial resistance which is now a current problem

worldwide particularly in developing countries where antibiotics are

often available without a prescription .

Many studies have revealed that young adults are more vulnerable

to the practice of self-medication due to their low perception of risk

associated with the use of drugs, knowledge of drugs, easy access to

Internet, wider media coverage on related health issues, ready

access to drugs, level of education, and social status 

● Background of Study :

The consumer in most cases is not aware of the potential

side effects of the medicine thus exposing himself/herself to

10
 greater risks while consuming the more complex prescription

category of medicines. This makes this area an interesting field

to research from a health behaviour perspective. This research

is focussed on identifying factors that lead to self-medication,

and studying relationships among the factors to explore the

inherent complexities associated with the phenomenon.

● Theoretical Background :

The feeling of being healthy and free from diseases is

mankind’s foremost challenge since times immemorial. A large

number of scientific disciplines have evolved around this core

requirement through the ages to meet the basic need of good

health. These disciplines have their origins in basic science,

technology and social sciences. As technology advances and

people become more aware and conscious of their health

needs, it becomes important to understand the changing

dynamics of healthcare and its management.

● Practical Background :

11
 In developing countries, a consumer can use both

prescription as well as over-thecounter medicine (OTC) by self-

medication thus exposing himself/herself to the risks of

irresponsible medication use. A worldwide review of consumer

surveys conducted in developing and emerging economies

revealed the following interesting information: OTC medicines

are :

1) Needed to treat common health problems

2) Well respected by consumers worldwide

3) Used appropriately, carefully and safely

4) Appreciated for their wide availability and

5) Seen by many as being as effective as prescription medicines.

Some of the common determinants of self-medication are as

listed below:

1. Previous experience with similar symptoms and, Self-perception

of trivial nature of problem common symptoms being headache,

fever and flu. Drugs used accordingly are painkillers, antibiotics,

and anti-allergies.

12
2. Sources of drugs are pharmacy, friends, and stocks at home.

Perception of saving time, being economical and providing quick

relief are among the other determinants that lead to self-

medication.

3. Patients did not need advice for minor ailments. Economic

reasons, fear from crowd at clinic are some other determinants of

self-medication practices.

13
 CHAPTER 2

Objectives :
14
The objectives of the study are:

1) To identify the determinants of self-medication in a general population.

2) To understand various dimensions of self-medication.

● Significance of study :

Self –medication in the developing world is a major health challenge that

needs to be tackled to overcome the growing menace of antibiotic resistance,

drug misuse and abuse. Since healthcare professionals see this as an area of

major concern and impact on community being large, the need to design

intervention strategies to combat the ill effects of this phenomenon is high.

The findings of this study are likely to have policy implications, will help to

improve medicine usage and also help reduce the risks associated with the

phenomenon.

● Scope of the study: The study covers the general adult population with

no specific reference to a particular health condition. The area of study

is restricted to the state of Goa. The study covers exploration of nature

and structure of the phenomenon called self medication and its

determinant.

● Research Plan: Broadly, Literature in the field of marketing and

consumer behaviour of OTC medicines was studied in the healthcare

15
 sector. It is evident that consumer behaviour towards medicines is very

different from the other sectors. Hence, unit of analysis for the present

study is the patient/consumer of medicines. Determinants of

selfmedication from the consumer’s perspective was the chosen

research area within this framework.

● Limitations

One of the limitations of this study was that the study employed a cross-

sectional study design and as such causal relationships between variables

cannot be established. Also, the analyses were based on self-report with the

possibility of over and under reporting. The results of this study cannot be

generalised to a larger population of university students in the state or the

country.

16
CHAPTER 3

17
Literature Review :
There are three parts to this Literature Review:

● Understanding the Phenomenon of Self-medication

a. Story of Self-Care- History of Self-Care and Self-medication, Risks and

Benefits of Self-medication and Factors affecting Self-medication in developing

countries

b. Rx to OTC switch- Implications for Self-Care and Self-medication.

● Research Areas in Self-medication OTC Research

● Health Behaviour theory and its application

● Review articles and Qualitative research based on community based

interventions by WHO and WSMI

● Health Psychology

● Determinants of Self-medication in developing countries through cross-

sectional surveys .

● Self-care and Self-medication

18
 ● History

Self-care and self-medication was a part of human existence since the very

beginning, however it became less important somewhere in the 1960’s when

the paternalistic approach to medicine became common .From this time on,

patients gratefully would let doctors prescribe new treatments that were the

outcome of scientific discovery in the 19th and 20th centuries. Healthcare

began to assume a new dimension as the expert healing physician became

responsible for health of patients while the patient continued to be a passive

recipient of healthcare services. Self-care is what people do for themselves to

establish and maintain health, prevent and deal with illness. It includes

concepts in nutrition, lifestyle and physical fitness. Self-medication on the

other hand is one part of Self-care and is the responsible selection and use of

non-prescription medicines by people to treat self-recognised illnesses or

symptoms (www.wsmi.org; A worldwide review of consumer surveys) Over the

years, this phenomenon underwent a change and has re-emerged full circle

today, only in a different form. In the past 40 years and more there is an

19
increasing trend in terms of Self-care and self-medication reasons for which

can be summarised below:

a. Increased access and availability of healthcare related information making

the consumer or patient much more aware about his/her healthcare choices.

b. Shifting disease burden towards chronic lifestyle disorders as compared to

infectious disease burden in the 1900’s.

c. Availability of non- prescription medicines enabling the patient to exercise a

choice on his/her own health.

d. Definitions of health have broadened to include concepts of wellness and

preventive care. e. Responsible self-medication using over-the-counter

medicines.

● Risks and Benefits of Self-medication

While it is true that self-medication has helped reduce the healthcare cost to

the consumer and helped reduce the burden on many healthcare systems

20
across the world it is also associated with critical issues some of which are

highlighted as:

1) Safety of the product being used for self-medication which includes the risk

of adverse or side effects being extremely low and the availability of

appropriate consumer information.

2) Interactions of the product being used by self-medication with other

medicines being consumed , for example the use of OTC analgesics and its

association with chronic renal failure has been widely reported in patients.

3) Adverse Drug monitoring (ADR) mechanism for self-medication products is

not available in many countries as these conventional ADR reporting schemes

operate through healthcare professionals.

● Factors affecting Self-Medication:

A. Medicine Category:

Antibiotics are the most common category that are used by consumers

for self-medication. In most of the developing world, the risks of

21
 selfmedication are highlighted in most surveys carried out. In a

descriptive cross – sectional survey done in UAE in April 2006, a

structured validated questionnaire was used for 860 participants.

Antibiotic usage was classified as Group A: Common use, Group B:

restricted use (expensive, toxic meds) and Group C: Antibiotics used in

PHC (Primary Health Centres). Amoxicillin was the most commonly used

antibiotic, common reasons for SM being influenza, general infection,

and toothache, and URT, GI and ear infection. Prevalence was high (44%)

which could be attributed to many factors including the fact that this

country is composed of many nationalities including India, Philippines

and the Arab countries.

B. Medicine System:

Another aspect that needs to be taken into consideration is the

existence of various systems of medicine in the developing world. For

example, the kind of medicine used for everyday symptoms could range

22
 from allopathy to homeopathy, Ayurveda or Unani. The problem is

compounded by the fact that many of these alternative system

medicines are used in combination with allopathic drugs thus leading to

potential drug-drug interactions that can be really harmful to the

patient.

C. Population Segment:

Self-medication is more difficult to manage in vulnerable populations.

Children, pregnant women and the elderly are at risk when it comes to

inappropriate medicine usage. Teenagers are known to misuse

medicines like cough syrups especially which can be potentially

dangerous in the long run.

D. Economic-

Infrastructural context: In most developing countries accessibility to

primary healthcare is still a cause of concern. Primary healthcare is

sometimes inaccessible, in other cases even if the patient reaches the

hospital, either staff or facilities are unavailable thus limiting treatment or

23
cure .Cost of modern medicines is on the rise thus prompting patients to

choose the easy way out and indulge in self-medication. In rural areas in

many developing countries like Cameroon for example, the public health

system does not function properly, hence an alternative system develops.

Secondly, prescription and sales practices for example private practice by

government doctors, overprescribing by doctors and old prescriptions kept

by people for future self-medication promote self-medication in general.

Associated is the problem of vendors who try to sell as many medicines as

they can to people who are scarcely aware of what they really need. Also, in

some cases, people who do have prescriptions cannot afford to have them

filled completely. There is also a tendency to indulge in symptom related

medication and hence a subsequent overuse of analgesics, cough and cold

remedies and antibiotics.

E. Cultural-Cognitive beliefs:

There are underlying beliefs that individuals hold when it comes to

medicine use and these are specific to communities and regions around

24
the world. This essentially refers to cognitive aspects of medicine usage.

For example, Guatemalan villager’s categorized meds as hot or cold

based on their own classification system. In African cultures illness and

healing are often linked to colour symbolism- Black and Red meds are

used to expel from the body system all that is bad. This does not

necessarily mean good health. White medicines are used to regain good

health.

25
Sr.n Author Title Objective Area Sample Findings
o size

1. Meena Self To know Goa Sample Self

Parulek medication- about the size : 365 medication
ar measurements self Test actions are
, concepts and medicatio used : been
determinants n multiple practising
practices corelatio since
n ancient
times ,
even in this
21st
century as
well . The
thoughts
of locals
over self
medication
showcases
that in this
era as well
in people
belive in
self
medication
as well and
tries to
find out
the
shortest
way to
cure
different
diseases by
their own
26
 until it
becomes
severe.

2. R.M. Self Aims to Aisa , Sample Self

Smith Medication assist one Armstro Size 100 Medication
in ng Test is a self-
capitalizin Used : improveme
g on their Multiple nt series
strengths, correlati that aims
weakness on and to assist
es, flaws Regressi one in
and on capitalizing
perfection Analysis on their
s strengths,
weaknesse
s, flaws
and
perfections
Once one
strips
themselves
to the core
to
understand
insecurities
, personal
issues,
grudges as
well as
fears, they
can then
begin to
move
forward. In
order to
27
 make this
portion
relative to
others, it
was
written as
a journal

3. C. M. “Benefits and To know LA . Sample This test

Hughes risks of self the size 250 made us
, J. C. medication,” D perceptio Test understand
McElna rug Safety, ns about used : that in
y, and self correlati youths it
G. F. medicatio on uncommon
Fleming n in rather than
, youths . their 1st
generaatio
n belive in
the self
medication
.

4. Z. “Self- To know Aisa Sample This study

Klemen medication the size 200 made us
c-Ketis, among difference Test understand
Z. healthcare and between used : that how
Hladnik non-healthcare the corealtio are
, and J. students at perceptio n percpetion
Kersnik, university ns of s and
healthcar thiking og
e known youth or
youth and locallitres
non which are
healthcar indulge in
e known knowledge
youth of

28
 medication
or which
are not .

5. S. E. Drug and Illicit use Slovenia Sample This made

McCab Alcohol of size 350 us
e, C. J. Dependence prescripti understand
Teter, on pain that how
and C. medicatio students
J. Boyd n among treat
college themsevlve
students, s being
away from
home .
Whether it
becomes
easy or
diificult or
what for
the
students .

29
CHAPTER 4

30
Research Methodology:
The dangers of self-medication across different therapeutic categories pose

significant challenges to the patient. The previous chapter highlighted the fact that despite

extensive literature there is scope to develop measurement scales for self-medication and

to explore additional determinants of the phenomenon. This chapter outlines the details of

the research methodology adopted in the study. It gives details of the underlying basis for

research design and data analysis.

● RESEARCH DESIGN

Since the present topic is complex a combination of both approaches is adopted.

1. Qualitative component using in-depth interviews

2. Quantitative component using scale for determinants of self-medication

Qualitative research is useful for understanding individual’s and group’s subjective

experiences of health and disease. Social, cultural and political factors in health and disease

and interactions among participants and healthcare settings can also be studied using

qualitative research.

Applied Qualitative methods are useful for investigating a wide range of drug use problems.

These methods contribute by exploring a topic about which little is known in order to

provide insights for intervention, developing appropriate questionnaires at the early stage

of a study and complement the quantitative component of a study by providing concrete

examples or explaining observed practices.

31
CHAPTER 5

32
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

This part of report showcases the results gathered from the

responses of the locals citizens and some housewives . This helps to

understand the mindset of the people regarding the Self Medication

concept and what extend they take it on their personal level and as

well as at what level they recommend to others .

● GENDER :

If we look on to this chart , we have 63.3% of Males and 36.7%

Female , where normally our traditional mindsets i.e. normally

females have the self medication mindset .But now days internet

33
have been so influential that men or women rather going to the

doctors prefer to have the self medication so as to save their times .

● Age

● Family Income :

● Educational Qualification :

34
 ● Occupation :

● Respondents’ characteristics

Characteristics Frequency Percent

Gender Male 35 45.2957%

35
 Female 38 53.5211
Educational Post- 29 40.845%
Qualification Graduation
32 45.070%
Graduation
7 9.859%
HSSCE
5 7.042%
SSCE
4 5.633%
Below SSCE
0 0
Occupation Professional 7 9.859%
Service 7 9.859%
Business 10 14.084%
Home maker 17 23.943%
Student 33 46.478%
Retired 0 0

36
 ● Other details of locallites .

Other details Mean Standard

deviation
Medical
Expenses (Rs.)
Age (in years)
Yearly Family
Income(Rs.)

37
CHAPTER 6

38
Disscusion and conclusion :

As per study and the analysis through the is been concernd we have seen that

self medication is basically been praticsed since era and decades long back .

whether its bein a student or any professional or any educate or illiterate , the

tendency of human mind wors sme when it comes to the self medication.

This study concluded that majority of the respondents practiced self-

medication and this was majorly attributed to unfriendly attitude of health

care workers in the university clinic. Commonly used drugs were paracetamol,

artemether/lumefantrine, and tetracycline. Self-medication may not be

harmful on its own, but it poses a great threat when OTC and prescription

drugs become abused. Health education on self-medication should be

introduced into the undergraduate curriculum so as to enlighten the students

on the risks and benefits of self-medication. The university should also create a

friendly atmosphere in the university clinic so as to encourage the students to

visit the clinic anytime they feel symptoms of any disease.

39
CHAPTER 7

40
HYPOTHESIS
H1o: There is no significant awareness about self medication and the
measures and how to tackle and use those measures .

H1a: There is significant awareness about self medication and the

measures and how to tackle and use those measures .

41
CHAPTER 8

42
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Websites:-
● http://www.humanresource.com

● www.rtmnuuniverstiy.com

● www.rtmnushodhganga .com

43
CHAPTER 9

44
 Annexure

● Demographic details

Q1 Gender

Q2Age

Q3Yearly Family Income

Q4Educational Qualification

Q5Occupation

Q6Worplace Reimbursement

● GENERAL QUESTIONS

45
1. I tend to take prescription medicines without a prescription i.e

( on my own).

2. I tend to change the dosage of my prescription medicine without

consulting my doctor.

3. I tend to prescription medicines on the advice of a pharmacist.

4 . I tend to take medicines using past prescription.

5. I tend to use prescription medicines from my old stock at home

without consulting to doctor .

6. I tend to take alternative system medicines on my own.

7. I tend to not complete the full course of my prescription

medicine.

8. I tend to change the dosing schedule of my prescription medicine

without consulting my doctor .

9. When I fall ill, I tend to gather information about the disease by

reading more about it.

10. When I fall ill, I would want to keep my illness a secret.

11. When I fall ill , I tend to know more about the disease by

discussing about it with my friends and relatives.

46
12. For me, it is important to feel independent with my prescription

medicine .

13. When I fall ill, I tend to gather information by discussing about

my condition with my doctor or healthcare professional.

14. I would like to prevent occurrence of diseases in general.

15. I tend to read about the medicine related to my illness.

16. When I fall ill, I tend to relate the symptoms to a previous

similar occurrence.

17. I tend to learn from past use of prescription medicines.

18. I tend to gather more information about the medicine related

to my illness by discussing with my friends and relatives.

19. I tend to learn more about prescription medicines from others

experience with them.

20. I tend to talk to my doctor or healthcare professional about

medicine related to my illness.

21. I tend to approach my friends and relatives for specific

information related to their illness and medicine.

47
22. I think that doctors are generally knowledgeable about diseases

and medicines.

23. I think that doctors are patient with their patients.

● SUITUAITINAL DESCRIPTION

24. I tend to believe that my pharmacist knows about diseases and

medicines .

25. I think that it can be risky to take prescription medicines on my

own .

26. When I have to get my prescription medicine, I try to avoid

crowded chemist shops .

27. I think my pharmacist counsels me well about my medicine

from time to time .

28. I think self-medication is easy for me .

29. I think my pharmacist is very knowledgeable about different

brands of medicines.

30. I do not know much about the side effects of my prescription

medicines.

48
31. I think my pharmacist gives me good advice with respect to my

medicine.

32. I think that doctors’ fees are high in most cases .

33. I think that it is time consuming to consult the doctor.

34. I think that a lot of time is spent waiting for the doctor outside

his/her clinic.

35. I think that in most cases, doctors do not know much about the

disease or medicine.

36. I think that doctors do not spend time to explain in detail about

the medicine or disease.

37. I think that buying prescription medicines directly from the

pharmacy without consulting a doctor is more convenient for me.

38. I thought that the symptoms were severe.

39. I could not bear the pain.

40. I thought it was almost an emergency.

41. I could relate to the symptoms based on prior experience.

● INCIDENCE OF SELF MEDICATION

49
42. Incidence of Self-medication: Have you self-medicated (taken a

medicine on your own without consulting a doctor) in the past

three months?

43. I used medicine from my old stock of prescription medicines to

self-medicate.

44. I decided to self-medicate using a past prescription at home.

45. I took medicine based on the advice of the pharmacist.

46. I decided to change the dose of my medication.

47. I chose to take an alternative medicine .

48. I choose to take a home remedy for the ailment .

50
51