FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
Each anatomical structure is
like a person. It has its own
identity whereby it stands apart
from all the other structures in
the body. This identity is given
to it by its structural
characteristics, functional
attributes, location, etc. Even in
a group of structures having
similar characteristics,
anatomists have always found
out something which is
exclusive to a particular
member of that group. To put it
differently, in the eyes of an
anatomist, each structure in
the human body is a distinct
entity by itself. To assure this
individuality, every structure
gets its own name - referred to
as an anatomical term whereby
it is recognised as such by all
the students of anatomy as
well as practitioners of
medicine without any difficulty,
world over.
Human anatomy has had a
long history. It was the first
branch of modern medicine to
take roots. So the history of the
world has left its indelible mark
on the evolution of anatomic
terminology, it is derived
largely from Greek, Latin,
2
European, Anglo-Saxon,
Egyptian and Sanskrit
languages.
With the rich heritage from so
many cultural backgrounds,
each term, as it were behaves
like an iceberg. The term as
the tip of the iceberg, when
properly looked at reveals the
most striking characteristics of
the structure it indicates. Its
etymologic analysis unfolds the
term’s genesis and evolution -
the larger submerged part of
the iceberg. In fact, when so
studied, an anatomic term
opens up the path to the study
of the basics of anatomy on
which the entire edifice of
modern medicine rests. When
a student of anatomy
appreciates this, he is able to
reflect on any medical term
that he encounters. Given
below are some guidelines on
how to approach an anatomic
term for the unfolding of its
wider meaning.
HOW OF A TERM
Each term indicating a
structure may be made up of
more than one component. A
number of words, separately or
 UNDERSTADING ANATOMICAL TERMS
3

as prefix or suffix are 1. A word originating from

compounded till the whole term Greek, Latin, etc., and
or phrase refers only to a revealing some characteristic
single structure in the body. like location, function, size,
For example, consider the shape, etc.
muscle, extensor carpi 2. A word having a prefix
radialis longus. If the term added to enhance or further
were only restricted to the word specify a characteristic.
extensor, then it would have 3. A word having a suffix
meant all the muscles of the added to further the meaning
body which bring about or indicate gender, singular or
extension. So the next word plural, etc.
carpi (for wrist) got added but
that would still indicate 3 4. A word having a prefix and a
muscles which bring about suffix, both.
extension at the wrist joint. By 5. A large, compound term
adding the word radialis an made up originally of two terms
extensor of the wrist on the indicating two inde-pendent
ulnar got excluded. Still two structures.
muscles remain, hence the last 6. A hybrid term made up of
component of the term, words from two different
longus, which now stands for languages.
only one muscle which is the
extensor of the wrist joint 1. TERM-A term may indicate
located on radial side having a •Shape • Morphological
sibling shorter in length and
characteristic
hence named extensor carpi
radiates brevis. •Size • Action
•Simile • Region / Location
HOW TO INTERPRET A •Position
TERM
SHAPE
If one notices carefully, a Deltoid [G.delta=fourth letter
term fits into one of the of Greek alphabet -
following categories. Triangular in shape.]
FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
Piriform [L.pirum=a pear,
L.form = a shape].
Pisiform [L.pisum=a pea,
L.forma=form or shape].
Quadratus
[L.quadratus=squared].
Rhomboid
[G.rhombos=shaped like a
rhombus].
Scalenus [G.skalenas=
uneven / or like a ladder] - A
mass with 3 unequal sides, or
also appearing like a ladder.
Scalenus - anterior, medius,
posterior – taken together.
Trapezius [G.trapezion=a
small table with four sides].
SIZE
Major [Pectoralis] [L] - Large.
Minor [Rhomboideus] [L] -
Small.
Magnus [Adductor]
[L.Magnum=great].
Vastus [Medialis] [L] - Great or
vast.
Longus [Peroneus] [L] - Long.
Brevis [Extensor pollicis]
[L.brevis=short].
4
SIMILE
Acetabulum [L.acetum
vinegar+abulum diminutive of
abrum [L] a holder or
receptacle] - Like a wine cup.
Acinus [L] - Any juicy berry
with seeds, like grape.
Ala [L] - Wing.
Amygdala
[G.amygdale=almond] - Like
almond.
Clavicle [L.diminutive of
clavis=a key] - Like a key.
Clivus [L] - Like a slope.
Coccyx [G.kokkyx=cuckoo] -
Resemblance to a cuckoo’s
bill.
Fibula [L.figo=l fasten] - Like a
pin or skewer.
Glomus [L.a ball of thread] -
Like a ball of thread.
Pulvinar [L] - Cushioned
couch spread over with a
covering, raised up cushioned
appearance.
Salpinx [G] - Like a tube.
POSITION
 UNDERSTADING ANATOMICAL TERMS
5

Radial [nerve] - Towards Rotator longus [L.rotare=to

radius. turn].
Ulnar [collateral ligament] – Pronator teres
Towards ulna. [L.pronatus/pronus=turned or
inclined forward pronare=to
MORPHOLOGICAL bend forward].
CHARACTERISTIC
Supinator [L.supinus=bent
Gracile [L.] - Thin, lean, backward, supinare=to bend
slender. backward].
Pectineus [L.pecten=a comb] - Opponens pollicis [L.ob=in the
Like a comb. way of, positus=placed].

REGION/LOCATION 2. PREFIX : WHEN SUITABLY

ADDED TO THE ORIGINAL
Femoral [artery] [L.femur= TERM THEY SPECIFY
thigh] - In thigh.
• Number • Colour
Pectoral [fascia] [L.pectus= • Position • Structure
breast] - In relation to the chest • Direction • Size
(breast). • Characteristic • Time

ACTION
Abductor pollicis brevis
[L.ab=from, ducere=to lead].
Adductor longus
[L.ad=towards, ducere=to
lead].
Extensor digitorum
[L.extendo= to stretch out].
Flexor carpi radialis
[L.flecto=to bend].
NUMBER
Uni [L.unus=one] - Unipolar.
Proto [G.first] - Protoplasm.
Di [L.two] - Digastric.
Bi [L.bis=twice] - Biceps.
Deutero [ G. deuterous=
second] Deuteroplasm
Duo [L.duo=two] -Duodenum.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY 6

Tri [L.fres=three] - Triquetral. Infra [L.below] -Infraspinatus.

Triad of Erasistrasus [G.num- Post [L.behind, after, back] -
ber three] - Usual arrangement Post-trematic.
whereby an artery, vein, nerve
accompany each other. Hypo [G.under] -Hypochondr-
ium.
Quadri[L.four]-Quadrigemina.
Ob [L.opposite] -Occipital.
Tetra (G-four] - Fallot’s
tetralogy. Sub [L.under] - Subthalamus.

Den [L.den=ten] - Duodenum En [G.in] - Encephalon.

Poly [G.polys=many/much] - Ex [L.out] - Exophthalmos.

Polyaxial.
Endo[G.endon=within] -
Pleo [G.pleon=more] - Endocranium.
Pleomorphic.
Ento [G.within, inside] -
Re [L.again, turning back]- Entoderm.
Respiration.
Ecto[G.ek=outside]-Ectoderm.
Hemi [G.half] - Hemiplegia. Epi [G.upon] - Epiphysis.
Semi [L.half] - Semimembr- Pro [G.before] - Prostate.
anosus.
Pre [L.before] - Precordium.
POSITION Prae [L.in front of] -Praecor-
dium. (Pre and Prae are used
Ante [L.before] - Antebrach-
interchangeably)
ium.
Retro [L.backwards] -
Supra [L.above of]-Suprasca- Retroperitoneum.
pular.
Inter[L.between]-Intercalated.
Anti [G.before, against] -
Antihelix. Para[G.beside]- Paraumbilical.
 UNDERSTADING ANATOMICAL TERMS
7
Intra [L.within] - Intrafusal.
Extra [L.outside]-
Extrapyramidal.
Peri [G.around or about] -
Periosteum.
Meta [G.after] - Metacarpal.
DIRECTION
Ab [L.from] - Abdu ction.
Ad [L.to] - Adduction.
In [L.in] - Intorsion.
Ex [L.out] - Extorsion.
CHARACTERISTIC
A [G.without] - Amastia.
Ambi [L.both] - Ambiguus.
An [G.without] - Anencephaly.
Ana [G.apart] - Anatomy.
Apo [G.from] - Aponeurosis.
Auto [G.self] - Autonomic.
Bio [G.bios-dife] - Biology.
Blast [G.blasto=bud] -
Blastocyst.
Cata [G.kata=down] -
Catarrhine.
Circum [L.around] -
Circumduction
Contra [L.against] -
Contralateral.
Dia [G.through, across] -
Diaphragm.
Dys [G.b ad, hard, difficult] -
Dysarthria.
Eu [G.good] - Euchromatin
Haema [G.blood] -
Haematemesis (or
Hematemesis).
Hetero [G.heteros=other] -
Heterogenous.
Hyper [G.over, above, in
excess of] - Hypertrophy.
Hypo [G.below, under,
deficient] - Hypothyroidism.
Iso [G.equal] - Isometric.
Ortho [G.straight, upright] -
Orthopaedics.
Oxy [G.oxys=keen, sharp,
acid] - Oxyntic.
Per [L.per through] -
Perforation.
Pseudo [G.pseudos=false] -
Pseudopodium.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY 8

Sclero [G.sclero=hard] - Rubra [L.ruber=red] -

Sclerocorneal junction. Rubrospinal.
Syn [G.with] - Sympathetic.
STRUCTURE
Trans [L.across] -
Transpyloric. Karyo [Q.karyon=a. nucleus] -
Karyotype.

COLOUR Mast [G.mastos=breast] -

Mastoid.
Alba [L.albus=white] - Linea
alba. Metra[Q.uterus]-Metrorrhagia

Chromo [G.chroma=colour] - Nephr[G.kidney] -

Chromosome.
Erythro [G.erythros=red] -
Erythrocyte.
Flava [L.flavus=yellow] -
Ligamentum flava.
Ictero [L.lcterus, G.ikteros=
jaundice (Fr.jannisse from
jaune yellow)] = Icterus.
Leuc [G.leukos=white] -
Leucocyte.
Melano [G.melas-black] -
Melanoblast.
Nigra [L.niger=black] -
Substantia nigra.
Pallid [L.pallidus=pale] -
Globus pallidus.
Nephrectomy
Neuro [G.sinew, nerve] -
Neuroglia.
Osteo [G.bone] - Osteocyte.
Oto [Q.ous=an ear] - Otolith.
Sarco [G.Sarx=flesh] -
Sarcolemma.
Stoma [G.stoma=mouth] -
Stomatodeum.
SIZE
Macro [G.makros=large] -
Macroscopic.
Micro [G.mikros=small] -
Microvilli.
Mega [G.megas=big] -
Megalocyte.

9
TIME
Archi [G.first, principal] -
Archicerebellum.
Paleo [G.palaios=old] -
Paleostriatum.
Neo[G.neos=new]-Neopallium.
Pre [L.before] - Premature.
Post [L.behind, back, after
(time)] - Postnatal.
Men [G.month] - Menopause.
3.SUFFIX
Used to form nouns from verbs
and adjectives from nouns.
SUFFIX FORMING NOUNS.
ary - Ovary.
ion - Nasion.
or - Flexor.
ory - Territory.
tas (ty) - Cavity.
SUFFIX FORMING
ADJECTIVES.
able - Malleable.
al - Temporal.
UNDERSTADING ANATOMICAL TERMS
ar - Mandibular.
ary - Biliary.
ate - Cruciate.
ible - Reducible.
ic [G.ikos=pertaining to] -
Gastric.
id - Morbid.
ile - Febrile.
ionary - Precautionary.
ive - Definitive.
ory - Sensory.
ose - Comatose.
ous - Glabrous.
SUFFIX CONVERTING
ADJECTIVE TO NOUN.
is - Radialis
SUFFIX CONVEYING
MEANING.
aemia [G.blood] - Anaemia.
agogue [G.agogos=leading,
inducing] - Cholagogue.
agra [G.a seizure] - Pellagra.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
algia [G.algos=pain, G.ia=
condition] - Neuralgia.
blast [G.germ] - Trophoblast.
cele [G.kele=hernia] -
Enterocele.
cyte [G.cell] - Osteocyte.
ectomy [G.ektome=excision] -
Nephrectomy.
graph [G.graphein=to write] -
Cardiograph.
ia [G.state or condition] -
Pneumonia.
igo [L.to do or act] - Impetigo.
ismus [G.muscular affection] -
Strabismus.
itis [L.inflammation] -
Pharyngitis.
logy [G.logos=word, reason] -
Angiology.
mania [G.madness] -
Megalomania.
odynia [G.odyne=pain] -
Coccygodynia.
oid [G.eidos=form, shape] -
Sigmoid.
oma[G.from onkoma swelling]
- Carcinoma.
10
opia[G.kind of sight]-Myopia.
pathy [G.pathos=disease] -
Allopathy.
phobia [G.phobos=fear] -
Hydrophobia.
plasty [G.plasein=to form] -
Hernioplasty.
rhagia [Q.rhegnynia=to burst
forth] - Metrorrhagia.
rhoea [G.rhoia=flow] -
Diarrhoea.
Scopy [G.skopain=to examine]
- Colonoscopy.
sis [G.process, action,
possession, state, condition] -
Ptosis.
smus [G.] (verbal noun
formation) - Tenesmus.
stoma [ G.opening]-
Ankylostoma.
tomy [G.tome=a cutting] -
Anatomy.
uria [G.ouron=urine, ia=a
state) - Haematuria.
yl [G.hyle-matter of substance]
- Phenyl.
 UNDERSTADING ANATOMICAL TERMS
11

SUFFIX CONVEYS AAH=FEMININE

GENDER AS IN a = Feminine - prima.
SANSKRIT ENDING WITH ous = Masculine - primous.
UM=NEUTER, AH
um = Neuter - primum.
[ ous ]=MASCULINE,

SUFFIX CONVEYS SINGULAR OR PLURAL

Singular Plural
a – Fossa e – Fossae
en – Foramen ina – Foramina
is – Testis es - Testes
l – Genital lia – Genitalia
on – Criterion a – Criteria
s – Crus ra - Crura
um – Atrium a – Atria
um – Branchium i – Brachii
us– Alveolus i - Alveoli
x– Fornix ces – Fornices
x – Phalanx ges – Phalanges

4. A TERM can have both Each original term means an

PREFIX and SUFFIX independent structure and
combination refers to a third
Anatomy - Ana + tomy. separate structure.
Metrorrhagia - Metro + Bile, rubin - Bilirubin.
rrhagia.
Glenoid, humerus -
5.COMPOUND TERM Glenohumeral joint.
Bringing together of two terms. Grain, ulation - Granulation.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY 12

Nerve, motor - Nervimotor. For example:

Sacrum, Ilium - Sacro-iliac Femur - Femoral artery, vein,
ligament. nerve.
Please note that for compound Gaster - Gastric artery, vein,
terms, as in Sanskrit Samas, a nerve.
modification is brought about at
the end of first term and a Bones : Usually a bone is
connecting vowel “0”, “I” or equated with a human figure
“U” are added. and hence it is looked upon to
have
6.HYBRID TERMS
Here the prefix, or suffix of one Head - Rounded end.
language commonly Greek or Neck - Constricted portion
Latin is combined with a term joining head with
from another language to give shaft.
a new term.
Shaft - Equivalent to trunk.
G.cranios L.alis - Cranial. e.g. Femur, Humerus,
G.gaster L.itis - Gastritis. radius.
Or the terminology is based on:
BASIS OF TERMINOLOGY Meaning - Axis. From its
FOR VARIOUS forming the axis of rotation of
ANATOMICAL the head.
STRUCTURES or
Usually the bone is taken as
Simile - Hyoid. From Greek
the central feature of a given
hyus meaning upsilon hence
region in extremities or body
referring to a bone shape like
wall whereas an organ is taken
upsilon
as the central feature for the
viscera. The other components
i.e. vessels, nerves, etc. take
MUSCLES
their nomenclature after a bone Terminology selected for
or a viscus. muscles is based on
 UNDERSTADING ANATOMICAL TERMS
13
Action - Levator scapulae.
Attachment - Mylohyoid.
Characteristics-
Semimembranosus.
Direction of fibres - Rectus
femoris.
Eponym - Sphincter of Oddi.
Function - Masseter [to
chew].
Location - Brachialis.
Meaning - Cremaster
[suspender].
Numerical - First lumbrical.
Position - Serratus anterior.
Shape - Quadratus lumborum.
Simile - Latissimus dorsi.
Size - Peroneus longus.
Structure/Characteristic -
Gracilis.
NERVES
Most commonly, the features
guiding nomenclature for
nerves are:
Characteristic - Peroneal
communicating.
Course - Trochlear.
Direction - Transverse nerve
of the neck.
Function - Optic.
Numerical - Accessory.
Position - Lateral pectoral.
Region - Common palmar
digital.
Size - Lesser occipital.
Structure - Common palmar
digital.
Structures supplied -
Musculocutaneous.
VESSELS
The region through which the
vessels pass, and the area of
distribution commonly form the
basis for terminology besides
function, structural charact-
eristics or development.
Characteristic - Anterior
communicating.
Direction - Transverse
cervical.
Direction of flow-Ascending
aorta.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY 14

Distribution-Superior vesical transversalis.

Location - Vertebral. Structure - Fatty layer of
superficial fascia.
Meaning - Emissary
[messenger] vein. JOINTS
Numerical - Accessory Mostly the bones meeting one
meningeal. another give the name to the
joint.
Origin - Caroticotympanic.
Direction - Transverse tarsal.
Position - Lateral thoracic.
Function - Mobile.
Region - Brachial.
Meaning - Gomphosis
Region of distribution -
(Bolting together)
Caroticotympanic
Name of articulating bones -
Simile - Coronary.
Glenohumeral.
Size - Greater palatine.
Position - Median atlanto-
Structure - Common facial axial.
vein.
Region - Elbow.
FASCIA Shape - Lambdoid suture.
Commonly terms selected are
based on : Simile - Synovial. From Greek
syn meaning similar and Greek
Attachment - Clavipectoral ovial meaning egg white.
fascia.
Structure - Fibrous
Meaning - Fascia lata
(extensive). LIGAMENTS

Position - Superficial fascia. Usually the extent of a

ligament from one articulating
Region - Deep cervical fascia. surface to another as also its
shape decides the terminology.
Relation - Fascia
 UNDERSTADING ANATOMICAL TERMS
15

Attachments - Lateral Meaning - Stomach. From

temporomandibular. Latin stoma meaning an
opening hence an opening into
Characteristic - Cruciate. the alimentary tract.
Colour - Ligamentum flavum. Shape - Thyroid. From Greek
Direction - Transverse thyreos meaning a shield
atlantal. hence a gland resembling a
shield.
Position - Dorsal sacroiliac.
Structural characteristics -
Region - Inguinal. Pancreas. From Greek
meaning all flesh as the
Shape - Deltoid. pancreas secretes digestive
ORGANS enzymes for all the three
primary food components - fat,
The common features consi- protein and sugar.
dered for naming organs are :
RELATIVE TERMS
Functional attributes - Liver.
From its activity being essential Some terms always point
for life. towards the presence of some
other structure bearing the
Location - Intestine. From balancing opposite meaning to
Latin meaning interior hence it in terms of position, function
an organ occupying most of or size.
the interior.

Position
Anterior gastric nerve
External intercostals muscle
Medial pectoral nerve
Superior vesical artery
-Posterior gastric nerve
-Internal intercostal muscle
-Lateral pectoral nerve.
-Inferior vesical artery.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY 16

Ventral sacroiliac ligament -Dorsal sacroiliac ligament.

Function
Abductor pollicis longus muscle
Flexor carpi radialis muscle
SIZE
Pectoralis major muscle
Peroneus longus muscle
-Adductor pollicis muscle.
-Extensor carpi radialis
longus muscle.
-Pectoralis minor muscle
-Peroneus brevis muscle

If a student pays attention to provided some new

these terms, he will be in a terminology with reference to
position to make a correct neurochemical transmitters,
guess most of the times about their secretory granules, and
the presence of other synapses.
structures on his own.
EMBRYOLOGY
NEUROANATOMY There are few points worth
This branch has the distinction bearing in mind while
of having its terminology interpreting embryological
derived on one side from the terms.
times of Galen 2000 years
1. Comparative embryology
backwards to most modern
has a lot of influence on
scientists of the present
terms used in human
century. The human brain is
embryology. So homology has
still viewed from the standpoint
an impact on embryological
of comparative anatomy, and
terms. Example - Branchial
hence, it is said to have a
apparatus.
ventral surface and a dorsal
surface rather than the base or 2. So often the terms are
the inferior surface and the selected for a structure based
superior surface. On the other on what is going to
hand, recent research has be developed from it in
 UNDERSTADING ANATOMICAL TERMS
17

future (primordium). Example for embryology the reference

- Cardiac tubes.
3. Though man has assumed
erect posture and therefore the
anatomical position is used as
a reference for gross anatomy,
plane is similar to that in a
quadruped animal, i.e. ventral,
dorsal, cephalic and caudal,
fore, mid, hind.

Embryology Gross Anatomy

Anterior intestinal portal = Superior intestinal portal
Posterior intestinal portal = Inferior intestinal portal

HISTOLOGY, CYTOLOGY the terms, even though proved

AND GENETICS to be misnomers, have been
These are comparatively
newer sciences which have
proliferated in the last century
and hence have received less
impact of Greek and Latin. The
terminology usually is based
on appearance as seen under
microscope, staining
characteristics or functional
attributes.
Examples:
Staining characteristics -
Chromophil / Chromophobe. Terms
retained like useful relics of the
past. At times the terms
indicate contrary meaning or
have some ambiguity or
vagueness about them but
they are retained possibly
because there is always
resistance to change and
hence the terms continue to be
used by convention.
Mehta Lopa A.,Natarajan M.
and Kothari M.L.
Understanding Anatomical

To conclude, one would say Clinical Anatomy, 9:330-336

that each term carries with it its 1996
own history, its own glory.
Many a term has been shaped
and reshaped over a span of
two thousand years. Some of