Topic 1A

ALAOL was a poet born on 1607AD in Faridpur. As he was born in an aristocratic family,
he received proper education. At one occasion he was traveling to Chittagong with his
father by a boat. On their way, they were attacked by pirates and the pirates killed his
father. Alaol was then sent to Arakan in Myanmar and found work as a bodyguard. He
later taught music and dance in a well-to-do family. His poetic talents soon became well
known and he received royal patronage. His masterpiece Padmavati, is a translation of a
Hindi poem. He also translated many Persian works which included Saifulmuluk
Baiduzzamal, Sikandarnama and Tohfa. He is known for introducing romantic themes
into Bangla poetry. A prestigious literary award under his name called the Alaol Shaitya
Purashkar has been introduced to recognize his important works in contemporary
Bangla. He died around 1673 in Chittagong.

LALON SHAH was a legendary baul of Bangladesh. He was born on 1772AD in Jenaidah
district. Bauls are bands of people who compose and sing devotional folk songs in
villages. They are mostly seen in districts like Pabna, Faridpur, Jessore, Kushtia and
Jenaidah. One needs a baul guru in order to become a baul. Lalon Shah was one such
baul guru. When Lalon was small, he caught small pox and was abandoned by his
community. A Muslim faqir named Siraj Sain, nursed him back to health, when he
returned to his community he was not welcomed by the people. Thus he went back to
Siraj Sain and was inducted by him and was known as Lalon Shah Faqir. He married a
Muslim woman and set up his ashram in Chheuriya. He did not receive formal education
but had extensive knowledge on Muslim and Hindu traditions. He is said to compose
about two thousand spiritual songs. His songs were created in rural context but had a
universal meaning to them, thus his songs were very popular not only amongst ordinary
countrymen but also towards urban people. Lalon Shah passed away on the 17 of
October 1890 at his ashram.

MIR MOSHARRAF HOSSAIN was born in a zamindar family in 1847 at Kushtia and was a
novelist, playwright, essayist and journalist. Amar Jiboni is an autobiography of him and
Bibi Kulsum is a biography of his wife. His formal education took place in Kushtia School
and Krishananagar Collegiate School. He was later admitted to Kolkata Kalighat School
but could not complete his studies. He is mostly known for his writings on popular
themes in the history and belief of Islam. His Bishad Shindhu is considered to be a
masterpiece, other works of Mosharraf Hossain include Bibi Khodejar Bibaha and
Madinar Gaurab. He also wrote on the excessive zeal in the killing of cows in the book
Gokul Nirmul Ashonka. An important contribution of Mir Mosharraf Hossain is the
successful use of satire which can be seen in Moner Kotha, Gazi Miar Bostani and
Udashin Pathiker. He also worked for newspapers as a journalist. He passed away on 19
December 1912 and a few years later a statue of him was erected at the Bangiyo
Shahitya Parishad building in Kolkata.

RABINDRANATH TAGORE was the most versatile personality of Bangla literature. He was
a poet, prose writer, composer, painter, essayist, philosopher, educationist and a social
reformer. He wrote in Bengali as well as in English. He was born on 7 May 1861 at
Jorashanko in Kolkata. He went to many different prestigious schools but did not like
the monotonous rules and regulations of school life, thus left formal school at the age
of fourteen. He learnt his lessons at home by tutors. His family made great contributions
in the emergence of the Bengali Renaissance. His first poem was Abhilaash and it was
published in a magazine called Tattobodhini. He wrote under the pen name of
Bhanushingha. His first book of poems was published in 1878 and he was sent to
England to study law in the same year. He could not complete his studies there and
returned home with knowledge of the development of Europe. He wrote a series of
books of poems and some of them were Mayar Khela and Manasi. On his second visit
from England, he was given charge of his father's estates and during this time he got to
witness the everyday life of the ordinary people. Two of his most important
contributions to Bangla literature were the Galpaguchha and Sonar Tari. He established
Santiniketan with the help of a priest in 1901 in Birbhum of West Bengal. The next few
years were tragic to Tagore as many of his family members passed away. These terrible
years were reflected in his poetry. Gitanjhali reflected his mental state and the
translation of this poem to English awarded him the Noble Prize for literature in 1913.
He was knighted by King George in 1915 but later denounced it when a British General
attacked unarmed Indian demonstrators in 1919. An important prose writing was the
Prantik, a popular dance and drama composed by him was the Shyama and a novel by
Tagore was the Malancha. He was also an amateur painter. He wrote over a thousand
poems and over two thousand songs. He wrote the national anthem of Bangladesh as
well. He passed away on 7 August 1941.

BEGUM ROKEYA was a writer, educationist and social reformer. She was born in 1880 at
Pairaband in Rangpur district. She pioneered education among Muslim women when
women were not expected to come out of purdah. Her brother and husband taught her
English as well as Bangla. She wrote short stories, poems, essays, novels and satirical
writings. She wrote in different literary magazines and her first story was Sultana's
Dream. Abarodhbasini is also a famous writing of hers. Other popular writings include
Matichur, Nurse Nelly and Mukti-phal. Her poem entitled Saogat was published in 1918
in the first issue of Saogat, a literary magazine in Kolkata. Begum Rokeya was so
determined to educate Muslim women that she went door to door trying to aware
women of their rights. She later on established a girl's school in Bhagalpur and
afterwards in Kolkata. She eventually was successful in getting so many students that
she had to move to different location with a larger accommodation. The organization
was called Anjumaan-e-Khawatin-e-Islam, a society to make women aware of their
rights. She passed away on 9 December in 1932, the same day she was born.

KAZI NAZRUL ISLAM is known as the national poet of Bangladesh. He was born in 24
May 1899 at Churulia, Burdwan district of West Bengal, India. He was a poet and
musician. He could not complete his education due to financial problems and thus had
to earn money at a young age. He worked as a teacher of a village maktab, a muezzin in
a village mosque and joined a Leto group afterwards. He returned to school later and
studied till class 10. As he did not like the rules and regulations of school and had
financial difficulties, he left school again. He worked as a cook at the house of a railway
guard and later at a tea stall. Thus he was called 'Dukhu Mia', as he experienced harsh
realities of life in the very early days of his life. He joined the army later on and learnt
Persian. His first prose work called Baunduler Atmakahini was published in the Saogat.
His first poem was Mukti. He was influenced by the socialist revolution in Russia which
took place in 1917. Nazrul was arrested in 1922 for his anti-colonial writings. He went on
a 40-day hunger strike to protest against the mistreatment of political prisoners. Dolon
Champa, a book of poems was inspired by his relationship with his wife, Pramila.
Towards the end of 1925, Nazrul joined politics. One of the short stories written by him
was called the Rikter Bedan and anthologies of poems and songs included Chittanama
and Puber Hawa. He became ill and lost his voice in 1942 and his condition began to
worsen eventually. He was awarded the Jagattarini Gold Medal by the Kolkata University.
He was awarded the title 'Padmabhushan' by the Indian Government. His famous
rythmic song Chal Chal Chal was declared as the battle song of Bangladesh. He was
conferred an honorary DLitt degree by the University of Dhaka in 1974. He was also
granted citizenship of Bangladesh. Nazrul was also awarded the Ekushey Padak. He
passed away on 29 August 1976 and was buried at the Dhaka University Mosque.

JASIMUDDIN was a renowned poet and scholar of literature, he was born on 1 January
1903 in Faridpur. He passed Intermediate of Arts from Rajendra College and gained his
BA and MA from Kolkata University. He started his career as a collector of folk literature.
He joined Dhaka University as a lecturer and later on joined the Government
Department of Information and Broadcasting. He wrote a poem called Kabar when he
was a college student and it was published in school textbooks later on. He was known
as Palli Kabi or the poet of the countryside as he spent most of his childhood among the
rural people of Bangladesh. Some famous works by Jasimuddin include Nakshi Kanthar
Math, Shujon Badiyar Ghat, Matir Kanna and Bangalir Hashir Golpo. He was awarded the
DLitt by Rabindra Bharati University. Several other awards include President's award for
Pride of Performance, Ekushey Padak and Swadhinata Dibash Purushkar. He passed
away in Dhaka on 13 March 1976.

ZAINUL ABEDIN was an artist of exceptional talent. He was born in Mymenshingh on 29

December 1914. He was admitted to the Government School of Art in Kolkata and
graduated with a first class degree. He was greatly inspired by the river Brahmaputra
and earned the Governor's Gold Medal in 1938 for the paintings in an all-India
exhibition. The Great Bengal Famine of 1943 touched Zainul Abedin and he began to
draw sketches on cheap, brown packaging paper with Chinese ink of flat brushes. After
the partition of India in 1947, he left Kolkata and settled in Dhaka. He was given the
responsibility of establishing the Government Institute of Arts and Crafts in Dhaka. He
was made the principal-designate of the institute. This institute grew in reputation and
became to be known as the Institute of Fine Arts. He was awarded the title 'Hilal-i-
Imtiaz' by the Pakistani government but later denounced it during the War of Liberation.
He was appointed National Professor of Bangladesh in 1974. He was given the title
'Shilpacharya.' He organized the Nabanna festival at the Shilpakala Academy and drew a
65-feet long and 6-feet wide scroll called Nabanna and another famous scroll is called
the Manpura. He established the Folk Art Museum at Sonargaon and the Shilpacharya
Zainul Abedin Sangrahashala in Mymensingh. Famous paintings of Zainul include
Dumka, The Rebel Crow and Face. He died of cancer on 28 May 1976 and was buried in
the campus of Dhaka University.

Topic 1B

LANGUAGE
There are three phases of Bangla language. The earliest form of Bangla language is
known as the old phase which existed from 1000 to 1350AD. The earliest form of old
Bangla is to be found in the Charyapada, a collection of poems written by Buddhist
monks. The period between 1350 and 1800AD is regarded as the medieval phase for
Bangla. Examples of the early from of medieval Bangla include translations of the
Ramayana and Mahabharata, Vaishnava lyrics and Purbabanga-Gitika. During this
period, an influx of Perso-Arabic words took place into the evolving vocabulary of
Bangla. The modern phase of Bangla language starts from 1800AD with the influence of
English and this phase is still continuing. During this period Bangla borrowed words
from Sanskrit, English and other European languages.

LITERATURE
Bangla literature can be divided into three periods. The ancient period, which lasted
from 650 to 1200AD, examples of ancient Bangla literature can be seen in the
Charyapada. Not much work is known during this period as writings were partly
understood as they were in the sandhya or twilight language. The medieval period of
Bangla literature was between 1200 and 1800AD. Various anecdotes, rhymes and
sayings particularly in relation to agriculture were seen during this period. Vaishnava
poetic narratives, patronage from Muslim rulers and poems on popular themes of
Muslim culture are examples of the medieval period of Bangla literature. The modern
period was greatly influenced by writers like William Carey and Raja Rammohan Roy.
Bengali writers were influenced by Western thought and literature and created poems
and novels. Rabindranath Tagore played a significant part in developing Bangla
literature. The most significant and creative phase of Bangla literature began after the
birth of Bangladesh in 1971.

MUSIC
Music has a rich and diverse tradition in Bangladesh. Various forms of Bangla music that
developed over time included Kirtan (songs in praise of God, gods and goddess),
Kavigan (singers of Kavigans were called Kaviyals), Jatra (songs played during dramatic
performances in temples or during puja), Pala or ballad (oral performances), Classical
music (songs based on ragas), Early modern songs (Songs by Tagore and Kazi Nazrul are
fine examples), Modern songs (songs by Kishore Kumar, Runa Laila are fine examples).

ARCHITECTURE
There were many periods of architecture in Bangladesh. The ANCIENT period includes
the architectural sites of Mahasthangarh, which consists of the ruins of the ancient city
Pundranagara, situated in Bogra. Buddhist monasteries and Hindu temples can be found
there as well. There were royal palaces, mansions, ornamental temples and assembly
halls during this period too.

The SULTANATE period was most characterized by mosques and tombs. The conquerors
built mosques for praying and to gain popularity. There were several categories of
mosques, such as the square single, multi-domed or rectangular multi-domed. Some of
the domed structures had verandahs in the front and the roofs were almost always
curved. The famous Adina Mosque, Chhota Sona Mosque and the Bara Sona Mosque
are examples of architecture during the sultanate period.

The architecture under the MUGHAL period was mostly done by the work of the
subahdars under Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. Many monuments were also built during
this period and materials used in the construction was plastered brick, and plaster
paneling was used for ornamentation of the mosques. Hindu temples were also
significant during this period. Famous mosques during this period were the Satmasjid
and the Dhanmondi Eidgah. Tombs include Dara Begum's tomb and the Tomb of Haji
Khwaja Shahbaz. Temples such as the Raja Ram Temple and the Kantanagar Temple
were fine examples of architecture during this period. Other buildings such as the Pagla
Bridge and Lalbagh Fort were also built during this period.

The COLONIAL AND POST-COLONIAL PERIOD were architectural buildings of Indian and
British elements. There were buildings built for residential and official purposes with
lofty domes, classical pillars, semi-circular arches and pediments. The High Court
Building and Curzon Hall of Dhaka University are examples of architecture during this
period.

The PAKISTAN period had no significant architectural achievement. The Kamalapur

Railway Station, Baitul Mukarram Mosque and Shilpakala Academy are examples of
architecture during this period.

The BANGLADESH period led to the creation of beautiful landmarks all over the country
for example the Shahid Minar in Dhaka and the National Mausoleum in Savar. There are
modern designs during this period and the major cities are adorned with skyscrapers,
steel-glass structures and various ultra-modern institutions.

RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
MUSLIM: Muharram, Eid-e-Miladunnabi, Eid-ul-Azha, Eid-ul-Fitr

HINDU- Dhol Jatra, Durga Puja, Sarawasti Puja, Laxmi Puja

BUDDHIST- Buddho Purnima, Maghi Purnima, Tithi Purnima, Ashwri Purnima

CHRISTIAN- Christmas, Easter

Topic 2A
In the earliest phase of its history, Bengal was divided into six territorial units: Vanga
(Khulna), Pundra (Bogra), Radha (Kolkata), Gauda (Murshidabad and Hughly River),
Samatata (Comilla and Noakhali), and Harikhela (Chittagong).

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

The first great and well-organized empire of the subcontinent was the Mauryan Empire
(320-180BC). At the time of the Mauryans the janapada, Pundra, formed part of the
Empire's eastern province. Mahasthangarh of Bogra was the provincial capital of the
region. The western part of Bengal achieved importance during the Mauryan period
because vessels sailed from its ports to Sri Lanka and South-East Asia. Arthashastra of
Kautilya the tradition of weaving fine cotton cloth in Bengal was significant during this
empire, as it was an important trade item throughout India.

Samudragupta was the greatest of the Guptas. Bengal remained divided into
independent states, however Samudragupta brought most of these states under his rule.

THE GOLDEN AGE

During this period, India was controlled by a strong central government which brought
peace, prosperity and political stability for a considerable time. This period is remarkable
for its trade and commerce. Tamralipti was a great trading emporium of that time. The
period is also remarkable for its religious toleration. The Gupta monarchs embraced
Brahmanism and styled themselves as Parmabhagavatas or Parmadaivatas. They also
patronized Buddhism and Jainism. The artistic excellence of the Gupta age is also well
known and it influenced the artistic tradition of Bengal.

Topic 2B

THE EMPIRE OF SHASHANKA

Towards the end of the sixth century, the Gupta rule weakened and Shashanka, a minor
millitary officer of the Guptas, became ruler of Bengal. He was the first independent king
of Bengal, and made Kornosubora in Murshidabad his capital. He gradually extended his
authority in Orissa and as well as in Bihar. Shashanka was a Hindu and his main political
enemy was Harshavardana. Some consider him to be a persecutor of Buddhists.
The period between the fall of Shashanka and the rise of the Palas has been described in
some sources as matsyanyayam. This means complete lawlessness arising out of the
absence of a strong ruling power capable of enforcing law and order.

GOPALA (756-781AD) brought an end to a long spell of disunity and chaos in Bengal
and also established the Pala Dynasty which successfully ruled Bengal for about four
hundred years. Gopala not only ended the matsyanyayam, but also consolidated the
rule of his dynasty to such an extent that his son and successor, Dharmapala, could
embark upon a policy of expansion. He annexed almost the whole area of north and
east Bengal.

DHARMAPALA (781-821AD) was the son and successor of Gopala, and was considered
to be the greatest ruler of the Pala Dynasty. He not only consolidated his power in
Bengal, but also extended his kingdom from Bengal to Bihar. He also extended his
sphere of influence as far as the north Indian region of Kanauji. He was a Buddhist and is
credited with the foundation of the Vikramshila monastery. He was equally enthusiastic
in his patronage of the Brahmanical shrines. He followed a policy of religious toleration
and mutual coexistence of different religions. There was flourishing sea trade under his
rule and he had an army of 300,000.

DEVAPALA (821-861AD) was the third ruler of the Pala Dynasty and son of Dharmapala.
He conquered a large area of northern India as well as Orissa and Kamarupa. He was a
devout Buddhist, he was a great patron of the religion and the founded the famous
Buddhist seat of learning at Nalanda. He is known to have granted five villages to be
endowed to the monastery built at Nalanda.

MAHIPALA (995-1043AD) brought back vitality and vigor and gave a second lease of life
to the Pala Empire. He succeeded in recapturing lost territories in northern and western
Bengal and restored Pala dynastic rule to a firmer footing.

After the death of Mahipala the empire once again began to decline. Foreign invasions
led to the breaking up of the empire into small pieces and there was internal instability,
including a rebellion known as the 'Kaivatra Rebellion' in north Bengal.

RAMAPALA (1082-1124AD), succeeded in retrieving the position of the dynasty by

recapturing northern Bengal and also extending his empire towards Orissa, Kamarupa
and Madhyadesha of northern India. He tried to establish peace and discipline in Bengal
and built Ramavati, the new capital, close to modern-day Maldah.
THE SENA DYNASTY was established in Bengal as the power of the Palas declined
towards the end of the eleventh century. The Senas originally belonged to the Mysore
region of South India.

SAMANTA SENA was the founder of the Sena Dynasty in Bengal, he first settled in the
Radha on the banks of the Ganges. However, as he did not actually establish a kingdom,
thus he is not regarded as the first ruler of the Sena Dynasty.

The honor belongs to his son, HEMANTA SENA, who ruled as a feudal king under
Ramapala. Hemanta Sena's son VIJAYA SENA (1098-1160AD), at first ruled as a feudal
king under Ramapala, but gradually consolidated his position in Western Bengal and
ultimately laid the foundation of the independent rule of the Senas. He also established
his own supremacy in North and North Western Bengal by ousting the Palas. He is also
recorded to have extended his hold over Bihar in the west and Vanga in the east. His
first capital was at Vijayapur and his second at Vikrampura, Dhaka district.

VALLALA SENA (1160-1178AD) succeeded his father Vijaya Sena and he is said to have
played a significant part in the downfall of the Pala Dynasty. He was a great scholar and
renowned author, he wrote the Danasagara and started writing the Adbhutasagara but
could not complete it. He left the responsibility of the empire to his son Lakshmana
Sena and he and his wife spent their last days on the bank of the Ganges near Triveni.

LAKSHMANA SENA succeeded his father in 1178AD and defeated the King of Gauda
and Varanasi and made expeditions against Kamarupa and Kalinga. He was famous for
his remarkable literary activities and he also completed the Adbhutasagara which was
started by his father Vallala Sena. His court contained renowned poets and he was also
famous for his exceptional qualities and generosity. He became too weak to control the
administration of his empire towards the close of his reign. During this time, there were
signs of disruption and disintegration within his kingdom. A number of chiefs seized
power in different parts of the kingdom, which broke its solidarity and paved the way for
the decline. He lost control of north and north-west Bengal and for the final two years of
his life he ruled only east Bengal. The capture of Nadia by Bakhtiyar Khalji further aided
to the decline of his empire.

At the first half of the sixth century, South Eastern Bengal saw the independent kingdom
of Vanga. After that, Bengal was controlled by Khadga kings ruling Samatata with its
capital near Kamanta. In the eighth century, the Deva Dynasty was established with its
capital at Devaparvata. Devas were Buddhists and the Mainamati area received
importance. In the ninth century, Harikhela kingdoms controlled area Chittagong to
Comilla. After the Harikhelas, the Chandras came and they ruled for 150 years covering
areas of Vanga and Samatata. Their capital was at Munshiganj, Vikrampura. Sri Chandra
was the greatest Chandra who expanded rule into Kamarupa, Assam. By the end of the
11th century, Varman Dynasty was established taking advantage of the Kaivatra
Rebellion. Five generations of Varmans ruled. They were Hindu and their capital was also
at Vikrampura. The rulers of South Eastern Bengal commanded sea trade between
Chittagong and Comilla. Evidence of Arab writers exist referring to the samandar port
and silver coins have been found proving that rulers were wealthy

Topic 2C

The political influence of Islam began to spread in Bengal with the conquest of Nadia,
the capital city of the Sena ruler Lakshmana, by MUHAMMAD BAKHTIYAR KHALJI in
1204AD. Towards the end of the twelfth century, Muhammad Ghuri had captured Delhi
and established Muslim rule in northern India. He was succeeded by his General,
Kutubuddin Aibak. During the time of Kutubuddin, Bakthiyar was granted a small
territory near Bihar, from where he started invading surrounding areas. He captured
Nadia in a unique way. He divided his army into several groups, and he himself led a
group of horsemen and advanced towards Nadia in the guise of horse traders. In this
manner, he had no problem in entering through the gates of Nadia. Shortly afterwards
the rest of his army joined him and within a short while Nadia was captured. After
capturing Nadia, he advanced towards Gauda (Lakhani), another capital of the Sena
Kingdom, conquered it and made it his capital in 1205. He set for an expedition to
capture Tibet, his attempt failed and had to return to Bengal with poor health and a
reduced army. Shortly afterwards he was killed by one of his commanders, Ali Mardan
Khalji.

The death of Bakhtiyar was followed by an internal feud among three of this lieutenants.
In the in-fight, IWAZ KHALJI emerged victorious and he ruled Bengal from 1212 to 1227,
at which time he was killed while fighting an army sent out from Delhi by SULTAN
ILTUTMISH, who wanted to extend his authority on Bengal.

After the death of Iwaz Khalji until the year 1287, Bengal remained politically unstable.
During this period, 15 rulers of Turkish origin ruled Bengal. Notable among the rulers of
Bengal of this period were NASIRUDDIN son of Delhi Sultan Iltutmish, JALALUDDIN and
TUGHRAL KHAN. It was during the reign of Tughral Khan that BALBAN, the Sultan of
Delhi, invaded Bengal following Tughral's declaration of independence from Delhi.
Tughral was defeated and Bengal came under control of the Delhi Sultanate.
After the departure of Balban, his son BUGHRA KHAN and grandson KAIKUS ruled
Bengal virtually independently from Delhi. These two members of the family of Balban
ruled Bengal till 1301, when SHAMSUDDIN FIRUZ SHAH took over. Firuz brought about
an expansion of Muslim territories second only to the expansion achieved one hundred
years earlier by Bakhtiyar Khalji. Before Firuz, Lakhnauti dominion was confined within
Bihar, north and northwestern Bengal, and Lakhnor in southwestern Bengal. Occupation
of Satgaon in Hughly and Sonargaon had started in the reign of Kaikaus and under Firuz
the process was completed. He also conquered Mymensingh and Sylhet. Firuz remained
virtually independent of Delhi.

After the death of Firuz, there was a bloody feud among his sons, and the Sultan of
Delhi, GHIYASUDDIN TUGHLAQ, was forced to send an army under his adopted son
BAHRAM KHAN (TATAR KHAN) to restore Muslim control in Bengal. With Bengal again
under control, Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin divided Bengal into three administrative units:
Satgaon, Sonargaon and Lakhnauti, and different officials were appointed for
administering these regions.

FAKHRUDDIN MUBARAK SHAH, armour-bearer of Bahram Khan, took control of

Sonargaon and proclaimed independence and assumed the title of Sultan. He defeated
forces from Satgaon and Lakhnauti which had been sent to restore Delhi's control.

THE SUFIS were saints who were considered to possess the blessing of God and spiritual
power. They derive their inspiration from Hazrat Muhammad. They led a simple life and
preached Islam throughout their words and deeds. The Sufis were numerous and they
played a prominent role in delivering the Islamic message of equality and social justice
and thus drew people of different religions towards Islam. They arrived from the Middle
East or Central Asia as early as the time of the arrival of Bakhtiyar Khalji. One of the most
revered Sufis of Bengal was SHAH JALAL, who arrived and settled in Sylhet with his 313
disciples. Some revered Sufis and Pirs include: BABA ADAM SHAHID (preached in
Dhaka), HAZRAT KHAN JAHAN ALI (preached in Khulna and Jessore, also built the Shat
Gambuj), HAZRAT SHAH MAKDUM (preached in Rajshahi), and HAZRAT BAYAZID
BOSTAMI (preached in Chittagong)

Topic 2D

FAKHRUDDIN MUBARAK SHAH established himself as independent Sultan of Sonargaon

and after his death in 1349, he was succeeded by his son, GAZI SHAH. However, more
significant events were happening in Lakhnauti, where an army commander, ALI
MUBARAK, seized control and established an independent kingdom. He was overthrown
and killed by his foster brother, HAJI ILIYAS, thus he established the Iliyas Shahi Dynasty
which ruled Bengal for the next hundred years.

HAJI ILIYAS was the founder of the Iliyas Shahi Dynasty, he took control of Lakhnauti in
1342 and assumed the long title of Sultan Shamsuddin Abul Muzaffar Iliyas Shah. He
brought the three major geographical units of Satgaon, Sonargaon and Lakhnauti under
a single authority. He called himself Shah-i-Bangla for this. His independent rule over
Bengal offended the Sultan in Delhi. SULTAN FIRUZ TUGHLAQ invaded Bengal with and
enormous army in 1353 but could not subdue Haji Iliyas, who continued to rule freely.
He succeeded in resisting external threat to his kingdom and also extended his authority
in Bihar, Nepal, Orissa and Assam.

SIKANDAR SHAH succeeded his father, Haji Iliyas and ruled a prosperous and politically
stable Bengal for about thirty years and died around 1390. He, like his father resisted
threat from Sultan Firuz of Delhi.

Sikandar Shah was succeeded by his son, GHIYASUDDIN AZAM SHAH (1390-1410), he
was an able ruler and exchanged embassies with the Chinese Emperor and maintained
correspondences with the famous poet, Hafiz of Iran. He lavishly patronized several
madrasahs in Mecca and Medina. He was famous for his respect of law and justice, he
did not consider himself greater than the law. He was fortunate as he had no wars to
fight.

The death of Ghiyasuddin Azam was followed by political instability. His son SAFIDDIN
HAMZA SHAH, was murdered by his slave, SHIHABUDDIN, who took control but was
soon murdered himself. Taking advantage of the situation RAJA GANESH, a Brahman
noble of Dinajpur assumed power in Bengal. He appointed many Hindus in high posts
and persecuted many Sufis. SULTAN IBRAHIM SARKI brought a force from Jainpur and
Raja Ganesh was forced to abdicate his kingdom in favor of his son, JADU, who later
converted to Islam and was named JALALUDDIN MOHAMMAD SHAH (1415-1432). After
Ibrahim Sarki left Bengal, Ganesh reassumed power and reconverted his son to
Hinduism. After Ganesh's death in 1418, Jalaluddin again returned to Islam.

Jalaluddin's son, SHAMSUDDIN AHMAD SHAH was murdered by his slave NASIR KHAN,
who ascended the throne. This made the nobles outraged and they had him killed and
restored the Iliyas Shahi Dynasty by installing NASIRUDDIN MAHMOOD SHAH (1433-
1459), grandson of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah. He ruled for seventeen years and during his
reign the boundaries of Bengal was gradually extended.
Nasiruddin was succeeded by his able son, RUKHNUDDIN BARBAK SHAH (1459-1574).
He brought a large number of slaves from Ethiopia origin and soon these slaves became
politically involved over time. After Rukhnuddin's death, the activities of some slaves
created political instability. A period of unrest has finally brought to an end when a
noble of Arab origin named SAYID HUSSAIN assumed power in 1494 and entitled
himself as ALAUDDIN HUSSAIN SHAH. Thus the Hussain Shahi Dynasty was established.

ART AND CULTURE DURING THE ILIYAS SHAHI DYNASTY was well developed as the
political stability was brought to a minimum, therefore the Sultans could pay more
attention to developing art and culture. The most spectacular achievement in
architecture during the Iliyas Shahi Dynasty was the famous Adina Mosque in Pandua,
built by Sikandar Shah. Other important monuments erected during this period were the
Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah at Sonargaon, the Kotwali Darwaza, the Nim Darwaza,
the Tantipara mosque, Sona Masjid of Pandua, etc. Under the patronage of Ghiyasuddin,
Shah Muhammad Sagir wrote his famous poem Yusuf-Zulekha. During this period there
were stories and poems which were patronized by the rulers of the Iliyas Shahi Dynasty
on romantic tales and religious stories of Islam.

THE HUSSAIN SHAHI DYNASTY was established by Alauddin Hussain Shah who
extended the boundaries of Bengal by conquering Kamarupa and Kamta, annexing
Comilla and Chittagong to his kingdom and sending expeditions to Orissa. He resisted
threat from SIKANDAR LODI, Sultan of Delhi. He also gave away some of his power to
his son NUSRAT SHAH.

Nusrat Shah (1519-1532) ascended the throne of Bengal. He tried to avoid confrontation
with Mughal ruler Babur, who had appeared in eastern Indian scene after his victory in
Panipat. When Babur sent an expedition to Bengal, Nusrat Shah concluded a treaty
which made Bengal safe.

Nusrat Shah was assassinated in 1532 and was succeeded by ALAUDDIN FERUZ SHAH
and then GHIYASUDDIN MAHMUD, but could not reverse the decline of the Hussain
Shahi Dynasty. Meanwhile, the Afghans grew stronger under the leadership of SHER
SHAH, who posed a great threat to the Mughals in Delhi as well as the Sultans of Bengal
and when he captured Gaur in 1538, the independent status of Bengal was finally lost.

ART AND CULTURE DURING THE HUSSEIN SHAHI DYNASTY was well developed as
there was a long spell of undisturbed peace, prosperity, communal harmony and the
development of Bengali culture and literature. This is why the Hussein Shahi era is
considered the 'golden age' of the Bengali sultanate. The Sultans, because of their close
association with the local people, gave status and dignity to the Bangla language. Major
poets were also patronized by the rulers of the dynasty. The translators of Mahabharata
were patronized by Paragal Khan and his son Chhuti Khan. The period also marked the
growth of secular elements in Bangla literature. During this period, Bengal's contribution
to literature and calligraphy were significant. Evidence of Hussain Shahi architecture in
Bengal can be seen with the Ruins of Darasbari Madrasah at Gaur, the Gumti Gate, the
Qadam Rasak, the Jahanian Mosque, the Bara Sona Mosque and the Chota Sona
Mosque. Usage of terracotta were significant.

Topic 3A
The founder of the Mughal Empire was ZAHIRUDDIN MUHAMMAD BABUR. He was a
descendant of AMIR TAIMUR (TIMURLANE 1336-1405) through his father's line and a
descendant of Chengiz Khan through his mother's line. Babur was born in Central Asia in
1483 into the ruling family of a small kingdom called Fargana. He wanted to establish
his empire in Central Asia but couldn't thus he turned to India instead. The
circumstances in India were ideal for Babur because of the decline of the last strong
Sultans of the Tuglaq dynasty, the central power was not strong. The Lodis, racially
Afghans, extended their political influence in India but there was little stability as the
Lodi rulers often fought among themselves for supremacy. Thus the situation was ideal
for Babur, he stepped into India amidst this situation and conquered Vira, Sialkot and
Saidpur between the years 1519 and 1520. He conquered Kandahar in 1522 and Punjab
in 1525. Then at the battle of Panipat in 1526 he defeated IBRAHIM LODI, Sultan of
Delhi and began to establish Mughal dynastic rule in India.

After the battle of Panipat, some Lodi rulers had to seek refuge with Nusrat Shah the
Sultan of Bengal and Bihar. He not only gave them protection but also gave them
privileges according to their ranks. He is even said to have married Ibrahim Lodi's
daughter. He was seeking to build an alliance with the Afghans. Babur sent an envoy to
Nusrat Shah, asking for his neutrality in the ongoing conflicts between the Mughals and
Afghans. He kept putting off his reply and in 1528, Babur sent another envoy to Bengal
asking for a definite answer. Thus Nusrat Shah agreed to remain neutral. In order to
pursue the Afghans, Babur asked Nusrat Shah for free passage through the trans-
Ghagra territory, when Nusrat Shah hesitated, Babur occupied the territory there up to
Saran after defeating the Sultan's contingent posted there. Nusrat Shah's military
governor of Monghyr promptly concluded a treaty with Babur accepting all his terms.

Shortly after this, Babur died in 1530 and was succeeded by his son, HUMAYUN. Nusrat
Shah died a few years later in 1532 and was succeeded by his younger brother
GHIYASUDDIN MAHMUD SHAH. Both the rulers were less able of their predecessors,
and the next influential figure was SHER SHAH, an Afghan. He not only captured Bengal
and Bihar but kept the Mughals away from North India as long as he lived.

Afghan rule was established when Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah sent and army into Bihar
to punish one of Sher Shah's governors for his alleged involvement in the assassination
of his father, Nusrat Shah. The governor happened to be an ally of Sher Shah, who in
defense of his ally, advanced towards Bengal and captured Gaur in 1538, in course of his
fight against Mahmud Shah. Thus Mahmud Shah was forced to concede all territories
west of Rajmahal and pay an annual tribute of one crore takas. When Mahmud Shah
broke his commitment, he was finally toppled by Sher Shah's army.

Humayun, son of Mughal ruler Babur sensed great danger with the emerging power of
Sher Shah, thus he marched towards Bihar and Bengal with a huge army to subdue him.
Sher Shah wisely did not confront Humayun's massive army and this allowed the
Mughals an easy occupation of Bengal. But while Humayun was merrymaking in Gaur,
Sher Shah established his control over the territory between Bihar and the capital Delhi,
thus he cut off all lines of communication between Delhi and Bengal. Humayun,
unwisely wasted his time in Bengal when the rainy season was drawing near. When
Humayun realized his mistake and started for Agra from Bengal, his way was blocked by
Sher Shah at Chausa, near Boxer, in June 1539. Sher Shah sent an army to Gaur and
succeeded in overthrowing the Mughal garrison. Humayun, again attempted to recover
his fortune and confronted the Afghans again in Kanauj in May 1540, but he was
defeated again and he fled to Persia.

ADMINISTRATION OF SHER SHAH. In a brief reign of only five years (1540-1545), Sher
Shah established peace and order in the Empire and remodeled its administration. He
divided his Empire into 47 sarkars and subdivided each sarkar into a number of
parganas. Bengal had 19 sarkars, with two high officials, Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran and
Munsif-i-Munsifan. Taxes were fixed at one-fourth of the gross produce and were
payable in either cash or in kind. He reformed the currency and improved trade and
commerce by abolishing some duties. There was a network of excellent roads, sarai,
mosques and temples at regular intervals. His most important road was Sarak-i-Azam
(Grand Trunk Road) which ran 3000 miles from Sonargaon to Multan via Agra, Delhi and
Lahore. He remodeled the police system and made village headmen responsible for the
maintenance of peace in their respective areas. He maintained a strong standing army.
The sultan was the highest court of appeal, both for civil and criminal cases. Next to him
was the Qazi-ul-Quzzat. In the parganas the Qazi administrated criminal cases, while the
Amin looked after civil ones. Panchayats decided the civil cases of the Hindus. He
opened free public kitchens for the poor, founded madrasahs, mosques and important
buildings, laid out gardens and erected hospitals and sarais.

The death of Sher Shah gave the Mughals a long lasting supremacy all over India. The
process of consolidation of the Mughal Empire was carried out not by Humayun, but by
his son, AKBAR, the greatest of the Mughals. Akbar ascended the throne of Delhi at the
age of thirteen following the death of his father, Emperor Humayun in January 1556.
Bengal continued to be under the successors of Sher Shah until 1564, when SULAIMAN
KARANI, the Governor of South Bihar, extended his authority over Bengal. Sulaiman
maintained uncomfortable but friendly relations with the Mughal Emperor, until his
death in 1572.

Sulaiman's son DAUD KHAN, aroused the wrath of the Mughal Emperor by declaring his
independence and then attacking and capturing the Fort of Zamania. Akbar personally
marched against Daud Khan in 1574 and drove him out of Patna and Hajipur. He
returned to Delhi leaving an army of 20,000 to continue confronting the Afghans.
However, Daud Khan still managed to strike back and recover Bengal in October 1575,
but was later killed at the Battle of Rajmahal in July 1576, and Bengal finally became an
integral part of the Mughal Empire.

Mughal rule was far from secure and there was a resistance put up by a number of
powerful chieftains and landlords of Bengal, collectively known as the BARO BHUIYANS.
The anti-Mughal resistance was led by the famous ISA KHAN, who had his capital in
Sonargaon, close to today's Dhaka. In September 1584, Isa Khan defeated a Mughal
navy. Two years later, when the Mughals successfully marched through the Bengal Delta
and reached as far as Chittagong, Isa Khan played a rather conciliatory role and
accepted Akbar's overlordship. But Isa Khan was increasingly being viewed as a menace
to the Mughals and thus Akbar sent RAJA MANSINGH to be governor of Bengal.
Mansingh led and expedition against Isa Khan in 1595. In the meantime, Isa Khan
became more emboldened by the alliance from neighboring zamindars such as the
Kedar Rai of Faridpur. In 1597 he defeated the Mughal forces under Mansingh whose
son was killed in the battle.

After the death of Isa Khan in 1599, his son MUSA KHAN, took up the leadership of the
anti-Mughal resistance. In the meantime, Mansingh defeated and killed the Kedar Rai.
Resistance to the Mughals centered around Musa Khan and USMAN KHAN, one of the
last very powerful Afghans. They had to give in when ISLAM KHAN, an illustrious Mughal
governor, was sent to Bengal.
Emperor Akbar died and was succeeded by his son, JAHANGIR. Jahangir sent two
governors to Bengal, QUTUB AL-DIA KHAN KOKA and JAHANGIR QULI KHAN in quick
succession between 1606 and 1608. During these years Musa Khan was able to recover
his lost territories which had been lost during Mansingh's invasions. Then Jahangir sent
Islam Khan as the new Mughal Viceroy.

Islam Khan brought in increased forces and war materials, including guns and artillery,
as well as a large fleet. A new diwan, ABU AL HASAN and a new admiral of the fleet,
IHTIMAM KHAN, joined him at Rajmahal shortly after his arrival. While Islam Khan was
preparing for war he tried to induce RAJA PRATTAPADITYA OF JESSORE, an influential
figure of the Baro Bhuiyans, to join the Mughals by offering him territories and
patronage. Islam Khan won over many zamindars and chiefs to break up the power of
Musa Khan and his confederates. Pratapaditya accepted Islam Khan's overlordship, but
refrained from supplying his army to assist the Mughals. Thus Islam Khan defeated and
imprisoned Pratapaditya and annexed his territory.

After defeating Pratapaditya, Islam Khan fought against many minor Afghan leaders and
finally defeated Musa Khan in 1611 and Usman Khan in 1612. Musa Khan was compelled
to come to compromise whereas Usman Khan was killed during the fight with Islam
Khan. After the deaths of Usman Khan and Musa Khan, the period of the Baro Bhuiyans
came to an end, with this most of Bengal came firmly under the Mughal administration.
During this period Dhaka was made the capital of Bengal, it was called Jahangir Nagar,
in honor of the Mughal emperor.

Jahangir died in 1627 and was succeeded by his third son, PRINCE KHURRAM or SHAH
JAHAN. His rule of thirty years till 1658 was marked by peace and prosperity. Hughly
was captured from the Portuguese and the slave trade closed.

QASIM KHAN was sent to replace FIDA KHAN as Viceroy of Bengal. The next two
viceroys, AZAM KHAN (1632-35) and ISLAM KHAN MASHADI (1635-39) had to deal with
trouble in Arakan and Assam. The Mughals occupied Darrang in Assam and set up
headquarters in Gauhati. When Islam Khan Mashadi was recalled to take up the post of
Prime Minister in 1639, Prince Suja, the second son of Shah Jahan was appointed
Viceroy of Bengal.

Bengal enjoyed a long period of peace and prosperity during Suja’s viceroyalty of
twenty-one years (1639-1660). He removed the headquarters from Dhaka to Rajmahal,
which was a drier region near the Bihar frontier. It also enabled him to control all parts
of his province, including Kamarupa in the northeast.
Emperor Shah Jahan fell seriously ill at the end of September 1657. This was a signal for
a struggle of succession to break out among his four sons, DARA SHIKO, SUJA,
AURANGZEB and MURAD. Suja proved himself to be an able ruler as he was an efficient
administrator as Viceroy of Bengal, but did not have any influence in court. Murad did
not have the qualities required, therefore the contest was between Dara and Aurangzeb.
Dara was defeated by Aurangzeb at Samugar, and fled. Aurangzeb occupied Agra and
imprisoned his father in the Agra Fort. He also imprisoned his brother Murad. The
armies of Aurangzeb and Suja confronted each other at Khajwa. Suja was defeated and
he fled towards Bengal. Aurangzeb sent the Governor of Khandesh, MOZZEM KHAN
ALIAS MIR JUMLA in pursuit of Suja. He then returned to the capital and had Dara
imprisoned and beheaded. Suja took refuge in Tanda near Gaur and Mir Jumla occupied
Rajmahal in April 1659 and defeated Suja early in 1660. Suja fled to Dhaka with his
family and sought asylum in Arakan. The Arakan ruler had Suja and his family mercilessly
killed when he attempted a coup with the help of the Muslim subjects of the Arakan
ruler. Suja’s escape to Arakan ended the war of succession.

Aurangzeb rewarded Mir Jumla for his services by giving him viceroyalty and also to
establish his authority firmly over Bengal. He was awarded the title of Khan-e-Khanan,
the highest of all ranks in recognition for his achievement. He transferred the capital
from Rajmahal to Dhaka. He occupied Kuch Bihar and succeeded in annexing the
greater part of Assam. Orissa was also under his administration until a new Governor of
Orissa was appointed.

When Mir Jumla died, Daud Khan was made the temporary governor until SHAISTA
KHAN, Mumtaz Mahal’s brother, arrived in Dhaka in December 1664 as Viceroy of
Bengal. He introduced a number of reforms such as the abolition of monopolies and
customs and tolls. Kuch Bihar was under his authority and he planned to capture
Chittagong from the Arakanese. His forces occupied Sandvip and then defeated the
Arakanese in a battle in 1666. He captured Chittagong and set many Bengali men and
women, held prisoner by the Arakanese, free. Chittagong was named Islamabad by the
Emperor.

MURSHID QULI ZAFAR KHAN was made Viceroy of Bengal in 1705. He transferred the
capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad. It was during his time that Bengal’s political
connection with central Mughal administration weakened. He did not openly serve the
connections with the Mughals as he realized the empire was coming to a decline. Thus
he asserted his authority in a way that would not trouble the emperor but would help
him run the affairs of Bengal independently.

Aurangzeb, the last great Mughal Emperor, had reached the height of his power in the
year 1690. His rule extended from Kabul to Chittagong and from Kashmir to the river
Kaveri. The Mughal Empire began to disintegrate even before the death of Aurangzeb in
March 1707.

Topic 3B

DECLINE OF THE MUGHALS

1. Struggle for succession: After the death of Aurangzeb, a struggle for succession broke
out between his three sons MUAZZAN (Governor of Kabul), MUHAMMAD AZAM
(Governor of Gujrat) and MUHAMMAD KAM BAKSH (Governor of Bijapur) over the
throne of Delhi. The competition of power led to the deaths of Muhammad and Azam.
Muazzem took up the title of BAHADUR SHAH and upon his death in 1712, a fresh war
of succession broke out among his four sons. Among his four sons, Jahandar Shah,
became emperor. Further conflicts resulted in absence of a firm central authority.

2. Religious Policy: Aurangzeb himself being a practicing Muslim, favored the Muslims
and offended the non-Muslims by re-imposing Jizia and abolishing some of their
customs such as the Sati, the sacrifice of Hindu widows. He denounced the idea of
joining hands with the non-Muslims for the betterment of the Empire. Such
discrimination caused discontent and unrest within the Empire.

3. Deccan (South) Policy: Aurangzeb annexed the Shia states of Golcunda and Bijapur,
who were allies of the Hindu Maratha Kings. The Mughal Empire had become too vast
to be controlled by a single authority, especially the southern states. Communication
system was weak and frequent Maratha raids further accelerated the downfall of the
Empire.

4. Rajput Policy: The Rajputs contributed greatly to expand the Mughal Empire and
when Aurangzeb annexed Marwar, aggressive policies emerged the Rajputs. Their
retaliation almost turned to a national uprising and disturbed law and order within the
Empire.

5. Maratha Revival: The Marathas were strong in the west and wanted to build their own
Maharashtra Empire. They were the strongest in the north and took up the roles of
defenders of Hindustan. Their conquests in the north accelerated the disintegration of
the Empire.

6. Weak nobles and party factions: The nobles were divided into two groups:
i) Hindustani or Indo-Muslim party – consisting of Indian Muslims aligned with Hindus.
ii) Foreign nobles or Mughals – consisting of Sunnis from Central Asia and Shias from
Persia.
Most nobles were only interested in increasing their power and influence, such
quarrelsome behavior resulted in civil war.

7. Administrative weakness: The administration was full of corruption. Officers took

bribes and the emperors spent immensely. The rate of tax was high and the governors
were tyrannical. The mansabdars, who were officials appointed by the empire, were
often weak, corrupt and repressed. The nobles were often cheated out of their lands and
in repression they broke rules and behaved cruelly causing misery and despair among
the peasants.

8. Demoralized army: The army was formed of contingents maintained by the nobles
from their revenues or assignments of posts. Nobles often used this to benefit
themselves. Discipline was lax and there were no penalties for military crimes, acts of
treason, cowardice or neglect of duty. Training was as per wish and the weapons used
were outdated. With the expansion of the Empire, the army grew vast and
uncontrollable. Jealousy and rivalry was common and destroyed the chance of victory of
campaigns.

9. Persian invasions: Invasions by AHMED SHAH ABDALI and NADER SHAH and the third
battle of Panipat ended disastrously for the Marathas and Muslims. This also paved
away for the Mughal decline.

10. Arrival of the British: The British received trade permission from Jahangir in 1620 to
build forts in Surat, Agra and Ahmedabad. Given the prevailing decline of the Mughals,
the British became more politically involved. In 1688, they blockaded the Mughal ports
and captured ships. With the Emperor reacting strictly, the British were forced to sign a
treaty. The British were given trade permit under the condition of them returning the
captured vessels and a payment of one and a half lac rupees. This proved fatal for the
Mughals because it legitimized the presence and right to trade of the British. Britain was
the most technologically advanced at the time and they brought weapons the Mughals
had never seen before. They brought a sense of unity and determination which the
Mughals lacked.

Topic 3C

The end of Shaista Khan Rule marked the end of Mughal authority. A number of Mughal
governors were sent to deal with problems in Bengal but were unable to establish
control. Due to Aurangzeb’s continuous absence because of the Deccan campaigns,
RAHIM KHAN an Afghan chief attempted to gain authority in Orissa and South Western
Bengal. The uprising was put down but was a severe challenge to Mughal Rule in
Bengal. Taking advantage of this confusion, European companies fortified (created
boundaries) settlements and made themselves stronger in military. The British
purchased 3 villages, Sultanoti, Kalikata and Gobindopur. Calcutta was formed upon
bringing the three villages together. The British built Fort William, Fort Orleans by the
French at Chandernagar and Fort Gustavas by the Dutch at Chinsura. The Europeans also
recruited Rajputs and other locals in their armies. In the meantime, Mughal Viceroy
Prince AZIM AL-DIN had bad relations with the diwan Murshid Quli Khan. Murshid Quli
Khan persuaded the emperor to transfer the capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad and
once again, Dhaka was not the capital of Bengal, Mughal power declined.

Nawabs of Bengal
The Nawabs were hereditary rulers of Bengal whose only connection with the Mughal
Emperor was to follow his Firman and pay him a tribute. They were responsible for the
subah (provinces) and the Nawabi Era was started by Murshid Quli Khan when the
central government appointed 2 officers. One was subahdar (justice and defence
administrator) and diwan (revenue administrator).

Murshid Quli Khan was the first of the Nawabs and the subahdar of Bengal. He reigned
over Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. He made his capital Murshidabad and introduced the
Zurbe Murshidabah coin. He built the magnificent Katra Masjid and is buried under its
steps.

SUJA-UDDIN was the son-in-law of Murshid Quli Khan. He was a just and charitable
ruler, he encouraged learning and was a great patron of art and culture. He is buried in
Roshni Bagh.

SARAFARAZ KHAN was a man of valor and of religious temperament. He was defeated
at the Battle of Giria by Alivardi Khan.

ALIVARDI KHAN ruled for sixteen year. He faced continual attacks from the Marathas
and the Afghan Rebellion. He bought peace from the Marathas and maintained good
relations with the Europeans but did not let them increase their military power.

SIRAJ-UD-DOULA succeeded his grandfather, Alivardi Khan. He faced problems with the
British and his disgruntled relatives and bureaucrats. He occupied Cossimbazar factory
of the British in 1756. He went to occupy Calcutta but had to go to Bihar to put down
the rebellion of his cousin SHAUKAT JANG, a claimant of the throne. Taking advantage
of this situation, the British reconquered Calcutta and struck a secret treaty with MIR
JAFAR. The British captured the Cossimbazar factory and the French sought asylum from
the Nawab. The Nawabs and the British Army, under ROBERT CLIVE, met at the battle of
Palashi. In an act of betrayal by Mir Jafar, Siraj was defeated in 1757, he fled and was
later killed by his own people.

Mir Jafar was an incompetent ruler. The British replaced him with his son-in-law MIR-
QASIM, as an account of non-payment of dues. Mir-Qasim paid off his dues but later
showed signs of independence. He shifted his capital to Monghyr in Bihar and tried to
recognize his own army. The British did not approve this and defeated Mir-Qasim at the
Battle of Buxar in 1764.

Topic 5A

1. Geographical problems – West Pakistan did not have any natural borders, such as
rivers, mountains or the sea. East and West Pakistan were separated by about a
thousand miles of land that belonged to India.
2. Refugees and inter-communal violence – There was widespread violence between the
Muslim and the non-Muslim communities, before the partition. When the boundaries of
the two nations was demarcated and announced in August 1947, people found
themselves in the wrong country. Thus one of the greatest migrations began. 5.3 million
Hindus fled Punjab and Sindh into India, 5.9 million Muslims fled from India into West
Pakistan. And 3.3 million Hindus fled East Bengal, and 1.3 million Muslims fled from
India into East Bengal. Many Muslims were killed by Hindus, Sikhs and state troops
during the migration. Almost a million women, men and children died as a result of
violence or the rigors of the long journey. About 20 million people were made homeless
and both India and Pakistan had to deal with enormous problems as huge numbers of
refugees fled to them for safety. Karachi received about 2 million refugees and Pakistan,
being a new and not wealthy country, faced problems due to the lack of facilities
needed to house millions of new citizens. In 1947, Pakistan and India began to co-
operate in evacuating the people more orderly.

3. Political problems – In 1947, it was decided that old British India should be divided
into two new countries, Pakistan and India. Pakistan faced more problems than India.
India inherited government buildings, furnishings, even officials from the British. India
had officials, members from the Indian National Congress, with proper political
experience. Whereas, in Pakistan, assembly members were mostly wealthy landowners
with little political experience. The separation of East and West Pakistan made it difficult
to govern as one country, over half of the population came from East Pakistan whereas
the majority of government and army leaders came from West Pakistan. Skilled
personnel, equipment, a capital city with government buildings were missing.
MUHAMMAD ALI JINNAH was made Governor-General and LIAQUAT ALI KHAN was
made Prime Minister. All government papers, files and documents which Pakistan got as
their share was brought from Delhi to Karachi, and also from Calcutta to Dhaka.

4. Economic problems – Pakistan was underdeveloped, with very little industry. Much of
Pakistan was on the borders of the sub-continent and had not been linked to
industrialization that had taken place in central India. Around 90% of the people lived in
the countryside, and there were only 8 towns, Karachi, Lahore, Dhaka, Hyderabad,
Rawalpindi, Multan, Sialkot and Peshawar with a population of more than 100,000. East
Bengal produced 70% of the world’s crop in 1947 and jute produced the main source of
foreign exchange earnings for Pakistan. Pakistan did not have a single jute mill during
that time and all the jute mills were in India and East Pakistan produced nearly 90% of
jute.

5. The division of financial and military assets – The division of assets were divided on a
ratio of 17 to India and 5 to Pakistan. In June 1947, it was agreed that Pakistan would be
paid 750 million rupees of the 4 million rupees in the Reserve Bank. The first 200 million
were paid but India refused to pay the rest, thinking that Pakistan would use the money
to buy arms to fight against India. India agreed if Pakistan stopped fighting and agreed
that Kashmir belonged to India then the rest would be paid. 500 million rupees were
paid only when Gandhi went on a hunger strike. 50 million are still to be paid. The
armed forces were divided 36% to Pakistan and 44% to India. Muslim regiments went to
Pakistan and non-Muslims to India. A problem for Pakistan was that 150,000 of their
men needed 4000 officers. There were only 2,500 trained Muslim officers as the British
Indian army had favored Hindu officers. Jinnah was forced to take 500 British officers
temporarily, as Pakistan faced immediate war over Kashmir. All 16 ordnance factories
were in India and Pakistan did not have any. India eventually paid 60 million rupees
instead of handing over any ordnance factories, and this was used to build an ordnance
factory at Wah.

6. The canal water dispute – As Pakistan had a hot and dry climate it was dependent on
water from a series of canals which drew water from the Indus, Jhelum and Chenab
rivers. The two countries were soon in dispute over the canals, especially the waters
from the Bari-Doab canal. All the headworks were in India and India refused to provide
the water from its canals. India claimed that as the headworks were in their land they
had complete rights to do what it wanted to do with the water. Pakistan argued saying
its economy was dependent on the water. The Pakistani government called for the
matter to be settled by the International Court of Justice, but India refused. Thus a
temporary agreement was reached and India agreed to allow water from East Punjab to
flow to west Punjab, but only if Pakistan agreed to find an alternative water supply.

7. Social problems – Pakistan was formed of five different groups, Pakhtuns in the north,
Balochs in the west, Sindhis in the south, Bengalis in the east and Punjabis in the
northeast. The language movement was a problem the people of East and Pakistan had
to deal with. Bangla was the mother tongue of about 56% of the people of Pakistan,
whereas Urdu was the mother tongue of only 6% of the whole of Pakistan. The Pakistani
ruling clique ignored considering the fact that Bangla should be made state language
and decided Urdu to become the only state language of entire Pakistan. Other social
issues include poverty, landless peasants, public health issues and educational issues.
During the Great Bengal Famine most of the three million people who died were from
the landless population. The last few decades of the colonial period were affected by
cholera, malaria and a number of water-borne diseases. Most educational institutions
were established in Kolkata at the expense of East Bengal. There were few institutions in
East Bengal and only one university, The University of Dhaka as well as a few colleges
and madrasahs.

8. The Kashmir issue – The biggest disagreement between India and Pakistan concerned
Jammu and Kashmir. Kashmir was the largest state and had shared boundaries with
Tibet, China, Afghanistan and Russia, which gave it strategic importance. Most of the 4
million inhabitants were Muslim, but the maharaja, Hari Singh, was a Hindu. He started a
campaign to drive many Muslims out of Bengal. Over 200,000 fled to Pakistan and the
Muslims later rose in rebellion. The maharaja turned to India for help and help came
only when he agreed to acceded India. Pakistan sent troops to Kashmir. Neither side was
strong enough for a long war, the matter was then referred to the UNO. Kashmir was
then divided between India and Pakistan. However, India had the larger portion of
Kashmir including its capital, Srinagar. After pressure from LORD MOUNTBATTEN, the
Indian Prime Minister, Nehru agreed that a referendum would be held. This referendum
has not been considered yet.

Topic 5B

The Language Movement

In September 1947, youth workers in East Pakistan called for Bangla to be made a state
language. An organization called Tamuddin Majlish was formed to make Bangla a state
language alongside Urdu. This call came in a book written by Abul Kashem for all
citizens of East Pakistan to take part in the movement. In October 1947, Tamuddin
Majlish formed the Rashtrabasha Sangram Parishad to give the movement an organized
structure, NURUL HAQ BHUYAN was appointed convener and meetings were held at the
Fazlul Haq hall. In December 1947, the Education Conference decided to make Urdu the
only state language. The students of Dhaka University protested strongly and held a
meeting on the 6th of December. In January 1948, The Rashtrabasha Sangram Parishad
demanded that Bangla should be the medium of instruction in courts of East Pakistan
and there should be two state languages – Bangla and Urdu. In February 1948, in the
first Constituent Assebly of Pakistan, the proceedings were recorded in Urdu side by
side with English. DHIRENDRA NATH DUTTA of Comilla protested strongly and a strike
was observed on the 28th. Further strikes were held and the situation soon became such
a discontent the Chief Minister KHWAJA NAZIMUDDIN was forced to free arrested
students, investigate police excesses and table a Bill in the assembly for making Bangla
the state language and to lift restrictions imposed on newspapers. Jinnah addressed the
people of East Pakistan that only Urdu would become the state language. The Prime
Ministers of Pakistan also ignored the demands made and did not give importance in
making Bangla the state language. The All Party Rashtrabasha Sangram Parishad was
formed and they carried out strikes and protests despite banning, once they protested,
the police opened fire killing a number of students and teachers of the Dhaka University.
Students built the Shahid Minar in memory of the deceased, the police tore it down a
day later. In 1956, the pressurized government of Pakistan declared Bangla to be the
state language and rebuilt the Shahid Minar.

Disparity in economic development

The provincial government in the east did not have any control over its own economy as
everything was controlled by the center. Trading bodies and foreign missions were
established in West Pakistan and a greater proportion of foreign aid and the national
development budget was allocated for the west wing. Capital investment for
development purposes amounted to 172 crore rupees for East Pakistan and 430 crore
rupees for West Pakistan between the years 1947-48 and 1960-61. The foreign trade for
East Pakistan was allocated to West Pakistan. Per capita income increased in West
Pakistan from 330 rupees in 1949-50 to 373 rupees in 1959-60. Whereas in East Pakistan
it declined from 305 rupees to 288 rupees. In 1958, AYUB KHAN addressed the
disparities. In East Pakistan in 1948-49, private investments had been worth 547 million
rupees and in 1963-64, it had doubled to 1038 million rupees. It was still 22% of the
total investment in Pakistan. Per capita income of West Pakistan increased to 464 rupees
in 1963-64 and 327 rupees for East Pakistan.

Disparities in defense
The people of East Pakistan were not represented proportionately in important posts
like defense and civil services. The Army, Navy and Air Force were established in West
Pakistan and so were all the ordnance factories. Of the total commissioned officers in
the Army and Air Force, only 5% and 17% respectively were from East Pakistan. A similar
ratio was within the Navy as well which the percentage ranged from 5-17%.
Administrative and political disparity
Pakistan had a shortage of trained personnel, as most members of the pre-independent
Indian Civil Service were Hindus who had opted to belong to India during the partition.
High-level posts in Dhaka were usually filled by West Pakistanis or by refugees from
India who had adopted Pakistani citizenship. Governor-General and Prime Minister were
from West Pakistan, even the capital was in West Pakistan.

Disparity in education
There were no adequate number of educational institutions to meet the requirements of
the large number of students. The development of scientific and professional education
was also lacking. The students and professionals were deprived of the facilities of
scholarships, training grants and other forms of aid. During the period of 1947-48,
enrollment of primary schools increased by 163% in West Pakistan and by 38% in East
Pakistan. Enrollment in secondary schools increased by 64% in West Pakistan and
decreased by 6.6% in East Pakistan. University enrollment increased by 38% in West
Pakistan and by 11% in East Pakistan.

Topic 5C

In June 1949, the Awami Muslim was formed in Dhaka. It was formed partly to support
the language movement and also in protest against the biased West Pakistani Regime.
MAULANA ABDUL BHASHANI was the first president of the Awami Muslim League. In
1955, the word Muslim was dropped in order to appeal more to the masses of East
Pakistan. Awami League, Krishak Praja Party, Leftist Ganatantrik Dal and Nezam-e-Islam
formed a Jukto Front/United Front in order to jointly participate in provincial elections.
The United Front had an agenda as they stepped into elections. They established the 21-
point program calling for Regional autonomy, recognizing Bangla as a state language,
release of political prisoners, nationalization of jute production, construction of the
Shahid Minar, declaring 21st of Feb as a public holiday, more autonomy for Dhaka and
Rajshahi universities, transformation of the Burdwan house into the Bangla Academy,
introducing rights for industrial workers according to ILO.

In the 1954 elections, The United Front won a majority of seats, they won 223 seats out
of 309 Muslim seats in the assembly, whereas the ruling Muslim League managed to win
only 9 seats. After the election, CHOWDHURY KHALIKUZZZAMAN, the Governor of Bengal,
invited AK FAZLUL HAQUE to form a government. It lasted only a few weeks, because it
proved that it could not maintain law and order when a riot broke it in Adamjee Jute
Mills and Chandragona Paper Mills. ISKANDER MIRZA was sent to rule as Governor of
the province by the Central Government. Even though the United Front had won by a
landslide, it was now virtually redundant. In Sept 1956, Awami League Coalition Ministry
was formed headed by SHAHEED SUHRAWARDY. The ministry undertook measures
which included the establishment of a permanent office of the Controller of Import and
Export in Pakistan. They government established the DIT for the development for Dhaka
city, CDA for the development of Chittagong city, the Inland Water Transport Authority,
the Jute Marketing Corporation and the Film Development Corporation. However
Bashani and Suhrawardy differed in opinion of foreign policy, thus Bashani left and
formed the National Awami Party, in July 1957.

The Suhrawardy ministry ended in October 1957 and then the Muslim League
Republican Ministry in West Pakistan was formed under the leadership of ISHMAIL
IBRAHIM CHUNDIGAR, a few days later, FIROUZ KHAN NOON of the Republican Party
became Prime Minister. Meanwhile in East Pakistan, AK Fazlul Haq dismissed ATAUR
RAHMAN KHAN’S ministry causing political crisis. After the dismissal of Ataur Rahman’s
ministry, Iskander Mirza removed AK Fazlul Haq from the governor’s office. After this
ABU SARKAR became Chief Minister. He was dismissed and Ataur Rahman again
became Prime Minister of East Pakistan. He held the office until Martial Law was
imposed. Meanwhile the first constitution of Pakistan was formed. Pakistan was
renamed Islamic Republic of Pakistan, GHULAM MOHAMMED resigned and Iskander
Mirza became the 1st President.

On the 23rd of September 1958, a serious altercation and scuffle broke out in the
Assembly which left Deputy Speaker SHAHED ALI dead. After the incident, on 7 th
October, 1958, President Iskander Mirza introduced Martial Law by a declaration. All
political parties were prohibited from political activities and the Constitution, Legislative
Assembly, Central and Provincial Ministries were suspended. Commander-in-Chief
General AYUB KHAN was appointed Chief Martial Law Administrator and Major General
UMRAO KHAN was appointed Martial Law Administrator of East Pakistan.

On 27th October 1958, General Ayub Khan removed Iskander Mirza and he himself
assumed the supreme power as the President of Pakistan. Ayub Khan remained
Commander-in-chief and the Chief Martial Law Administrator, thus he became
immensely powerful. He introduced the Elective Bodies Disqualification Ordinance
(EBDO) and many politicians were ebdoed for misusing power. He removed corrupt and
inefficient officials and made the rest retire. In October 1959, he formed a five-tier
structure of representative bodies, Union Council, Thana Council, District Council,
Divisional Council and Provincial Development Advisory Council, this was later abolished
in 1962, leaving a four-tier structure. The first elections of the Basic Democrats were held
in January, 1960. Forty thousand Basic Democrats were elected for each province and
Ayub Khan was elected President of Pakistan by means of a confidence-vote.

In 1962, President Ayub Khan lifted the Martial Law and introduced a new constitution
and Abdul Monem Khan, a Central minister of health, was made Governor of East
Pakistan. Governmental measures taken during his governorship and these include the
Parliamentary Building, Dhaka International Airport, Sadarghat Launch Terminal,
Kamalapur Railway Station, Rampura TV Center, New High Court Building, Ashuganj
Power Station, Bangladesh Agricultural University, IPGMR, Atomic Energy Center,
Science Laboratory, Chittagong University and the Jahangirnagar University.

In 1964, Mohammed Ayub Khan contested the presidential election and in January 1965
won the election against Ms. FATIMA JINNAH, sister of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the
candidate of the combined opposition parties.

After the death of H.S Suhrawardy in 1963, the leadership of the Awami League was
taken over by SHEIKH MUJIBUR RAHMAN. In the Lahore conference, Mujib announced
Six Point economic and political program for East Pakistan, it called for 1. A truer
constitution for both wings and a fair election 2. Central government only deal with
defense and foreign affairs, all other power rest with the provinces. 3. Two free
currencies for two regions or one currency for the two regions with two Reserve Banks.
4. Controlled taxations and revenue collections where the Federal government would
receive a limited share. 5. Two separate accounts of foreign exchange in two regions
based on an equal rate. 6. Federal states should have the right to form regional armies
to protect territories.

The people of East Pakistan welcomed the Six Point Program and it gained widespread
support because it threatened the political and economic monopoly of West Pakistan,
East Pakistan’s export earnings would no longer be directed to West Pakistan, Foreign
assistance would no longer be monopolized for West Pakistan only, East Pakistan would
no longer remain a captive market for West Pakistani products, East Pakistan would no
longer remain responsible for maintain West Pakistan’s war machinery, Economic
priorities would no longer be determined for the advantage of West Pakistan, and it
would end the dominance of West Pakistani bureaucrats.

After Sheikh Mujib’s supporters voted for a general strike in Dhaka, the government
arrested Mujib in January 1968, along with other civil and military officials. They were
accused of conspiring at Agartala in India to separate East Pakistan from Pakistan
through an armed revolution with India’s help. Before the case could be heard, the
people of East Pakistan rose in a mass uprising against Ayub Khan. The government
tried to bring the situation under control by massive repression, the students formed the
Student Action Committee or SAC. They started movements based on an Eleven-Point
plan which called, among other things, regional autonomy, freedom of speech and the
nationalization of big mills and factories including banks and insurance companies.
Maulana Bhashani was the first to support the eleven-point demand, he took recourse
to the Gherao Movement to realize the demands of the various interests. He called for
Demand Day on the 17th of December 1968. There were clashes further on and a few
students were killed, this led to a broader anti-government movement. The deaths of
SERGENT ZHAIRUL HAQ, an accused of the Agartala Case and DR. SHAMSUZZOHA, a
teacher of Rajshahi University, caused even more problems. The situations were so
chaotic that Ayub Khan had to release Sheikh Mujib on the 22nd of February, drop the
Agartala Conspiracy Case and invite all political leaders to a round table conference.
Sheikh Mujib addressed his 6-Point movement and the 11-Point Movement, buy Ayub
Khan did not accept this.

The situation was bad in East Pakistan and law and order began to break down, Ayub
Khan was forced to resign and power was handed over to GENERAL AGHA
MOHAMMED YAHYA KHAN, Commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Army. Yahya
introduced the ‘one man, one vote’ style.

The first elections were held in January 1971 where the PPP led by Bhutto had won 88
out 138 seats and East Pakistan had 169 seats and the Awami League won 167 seats. A
major reason for the Awami League’s success was because Bengalis felt frustrated by the
biased attitude of West Pakistan. The crisis which was caused, was that the Awami
League won so many seats that it was now a majority in East Pakistan in and in a
position to form its own government. The PPP had no role in East Pakistan unless the
Awami League were asked to share powers. The other problem was that the Awami
League’s success limited the power for the central government, thus limiting funds
available for West Pakistan.

A major reason for the success of the Awami League was the sense of frustration felt by
the Bengalis in East Pakistan towards their Muslim countrymen in West Pakistan. They
also resented the fact that East Pakistan was under-represented. In 1951 the per capita
income of East Pakistan was 85% of that of West Pakistan, by 1971 it was only 60% this
shows that there was a lack of economic development. The Awami league argued that
East Pakistan were not profiting from the jute mills, which were predominantly grown in
East Pakistan. Therefore the Awami League was able to win support by proposing a
program which called for a fairer share of government spending and more power to the
provinces.

The first elections were held in January 1971 where the PPP led by Bhutto had won 88
out 138 seats and East Pakistan had 169 seats and the Awami League won 167 seats. A
major reason for the Awami League’s success was because Bengalis felt frustrated by the
biased attitude of West Pakistan. The crisis which was caused, was that the Awami
League won so many seats that it was now a majority in East Pakistan in and in a
position to form its own government. The PPP had no role in East Pakistan unless the
Awami League were asked to share powers. The other problem was that the Awami
League’s success limited the power for the central government, thus limiting funds
available for West Pakistan.

In February 1971, Bhutto announced that the PPP would not take up their seats in the
National Assembly unless Mujib reached an agreement on power sharing beforehand.
Yahya postponed the meeting two days before the meet, without setting a new date.
The people of East Pakistan felt betrayed and started campaigns, strikes and refused to
pay taxes. Country-wide hartal was observed on the 2nd and 3rd of March. On the 3rd
Sheikh Mujib addressed a huge rally at Paltan. He announced hartal programs to be
held every day until the 6th from 5am till 2pm. Yahya was forced to announce that the
National Assembly would be held on the 25th of March. Lt. GENERAL TIKKA KHAN was
appointed Martial Law Administrator and Governor of East Pakistan.

On the 7th of March, Sheikh Mujib made his famous speech at the Race Course and told
those present to prepare for a Liberation War and announced an action program of
non-violent non-cooperation which was to be followed throughout Bangladesh. He
announced 35 rules for running the civil administration and effectively became the
leader of East Bengal.

On the 15th of March, Yahya and Sheikh Mujib met for further talks in Dhaka. No
agreement could be reached and Tikka Khan brought in reinforcements. Yahya went
back to Islamabad and the next day Bhutto left Dhaka. That night, Tikka’s men moved
on the Awami League. Mujib was arrested and his supporters and colleagues were either
killed or arrested. Pakistani forces surrounded Dhaka city with tanks and othet military
vehicles. Dhaka University was raided and a number of students, teachers and officials
were killed. Buildings were shelled and the Hindu majority of Old Dhaka came under
shells as well. People were burnt alive in the houses set on fire. More than 50,000 people
died in Dhaka, Chittagong, Jessore, Mymensingh, Kushtia and other cities within the first
three day of the genocide, which began on the 25 th of March. This is termed as
Operation Searchlight.