Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Reports
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

Review article

A review of regional energy internet in smart city from the perspective

of energy community
∗
Min Guo, Mingchao Xia , Qifang Chen
School of Electrical Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, 100044 Beijing, China

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Energy internet(EI) has developed from concept and theoretical framework to practical operation,
Received 19 April 2021 attracting more and more attention. The application of complex network analysis(CNA) in EI research
Received in revised form 27 October 2021 is conducive to realizing more secure, economic and sustainable distributed renewable energy supply
Accepted 29 November 2021
and utilization in cities, and to realizing energy conservation, emission reduction and energy efficiency
Available online xxxx
improvement in low-carbon cities. Based on the development history of EI, this paper introduces
Keywords: regional energy internet(REI) from two aspects of research scope and main characteristics. At the
Complex network analysis(CNA) same time, based on reviewing the graph theory(GT) and CNA’s application in energy-related domain,
Regional energy internet(REI) it summarizes the particularity of coupling interconnection between transportation network and
Energy self-organization(ESO) social network in REI. The concept of energy self-organization(ESO) and energy community(EC) is
Energy community(EC)
introduced based on self-organization theory, meanwhile, the differences and advantages between
ESO and previous similar concepts are summarized and compared. On this basis, the key issues of
REI are analyzed from the perspective of ECs, including complex network topology modeling, optimal
network flow allocation, coordination and complementary control, cascade failure mechanism(the
scale of different failures can be enlarged through interdependence) analysis and multi-agent interest
interaction game. Meanwhile, main research challenges are summarized and the future work is
prospected. Finally, the paper conclude the work and deficiencies—it provides a theoretical basis for
realizing a city’s collaborative optimization, independent autonomy and efficient low-carbon operation,
and improves the application of CNA in urban REI research.
© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Contents

1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 162

1.1. Research background and purpose .................................................................................................................................................................... 162
1.1.1. Development of EI driven by industry .............................................................................................................................................. 163
1.1.2. Subsystems of REI ................................................................................................................................................................................ 163
1.1.3. Characteristics of REI ........................................................................................................................................................................... 163
1.2. Literature review.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 167
1.2.1. Energy network .................................................................................................................................................................................... 167
1.2.2. Information network............................................................................................................................................................................ 168
1.2.3. Transportation network....................................................................................................................................................................... 169
1.2.4. Social network ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 169
1.2.5. Coupling interconnection of complex networks of various fields ................................................................................................. 170
1.2.6. Urban energy network......................................................................................................................................................................... 170
1.3. Content of main studies...................................................................................................................................................................................... 171
2. ESO and EC ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 171
3. Analysis of key issues from the perspective of EC ..................................................................................................................................................... 173
3.1. Topological description and metrics of EC ....................................................................................................................................................... 173
3.1.1. Analysis structure of EC ...................................................................................................................................................................... 173
3.1.2. EC topology ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 173
3.1.3. EC topology metrics ............................................................................................................................................................................. 173

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mchxia@bjtu.edu.cn (M. Xia).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.11.286
2352-4847/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182

3.2. Optimal energy flow distribution of EC ............................................................................................................................................................ 174

3.2.1. Minimum loss issue ............................................................................................................................................................................. 175
3.2.2. Optimal capacity allocation................................................................................................................................................................. 175
3.2.3. Maximum consumption issue............................................................................................................................................................. 175
3.3. Synchronous control analysis of EC................................................................................................................................................................... 175
3.3.1. Synchronization within an EC ............................................................................................................................................................ 175
3.3.2. Synchronization among multiple ECs ................................................................................................................................................ 175
3.3.3. Interaction mechanism ........................................................................................................................................................................ 175
3.4. Cascade failure analysis of EC ............................................................................................................................................................................ 175
3.5. Decision-making analysis on EC market transaction ...................................................................................................................................... 176
3.5.1. EC’s market transactions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 176
3.5.2. EC cooperation’s earning prediction .................................................................................................................................................. 176
3.5.3. Cooperations among ECs ..................................................................................................................................................................... 176
3.5.4. No cooperation among ECs ................................................................................................................................................................. 177
3.5.5. ECs cooperation decision analysis ...................................................................................................................................................... 177
4. Research challenges and prospects based on EC ........................................................................................................................................................ 177
4.1. Research challenges ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 177
4.1.1. Challenges on the accuracy and timeliness of EC ............................................................................................................................ 177
4.1.2. Challenge on optimal energy flows allocation among ECs ............................................................................................................. 177
4.1.3. Challenges on synchronous control and cascade failure analysis .................................................................................................. 177
4.1.4. Challenges on decision-making and management of energy market transactions...................................................................... 177
4.2. Research prospects .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 178
4.2.1. The application of betweenness and modularity in EC’s partition ................................................................................................ 178
4.2.2. Establishment of and solution to the optimal energy flow distribution model of EC ................................................................ 178
4.2.3. Application of adaptive control in EC’s synchronization................................................................................................................. 178
4.2.4. Research on ECs cascading failures model based on optimal energy flow allocation................................................................. 178
4.2.5. Research on game theory of stakeholders’ decision-making in energy market transaction ...................................................... 178
5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 178
CRediT authorship contribution statement ................................................................................................................................................................... 179
Declaration of competing interest.................................................................................................................................................................................. 179
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 179
References ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 179

Nomenclature CO2 emissions soar (Chen et al., 2020). In addition, the continuous
growth of global urbanization and the increase of population
EI Energy internet concentration have brought more severe challenges to the energy
CNA Complex network analysis consumption and environmental governance of cities (Zhu and
DES District energy system Leibowicz, 2020). It is predicted that by 2025, China’s urban
ESOs Energy self-organizations population will exceed 1 billion (Huang et al., 2020b). Urban
ECs Energy communities transportation demand and energy consumption will undergo
unprecedented changes, and the main carbon emission of trans-
REI Regional energy internet
portation system will become the key factor affecting the urban
WEI Wide-area energy internet
environment (Zhao et al., 2017). Urban energy consumption and
IES Integrated energy system carbon emission will be affected by choices of transportation
DHN District heating network means and operation modes. Therefore, correct guidance and
DCN District cooling network reasonable regulation are effective ways to realize low-carbon
GT Graph theory transportation (Gupta et al., 2019). According to the International
SC Smart city Energy Agency, transport accounts for almost one third of carbon
CHPS Combined heat and power system emissions of global energy consumption and will exceed 50% by
BEN Balanced energy network 2030 (Sun et al., 2018b).
Cities contribute more than 70% of global CO2 emissions and
DHCS District heating and cooling system
two thirds of global energy consumption (Zhou et al., 2018).
ESO Energy self-organization
Facing the challenges in global energy, climate and environment,
EC Energy community etc, countries around the world have reached a consensus of joint
MES Multi-energy system efforts to solve the issue. With the signing of the first global cli-
NZECB Near zero energy consumption building mate treaty in 2015 (Bačeković and Østergaard, 2018), European
PV Photovoltaic Union, the United States and China have pledged to cut emission
successively and set their own targets for the next decades (Lin
et al., 2018). The energy system of smart city(SC) plays an impor-
1. Introduction tant role in reducing urban energy consumption, CO2 emissions
and improving environmental quality (Wang and Moriarty, 2019).
1.1. Research background and purpose Reliable, efficient and low carbon energy supply is one of the
key requirements for next generation SC (Thellufsen et al., 2020).
Energy is not only an important pillar of urban, national and With the proposal and practice of the concepts of SC, energy
global development, but also an inevitable challenge to strategies internet(EI) (Sun et al., 2018a), based on advanced information
to improve environmental quality and sustainable development. systems, has broken the inherent barriers of traditional energy
For example, a growing economy will lead to a sharp increase systems. To achieve more flexible and large-scale integration of
in energy consumption, and the global temperature will rise as renewable energy, it couples multiple energy sectors including
162
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
Fig. 1. Development of EI driven by industry.
electricity, heating, cooling, gas, oil and transportation together
in energy generation, conversion, transmission, storage or usage
through multi-energy source flow, information flow and value
flow, thus significantly improve energy utilization efficiency and
reduce energy consumption costs. As a new model for future
urban development, SC is the feasible solution to the multiple
challenges of rapid urbanization (Sharma et al., 2020). It combines
the characteristics of sustainability, low carbon environmental
protection with efficient recycling and flexible mobility (Ahad
et al., 2020). The EI conforms with the trend of smart, clean,
electrified, and networking urban energy systems and is a new
solution for the sustainable development of SC (Li et al., 2020b).
EI includes regional energy internet(REI) and wide area energy
internet(WEI), of which REI is mainly used in cities. It is a new
urban energy supply system based on cyber–physical–social sys-
tem coupling and interconnection of different energy networks,
such as networks of heating, cooling, electricity, transportation
network and social (Chang et al., 2020). REI includes many phys-
ical infrastructure devices such as multi-energy production (Xie
et al., 2020), conversion (Algieri et al., 2020), transmission (Sun
et al., 2017), storage (Ding et al., 2020), consumption (Zhang et al.,
2020c) and management service (Kumar et al., 2019). Practical
application demonstration projects of REI are carried out around
the world, such as Totara Valley’s HyLink system in New Zealand
(Sudol, 2009), Chile’s Chilo Islands (Wu et al., 2016) and China’s
national energy network in Xiong’an New Area (Yu et al., 2018).
REI originates from the development of urban energy system,
and urban energy system and industrial system complement each
other and develop in parallel. Based on the development process
of industry-driven EI, this paper introduces REI in detail from two
aspects of research scope and main characteristics.
1.1.1. Development of EI driven by industry
As shown in Fig. 1, from the original drill wood for fire and
other direct use of energy, to steam engine’s secondary conver-
sion of energy, and to the widespread use of electric energy,
industrial mechanization is inseparable from the strengthening of
production without exception. With the continuous improvement
and popularization of industrial informatization, the original en-
ergy supply system with electricity as the core energy has been
completely overturned by EI. The later has achieved deep cou-
pling of energy and information networks through information
network interaction (Song et al., 2020), analysis and calculation
(Zhang et al., 2020d), decision-making coordination (Yang et al.,
2019) and optimal control (Meje et al., 2020) in different time and
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182
space distribution ranges. The deep coupling (Yu and Xue, 2016)
has changed the traditional way of energy supply, accelerated the
consumption of renewable energy and improved the performance
of energy physical system, thus effectively improved the usage
efficiency of energy. REI is a physical carrier of WEI, and also
a initial stage of WEI’s development, which will get power and
technical guarantee from the development of industry (Zhang
et al., 2018a)
Driven by industry, REI gradually covers many subsystems
with characteristics of coupling interconnection, multi-energy
complementarity, coordinated control and opening and sharing.
1.1.2. Subsystems of REI
In order to meet the growing energy needs of urban popu-
lation and realize a more safe and reliable clean and sustainable
energy usage, future REI will achieve interconnection of each sub-
system. More energy related subsystems will be involved in this
kind of coupling and interconnection (Wang et al., 2020a), mainly,
electricity, gas, cooling, heating, transportation, information and
other subsystems.
To date, the subsystems of REI covers a wide range of fields
in different application scenarios based on energy structure and
scale, such as industrial parks (Tabaa et al., 2020), office buildings
(Farahani et al., 2020), communities (Soeiro and Dias, 2020), resi-
dential buildings (Liu et al., 2020e), public buildings (Talebi et al.,
2018), coastal cities (Feng et al., 2019). Some results have been
achieved in research on the establishment of multiple energy
supply systems of different types and scales.
As shown in Table 1, in this section, integrated energy sys-
tem(IES), district heating network(DHN), district cooling net-
work(DCN), district heating and cooling system(DHCS), multi-
energy system(MES), near-zero energy consumption
building(NZECB), combined heat and power system(CHPS) and
balanced energy network(BEN) are included in the scope of REI
subsystem research. It should be noted that the names of different
scales and energy structures corresponding to different applica-
tion scenarios in Table 1 are the customary names in different
literatures. It does not mean that a particular subsystem name is
only appropriate for a particular scenario, and DHCS are networks
with both heating and cooling functions, as opposed to DHN or
DCN of single-function.
1.1.3. Characteristics of REI
Compared with the traditional urban energy system, REI has
more complex characteristics mainly in four aspects: coupling
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182

Table 1
Research of urban REI.
Scale and energy structure Application scenarios
REI Cities, High-tech zones, Office buildings, Campuses, Communities, Residential buildings
IES Industrial parks, Communities, Residential buildings
DHN Cities, Residential buildings, Office buildings
DCN Industrial parks, Public buildings, Coastal cities
DHCS Cities, Office buildings, Public buildings
MES Cities and Industrial parks
NZECB Residential buildings
CHPS Communities
BEN Public buildings

Fig. 2. Characteristics of REI.

and interconnection, multi-energy complementarity, distribution
and coordination, opening and sharing (Hong et al., 2018), as
described in Fig. 2.
(1) Coupling and interconnection
The innovation of REI with renewable energy relies on ur-
ban interconnection platform to realize efficient energy pro-
duction (Mohammed and Al-Bazi, 2021), transmission (Moradi-
Sepahvand and Amraee, 2021), storage (Meng et al., 2021) as
well as user-side usage (Hannan et al., 2021). The platform highly
integrates energy physical systems and information interaction
systems, connecting energy networks(cooling, heating, electricity,
gas, transportation, energy trading (Wu et al., 2021a), energy
management services) (Wu et al., 2021b) as well as users (Ren
et al., 2020), as shown in Fig. 3.
(1) Macro-interconnection of different energy forms
From the perspective of the integration of physical infras-
tructure, society and information network, on one hand, macro-
interconnection covers the interconnection, coupling and integra-
tion of urban cooling, power grid, heating, gas, transportation and
social network, on the other hand, macro-interconnection also
includes the docking of urban physical network and information
interaction network.
(2) Urban micro-interconnection within different application
scenarios
Micro-interconnection mainly covers the interconnection be-
tween energy-consuming units such as factories, farms, office
buildings, residential buildings, schools or hospitals.
Although both the macro-interconnection and
micro-interconnection face a series of issues, such as various
loads, big time and space differences, complicated energy inter-
action and data heterogeneity, urban REI has shown a strong
164
connectivity in all directions, i.e. the highly unification of multi-
energy model index, control strategy optimization and energy
flow scheduling.
(2) Multi-energy complementarity
REI supports plug-and-play of various energy resources, solv-
ing the problem of non-linearity and randomness brought by
renewable energy, improving flexibility in energy usage and op-
timizing energy flow scheduling, as shown in Fig. 4. REI’s multi-
energy complementarity is revealed mainly in four aspects-space
complementation based on energy transmission, time comple-
mentation based on energy scheduling, energy quality comple-
mentation based on energy conversion and economic comple-
mentation based on peak load shifting. The four aspects support
to overcome respectively problems of uneven distribution of en-
ergy, instability of renewable energy, poor quality of single energy
and high costs of consumption, etc.
(1) Space complementation based on energy transmission
Different forms of energy, such as cooling, heating, electricity
and gas, can be transmitted over long distances through power
lines, gas transmission networks and heating pipelines to make
up for the uneven distribution of energy in cities (Hermann et al.,
2021).
(2) Time complementation based on energy scheduling
To renewable energy, different forms of energy can achieve
peak load shifting through intelligent decision making and com-
prehensive demand side integrated response, and to make up for
the randomness, intermittence and uncertainty of single energy
supply due to distributed renewable energy (Zhuang et al., 2021).
(3) Energy quality complementation based on energy conver-
sion
Technologies such as gas boilers, power-to-gas and electric
heating are used to enable efficient conversion among multiple
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
Fig. 3. Coupling and interconnection.
Fig. 4. Multi-energy complementarity.
energy resources(cooling, heating, electricity and gas), and to
overcome the weak performance of single energy resource (Jurasz
et al., 2020).
(4) Economic complementation based on peak load shifting
With the reform of power market and the implementation of
multilevel electricity price, through off-peak energy consumption
of REI, users of different terminals will lower the cost in en-
ergy consumption, thus the economic complementation can be
achieved (Si et al., 2018).
(3) Distributed coordination
As shown in Fig. 5, REI involves distributed energy resources
(wind power, photovoltaic(PV), biomass power, hydropower, nat-
ural gas, hydrogen, etc.), distributed energy storage(heat, electric-
ity, gas, etc.), the unity of producer and consumer and flexible
load. Comparing with the traditional urban energy system, each
unit of production, conversion, transmission, storage and utiliza-
tion in REI has its unique characteristics such as independent
autonomy, mutual coupling influence, paralleled operation and
two-way flow of energy (Guo et al., 2021). These units need
to coordinate control to achieve safer, more reliable and more
economical energy efficiency.
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182
Coordinated control is mainly manifested in a process rang-
ing from energy generation, conversion, transmission, storage to
the consumption of the REI. Local system will use energy inde-
pendently and autonomously, cooperating and influences each
other, operate in parallel and with energy flowing bidirectionally.
Through local autonomy, it responding to the decision-making
of overall system to achieve optimal energy flow distribution,
synchronous control and cascading failure diagnosis of REI, and
to achieve fair energy trading and management as well (Huang
et al., 2020a).
Urban coordinated control strategy can realize not only the
efficient use of energy, but also the implementation assurance of
effective measures in case of failure. The strategy can also help REI
avoid cascading failures and ensure a more safe, reliable, efficient
and economical running of REI.
(4) Opening and sharing
As shown in Fig. 6, based on big data technology, REI maintains
its performance on peak in collaborative control, energy flow
scheduling, balance between supply and demand. It constantly
keeps the system highly open and shared, which shows mainly
in the following aspects:
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182

Fig. 5. Distributed coordination.

(1) Opening up and sharing of information at energy supply

side
REI supports the peer-to-peer, open, free and distributed ac-
cess of distributed renewable energy, various energy storage de-
vices and energy consumption units, as well as plug-and-play and
flexible disconnection from grid (Mehrjerdi and Shafiee, 2021).
(2) Opening up and sharing of information at energy user side
Energy end-users are not only energy consumers, but also
energy generators. Energy flows can be bi-directional (Ableitner
et al., 2020).
(3) Opening up and sharing of information among participants
in the energy market
Energy operators, energy consumers, energy management ser-
vice providers and social supervision agencies shall actively par-
ticipate in free trade market of REI. They are encouraged to join
the innovation of energy trading mode and are willing to max-
imize their own interests while pursuing fairness (Paiho et al.,
2021).
(4) Opening up and sharing of information of system resources
The participants of REI are equal, and their energy and infor-
mation resources are open, fairly-allocated and shared in between Fig. 6. Opening and sharing.
(Chen et al., 2021).
At present, REI, as an emerging industry overturning the tradi-
tional energy supply system, still faces many issues to be solved
in coupling interconnection and collaborative optimization oper-
ation between subsystems in different fields, and there is still a achievements, and has been applied to solve many issues in the
field of social science (Boccaletti et al., 2006). As an important
huge potential for relevant researches (Yang et al., 2021). Some
subfield in mathematics and an effective tool for describing net-
new theoretical methods(graph theory(GT) (Patel et al., 2021),
work topology of physical systems (Qin et al., 2021) GT has been
complex network analysis(CNA) (Imtiaz et al., 2021) and self-
widely used in modeling of EI, such as model of Internet of Things
organization theory (Dobson et al., 2019) can be applicable for based on equipment capability (Godquin et al., 2020), multiple
the coupling interaction between energy and complex networks energy flow in steady state (Ma et al., 2019) and dynamic model
in many fields related, and they are also suitable for the dynamic of bottom physical equipment machine tool (Liu et al., 2020c).
topological structure and characteristics of complex coupling of Typically, a graph consists of a collection of nodes and edges,
future energy networks from both micro and macro viewpoints which represent the coupling relationships distributed between
(Liang et al., 2020). two nodes. The nodes can be coupling points for multiple edges.
GT was born in 1736, when the Swiss mathematician Eu- The graph includes directed graph, undirected graph, weighted
ler published the solution to the Konigsberg bridge issue. After graph, etc. Each graph can be represented by an incidence matrix
hundreds of years of development, GT has made many exciting between nodes and edges (Li et al., 2019b).
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M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
With the development of GT, people’s research focus has
shifted from analyzing simple graphs composed of nodes and
edges to complex networks of thousands of nodes and edges. The
small-world network by Watts and Strogatz published in Nature in
1998, and the scale-free network by Barabási and Albert published
in the same journal the following year, have ignited a global
boom in the study of complex networks (Han et al., 2020). GT is
the foundation of CNA, and CNA, as a cutting-edge method that
can effectively analyze complex systems, will clearly visualize
the coupling interaction between different units or subsystems
in complex systems (Hu et al., 2020a). Many complex systems in
reality can be represented by complex networks, such as energy
networks, transportation networks, and social networks. Related
issues in these systems can be explained and analyzed through
complex networks. CNA helps to understand the complexity of
the real world, and provides a new methodology and a powerful
tool for transforming and controlling the systems in the objective
world as well.
Study REI under the base of CNA, we will find the relationship
among a large number of nodes and edges evolved dynamically
from the coupling interaction of multi-energy flow, information
flow and value flow inside REI has not only the characteristics
of randomness chaos (Mandal and Mandal, 2020) and volatility
(Dutta et al., 2020), but also a certain of self-adaptability (Zhang
et al., 2019), synergy (Zhang et al., 2020a), self-similarity (Liu
et al., 2020a) and cooperative competition (Cui and Xiao, 2020).
Multi-energy flow, information flow and value flow of nonlinear
interactions will guarantee an ordered coupling and adaptive
running of different networks(energy, information, transporta-
tion and society), which fully conforms with characteristics of a
self-organizing system (Yan et al., 2020).
Self-organization theory is an important method to study the
internal adaptive operation mechanism of REI. It covers dissipa-
tive structure theory (Liu et al., 2017), synergy theory (Lazarević,
2015), catastrophe theory (Kenari et al., 2019) and hypercycle
theory (Bratus et al., 2018), among which the first two theories
are the basic idea and theoretical foundation of self-organization
theory. Dissipative structures are based on the exchange of matter
and energy with the environment. REI is an open and shared
system with nonlinear coupling interaction mechanism among
subsystems, which is dissipative and far from equilibrium. The
unvalued factor is the focus of synergetic research on collabo-
ration mechanism between systems, and the basis of the evolu-
tion of system’s self-organization, as well as the requirement of
collaboration between systems.
REI’s various subsystems have co-evolution of different sys-
tems, and ordered evolution forms and structures. An ordered
evolutionary structure is related to the topological structure of
the coupled system, which adaptively adjusts the evolution of
the undesired topologies, making REI evolve from low-level dis-
order to high-level order. Therefore, the core of the research
on REI based on self-organization theory is to study its ordered
evolutionary structure.
In order to reveal the nature of REI’s ordered evolutionary
structure in the co-evolution from the perspective of complex
network, and to solve the key scientific issues based on the or-
dered evolutionary structure, focusing the latest research results
of CNA in energy network and related coupling network, the
paper explains the research status of single or partial coupling
network based on CNA at home and abroad, such as energy,
information, transportation and society, and further summarizes
deficiencies of research on urban multi-domain coupling net-
work, filling the literature review gap of REI based on complex
network.
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182
1.2. Literature review
1.2.1. Energy network
The application of CNA in energy network can be mainly
divided into single energy network and multi-energy network.
Single energy network includes traditional fossil energy such as
coal, oil and natural gas or renewable energy such as wind power
and PV.
(1) Single energy network
(1) Fossil energy network
The application of CNA in field of fossil energy network mainly
includes the analysis of coal, oil and natural gas networks.
In the network of coal, Wang et al. (2019) has employed the
complex network model to describe the dynamic evolution pro-
cess of international coal trade. Wang and Li (2019) discusses the
continuous time series evolution of China’s coal trade from the
perspective of complex networks, revealing its small world and
cluster characteristics. Zhang et al. (2020b) analyzes the evolution
process of land use in Pingshuo open-pit mining area in China
based on CNA, and further analyzes the time and space evolution
of landscape by using landscape level index and patch type level
index.
In oil network, Ji et al. (2014) establishes the complex network
model of international oil trade. Yang and Dong (2016) uses
CNA to describe the complex network relationship between the
headquarters of an international oil group and its subsidiaries.
Dong et al. (2020) uses CNA to find the optimal supply–demand
structure of global crude oil and proposes effective solutions
for the optimization of crude oil transactions in global market.
Liu et al. (2020d) establishes a hybrid assessment framework
covering complex network indicators and traditional indicators
of global oil trade, evaluating oil security from 1965 to 2016 both
globally and nationally. Su et al. (2017) evaluates and compares
the crude oil supply security of Tianjin, Shanghai and Beijing from
1997 to 2012 based on urban network, providing related sugges-
tions for different cities. Those researches are helpful to improve
urban crude oil supply security, which includes strengthening
the strategic reserve, diversifying sources of supply, improving
domestic crude oil production, etc.
In natural gas network, Vaccariello et al. (2021) analyzes the
natural gas network simulation models through the actual system
indicators to realize the optimization of matching between natu-
ral gas network infrastructure and the control equation, providing
a better analysis tool for natural gas network. Geng et al. (2014)
reveals the correlation between international natural gas trade
market and the internal driving force of regional integration. Liu
and Shi (2012) describes the dynamic distribution of energy flow
in the interstate natural gas network of the United States from a
macroscopic viewpoint. In Wang et al. (2020c), a topology model
of natural gas pipe network is established based on GT, where 3
vulnerability indicators of network transmission capacity are es-
tablished from the perspective of complex network efficiency and
process-based performance, presenting a vulnerability analysis
method of natural gas pipeline network traffic capacity based on
pipeline flow. Liu et al. (2020b) studies the North American natu-
ral gas price from 1997 to 2018 from the micro, meso and macro
network levels, revealing the factors and major contributors to
the price fluctuation.
(2) Renewable energy network
The application of CNA in renewable energy network mainly
covers the analysis of wind power generation, dynamic evolution
of PV industry and hydro-energy network.
Wind power is closely related to wind speed prediction, and
Charakopoulos and Karakasidis (2019) carries out wind speed
prediction based on CNA and recursive graph, and differential
analysis of time series data is used to show that the proposed
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
method is suitable for wind speed prediction of wind turbine
in Greece. In Zeng et al. (2016), for better understanding to the
internal structure of non-stationary and nonlinear near-surface
wind speed signals, the measured wind speed data(time series)
from actual wind farms are mapped to the complex network
to analyze the characteristics of the complex network, such as
average shortest path, average clustering coefficient and commu-
nity. In Sun and Tang (2014), based on CNA, a cascaded model of
wind power clusters connected to the grid is established to eval-
uate 3 indexes, namely load loss percentage, overall effectiveness
and network connectivity level, so as to realize cascade failure
defense to reduce fault risks. In Ma et al. (2018), to reveal the
dynamic characteristics of wind signals, phase space reconstruc-
tion technology is adopted to map the wind speed signals with
certain time rules to the complex network. Through the analysis
of dynamic and seasonal characteristics of complex networks, the
dynamic and seasonal variation rules of wind speed are obtained
accurately.
The PV industry has a dynamic evolutionary behavior. Based
on CNA, Zhang et al. (2017) describes the dynamic evolution
behavior of the PV industry by establishing a complex network
model of interaction among many PV enterprises, which develops
a new perspective of research for China’s PV market. Lv et al.
(2019) built a prediction model of solar irradiance based on CNA.
The model is classified according to the fluctuations of solar
irradiance and the time series characteristics of solar irradiance
are mapped to the complex network to realize the classification
and prediction of solar irradiance.
The use of hydro-power has been dipped into all walks of life.
Tsolas et al. (2018) defines the relations between energy flow
and hydro-energy based on GT, discusses the planning, design
and operation optimization of hydro-energy relationship using
CNA, and explains the application value of the research through
the demonstration of hydro-energy system in different key areas.
Fang and Chen (2017) applies CNA to the sustainable urban
planning and analysis of synergies among hydro-energy, energy
consumption and economic sectors.
In addition, Geng et al. (2021) based on the connectivity of
complex networks, constructs an income and fluctuation system
network model of global new energy enterprises to measures
the direction and degree of information spillover of global new
energy enterprises between the two systems. It uses the rolling
windows estimation method to study the time-varying charac-
teristics of the information overflow mechanism. The research
results can provide reference for investors in the new energy
sector to make specific portfolio and risk management, and for
relevant policy-makers as well.
(2) Multi-energy network
CNA can realized complex network modeling, dynamic energy
flow analysis and network characteristic analysis of complex en-
ergy network formed by multi-energy coupling interconnection.
In terms of complex network modeling, Dassisti and Carnimeo
(2013) proposes an interchanging energy-networks model based
on the small-world analysis method on CNA, providing analytical
tools for sustainable energy policy planning through empirical
analysis of European enterprises. De Durana et al. (2014) uses
CNA to solve the issue of power distribution network modeling
in future urban areas, which includes the coupling of electric-
ity, heating, gas and other energy networks. Tang et al. (2019)
combines CNA with multi-regional input and output model, con-
structs two network models reflecting energy flow from the
perspectives of different sectors and urban areas. The small-
world characteristics of the complex network model are also
discussed through the assessment of average path length and
average clustering coefficient.
In terms of dynamic energy flow analysis, An et al. (2014)
discusses the energy flow relationship between China’s energy
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industries based on CNA, and shows the key role of energy flow
in future people’s daily life, and in the development of China’s en-
ergy industry by analyzing the characteristics of complex network
model. Jogwar et al. (2011) studies the energy output and energy
recovery of integrated energy networks at different time scales,
and identifies different time-scale units of dynamic evolution in
energy networks through developing a GT framework.
In terms of network characteristics analysis, Hao et al. (2014)
reveals the cooperative relationships among countries in world
energy trade by calculating and analyzing the characteristics of
complex network(including natural gas, coal and oil in global
trade). In Beyza et al. (2020), by studying the coupling effects
of electricity and natural gas formed due to the vulnerability of
complex network. Based on the simulation verification of cou-
pled IEEE 118 node system and 25 node natural gas network, it
enhances the application of coupled electricity and natural gas
interconnection system in practical engineering.
1.2.2. Information network
The security of information network is crucial for coupling and
interconnection between single energy network and multi-energy
network. CNA is applied to information network, mainly for the
purpose of solving the issues with information network modeling,
communication vulnerability and failure cascade.
On information network modeling, Wang et al. (2016) ab-
stracts devices(such as the control center routers) into nodes,
wireless or wired communication lines into edges, and informa-
tion network into directed or undirected graphs of numerous
nodes and edges. Xin et al. (2017) regards power system as a
typical energy information coupling system, based on which to
extend the current theory of stable trend analysis, and devel-
ops an information-energy flow model for computing methods
based on matrix, so that the information network and coupling
operation mechanism of grid can be described to solve nonlinear
complex network issues related to data processing.
In terms of communication vulnerability analysis, Ji et al.
(2016) uses CNA to establish a complex network model of
physical-information system, and analyzes the vulnerability of
the interdependent system of information network and physical
network. In Srivastava et al. (2018), with limited system infor-
mation, a central index of vulnerability of smart grid based on
topology and GT is proposed, and a initial defense mechanism
together with the defense mechanism based on topological per-
formance index are proposed. In Wei et al. (2019), aiming at the
deficiencies of existing studies on energy network vulnerability
based on CNA, a spatio-temporal correlation diagram concern-
ing with physical equipment, system topology and operation
characteristics is proposed, and two measures, namely suscep-
tibility and branch impact capability, are initiated as well to
reflect more simply and clearly the power network’s vulnerability
characteristics.
In terms of communication network failure cascade analysis,
Parandehgheibi et al. (2014) explores the cascade effect caused
by the failure of communication node and control node using
the power system communication network model represented
by GT. In Huang et al. (2013), smart grid is regarded as a com-
plex network in which communication and power network are
interdependent. By establishing a model of complex network,
the cascading relationship between communication and power
network caused by faults is discussed. In Yang et al. (2020), for
complex dynamic network, a critical node identification method
is recommended for complex power systems to identify the nodes
of great impact on the visibility and controllability of power
system. By identifying and controlling the critical nodes, the
failure and cascading effect caused by which can be prevented
effectively.
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
1.2.3. Transportation network
Transportation is a specialized network coupled with multi-
energy flow in REI, including high-speed rail, urban subway(light
rail), bus, taxi, private cars and other energy-consuming net-
works. Obviously, electric vehicle clusters with different time and
space distribution can also be regarded as the power supply net-
work coupled with REI (Hu et al., 2018; Jia et al., 2020). Compared
with traditional energy network, the transportation network has
the following characteristics.
(1) Electrified transportation has an obvious way of develop-
ment, and the energy consumption is increasing year by year.
With the trend of electrification and intelligent transportation,
REI continues to promote and deepen the coupling and influence
between energy systems and diverse sectors such as transporta-
tion and communication (Hajebrahimi et al., 2020). Global sales
of electric vehicles are expected to reach 23 million by 2030
and inventory will reach 130 million (Zhou et al., 2021b). By
2050, the energy demand of China’s transportation system will
reach around 25%, with expressways and railways being the
main drivers of growth, and their electricity consumption will
reach more than 40% and 85% (State Grid Energy Research Insti-
tute, 2019). In June 2019, China has issued Notice On Canceling
the Administration Code of New Energy Vehicles(electric vehicles,
hydrogen vehicles, etc.) (Ministry of Commerce of the People’s
Republic of China, 2019)]. In November 2, 2020, China’s State
Council has issued the New Energy Vehicle Industry Development
Plan(2021–2035) (The Central People’s Government of the Peo-
ple’s Republic of China, 2020). The publication of these policies
on new energy vehicles will further promote the development
of electrified transportation. With the increasing popularity of
electric vehicles, energy and transportation networks are more
closely interconnected (Muratori et al., 2019).
(2) The time and space distribution of energy consumption
continues to expand, and the coupling between energy and trans-
portation network becomes even closer. The Outline of China’s
Urban smart Rail Transit Development(2020–2035) (China Urban
Rail Transit Association, 2020) has accelerated the integration of
transportation networks in communities, urban areas and inter-
cities, realizing the interconnection of different forms of trans-
portation networks for individuals, cities and the state, allowing
a continuously expansion of the time and space distribution
of transportation energy consumption. As the main method of
intercity transportation, the energy consumption of highway,
railway and civil aviation transportation network will be further
intensified (Xu et al., 2020).
(3) As the complexity of coupled systems increases, issues on
modeling, optimization and control are facing more severe chal-
lenges. When the transportation network and REI are coupled and
interconnected, REI will appear a high system complexity, which
is caused not only by the random and uncertain dynamic charac-
teristics of the transportation, but also by the open plug-and-play
of different traffic equipment in REI, showing more complicated
autonomy, flexibility and interactivity (Yu et al., 2020). In ad-
dition, the city’s large number of passengers and drivers will
constitute complicated social behaviors. The travel patterns, sub-
jective intentions and decision-making behaviors of drivers and
passengers can all influence the energy and transportation net-
work directly or indirectly. These influences are difficult to be
accurately expressed by mathematical models (El-Amine et al.,
2017).
The application of CNA in transportation field mainly consists
of network analysis of air transportation, rail transit, bus and taxi.
In terms of air transportation, in Sun et al. (2020), given the
global unprecedented impact of COVID-19 outbreak to the field of
air transport, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation
is analyzed comprehensively from the perspective of complex
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networks. Bombelli et al. (2020) studies the complex network
formed by air cargo transport based on CNA, and reveals the de-
pendence of air cargo transport on road transport through attack
strategy simulation. Reyna and De La Mota (2020) analyzes the
information obtained from Monterrey Airport(international and
domestic passengers) based on CNA, and uses the research results
to improve the maintenance and service of airport infrastructure.
In terms of rail transit, Zhang and Wang (2019) abstracts
the urban rail transit of Nanjing, China, into a complex net-
work and explores its connectivity and dynamic vulnerability
through topological structure analysis. Meng et al. (2020) de-
velops a multi-attribute decision making method based on the
modeling of six unweighted and weighted complex networks
in the evolution history of urban rail network. On this basis,
the degrees of intersection among ranked sets and the similar-
ity of sorting results are calculated and evaluated. Finally, the
influencing factors of node importance evolution are discussed
quantitatively and qualitatively, taking the example of rail transit
network of Shenzhen. Li et al. (2020a) studies the generation
and transmission of risks of urban rail transit by combining the
theory of accident causality and CNA, predicts the transmission
path and rule of risks of urban rail transit to prevent and control
operational accidents. The research results have paved the way
for risk management and control of urban rail transit system.
In terms of bus network, Wang et al. (2020b) adopts CNA
to the public transportation network analysis of Hohhot city in
China to realizes the minimum interchange of daily trips of citi-
zens through the ‘‘shortest path analysis’’. From the perspective
of weighted composite network, Zhang et al. (2018b) uses spatial
L method to construct the bus composite network of adjacent
stations in Qingdao, China. Through analyzing the topology char-
acteristics of the network, it provides a theoretical basis for a
better understanding of the demand structure from time and
space, acknowledging the demand characteristics of urban bus
travel and managing urban public transport. Shanmukhappa et al.
(2018) studies the public transportation network structure of
Bangalore, London and Hong Kong based on CNA, and proposes
a new bus transmission network modeling method-super-node
graph structure. By using the representation method of super-
node graph to analyze the major network parameters of directed,
weighted and geological reference of bus networks, the results
show that the super-node concept has obvious advantages in
analyzing the inherent topology behavior.
In terms of taxi network, Li et al. (2019c) combines GT with
CNA to study the influence of government policies on dynamic
complex network covering electric vehicles of different types. In
Hamedmoghadam-Rafati et al. (2017), a large-scale directed and
weighted transportation network is established based on the taxi
departure behavior in New York City, and extracts the time and
space structure of urban transportation by macro method. The
research results provide a basis for us to better understand the ur-
ban mobility characteristics. In Ramezani and Nourinejad (2017),
to improve taxi service performance and reduce traffic jams, an
online taxi scheduling model concerning the interaction between
normal traffic flow and taxi dynamics is proposed, based on the
macro basic diagram, so as to optimize the effective scheduling
system. A model predictive control method is designed to manage
the taxi dispatching system.
1.2.4. Social network
Considering energy and information, transportation, etc in REI
coupling, network’s interconnection and interaction are getting
more intense. In order to fully reflect REI with service as the
core of social development concept Wei et al. (2018), and to
further meet the demand of people in various social activities
while relieving effectively serious urban issues (Cheng et al.,
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
2018), REI covers the social dimension (Xue and Yu, 2017) in
its research scope. The coupled social network of REI has the
following characteristics.
(1) Social centrality. No matter energy network, information
network, or transportation network, they are all playing their
own role based on different elements of social network, especially
for human-oriented services, operation and optimization. Mean-
while, those elements in the society will in turn influence, make
decisions on and manage REI through feedback.
(2) Co-evolution of multiple space–time. The two-way flow
between energy and information, producers and consumers, inte-
grated demand-side response, policies of different
time(scope and purpose), and environmental factors have all
support to promote the interaction and evolution between so-
cial networks and energy, information, transportation and other
networks.
(3) Complicated and systematic. REI of coupled social net-
works is characterized by obvious system complexity, which is
reflected not only in the multi-temporal coupling and transfor-
mation of different energy flows in diversified networks, but also
in the influence of the complicated, changeable and uncertain
factors of REI in social networks. At this moment, REI needs to
be considered comprehensively since both the qualitative and
quantitative analysis of it will become extremely intricate.
Energy serves the society. Energy producers, consumers, man-
agers, supervisors and service providers are playing important
roles in the establishment of an important interpersonal network
through coupling and interconnection in the process of energy
consumption. In addition, economy and policy network will also
affect the structure and evolution of energy network. Therefore,
when studying on the complicated energy network, the influ-
ence of interpersonal, economy and policy network shall not be
ignored.
(1) Interpersonal network. Du et al. (2016) considers that
people are a key component of social networks. In view of the
high correlation between energy consumption and human social
behaviors, a human-oriented social network model is established
to determine the role played by individuals in social networks
and their contribution to energy saving. Wong (2016) points
out that tremendous progress have been achieved in terms of
social factors in the study of energy production and consumption,
such as applied research in interdisciplinary fields of complex
networks. Jain and Sinha (2019) proposes a new method to iden-
tify key nodes effectively through the analysis of complicated
relationships of social networks, and then applies it to the traffic
field successfully to realize site monitoring of traffic flow.
(2) Economic network. Li et al. (2017) discusses the financial
attributes of energy and establishes a global energy complex
network model, improving the global energy stock investment
analysis through the model and coupling relationship analysis
between global energy investment companies and shareholders.
Hao et al. (2016) establishes a complex network model of global
fossil energy trade in world market, and describes the role of key
trading countries in global fossil energy trade by analyzing the
complex trade network structure and energy flow path between
countries. Hong et al. (2019) studies the complexity of energy
flows in economic networks based on CNA, and analyzes the im-
pact of market transaction frequency and economic development
scale on energy flows.
(3) Policy network. Fang et al. (2020) analyzes the effect
of government policy incentives on consumer’s preference in
electric vehicle market based on small world complex network
model, providing a decision-making basis for electric vehicle
investment firms and related policy makers. Shi et al. (2017)
points out that complex networks can be used to describe energy
flows in international trade, and suggests that when making
global energy trade policies, more attention should be paid to
the dynamic evolution behavior of key communities, sectors and
major energy flows.
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1.2.5. Coupling interconnection of complex networks of various fields
As the development of CNA in energy, information, trans-
portation, society and other single domain network analysis, the
study of multiple domain network coupling has also obtained
new achievements.
In the analysis of coupling interconnection between energy
network and transportation network, Suciu et al. (2018) has stud-
ied the comprehensive and effective management of urban elec-
tricity, heating, cooling, waste collection and transportation based
on the concept of ‘‘urban CO2 network’’, adapting fuel cell to
the gas and electricity coupling energy network to solve the
seasonal storage problem of European Union caused by excess PV
produced in summer.
In the analysis of coupling interconnection between energy
network and social network, Beck et al. (2008) combines agent-
based modeling tools and global optimization method, taking into
account the coupling interaction between social networks and
power networks by studying the planning and optimization of en-
ergy networks, and successfully applies the proposed integration
method to regional power generation systems in South Africa.
In terms of the coupling and interconnection between trans-
portation network and social network, Bai et al. (2020) adopts the
social network analysis method to study the correlation structure
between transportation and carbon emissions, revealing the driv-
ing factors of carbon emissions, taking China’s provincial trans-
portation complex network as an example.
In the analysis of coupling interconnection among energy net-
work, transportation network and information network, Wu et al.
(2018) bases itself on Internet of things and Internet technology
to establish a complex network integration model, then puts it
into practice for complex networks such as energy, transportation
and information.
1.2.6. Urban energy network
With the continuous expansion of urban energy system and
the continuous in-depth study of REI’s theory in coupling and
interconnection operation of subsystems in diversified domains
such as energy, information, transportation and society, more
and more people begin to apply CNA to the analysis of urban
energy system. For example, in Zhao et al. (2020), to improve
the flexibility of renewable energy power system, a critical line
identification method is proposed based on CNA. The concept
of core skeleton network of renewable energy power system
is introduced, and a two-step optimization way to core skele-
ton network is proposed, which takes into account the variable
of renewable energy output. On this basis, combining with the
premium model and marginal significance in CNA, a statistical
significance method is proposed to identify the critical circuit of
each generator unit and related renewable energy power system.
Fichera et al. (2017) adopts CNA to urban energy distribution
system, and realizes an optimal distribution of urban energy
consumption network and the maximum consumption of clean
and renewable energy through the establishment of complex
network model. For the future integrated development of the
Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei megalopolis, Zhang et al. (2016) estab-
lishes a complex energy flow network model of the megalopolis
with the abstract concepts of urban metabolism and multi-energy
flow to analyze the dynamic evolution process and to provide
a theoretical basis for the urban integrated development. Volpe
(2015) regards city as a complex system, studies the dynamic
evolution of multi-energy flow based on CNA, and adopts it to
the practical project of renewable energy consumption and the
promotion of co-generation system. Palomo-Navarro and Navío-
Marco (2018) uses complex networks to analyze and study the
influence of social, economic and political networks based on
the development of SC at different levels such as global, national
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
and urban regions, and proposes suggestions for future network
optimization. Marull et al. (2015) uses GT to represent city as a
huge network, and evaluates the network with indicators such as
stability, complexity, multi-centricity and efficiency to push the
sustainable development of cities.
1.3. Content of main studies
According to the literature review in Section 1.2, the com-
bination of GT and CNA promotes the research of energy field
gradually to the global perspective of the system. At present,
all researches use CNA to study various fields related to energy
from 3 different macroscopic perspectives—global, national and
municipal. However, previous studies did not reveal from com-
plex networks the REI’s local bottom structure and the structure
of ordered overall macroscopic system, nor the nature of evo-
lution in the process of co-evolution to solve key issues based
on ordered evolution structure, neither did they consider how
to study the commonness of coupling interconnection evolution
among subsystems in various fields within REI, so as to overcome
the issues of poor adaptability of existing research methods in
model building, optimization control, cascade failure and energy
transaction decision making due to the increase of system scale.
To make up for the deficiencies of previous studies, this paper
analyzes the research background and significance, introduces REI
from two aspects of research scope and the main characteristics
based on the development history of EI, filling the blank of
CNA literature review on energy network and related coupling
network. Meanwhile, combining with the existing literature re-
search result, together with the future SC development idea to
the optimization of energy supply systems, adaptive features and
other requirements, the paper analyzes the key issues of the REI,
main research challenges and future research priorities, to real-
ize the collaborative optimization of autonomous and efficient
low carbon operation, and to provide certain theoretical basis.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 defines
two new concepts of energy self-organization (ESO) and energy
community (EC) based on self-organization theory, and further
expounds the difference and advantage of between. In Section 3,
the key issues of REI based on EC are analyzed from the aspects
of complex network modeling, optimal energy flow allocation,
synchronous control, cascading failure and energy transaction
decision. Section 4 presents the challenges of energy community
based REI to solve the above key issues and prospects for the
future. Section 5 summarizes the whole work and deficiencies.
2. ESO and EC
In this paper, the system structure and function of REI are
discussed from the viewpoint of system science, and the self-
organization evolution mechanism of REI under the influence of
uncertain factors is discussed as well based on self-organization
theory. The basic idea and theoretical base of self-organization
theory are the theory of dissipative structure and synergetics.
The former is based on the exchange of matter and energy with
the environment. REI has the characteristics of dissipative struc-
ture and is far from equilibrium state. It is an open and shared
system with nonlinear coupling interaction mechanism between
different subsystems. The later studies the synergy mechanism
among valueless factors in the system, which is the basis of the
system’s self-organizing evolution process and is also the need
for coordination among systems. Combining these theories with
understandings of REI will lead to the following definition.
ESO: When interconnecting, coupling and sharing resources,
REI carries out energy and information exchange between low-
layer structure and high-layer structure, which serves the basic
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182
units in REI’s steady-state structure. Organization refers to an
ordered structure within a system or the formation of such an or-
dered structure. ESO refers to an ordered structure shaped by the
coordinated evolution of various internal systems spontaneously
following certain rules during the operation of REI. The scale of
REI depends on the number, type, time and space distribution of
ESOs.
EC: A self-organizing collection of complementary coupled
energy sources in a certain space and time, bearing direct or
indirect coupling relations in between. Statistically, EC shows
some characteristics that ESO does not have.
It can be seen that the concept of EC is based on ESO. In
order to explain the concept of EC more clearly, it is necessary
to elaborate on ESO.
As different stakeholders, ESOs are the basic units in REI and
show in two states: interconnection and independent operation.
To be adapted to the features of energy operators and users
in a specific region, a more reasonable management decision-
making scheme driven by real-time, efficient and safe information
interconnection technology is developed to integrate the gen-
eration, transmission, conversion, storage and consumption of
regional available energy into a unity, and to achieve multi-
energy coupling, coordination, complement and optimal capacity
allocation.
As shown in Fig. 7(a), a single ESO can independently complete
the production, conversion, transmission, storage or consumption
of any link of primary energy (coal, oil, natural gas, wind, solar,
water, biomass, etc.) and secondary energy (electricity, hydro-
gen, heating and cooling, etc.). Multi-energy storage equipment
and multi-energy flow conversion equipment are irreplaceable to
meet the energy needs of multiple terminal users. As shown in
Fig. 7(b), through multi-energy flow, multiple ESOs has formed a
network diagram with each node representing an ESO. The edge
shows the energy exchange process between different ESOs.
The multi-energy flow coupling among different ESOs are not
only related to their respective status, but also affected by the
daily energy consumption activities of energy terminal users at
lower-layer and by the coupling among ECs at the upper-layer as
well. Daily consuming activities of energy users are affected by
environment, weather, traffic, energy policies, personal emotion
and energy consumption habits.
The overall autonomous cooperative optimization strategy of
REI shall be realized through the interaction and coupling among
different ESOs. The autonomy, decentralization and flexible in-
teraction of various ESOs are of critical importance in realizing
overall optimization and local collaborative autonomy of REI.
Through flexible, proactive, adaptive coupling and interconnec-
tion between different stakeholders in the physical infrastruc-
ture layer, information interaction layer, and operational services
layer, ESO demonstrates autonomous, efficient, and decentralized
synergies, as shown in Fig. 8.
The physical basic layer integrates coal/oil, wind/solar energy,
hydropower, biomass power, gas(nature gas or hydrogen) and
other energy resources. The merging of heating and power co-
generation, power-to-gas, gas–power generation, vehicle–network
and electrified transportation technology will realize deep cou-
pling integration and efficient production of multi-energy(cooling,
heating, electricity and gas), and will reduce dependence on
fossil fuels(coal, oil, etc.) for vital human activities. By adopt-
ing advanced information collection and control technology, the
information interaction layer can coordinates multiple energy
resources to fully realize energy transmission, conversion and
flexible complement of different time and space distributions
with flexibility and efficiency, and serve the physical infrastruc-
ture and operational service layer at the same time. Operational
service layer will balance the interests of participants in the en-
ergy market by dipping the potential of comprehensive demand
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
Fig. 7. Pattern of regional multi-energy flow coupling: (a) single ESO; (b) multiple ESOs.
response on the energy user side in the opening energy trading
market. In short, no matter the physical infrastructure layer, the
information interaction layer, or the operation service layer, it
serves for the same purpose of improving the efficiency of energy
consumption, lowering overall cost, and optimizing eco-friendly
energy usage.
The complex network of ESO is based on different time and
space distribution with community characteristics (Hetti et al.,
2020), which can be well revealed by studying issues of energy
optimal allocation, complementary coordinated control, fault de-
tection and recovery, as well as energy trading and management
among ECs.
There are many literatures on multi-energy coupling and co-
ordinated optimization control of REI based on subsystems or
sub-units. Concepts such as Prosumer (Zhou et al., 2021a), Energy
Cell (Su and Huang, 2014), Web-of-Cells (Cheng and Yu, 2018)
and We-Energy (Zhang et al., 2021) have been defined. Although
the definition of ESO in this paper has similarities with the
existing research concepts, there are also obvious differences.
First of all, concepts are defined by different sources of in-
spiration. Prosumer usually refers to an end user who integrates
both production and consumption activities. The Energy Cell de-
scribes a unit that locally runs and manages its own distributed
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182
generators, distributed energy storage devices, and scheduled
loads from the perspective of consumers and suppliers. Web-
of-Cells is a completely new type of smart grid, whose control
idea is that the power system can be decomposed into a num-
ber of simple structures and functions, with the autonomy of
individual(Network Element/Cell), each Network Element and its
operators(Cell operators) can be treated as the control core, the
consistency and stability of the overall control can be achieved
through the communication and coordination between adjacent
individuals, and through distributed control between individu-
als We-Energy is inspired by the concept of ‘‘We Media’’, the
information transmission unit in the Internet. It refers to an
autonomous energy area in EI that can realize intelligent control,
automatic protection and intelligent management. In this paper,
the concept of ESO is defined from the research of complex
systems based on self-organization theory. Compared with the
concepts defined in previous literature, the two concepts of ESO
and EC defined in the paper are no longer limited to a specific
system, such as power system. Based on complex system and self-
organization theory, this definition is more general and suitable
to describe the characteristics of integration of information, en-
ergy, transportation and social networks in future development
of SC.
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
Fig. 8. Description of an ESO’s hierarchical framework.
Secondly, the research scale is different. At present, most of
the researches on Prosumer, Energy Cell, Web-of-Cells and We-
Energy mainly focus on the individual level. Especially in market
research, the existing concept definition of the basic unit is still at
the individual level, and has the characteristics of the rationality
and selfishness to obtain the biggest benefit in the process of
coupling interconnects and optimal operations. However, the ESO
in this paper does not necessarily shows complete rationality
or selfishness in the coupling and interaction between the basic
unit and the overall system. In REI’s operation, ESO can evolve in
a certain direction through autonomous decision. Differed from
Prosumer, Energy Cell, Web-of-Cells and We-Energy, this kind of
autonomous decision is the result of ESO’s choice according to
its own willingness such as rational, irrational, selfish or selfless,
rather than the result of incentive and mandatory control to
achieve the preset overall goals of REI, thus reflecting the adaptive
adjustment capability of ESO.
Finally, the research depth is different. Based on the definition
of ESO, from the perspective of CNA, the complex system, such as
REI, is clearly divided into three levels: micro(ESO), meso(EC) and
macro(the whole REI). In addition, this paper includes transporta-
tion network as an important part of urban energy consumption
and carbon emissions in the framework of ESO research scope,
though not available in the previous studies, will be more ben-
eficial to the study of multi-energy coupling and collaborative
optimal control between different levels.
Based on ESO and EC, REI is divided into micro ESO structure,
meso EC structure and macro overall coupling network structure.
Based on this division, Sections 3 and 4 further elaborate on
five challenges of REI, namely complex network modeling and
analysis, optimal network flow allocation, synchronous control,
failure cascade mechanism analysis and multi-subject interest
interactive game, and with corresponding solutions.
3. Analysis of key issues from the perspective of EC
3.1. Topological description and metrics of EC
3.1.1. Analysis structure of EC
From the perspective of EC, the coupling and interconnection
of REI is essentially the interconnection and deep coupling of
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182
multiple ESOs and ECs, i.e. each EC contains many tightly con-
nected ESOs, whereas, the interconnection among different ECs
is relatively sparse, as shown in Fig. 9(a). By abstracting different
ECs into nodes and describing their coupling relations by edges,
REI topology based on EC can be obtained, as shown in Fig. 9(b)
and (c).
Many ECs are connected together by loose edges. Energy and
information exchange among different ECs shall pass through one
of the edges. Big intergradation is often seen among different ECs.
By deleting edges with high intergradation, the structure of EC in
REI can be revealed.
3.1.2. EC topology
Through nodes abstraction of ESO and EC and construction
of multi-energy flow graph, GT framework can be adopted to
analyze REI. REI can be described simply by graph G(N, E) which
contains N nodes connected by directed or undirected edge
E(directed or undirected graph) (Fichera et al., 2016). At this
point, REI is abstractly described as a topology-based graph. The
main elements of the graph are nodes and edges. In this paper,
nodes represent different subsystems divided by different scales
in REI, namely ESO or EC, while edges represent coupling relations
established between them according to certain rules. A graph
with a large number of nodes and edges can be considered as
a complex network. By abstracting ESO and EC, the complex cou-
pling issue among different subsystems in REI can be equivalent
to the dynamic co-evolution analysis issue of a complex network.
3.1.3. EC topology metrics
Erdos (Saurabh et al., 2020) and Renyi (Waldorp and Kos-
sakowski, 2020) put forward stochastic networks and analyzed
the stochastic characteristics of complex networks. Watts and
Strogaz (Hu et al., 2020b) proposed small-world networks and
analyzed the small-world characteristics of complex networks.
Barabasi and Albert’s (Zhu and Milanović, 2021) proposed the
scale-free network, and analyzed the scale-free characteristics of
complex network. With the continuous application of stochas-
tic, small-world and scale-free networks in real world complex
systems and the analysis of related stochastic, small-world and
scale-free characteristics, common metrics of complex networks
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182

Fig. 9. REI topology based on ECs.

Table 2
The definition of metrics of EC network topology model.
Metrics Definition Quantitative calculation
N
∑
Node degree di,un Local metric of REI, calculating the number of i EC connected with ECs(Nj ). di,un = Nj
Directed di and undirected di,un . j ∈i

E
Average node degree di,un Global metric of REI, i.e. average node degree of all ECs in REI di,un =
N
Ndi,un
Degree distribution p(k) Distribution statistics of ECs in REI. It represents the proportion of ECs with p(k) =
degree di,un in REI. N

2Ei
Clustering coefficient c(i) Local metric of REI, i.e. the possibility of interconnection between an EC and c(i) =
other ECs. Ei is edges number of i EC di,un (di,un − 1)

E
Average clustering coefficient c(i) Global metric of REI and statistics of average clustering coefficient of all ECs in c(i) ∼
REI N

Path length l Minimum l of local ECs or edges in REI. The lij connecting EC i and j is an ordered set
of n+1 nodes np = {i0 , i2 , . . . , iN } and Lp = {(i0 , i1 ), (i1 , i2 ) . . . (in−1 , in )} edges E.
Average path length l Calculating the average shortest energy supply path length of global ECs or edges in
REI. The average path length l is defined as the average of lij .
∑ lmin
st
Betweenness BC The proportion of the shortest energy supply paths lmin
st in the EC or edge to BC =
all the shortest energy supply paths lsum lsum
st ,min
st ,min

are the obvious mutual characteristics along with their applica- of REI, the constraint conditions of topology structure are ex-
tion in practical system analysis (Chu and Iu, 2017). Therefore, tracted as the basis of cooperative optimal distribution of coupled
based on the existing literature, this paper redefines a complex network flows, and finally different objectives such as minimum
network index suitable for local or average global metrics of REI. network loss, optimal capacity allocation and maximum energy
As shown in Table 2, the complex network topology metric of consumption can be achieved.
REI based on EC is achieved by defining node degree di,un , average The coupling model of REI is shown in (1).
node degree di,un , degree distribution p(k), clustering coefficiency E(xe , xh , xc , xg , xt , xo ) = 0
⎧
⎪
c(i), average clustering coefficiency c(i), path length l, average
⎪
⎪
H(xe , xh , xc , xg , xt , xo ) = 0
⎪
⎪
path length l and betweenness BC ,among which, the definition of ⎪
⎪
⎪
C (xe , xh , xc , xg , xt , xo ) = 0
⎪
each measurement index, the variables involved and the specific ⎨
(1)
calculation formula are given in the column of ‘‘definition’’ and ⎪ G(xe , xh , xc , xg , xt , xo ) = 0
‘‘quantitative calculation’’ in Table 2 respectively.
⎪
⎪
⎪T (xe , xh , xc , xg , xt , xo ) = 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
O(xe , xh , xc , xg , xo , xt ) = 0
⎩
3.2. Optimal energy flow distribution of EC
E, H, C, G and T are different sub-network flow models of
The optimal energy flows allocation among different ECs can electricity, heating, cooling, gas and transportation, respectively.
be studied and achieved. Using network flow theory (Li et al., O is the coupling relationship model of different sub-networks. xe ,
2019a) to reasonably allocate network flow can improve network xh , xc , xg , xt , xo represent status variables of electricity, heating,
performance. Based on the analysis of complex network model cooling, gas, transportation and coupling points, respectively.
174
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
The optimization objective function of establishing REI is
shown in (2).
∑
Y (xe , xh , xc , xg , xt , xo )
⎧
⎨min{Y =
⎪
g(xe , xh , xc , xg , xt , xo ) = 0 (2)
⎩s.t .
zmin ≤ z(xe , xh , xc , xg , xt , xo ) ≤ zmax
⎪
Y is the objective function of REI, such as minimum loss,
optimal capacity allocation or maximum consumption of the
coordinated operation of different sub-systems such as electricity,
heating, cooling, gas and transportation, respectively. g and z are
constraint function respectively, and zmin and zmax are upper and
lower bound of constraint condition respectively.
3.2.1. Minimum loss issue
Energy conversion, transmission and storage among different
ECs can be realized through the shortest path to reduce the
energy loss in the process of consumption at end-users side. For
example, in transportation network, different types of vehicles
can not only achieve the lowest energy consumption through the
shortest path, but can charge and discharge energy faster through
the shortest path and improve the efficiency of consuming renew-
able energy as well.
3.2.2. Optimal capacity allocation
Based on the transmission capacity and cost of REI, the dis-
tributed renewable energy can be divided into different ECs to
minimize the transmission cost of renewable energy in the pro-
cess of consumption.
3.2.3. Maximum consumption issue
Maximize the potential of EC to use distributed renewable
energy, which means to give full play to the utmost ability of
REI network transmission and let ‘‘source-network-load-storage’’
of multi-energy flow of each link be at the best matching state,
enable REI to maximize distributed resource utilization with EC
as unit.
3.3. Synchronous control analysis of EC
EC contains different quantities and characteristics of ESO,
and their synchronous evolution activities is also various. An
Assumption of a state equation of REI containing N ESOs is shown
in (3).
N
∑ phenomenon will spread to the neighboring ECs along with the
ẋi = f (xi (t)) + c Aij H(xj (t)) (3)
j=1
i = 1, 2,. . . , N; xi are the n-dimensional state vector of node i
at time t of REI; c represents the coupling coefficient between
different sub-systems, such as electricity, heating, cooling, gas
and transportation. f (•) and H(•) represent the internal and
external coupling functions of electricity, heating, cooling, gas and
transportation, respectively. Aij (aij )N ×N is the external coupling
matrix, with coupling, aij = 1, without coupling, aij = 0.
For REI, which is abstractly expressed as N nodes, under any
initial conditions, when t→∞
x1 (t) = x2 (t) = · · · = xN (t) = s(t) (4)
xi (t) − xj (t) → 0(i, j = 1, 2, . . . , N)
 
(5)
s(t) indicates the synchronization status of REI and exists
ṡ(t) = f (s(t)).
As shown in Fig. 10, the synchronous control of EC mainly
includes three aspects: within a single EC, among multiple ECs
and the interactive evolution between them. The red bidirectional
arrow represents the interaction mechanism of synchronization
within a single EC and synchronization between multiple ECs.
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182
3.3.1. Synchronization within an EC
As shown in Fig. 10(a), different ESOs within the same EC
have different coupling and complementary characteristics. By
controlling all or part of ESOs within EC, the synchronization of all
ESOs can be achieved, in this way, the synchronization within an
EC can be realized. As shown in Fig. 10(b), different ESOs within
a single EC can realize ordered synchronization gradually from
disordered evolution under effective control strategies.
3.3.2. Synchronization among multiple ECs
As shown in Fig. 10(c), different ECs have their own character-
istics of coupling and complementary. At this point, by controlling
all or part of the ECs, the synchronization of the entire ECs can be
realized, in this way, the synchronization of the whole REI can be
realized. As shown in Fig. 10(d), the five coupling and intercon-
nected ECs can be described as the coupling and interconnection
of 5 nodes and edges through abstraction. Therefore, adopting
effective control strategies to different nodes will realize the
transition from disordered evolution to ordered synchronization
of different ECs.
3.3.3. Interaction mechanism
For the overall REI, synchronization in an EC and among mul-
tiple ECs share mutual influence mechanism. For example, the
synchronization of the 5th EC in Fig. 10(c)(node 5 in Fig. 10(d))
directly affects the synchronous evolution of the 1st, 2nd and 4th
ECs(Namely, nodes 1, 2 and 4 in Fig. 10(d)) through coupling and
interconnection of edges. The two ECs are directly coupled with
the 3rd EC(node 3 in Fig. 10(d)), so the 5th EC indirectly affects
the synchronous evolution of the 3rd EC. Therefore, the evolu-
tionary operation of ESO in EC 5 affects not only the synchronous
operation of its own EC, but the synchronous operation of EC that
coupled with it directly or indirectly as well.
3.4. Cascade failure analysis of EC
Under the influence of multiple time and space distributions
and time-varying topology, multi-energy flows are seen in an
optimal energy flow distribution state when REI is functioning
smoothly. The optimal allocation of multi-energy flow is not just
the heart of the collaborative optimization of REI, but also the
essential reason for its failure cascade. When part of EC fails,
so does the optimal energy flow allocation state. The overload
redistribution of multi-energy flow. The failure can even extend
through a cascade mechanism, which will poses a threat to the
safe and stable function of REI.
Based on the fact that subsystems(electricity, heating, cooling,
gas and transportation) will affect each other’s network status
once running together in REI, the initial load of REI is defined by
the degree distribution of coupling network.
(1−β ) β
L0(i) = ki kd , i, j = 1, 2, . . . , N (6)
ki is the node degree after REI is abstracted into complex
network. kd is the degree of node d coupled with node i; β is the
parameter of adjustable initial load, representing the influence
degree of the node i by the node d, and 0< β <1. The value of β
is proportional to the degree of interaction between the coupling
node i and d.
At this point, based on the initial load symbols of nodes, the
node load capacity of REI is illustrated in formula (7).
Ci = (1 + α )L0(i) (7)
α represents the adjustment parameter of the load capacity of
nodes in REI, which is proportional to the load capacity of nodes.
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
Fig. 10. EC synchronous control analysis.
Cimax is used to represent the limit of node load capacity. When
Ci < Cimax , node i runs normally; when Ci > Cimax , node i fails.
Taking an EC fault as an example, if an ESO within EC or the
coupling and interconnection side of outside EC fails, the optimal
energy flow allocation status of the whole REI will have little ef-
fect without triggering cascade failures. Otherwise, the impact on
the optimal energy flow allocation of the whole REI cannot be ig-
nored. It is likely to trigger cascade failures and even the collapse
of REI for the whole city. When a cascade failure happens, Ci >
Cimax , the REI will automatically redistribute energy flow; and if
the energy flow distribution is reasonable by reimplementing Ci <
Cimax , REI will continue to operate; otherwise, the unreasonable
energy flow distribution will lead to ECs or edges withdrawing
from the interconnection operation, and along with the energy
flow redistribution, will lead to more ECs or edges withdrawing
from the interconnection operation. Recurrent redistribution of
energy the gradual increase in the number of interrelated ECs in
operation, and withdrawing of edges, cascade failure will occur
finally. In short, as long as there are ECs or edges out of the inter-
connection operation, it is necessary to redistribute the energy
flow until the distribution is restored reasonable, Ci < Cimax , and
the failure stops spreading.
3.5. Decision-making analysis on EC market transaction
For energy market transaction, EC can be regarded as an in-
dependent and interactive decision maker or participant. By an-
alyzing EC’s dynamic energy trading activity driven by market
interests, EC’s trading decision can be predicted, analyzed and
formulated under the coupling effect. In view of the fact that the
microgrid cluster, electric vehicle cluster or other independent
energy supply units in actual systems will promote the redis-
tribution of benefits when conducting energy transactions with
external systems, it is necessary to study from the viewpoint of
EC the interaction mechanism between ESO individual’s energy
trading decision and EC’s energy trading decision.
Multi-energy complement in REI is a cooperative relationship
between energy supply and energy consumption in nature. Simi-
larly, there is a cooperative relationship among EC in the process
of energy supply and consumption. In the decision-making pro-
cess of energy market transaction, EC can obtain higher interests
through cooperation among themselves. The analysis of the EC’s
cooperation is as follows.
Define xA at xA >0 and xB at xB <0 is the two status variables of
cooperation and non-cooperation of each EC in REI, as shown in
(8).
x = [xA , xB ]T (8)
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182
xA and xB respectively represent the proportion of cooperative
and non-cooperative energy communities in REI that participate
in the interactive distribution of interests, i.e
⎧
0 ≤ xA ≤ 1
⎪
⎨
0 ≤ xB ≤ 1 (9)
⎪
⎩
xA + xB = 1
Meanwhile, the variables of xA and xB status at time t are
defined as (10).
1, rxA (xB ) (x, ϕ ) ≥ 0
{
if
ψ (xA (xB ), t) = (10)
0, if rxA (xB ) (x, ϕ ) ≤ 0
Ψ (xA (xB ), t) = 1 and Ψ (xA (xB ), t) = 0 respectively represent
the income under the status xA (xB ) at time t that is higher than(or
lower than) the income under the status that is not. r represents
the growth rate of state xA (xB ).
Based on the definition of benefit interaction distribution of EC
in cooperative and non-cooperative status, the decision-making
process of EC in market transaction is further analyzed.
3.5.1. EC’s market transactions
It is assumed that in the process of energy market transaction,
the benefit obtained by EC No.i in the reciprocal distribution of its
interests with its neighbor EC j(j∈Ci )(the number of its neighbors
is ki ) is πij . After the income coefficient aij is introduced, the
calculation of the income function fi is shown in formula (11).
∑
fi = (aij πij )/ki (11)
3.5.2. EC cooperation’s earning prediction
EC can decide whether to cooperate with each other in the
process of energy market trading by revenue prediction. The
predicted return rate of EC when seeking cooperation can be
explained by the cooperation probability fi (i.e. the probability of
non-cooperation is 1-fi ) of EC in the process of energy trading.
Obviously, the value of probability fi can represent the possibil-
ity of cooperation between different ECs. The greater the value
and the faster the growth, the more benefits different energy
communities will obtain in energy market transactions.
3.5.3. Cooperations among ECs
During the cooperation∑ among ECs, EC does not tend to obtain
more overall interests fi , only. Moreover, each EC wants to
achieve its own optimal benefit distribution fi in the process of
cooperation. For example, for the coupling of different sectors,
such as energy, transportation and information, different stake-
holders in different sectors tend to obtain the maximum benefits
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
Fig. 11. Research challenges from the perspective of ECs.
fmaxi for themselves in the process of market transaction. There-
fore, in cooperation, the energy community needs a reasonable
benefit distribution scheme.
3.5.4. No cooperation among ECs
If the interest distribution is not reasonable in the process of
energy market transaction, it is difficult to meet the optimal in-
come needs of different stakeholders across sectors, which makes
it difficult for EC to cooperate. Therefore, a more effective multi-
stakeholder interest distribution strategy is needed to avoid the
conditions above.
3.5.5. ECs cooperation decision analysis
In the process of energy market transactions, the interests of
various ECs shall be based on fair allocation strategy. By calcu-
lating the total revenue and total cost of different stakeholders
across sectors, the EC cooperation benefits fi under market trans-
actions can be obtained. By comparing the benefits with those
without cooperation in EC market trading decisions, when co-
operation decision-making in energy markets make, establish
cooperation relations, at the same time to obtain their respective
cooperation benefits fi .
In a word, an EC prioritized and predicted the expectation of
cooperation with other ECs by comparing fi and isoparametric.
The decision on whether to participate in cooperation and to
what extent depends on whether the EC is more profitable in
cooperation with others than in non-cooperation status.
4. Research challenges and prospects based on EC
4.1. Research challenges
To solve the key issues of REI based on EC, the technical
challenges are shown in Fig. 11.
4.1.1. Challenges on the accuracy and timeliness of EC
The structure partition of ESO and EC is essential for nodes
abstraction. The energy-consumption area represented by the
abstracted nodes is too large or the characteristics of the energy-
consumption units are too complicated. The structure of EC is
too simple to accurately describe the complex characteristics of
the energy-consumption network of REI. On the contrary, if the
energy-consumption area is too small or the characteristics of the
units are much less diversified, the structure of ECs will be too
complicated. The speed of model analysis is limited.
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182
4.1.2. Challenge on optimal energy flows allocation among ECs
Distributed renewable energy resources (e.g. plug-and-play
technology and prosumers) can lead to a random, uncertain and
time-varying topology of REI, which makes it much difficult to
use renewable energy resources on the spot or in regions nearby,
hard to match with maximum capacity or optimal capacity, and
impossible to achieve optimal energy flows allocation among
dynamic ECs. In addition, it is important to reveal the optimal
energy flows distribution relationship between the layer of ESO
and the macro layer of EC.
4.1.3. Challenges on synchronous control and cascade failure analy-
sis
Compared with the traditional urban energy system, REI has
the characteristics of multiple spatio-temporal, multi-coupling
and multi-dynamic. Meanwhile, REI is facing issues of time-
varying delay, big data feature extraction, dimension disaster,
correlation analysis of multi-information merging, fast response
speed and other problems. Since REI has shown the character-
istics of complexity, non-linearity and multiple spatio-temporal
distributions, great challenges such as synchronous control, fault
model description, prediction and diagnosis are then followed in
train, so that it is much difficult to establish a simplified and
linearized synchronous control model together with a cascade
failure analysis model that are not affected by the characteristics
of multiple time and space distributions.
4.1.4. Challenges on decision-making and management of energy
market transactions
As a more open and shared energy system in SC, more and
more stakeholders(energy suppliers, energy consumers, govern-
ment decision-making bodies and third-party supervision
agencies) in energy, transportation and information sectors are
actively participating in REI. As a result, single EC or multiple
ECs tend to pursue the maximization of their own interests. It is
very difficult to establish the decision-making and management
model of multi-energy transaction based on REI and EC, and to
satisfy simultaneously the optimal energy supply plan, maxi-
mization of social energy welfare(i.e., the minimization of energy
resource consumption and the maximization of renewable energy
consumption, etc.) and the maximum satisfaction of different
stakeholders.
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
4.2. Research prospects
In order to give a full play to the practical application of REI in
SC, the current research from the perspective of EC needs to be
improved step by step in the following aspects.
4.2.1. The application of betweenness and modularity in EC’s parti-
tion
Many ECs in REI are connected together through loose edges.
Energy and information exchange among different ECs must pass
through one of the edges. Therefore, the edges among differ-
ent ECs have a high betweenness. A deletion algorithm of edge
with high betweenness is designed to reveal the relationship
among various ECs in REI. Meanwhile, modularity is a criterion
to measure the division performance of complex network com-
munity structure. How to use modularity to evaluate the division
performance of EC still needs further study.
4.2.2. Establishment of and solution to the optimal energy flow
distribution model of EC
For the cost of energy flow for a generator unit on any edge,
which is positively correlated with the size of energy flow, the
optimal energy flow allocation issue can be described with the
minimum cost model by setting the upper and lower bounds of
energy flow capacity on any edge and the supply(demand) status
of EC, and taking energy flow as the decision variable for optimal
energy flow allocation on any edge. Constraints include minimum
loss constraints, maximum consumption constraints and optimal
capacity allocation constraints. Particle swarm optimization, ge-
netic algorithm and some combined optimization algorithms can
be used to solve the optimal energy flow distribution model.
4.2.3. Application of adaptive control in EC’s synchronization
When the REI is applied to practical engineering, the de-
tailed operation parameters, ordered and accurate mathematical
model description of system are difficult to obtain. Compared
with traditional control methods, adaptive control can achieve
high-performance and accurate control of REI. Regarding REI as
a collection of ECs, the synchronous control model among ECs is
established based on ESO status and coupling relationship, EC’s
characteristics and coupling relationship, as well as the coupling
relationship between ESO and EC. An adaptive controller is intro-
duced to realize the synchronous control among different ECs in
REI.
4.2.4. Research on ECs cascading failures model based on optimal
energy flow allocation
For the transmission characteristics of energy among different
ECs, the edge weights among ECs are given and the relationship
between different energy flows between different ECs is studied
following the conductivity coefficient of transmission lines, cross-
sectional area of gas pipeline network and the bandwidth of
transmission medium in communication networks. The cumula-
tive flow of EC and edges will be considered as their loads. The
relationship between loads and cascading failures is studied, as
well as how to avoid cascading failures by setting and adjusting
threshold values.
4.2.5. Research on game theory of stakeholders’ decision-making in
energy market transaction
Game theory originates from economics. It studies the process
in which many stakeholders cooperate to find the best decision-
making scheme in order to maximize their own interests. Game
theory, as a mathematical tool, can be used to describe cooper-
ative relation among different stakeholders in REI. This relation
will arouse the energy flow coupling and interest interaction
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182
among ECs to fluctuate. There are neural networks and some
other methods suitable for the prediction and analysis on energy
flow coupling and interest interaction fluctuations among differ-
ent ECs. The characteristics of REI can ensure EC to maximize
its own interests following the analysis of game information
around. The interests of each stakeholder in energy trade can be
maximized, through the analysis of the game among different
ECs.
5. Conclusion
This paper combines with complex system theory,
self-organization theory, GT and CNA to explore solutions to the
key scientific issues in order to make up for the deficiency of CNA
application in REI, so as to follow the future development trend
of WEI, as summarized below.
(1) According to the classification methods of energy net-
work(single energy network or multi energy network), informa-
tion network, transportation network(high-rail, urban subway(or
light rail), bus, taxi, private car and other energy-consuming net-
works), social network(interpersonal, economic and policy net-
work) and multi-domain coupled network, the paper summarizes
in detail the research status and existing deficiencies of CNA in
various related fields. The research on transportation network
and social network is also included in the research scope of REI,
laying a rich theoretical foundation for further study of REI from
the perspective of complex network.
(2) Research on methods and achievements of transportation
network resource integration based on complex system theory,
self-organization theory, GT and CNA is still a blank, especially
considering the particularity of the network coupling of trans-
portation, social and energy. Therefore, based on the concept of
ESO, combined with REI’s the characteristics(coupling intercon-
nection, multi-energy complementary, distribution coordination
and open sharing), this paper defines ESO and EC as an ordered
structure formed spontaneously by the coordination and evolu-
tion of various systems in REI according to a certain rule during
the operation of REI. This ordered structure has characteristics of
self-adaptive and self optimization. In addition, the advantages
and significance of the concept defined in this paper are illus-
trated by comparing with the existing literature on Prosumer,
Energy Cell, Web-of-Cells and We-Energy.
(3) From the perspective of EC, this paper systematically sum-
marizes the key issues of REI, such as complex network modeling,
structure division, optimal energy flow allocation, synchronous
control, cascade failure and energy transaction decision-making,
etc. In addition, the research ideas to solve the above future
key issues are listed in an in-depth and comprehensive way,
providing solutions for further subsequent research.
It can be seen that the research on the integration of trans-
portation, social and energy network will form an integration of
REI, providing for REI with more theoretical basis and innovative
advantages in the growth of SC in the future. The proposal of
ESO and EC is conducive to the analysis of REI with the char-
acteristics of coupling interconnection, distribution coordination,
multi-energy complement and open sharing. The research of ESO
and EC can not only redefine REI with innovation from the per-
spective of complex system, but also transforms the interaction
among multiple subsystems in complex REI into the evolution
relationship of a complex dynamic network, providing a theo-
retical basis and mathematical analysis tools for the structural
emergence and adaptive coevolution of REI.
To sum up, it is necessary to study EC issue of REI for urban
energy conservation, emission reduction and energy efficiency
improvement. This paper studies the REI under SC from the
perspective of complex network, and summarizes on the partic-
ularity of coupling operation of transportation, socialand energy
M. Guo, M. Xia and Q. Chen
network. Although there have been extensive theoretical and
practical researches on EI, few took into account the particularity
of transportation and social network coupling on REI. CNA as an
emerging research field, is still in its infancy when applied to EI
and there is an urgent need for further research.
In addition, although this paper focuses on complex network
modeling, optimal network flow distribution synchronous con-
trol, failure cascade mechanism analysis, multi-agent interest
interaction game and other critical issues, there are still deficien-
cies considering the integrity of such a large and complex system
of REI from the perspective of complex network, as shown in the
following:
(1) Although the paper points out that EC structure is a com-
plex network of REI features, but there is no deep analysis on
how the coupling of each subsystem in REI affects the community
structure of the energy network, nor any further discuss on how
to develop an EC structure partition algorithm suitable for REI,
which is inevitable in the future work;
(2) This article mainly illustrates multi-energy flow coupling in
REI and the interaction between information flow and value flow
on multi-energy flow in practice, but lack of a unified coupled
flow network model for different flows to achieve collaborative
optimal distribution, which is also the weakness of the existing
articles, and a difficulty to be tackled with in future research work
as well;
(3) The synchronization of EC is only a special status of consis-
tency. This paper studies only the synchronous control, and does
not discuss the consistency of REI and the stability of maintaining
the synchronization consistency of coupled network once the
synchronous status changed over time;
(4) This paper only analyzes the cascade mechanism of node
overload and load redistribution, yet a cascade failure can also
be resulted from edge overload of REI’s complex network model
and load redistribution. Moreover, node overload and edge over-
load will interact with each other to further spread the cascade
failures, so that a further deeper research is needed;
(5) Although this paper puts forward an analysis idea based
on the interactive game evolution of multi-agent interests of
EC for REI, it is only a preliminary theoretical analysis without
taking into account the characteristics of EC such as rationality,
irrationality, selfishness or selflessness.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Min Guo: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Visual-
ization, Original draft writing, Review writing & editing. Mingchao
Xia: Ideas, Conceptualization, Methodology, Review writing &
editing. Qifang Chen: Visualization, Investigation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds
for the Central University under Grant [Grant Number
2018JBZ004].
179
Energy Reports 8 (2022) 161–182
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