WORKSHEET 3

Group No.: 2 Date Performed: October 18,2020

Members: Tragico, Jalil, Esperidion, Mahammad Ali, Adrias Date Submitted: October 26, 2020

Duplicated Sister Condensed

Centrosome Chromosomes
Chromatids
s
(Paternal)
Coiled Centromere Crossing-over
Chromatids

Cell

Spindle Fibers
Duplicated Sister
Nuclear Envelope Chromatid
(Maternal)
BEFORE S PHASE AFTER S PHASE PROPHASE I

Elongated cell
Cleavage furrow
Genetic materials
exchange

Complete Nuclear
Homologous
Envelope
Chromosomes
TELOPHASE I ANAPHASE I
METAPHASE I

Cleavage Furrow

Homologous Sister Chromatids

(Separated) 4 haploid cells
Chromosome (Gametes)
s

PROPHASE II METAPHASE II
ANAPHASE II

TELOPHASE II

Fig. 3.1. Normal meiosis in a cell with n=6 chromosomes

 BEFORE S PHASE AFTER S PHASE PROPHASE I

Inadequate Non disjunction

Chromosome Cleavage (Unseparated Sister
s Furrow Chromatids)

Centrosomes
With excess
Chromosomes
TELOPHASE I
ANAPHASE I
METAPHASE I
Spindle
Fibers

n+1

Cleavage
Furrow
Spindle Separated sister 4 haploid
Unfair distribution n+1
Fibers Chromatids cells
of chromosomes
(Gametes)

n-1

n-1

PROPHASE II METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II

TELOPHASE II

Fig. 3.2. Anomalous meiosis in a cell with n=6 chromosome

Discussion

Figure 3.1 shows the entire process of meiosis, focusing on the chromosomes that
exchanges materials from maternal and paternal. Suppose, the yellow threads and yarns represents
the maternal chromosomes, and the greens represents the paternal. To understand meiosis easily,
just put in mind that it is the same with mitosis but with double the process of mitosis.
Meiosis is a process in which we found on an organisms reproductive system, where single
cell divides twice to produce four (4) cells containing half original amount of genetic information.
These cells are our sex-cells (sperm in males, and egg cell in females).

Stages
Meiosis I
“Before S Phase”- in this stage, the chromatids are still coiled, in figure 3.1, the 3 yellow yarn
represent the maternal material and the 3 greens are the paternal materials, where, we can already
locate the centromeres.

“After S phase”- at this stage, chromatids are duplicated. From 6 chromatids, these stage already
have 12 condensed sister chromatids. Spindle apparatus form.

“Prophase I”- The copied chromosomes condense into X-shaped structures that can be
easily seen under a microscope. The chromosomes pair up so that both copies of
chromosome 1 are together, both copies of chromosome 2 are together, and so on. The
pairs of chromosomes may then exchange bits of DNA in a process called recombination
or crossing over.

“Metaphase I”- The chromosome pairs line up next to each other along the centre (equator)
of the cell.

“Anaphase II”- The pair of chromosomes are then pulled apart by the meiotic spindle,
which pulls one chromosome to one pole of the cell and the other chromosome to the
opposite pole.

“Telophase I”- The chromosomes complete their move to the opposite poles of the cell.
A cleavage furrow form and the cell is ready to separate.

Meiosis II

“Prophase II”- In each of the two daughter cells the chromosomes condense again into
visible X-shaped structures that can be easily seen under a microscope. The membrane
around the nucleus in each daughter cell dissolves away releasing the chromosomes.

“Metaphase II”- In each of the two daughter cells the chromosomes (pair of sister
chromatids) line up end-to-end along the equator of the cell.

“Anaphase II”- The sister chromatids are then pulled to opposite poles due to the action
of the meiotic spindle. The separated chromatids are now individual chromosomes.

“Telophase”- The chromosomes complete their move to the opposite poles of the cell. At
each pole of the cell a full set of chromosomes gather together. A membrane forms around
each set of chromosomes to create two new cell nuclei. We now have 4 unique haploid
cells.
 Figure 3.2 illustrate the anomalous meiosis. From before S phase to metaphase, the process
from a normal meiosis is visible, but when the anaphase starts, malfunction occur, where, the
chromosomes are being separated when the spindle apparatus is shorten. Nondisjunction can occur
during anaphase of mitosis, meiosis I, or meiosis II. During anaphase, sister chromatids (or
homologous chromosomes for meiosis I), will separate and move to opposite poles of the cell,
pulled by microtubules. In nondisjunction, the separation fails to occur causing both sister
chromatids or homologous chromosomes to be pulled to one pole of the cell.
Mitotic nondisjunction can occur due to the inactivation of either topoisomerase II, condensin, or
separase. This will result in 2 aneuploid daughter cells, one with 47 chromosomes (2n+1) and the
other with 45 chromosomes (2n-1).
Nondisjunction in meiosis I occurs when the tetrads fail to separate during anaphase I. At the end
of meiosis I, there will be 2 haploid daughter cells, one with n+1 and the other with n-1. Both of
these daughter cells will then go on to divide once more in meiosis II, producing 4 daughter cells,
2 with n+1 and 2 with n-1.
Nondisjunction in meiosis II results from the failure of the sister chromatids to separate during
anaphase II. Since meiosis I proceeded without error, 2 of the 4 daughter cells will have a normal
complement of 23 chromosomes. The other 2 daughter cells will be aneuploid, one with n+1 and
the other with n-1. At the case of figure 3.2, there are 6 chromosomes and when they reach the last
part of the process, the distribution of chromosomes and sister chromatids is unequal. The 2
haploid cell has excess chromosomes (4), while the other 2 haploid cells contains inadequate
chromosomes (2).

Assessment Questions:

1. Where do you expect genetic differences between cells to arise, from mitosis or from
meiosis? Why?
Genetic differences occur in meiosis division, part of the stages is the activity called
synapsis, where genetic information from 2 homologous chromosomes exchanges, this
exchanges is called the crossing-over or the recombination. Hence, in the prophase stage
(specifically) the crossing-over occur. Genetic differences are the reason that no siblings
have identical identity (except for identical twins), after crossing-over the sister chromatids
are no longer identical.

2. By what mode of cell division would you expect sperm cells to be formed in the
haploid male bee? Explain the possible mechanism.
A male bee contains n=16 o drones. Haploid drone bees produce haploid sperm in
their testes through a mitotic spermatogenesis without a meiotic reduction division.
Meiosis is a reductive division. Mitosis preserves the chromosome complement. Since the
males are already haploid there is no need for a reductive division to generate haploid
sperm. In the case of bees, the fertile female queen bee is fertilized by male gametes from
a male bee called a drone. But a drone develops from an unfertilized egg, which is a single
gamete (ovum)! Therefore the sperm of the drone must be produced by ordinary cell
division (mitosis) instead of the meiotic cell division which usually is involved in the
formation of fertile gametes.

3. Suppose mitotic and meiotic processes had never evolved, what do you think would
have been the consequence(s)?
Mitotic and meiotic process is one of the most important cycle in a humans’ life, as
we all know that this process is the process of our growth and repair in our human body,
not just to us humans, but also to all living organisms (in mitosis process) without the
growth and repair, organism will not turn into an adult to function well, and will not be
able to repair damage defects on an organisms body. Producing of gametes and passing
genetic traits to the next generation is also the work of the other (in meiosis process).
 Without the process of dividing the cells into gametes or the sex cells, there will be no next
generation, and organisms will definitely extinct.

4. What would happen during anaphase and anaphase I in individuals possessing an

odd number of chromosomes?

In anaphase stage where, spindle fiber will be shorten, then the sister chromatids
will be separated and pull to the opposite poles of the cell, and when one homologous
chromosome will be pulled to the one side of the pole without separating the sister
chromatids, abnormalities will arise. Most commonly, nondisjunction occurs in anaphase
stages, improper separation during anaphase results to unequal distribution of
chromosomes. When in meiosis, anaphase I, when the chromosomes are pulled away from
each other, there are some paired chromosomes that will not be separated, just like in figure
3.2 the anomalous meiosis. There are different types of chromosomal abnormalities,
ranging from one extra copy of one chromosome to multiple extra copies of all
chromosomes. When it starts in anaphase I all next stages will also be affected.
References:

Your genome., What is meiosis. Retrieved from,

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-meiosis

Nguyen, D., Seattle pi, What happens to a Cell if it Does Not Separate Correctly During
Anaphase?. Retrieved from,
https://education.seattlepi.com/happens-cell-not-separate-correctly-during-anaphase-5871.html

Samantha F. Gottlieb; Connor Tupper; Connor C. Kerndt; David H. Tegay. Genetics,

Nondisjunction. (September 26,2020) Retrieved from,
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482240/

Male bees develop their sperm in mitotic process, Retrieved from,

http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/courses/w3031/Firstexam2002folder/2002ex1answers.htm#
:~:text=Mitosis%20preserves%20the%20chromosome%20complement,division%20to%20gener
ate%20haploid%20sperm.

W.P. Armstrong 15 April 2009, Mitosis Compared With Meiosis, Retrieved from,
https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/lmexer2a.htm#:~:text=Haploid%20drone%20bees
%20produce%20haploid,without%20a%20meiotic%20reduction%20division.

Gamete, Retrieved from,

https://science.jrank.org/pages/2914/Gamete.html