Repair Rehabilitation: Compiiation American Concrete Institute

A C 1 COMP-20 93 D 0662947 0506697 8 7 9 D
REPAIR &
REHABILITATION Il
Compiiation 20
American Concrete Institute
COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

Licensed by Information Handling Services
A C 1 COMP-20 93 0bb2949 0 5 0 b b 9 8 705 m
Repair & Rehabilitation II

AC1 Compilation 20
2 Rooftop Plaza Rehabilitation, by Robert Tracy 39 Improving Concrete Bond in Repaired Bridge
Decks, by Johan Silfwerbrand
7 Repair Method for Salt-Damaged Reinforced
Concrete Structures, by Eiji Sawada 45 Nondestructive Testing for Repair and
Rehabilitation, by Larry D. Olson and Clifford
12 Quality Workmanship in Rapid Repair of C. Wright
Concrete Pavements, by R. Frank Carmichael
III 52 Rehabilitating Parking Structures with
Corrosion-Damaged Button-Headed Post-
18 Ontario Power Generating Station Headworks Tensioning Tendons, by Thomas E. Nehil
Rehabilitation, by N.P. Bada
60 Rehabilitating Parking Structures with
23 Rehabilitation ofan Elevated Roadway Bridge, Corrosion-Damaged Button-Headed Post-
by Alexander M. Vaysburd Tensioning Tendons, by ïîiomas E. Nehil
29 Rehabilitation of Linden Reservoir, by Ashok 67 Repair of Subsurface Voids in a High

K. Dhingra Performance Pavement, by Myles A. (Tony)
Murray
33 Reinforced Overlay and Shotcrete Restore
Integrity to a Multistory Parking Structure, by 71 In-Place Bond Testing and Surface
Kevin A. Michols and John F. Vincent Preparation of Concrete, by Ka1 R. Hindo
37 Joint Repair with MMA-Polymer Concrete, by 74 Polymer Pile Encapsulation: Factors

Pete Barlow and Chris Olson Influencing Performance, by Richard K. Snow
Preface
AC1 Compilations combine material previously published in Institute periodicals to provide compact
and ready reference on specific topics. The material in a compilation does not necessarily represent the
opinion of an AC1 technical committee -only the opinions of the individual authors. However, the
information presented here is considered to be a valuable resource for readers interested in the subject.
Randall W. Poston
Chairman, AC1 Committee 224
Cracking
Avanti C. Shroff
Rehabilitatioii
Gary L. Cliynoweth
Repair of Concrete
American Concrete Institute, Box 19150, Redford Station, Detroit, Michigan 48219

A C 1 COUP-20 93 m Obb2949 05Obb99 b4L =
Parking Slab Replacement Uses
Innovative Geonet Drainage System
6
oncrete slabs are generally isolates the insulation/mem- commissioned a study to determine
very durable, but some envi- brane. the specific nature and extent of the
ronments and conditions of The insulation layer reduces problems.
use can lead t o accelerated building heat loss.
deterioration that sometimes leads The upper protection layer iso- The evaluation
to expensive repairs. In one such in- lates the insulation from the con-
stance, geosynthetics were used crete wearing slab above. The study of the parking slab in-
during reconstruction of a relatively The unbonded topping is a wear- cluded visual observations, mate-
new rooftop parking slab on a large ing surface for auto parking. rials evaluation, nondestructive
office building near Denver, Colo- testing, and a review of original
rado, that failed prematurely. The concrete topping slab, situ- construction documents and field
ated directly over occupied office reports. Results indicated that the
space, accommodates 750 to 800 principal deterioration mechanism
Design and construction vehicles. Maintenance operations was the saturation of concrete sur-
The original roofing system con- considered typical involved joint facing caused by poor drainage
sisted of a conventionally rein- sealing, minor concrete surface along the interface between con-
forced structural slab, a rubberized repair, and periodic sweeping and crete topping and insulation. This
asphaltic membrane, and a rigid in- cleaning. Similar systems have been led to damage by frost action that
sulation layer sandwiched between known t o provide from 20 to 30 was so severe that many of the joint
two thin protection boards and an years of low-maintenance service seals were rendered useless by the
unbonded concrete topping slab. life depending on use, exposure, third and fourth winters.
This slab served as a wearing sur- and certain design features. Joint sealant failure caused rapid
face only and was not part of the The original slab was constructed saturation of many slab areas as
structural building system. The pri- during the mid-1970s and began water entered the slab-joint system,
mary functions of the various com- showing significant problems within became entrapped atop the protec-
ponents are: the first three years of service. Early tion layer, and rapidly saturated
The structural slab carries all sys- problems developed near drain in- joint faces, causing progressive
tem live and dead loads. lets and consisted of disintegrated damage to adjacent surface areas.
The membrane layer prevents concrete encasements (diamonds) Without subsurface drainage,
leakage into the building. around drain basins. By 1979, con- moisture that penetrated through
The lower protection layer pre- cern had developed over the integ- the joint system could only escape
vents damage to the membrane rity of isolated slab areas beyond by percolation along the interface
from additional construction and the drain diamonds and the owner between the concrete and the pro-
2
AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 0506700 193
(left) Original condition of parking slab.

(above) Suitability of the filterlseparation layer in the
drainage net system was evaluated in a trial installation.
tection layer. This saturated the existing slab system was eight years Evaluating the underdrain alter-
concrete topping along all joint sur- old. By then, large portions of the natives was more qualitative than
faces for extended periods of time. roof parking lot were closed t o quantitative. A number of factors
Scaling from frost damage is most traffic because of total slab disinte- were identified that were considered
severe on saturated concrete. gration. important for proper system per-
The deterioration was progressive formance. These factors are de-
and would eventually render the Recommendation scribed in Table l .
slab unserviceable. An appropriate System characteristics were rated
remedial action plan was needed. Design criteria were established for
the replacement system based on the one through four, respectively, with
data and evaluation from the pre- a rating of one being very undesir-
Analyzing the alternatives vious investigation and from fur- able and four being very desirable.
Predicting the useful service life and ther research. Some of the possibil- Table 2 shows the values given each
judging the cost effectiveness of ities included: characteristic for the alternative
various repair schemes proved dif- Restoration in kind using high- systems. The totals indicate the
ficult and inconclusive. Reaching a quality concrete. geocomposite system is the most
decision t o spend considerable Providing insulation board with suitable.
money for repairs with only limited subsurface drainage features. After reviewing the available
data on useful service life was a An underdrain system to elimi- data, including cost factors, the
major stumbling block to proper nate subsurface water entrap- geocomposite drainage system was
consideration of partial repairs. To ment. selected. The system was tested for
keep the slab in service, Band-Aid Combinations of these systems or flow capacities, load characteris-
repairs were performed, first during concepts. tics, and unrestrained or low top-
slab investigation and periodically After lengthy debate, a decision ping/net slip potential. A polyeth-
thereafter. was reached to use a new under- ylene geonet was chosen for the un-
After lengthy deliberation (and drain system and high-quality con- derdrain with a polypropylene
several additional years of further crete for rooftop restoration. Se- woven sheet for a slip sheet and
deterioration), an updated study lecting an appropriate underdrain separation layer immediately be-
helped persuade the building own- system involved a review of three neath the concrete (Fig. l).
ers that the only practical and pre- options: loose drainage gravel, a Transmissivities were checked at
dictable solution was to remove and stabilized drainage aggregate sec- various confining pressures (vertical
replace the entire wearing surface. t i o n , or a geotextile s e p a r a - load) and it was determined that a
This replacement occurred when the tion/filter layer and drainage grid. suitable flow capacity was provided
REPAIR ?i REHABILITATION II ..
J

A C 1 COMP-20 93 = Obb29Y7 0506701 0 2 T
A. ORfCINdL DESEN
-
i COMZRETE WEARIXC S U R F A C E
7
7
L' CONCRET! WEARZAE S U R F A C E -X-X-X-
at all operational load levels. Tests
were also run to determine insula-
tion load-deformation characteris-
tics in conjunction with the drain-
age net system. The first helped de-
-X- x-x-x
1J- I
P R O T m T Z O N BOARD
FfLTER FdBRIC- WOVEN
FVLYPRffkVZKNEFIEER
r CROSS U N m D
fine grid lockup potential at the net-

insulation interface. Extruded poly- '
L RfGfL
styrene board was the rigid system
used for roof insulation.
Trial installation
A trial system installation was com-
pleted on the actual rooftop t o
1 ROOF ME
evaluate the suitability of the fil-

ter/separation layer between the Fig. 1-Schematics comparing original design with geotextile repair option.
drainage net and the concrete top-
ping slab. Two filter-fabric mate-
rials were tested, and concrete mixes the woven material was specified found at isolated locations and a
were also varied to determine the for the slip sheet/filter fabric mate- special closure detail was worked
effect of different water-cement ra- rial. out to tie the new topping slab sys-
tios on cement paste permeation tem to the existing-parapet wall
through the filter layer and possible System installation without unnecessarily damaging or
bonding of the filter layer to the Concrete removal began in early disturbing the wall, which carried
topping slab. July and proceeded at a rapid pace. the building facade. Salvaging the
The trial indicated that both fab- Because considerable saturation of existing wall realized considerable
rics were equally effective at reduc- the underlying insulation layer was cost and time savings, while main-
ing paste permeation into the cross- revealed, the insulation was retaining the building's outward ap-
linked polyethylene geonet, but the moved and replaced as well. Satu- pearance.
polypropylene fabric developed ration was so severe at building low Once the insulation was re-
minimal bond to the concrete top- points that it was necessary to in- moved, the membrane was in-
ping, whereas the woven fabric - stall a second drainage layer be- spected for damage, and spot re-
spun bonded-polyester - adhered neath the insulation in roof valleys pairs (on less than 10 percent of the
tightly and became impregnated and along drainlines. surface) were performed. Exposure
with and even embedded into the Damage to concrete parapet walls of the membrane to the elements
lower concrete slab. Consequently, at the base of the slab was also during reconstruction was mini-
Table 2 - Weighted performance

Table 1 - Design criteria features
4
AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 W Obb29q9 0506702 Tbb
(top left and right) Concrete removal revealed significant

damage to the underlying insulation layer.
(bottom left) Spot repairs were made to less than 10

percent of the membrane surface.
(middle right) The insulation and protection layers and

geonet underdrain were placed.
(bottom right) Damage to concrete parapet walls required

a special closure detail to tie the new topping slab system
to the wail.
REPAIR & REHABILTTATION II 5

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 050b703 9T2
Concrete was place using a strip method to provide proper The finished slab. The system is performing satisfactorily
control joints in the concrete topping. with no reports of operations or maintenance problems.
mized t o avoid damage t o the Performance Abrasion resistence of geosyn-

building below. System performance was closely thetics systems.
With membrane repairs com- monitored during the first year and, Shearing resistence to braking ve-
plete, the insulation and protection with the exception of some isolated hicle loads.
layers and geonet underdrain were joint-matching problems, sealant Long-term shrinkage and creep
placed. Formwork was then in- problems, and miscellaneous con- aspects of geocomposites.
stalled for concrete replacement us- crete cracking, the system is per- This installation is considered in-
ing a strip method t o provide forming satisfactorily. novative. Until further design in-
proper control joints in the con- As a result of this operation, it formation is developed and re-
crete topping. Strip edges became can be concluded that geotextile search has been performed, the use
construction and/or isolation joints drainage nets, when properly de- of this system should only be con-
depending on the section encoun- signed and constructed, can provide sidered on a project following study
tered. suitable underdrain layers for plaza and appropriate selection of geo-
Concrete placement began three decks. With proper design criteria, s y n t h e t i c f a b r i c s . Successes
to four weeks into the project and a material selection, and preconstruc- achieved, however, warrant consid-
sequenced operation was estab- tion testing, these systems can pro- eration of this system as one viable
lished to keep removal and replace- vide a suitable approach for restor- and cost effective approach to plaza
ment on a cycled basis. Special con- ing unbonded topping slabs that deck restoration.
trol was used throughout the top- have undergone premature damage.
ping replacement to provide both This installation firmly estab-
large-scale movement and crack- lishes that geonet systems can play
control capability. a significant role in plaza deck res- ÄCI member Rob-
The building was in continual use toration, however, although the an- e r t G. Tracy is
during construction and all opera- ticipated performance in the above principal and
tions were performed t o cause a project has been achieved, it should founder of Tracy
minimum amount of disruption. not be concluded that this system Materials Consul-
Concrete removal, which generated can be used for all applications tants, Ann Arbor,
noise and vibration, were per- Michigan. He es-
without further research. Recom- tablished this firm
formed in the evening hours, and mendations for further research in-
concrete replacement and form- to broaden his ac-
clude: tivities and involvement in restoration
work was done during the day.
engineering. Tracy received both his
Weekly progress meetings were held Determining slip coefficients for Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in
to coordinate operations and re- various combinations of geosyn- civil engineering from Michigan Tech-
solve any problems that developed. thetics over geonet underdrains. nological University. He is a member
By mid-October, concreting was Long-term deformation charac- of AC1 Committees 362, Parking Struc-
nearly complete and final cleanup teristics associated with load and tures; 364, Rehabilitation; and 546,
was underway. temperature. Repair of Concrete.
6 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 m Ob62949 050b704 839 m
Repair process developed by Japanese cement company utilizes
polymer cement mortar and organic paint film
~ -
u -
Rehiforced Concrete Structures
~
S
alt damage has been an issue
in Japan since around 1981.
From 1982 to 1984, govern-
ment organizations and co-
operating associations conducted
country-wide surveys of salt dam-
age, focusing on railway bridges,
road bridges, building structures,
and harbor facilities.
A variety of methods are used to
inhibit corrosion of reinforcing steel
in concrete. When large quantities
of external salt are expected to be
present, corrosion protection is
usually achieved by either prevent-
ing penetration of corrosives into
the concrete, preventing contact be-
tween corrosives and reinforcing
steel, or controlling the electric po-
tential of the system. Coating the
concrete surface is currently attract-
ing attention as a salt damage re-
pair method. The Asano Refresh process uses prepacked aggregate when a large pari of the
crossection must be replaced, as in this salt-damaged offshore pier girder.
Asano Refresh (AR) process
The Asano Refresh (AR) process,
developed by Nihon Cement Co. ,
Ltd., is a salt damage prevention
method that incorporates a con-
crete surface coating (Fig. 1).
The AR process is a concrete
body modification process that im-
proves the durability of existing
concrete structures by protecting the
concrete against further invasion by
harmful substances that can de-
grade the structure. It can also be
applied to a new concrete structures
to prevent future degradation.
The combination of materials
used in the AR process (Table 1) re-
sults in repairs having the following
characteristics:
High adhesivity.
Protection against the permea-
tion and diffusion of carbon diox-
ide, oxygen, and water, and against Any remaining deteriorated concrete is chipped away prior to beginning the
neutralization. repair.
REPAIR & REHABILITATION II 7

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 050b705 775 H
Table 1 -
Main effects of the materials used in the Asano
Refresh process
Protection against the invasion of

chloride ions and salt damage.
Easy rust removal and rust pre-
ventive work on reinforcing steel;
high quality rust proofing.
Stable performance of inorganic
materials and specially formulated
styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) la-
tex, which are mixed under strict
quality control.
Economical compared with resin
repair processes.
Repair process using

prepacked aggregate
Prepacked aggregate grouted with
SBR polymer cement mortar is used
when a large part of the concrete
crossection must be replaced. The
accompanying photographs illus-
trate the steps used to repair a salt-
damaged offshore pier girder using
this technique.
Remaining deteriorated concrete
was chipped away, and sandblast-
ing was used to clean the concrete
surface and remove rust from the
reinforcing steel. Corrosion inhibi-
tor (primarily a urethane resin) was
applied to the reinforcing steel, and
enough formwork installed to sup-
port the prepacked aggregate. The
rest of the formwork was then in-
stalled and the grout injected.
After removal of the formwork Table 2 -
Water vapor permeability, chloride ion
the surface coat (SBR polymer ce- transmission rate, and chloride ion penetration depth of the
ment mortar) and finisher acrylic salt damage prevention system in the AR process
elastic finish material) were ap-
plied. The surface coat incorpo-
rated a layer of alkali-resistant glass
fiber mesh across the joint line be-
tween the original concrete and the
repair.
Salt damage prevention

system
The surface of reinforcing steel in
high alkalinity concrete is covered
with a passive film that protects the
*Objective values in parentheses.
steel againsts corrosion. However,
when chloride ions penetrate the
concrete they can destroy the pas- in Fig. 1 to protect the concrete by salt damage prevention system
sive film and corrode the steel. The preventing the invasion of oxygen, (polymers, polymer cement mor-
salt damage prevention system of water, and chloride. tars, combined organic paint film)
the AR process uses the surface Following is a discussion of the and the effect of the system as a
coating and finish materials shown effects of the materials used in the whole.
8 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 m Obb2949 O506706 601 m
lno
Concrete
Base strengthening material
(alcoholic silica solution)
corrosion inhibitor
3.7 (special urethane resin)
o Crossectional repair material
$IV
(SBR polymer cement mortar)
surface coating material
O (SBR polymer cement mortar)
O 1 SBR EVA PAE PVI
O
Salt damage prevention finish
material (polymer cement mortar 3
d Type of Polymer Dispersion
Steel + acrylic rubber emulsion film)
I
Ld Fig. 3 - Relationship between type
of polymer and water vapor
Fig. 1 - Outline of the Asano Refresh process. transmission rate.
Alkali -
resistant
- Chipped
~
glassfiber
~ portion mesh
Chipping
R u s t generated /" Sand blast(Rust
on reinforced peeling-off of removal, Cleaning
steel concrete of concrete surface)
Grouting mortar system
Fig. 2 - Repair procedure using prepacked aggregate.
C h l o r i d e Ion
0 0.8 k g / i 2
1'\
Water Vapour
'. A 0.4 k d i Z
s/~=0.33
\O
I 1
1 3 5 7 i0 O 1 2 3 4 5
T h i c k n e s s of PCM (mm) T h i c k n e s s o f PCM (mm)
Fig. 4 - Effect of thickness of polymer cement mortar on Fig. 5 - Effect of polymer cement mortar combined with
water vapor transmission rate and chloride ion organic paint film on water vapor transmission rate and
penetration. chloride ion penetration.

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0bb2949 0506707 548
Effect of the type of polymer

dispersion on water vapor
permeation
Water vapor transmission rates
were experimentally compared us-
ing typical polymer dispersions: sty-
rene-butadiene rubber (SBR), poly-
acrylic ester (PAE), ethylene vinyl
acetate (EVA), and polyvinilidene
chloride (PVDC). The results (Fig.
3) indicate that while all polymer
dispersions reduce the transmission
The concrete surface is cleaned and rust removed from the reinforcing steel by rate, the SBR group gave a particu-
sandblasting. larly good result.
Effect of the thickness of
polymer concrete mortar (PCM)
on water vapor permeation and
chloride ion penetration
The effect of PCM thickness on
water vapor permeation and chlo-
ride ion penetration is shown in Fig.
4. A thickness of 3 mm or less did
not have much effect on the water
transmission rate, but a thickness of
10 mm gave a value of below 1 mg/
cmz day, which is the severest target
level of salt damage prevention. A
PCM thickness of 1 to 5 mm had
very little effect on chloride ion
penetration, but 10 mm of PCM re-
duced penetration to approximately
mg/m2 day.
In another experiment using SBR
PCMs, 6 mm of PCM only slightly
reduced chloride ion penetration but
12 mm of PCM completely inhib-
ited penetration. Clearly, thicker
Corrosion inhibitor, primarily a urethane resin, is applied to the reinforcing steel. layers of PCM can remarkably re-
duce chloride ion penetration.
Effect on water vapor
permeation and chloride ion
penetration of PCM combined
with organic paint film
The effect on water vapor permea-
tion and chloride ion penetration of
combining 1 to 4 mm of PCM with
two coating levels (0.4 and 0.8 kg/
m2) of an acrylic rubber emulsion
film is shown in Fig. 5 . (Current
formulation could not form a thin
coating layer, so this experiment
used fine aggregate and the sand-
cement ratio was changed from 0.93
to 0.33.)
The ability of the paint film alone
to inhibit chloride ion penetration
was very low. (The penetration rate
of 5 mg/cm2 day is outside the
Formwork is partly installed, then aggregate is packed between the formwork
and the girder.
AC1 COMPILATION
10

A C 1 COMP-20 93 Obb2949 050b708 484
range of Fig. 5.) When the paint

was combined with PCM, however,
a penetration rate of chloride ion of
lo-’ mg/cm2 day or less could be
easily attained with a thickness of
only 2 mm. As for the water vapor
transmission rate, this did not vary
significantly with the thickness of
PCM, but the paint film alone gave
a transmission rate of 2 mg/cm2 day
or less. Conclusively, the organic
paint film greatly reduces water va-
por permeation.
In concrete terms, approximately
10 mm of PCM is needed to satisfy
the severest salt damage environ- Remaining formwork is installed prior to grouting with polymer cement mortar.
ment specification. The combina-
tion of approximately 2 mm of
PCM and 0.8 kg/m2 of acrylic rub-
ber emulsion film can form a suffi-
cient salt damage prevention layer,
but neither the PCM nor the paint
film can provide sufficient protec-
tion when used separately at these
application rates.
Effect of the salt damage
prevention system on water
vapor permeation and chloride
ion penetration
The results of tests applied to the
salt damage prevention system in
accordance with JIS Z 0208 (Water
Vapor Transmission Test), the
chloride ion permeation test (the
Japan Road Association method),
and the chloride ion penetration
depth test (the saturated NaCl solu-
tion immersion test), shown in Ta-
ble 2, indicate that the salt damage Styrene-butadiene rubber (SRB) polymer cement mortar is grouted into the
prevention system provides rela- prepackaged aggregate.
tively low water vapor permeability
and low chloride ion penetrability,
and largely depresses the chlorine
ion transmission rate compared
with uncoated concrete.
The water vapor permeability and
chloride ion transmission rate nec-
essary for each classification have
been studied by the Ministry of
Construction and related agencies.
However, the values listed in Table
2 are accepted as the most suitable
figures at present.
Eiji Sawada is Chief Researcher at

the Central Research Laboratory of
Nihon Cement Company Ltd., Tokyo,
Japan. Formwork is removed and a surface coat and finisher applied.

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 m Obb2949 0506709 310 m
in Raad Repair of
S
tates and local agencies are doweled or undoweled, and sawed number of people required for con-
spending millions of dollars or formed. struction. Also, equipment and
annually for the repair and ARE Inc engineers, in coopera- hardware used for handling and
replacement of worn port- tion with various state DOT per- placing heavy precast slabs are not
land cement concrete (PCC) pave- sonnel, established 32 test sites in required for cast-in-place repairs.
ments. Much of the money is being California, Michigan, Minnesota, However, most cast-in-place re-
spent on improvement and repair Illinois, Virginia, and Texas in 1983 pair materials demand longer lane
projects that require the work to be and 1984 t o evaluate rapid full closure times because of curing re-
completed at spot locations in less depth, full lane-width repairs. State- quirements. Opening the pavement
than 24 hours. of-the-art rapid repair techniques to traffic before repair materials can
More information is needed on and procedures for PCC pavements develop maximum strength short-
the relative effectiveness of various were made, and the results of 48 ens the potential service life of the
rapid repair techniques to replace months of repair performance eval- repair.
full depth, full lane-width segments uations on the 147 patches at the 32 Precast slabs have not been used
of PCC pavement. Data collected test sites are presented. much for rapid pavement repairs.
by the author on the National Co- Rapid slab replacement tech- Although they offer a potential of
operative Highway Research Pro- niques have become routine in some shorter lane closure times over
gram (NCHRP) and the data anal- states, but in most, only a few ex- many cast-in-place techniques, some
ysis supports the importance of perimental installations have been agencies have discontinued their use
quality workmanship on rapid re- constructed. For example, in some because of high costs and complex-
pair projects. of the largest metropolitan areas ities in construction. The higher cost
NCHRP Project 10-24’ identi- with extremely heavy traffic vol- can be attributed to the need for
fied, described, a n d evaluated umes, routine procedures for rapid larger construction crews and
methods that have been and are permanent repairs of PCC pave- greater equipment requirements. It
being used for rapid replacement of ments have not been developed. is also difficult to establish full sup-
full lane-width segments of contin- port beneath the slabs, which in
Maintenance engineers in juris-
uously reinforced (CRCP), jointed time start to rock and break under
dictions not currently performing
reinforced (JRCP), and jointed traffic loads.
rapid slab replacement work indi-
non-reinforced (JCP) concrete The design and placement of
cate a need for it. In some of the
pavements. long-lasting pavement repairs re-
states that are currently performing
quires a basic understanding of the
In CRCP, the steei reinforcement rapid replacements, engineers indi-
mechanics involved with pavement
is continuous throughout the length cated dissatisfaction with various behavior and the development of
of the pavement, and no joints are methods presently being used. distress in PCC pavements. Little is
used except construction joints at Cast-in-place repairs are the most gained by approaching pavement
the end of a placement. JRCP con- common approach to the replace- repair with the philosophy of sim-
tains reinforcing steel in the form of ment of full depth, full lane-width ply removing the “bad” and re-
deformed steel bars, deformed steel segments. Since labor costs are gen-
mats, or welded wire mats. JCP is a erally the most expensive element of
jointed concrete pavement that con- the repair cost, cast-in-place meth-
tains no steel reinforcement. The ods offer some savings over precast Keywords: concreie pavemenis; evaluation; quality
joints in J C P or J R C P may be options because of the reduced assurance: repairs.
12 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 Obb2949 050b7LO 0 3 2 =
Adjacent Pavement Effects
sometimes
Old Slab
Removed
Fig. 1-Example of slab cracking resulting from Fig. 2-Effects if repairs in adjacent lane joints do not line
iackhammer removal methods.
placing it with “good.” If the set minimum and maximum repair Design
mechanism causing the distress is lengths. The use of agency person- Most agencies design the repair
not also addressed through the re- nel or contractors for the work is a thickness the same as the existing
pair procedure, the repair normally function of the size of the project. pavement cross-section thickness,
fails by the same mechanism. Based on this study, the findings and in some cases, a thicker repair
Mistakes also have been made by on repair planning are as follows: is designed. To aid in the design of
not recognizing the fact that the A very difficult problem in any rapid repairs, mechanistic analysis
pavement structure expands, con- repair operation is selecting the ex- methods were used to develop de-
tracts, and moves in response to tent of the area to be repaired. Nu- sign criteria concerning the maxi-
traffic and environmental effects. merous observations were made mum length of the repair and the
For example, replacement of a de- where the repair was performing time to first saw cut. These analyses
teriorated joint with a patch with- well, but the adjacent area was per- include such factors as existing base
out a new joint, or placement of a forming poorly and was disintegrat- type, expected temperature drops
newly formed joint that is not in ing, which implies that an inade- during construction, and strength
line with the existing joint in the quate amount of the existing pave- properties of the repair material.
adjacent pavement, can cause a ment was taken out for repair, or Based on this study, the findings
transverse crack to form in line with that the entire existing pavement on repair design are:
the existing joint, which may or section is approaching the end of its
may not be detrimental to the re- If the slab placement lengths are
usefulness. Nondestructive deflec-
pair’s service life. tion and radar methods should be too long (> 20 ft [6.1 m]),without
The summary findings for plan- an interim joint, random transverse
used in selecting the extent of the
ning, design, construction, and per- area to be repaired. Such measure- cracking occurs.
formance are the result of initial lit- ments can indicate if repairs are for If the slab placement lengths are
erature surveys and interviews with long-term service, or just tempo- too short (< 4 ft [1.2 m]), longitu-
state and national agencies in 1982, rary measures prior to complete re- dinal cracking occurs.
initial site visits by the researchers in construction. Existing steel reinforcement,
1983, long-term repair performance Experience in the various states joint patterns, and joint load trans-
monitoring from 1983 to 1987 (48 has indicated that the use of precast fer details in the repair should be
months), and final repair visits and slabs is feasible, although one state matched to the existing pavement.
reviews in 1987. has pointed out that the economics The JRCP (jointed reinforced
are questionable. Before a final de- concrete pavement) computer pro-
Planning cision can be made as to the use of gram, developed at the University
Most agencies do not use formal precast slabs, the total cost, includ- of Texas at Austin? was used to es-
procedures to determine the need ing both construction and user de- timate the critical state of stress en-
for a repair. Instead, the decision to lay cost, should be estimated. velopes for a factorial of factors
repair most often depends on the Experience in several of the that influence repair performance.
judgement of an engineer or experi- states shows that the repair proce- These stress envelopes were com-
enced maintenance personnel. The dure can utilize an assembly line pared against the expected repair
limits of the repair are also usually approach, thus expediting the oper- material strength gain at several
established based only on judge- ation and minimizing the cost both times for the mean and two confi-
ment. However, some agencies have to the agency and to the user. dence levels.

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662749 0 5 0 b 7 1 1 T77
Table 1 -
Maximum placement lengths for repair areas (ft)
(95 percent reliability level).
Tables 1 and 2 show the effects of

the different factors considered in
the analysis on the maximum repair
placement length. The two tables
represent two different confidence
levels that may be interpreted as re-
liability in a risk analysis. For ex-
ample, a 95 percent reliability
means that for a number of place-
ments, there would be a 5 percent
probability that a placement length
shown in the table would experi-
ence intermediate cracking. A 99
percent reliability implies only a one
percent probability of intermediate
cracking. Table 2 -
Maximum placement lengths for repair areas (ft)
The subbase types in the tables (99 percent reliability level).
represent the range of possible con-
lSo Temp change 25' Temp change 35' Temp change
ditions that may be encountered in
the field. The temperature change is Type I 5PeI SPeI
the difference between the maxi- Subbase Timeof normal Type III normal Type III normal Type III
mum and minimum concrete tem- type placomcnt cernent cement cement cement cement cement
perature during the first 24 hours Rough (Evening) 8 10 6 8 5 8
after placement. texture (Morning) 16 38 14 24 13 19
The cement types shown repre- (Stabilid)
sent a range of materials that may Average (Evening) ' 17 33 14 25 13 u)
be used. Exotic new cements and texture (Morning) 60 120 46 90 39 72
accelerators have a faster strength (Asptiah)
gain during the critical first 24 Smooth (Evening) 32 44 19 29 1s 24
hours, thus they are expected to al- texture (Morning) 63 120 52 120 49 120
low longer placement lengths. The (Visqueen)
morning and evening placement im-
plies concrete placed before and af-
ter 12 noon, respectively. envelope exceeds the strength enve- slab temperatures. Since daily tem-
A review of Tables 1 and 2 indi- lope. Tables 3 and 4 present the perature change vary significantly
cates that for the following condi- maximum allowable time before during the year, the designer must
tions, shorter slab lengths are re- sawing is required for a 95 percent anticipate what season of the year
quired: reliability and a 99 percent reliabil- the slab replacements will be made.
Higher reliability against mid- ity, respectively. The next step is t o select the
slab cracking. The sequential steps that may be representative subbase type.
Afternoon placement. used by the designer to select maxi- A rough interface would be a ce-
Greater daily t e m p e r a t u r e mum slab lengths and maximum ment or asphalt-treated base that
changes. time of sawing to prevent mid-slab has not been rolled t o a smooth
Rougher subbase layer texture cracking from occurring are given plane. An aggregate base with large
(i.e., more friction). below. The designer must first es- aggregates in the surface would also
Another consideration for reduc- tablish the environmental condi- be in this category.
ing the stress that increases with tions and constraints, and then use A medium friction condition
time, and thus preventing random the following procedure step-by- would be a smooth stabilized base
cracking, is to develop criteria for step: where the surface has been rolled
t h e optimum time t o saw slab The first step is t o establish a very smooth, and there is little ma-
joints. Using the computer program desired reliability; since tables have crotexture in the surface.
previously discussed, a stress-time been provided for the 95 percent A smooth surface would be the
history for the various parameters and 99 percent reliability levels, one use of a Visqueen or polyethylene at
previously examined was per- of these must be selected. the interface. However, the appli-
formed. In simple terms, if the The daily concrete temperature cation of a Visqueen on top of a
stress envelope is above the strength during the first day of construction very rough surface does not neces-
envelope developed by the repair, a must be estimated. In the absence sarily move it into the smooth cate-
crack is predicted to occur. of concrete temperature data, the gory.
Thus, sawing should be per- U.S. Weather Bureau air tempera- The next decision is to select the
formed prior to the time the stress ture data be used t o simulate the time of day the concrete is to be
14 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 Obb2949 050b712 905 =
Table 3 -Maximum allowable time before sawing is
required (hours) (95 percent confidence level).
ments, polymers, and other mate-

rials should be considered and
tested. The size of the area to be re-
paired and the cost and availability
of these products should be consid-
ered in the decision.
Based on this study, the con-
struction findings are:
To prevent separation, adjacent
lanes should be tied together along
the longitudinal joint.
As pavement is removed, exer-
cise care when replacing existing
joints, since stress build up may be
excessive if this is not done, and
could result in transverse cracking.
When the continuity of existing
steel will not be maintained, the best
removal method for preventing
placed. For this purpose, the day usually still serving traffic. damage to the surrounding pave-
has basically been divided into two Another important construction ment is to saw the repair limits full-
periods: placement before noon procedure is the removal of old depth and then lift out the pieces to
(morning) and placement after noon pavement. It is typically removed by be removed.
(afternoon). As may be seen (Ta- saw cutting and breaking out by A higher reliability against mid-
bles i and 2 ) , the maximum allow- pieces. Removal solely by jackham- slab cracking requires shorter slab
able spacing differs considerably mering or by using too much jack- lengths.
between these two limits. hammering at the repair edge can An afternoon placement re-
From the appropriate cell in the cause microcracks in the adjacent quires shorter slab lengths.
factorials of Tables 1 and 2, the de- pavement (Fig. 1) and ultimately
A large expected daily tempera-
signer may select the maximum cause poor repair performance,
placement length for the prescribed with the adjacent pavement also ture change requires shorter slab
conditions t o prevent mid-span continuing to crack and spall. Most lengths.
cracking. The tables may be used in states require that all loose base A rougher subbase layer texture
two ways: using a prescribed length, material be removed and replaced (i.e. more friction) requires shorter
the designer may select the appro- with new base material or the repair slab lengths.
priate cement type to ensure that material. Sawing should be accomplished
this length will be satisfactory, or if Portland cement concrete with as soon as feasible as long as the
the designer plans to use a specific calcium chloride as an accelerator is blade does not dislodge the aggre-
cement type, he may establish the the most widely used repair mate- gates.
maximum permissible placement rial for achieving the fast strength The absolute costs for individual
length. requirements necessary for rapid activities associated with rapid
After selecting the proper slab completion of the job. Curing time patching of PCC pavements was
length, the designer can use Tables ranges from 4 to 8 hours, with some difficult to obtain, for a number of
3 and 4 to select the maximum al- agencies allowing up to 24 hours. reasons. Most construction bid doc-
lowable time before sawing. Again, Flexural strength in the range of 300 uments lump many activities into
for the appropriate cell, the de- psi to 350 psi (2.1 t o 2 . 4 MPa) is composite costs. For example, re-
signer selects a time wherein all used by some agencies to determine pair costs may include items such as
sawing of the transverse joints must when traffic will be allowed back on removal, placement of base, re-
be made. If sawing occurs after that the repair. placement of pavement, dowel bar
time period, it is quite possible that The possible number of repairs to installation, reinforcement, and
stresses may have built up to a point be placed per day is a function of curing.
that random cracking has occurred. the construction process and the size Many rapid repairs also a r e
of the repairs. As few as five to placed along with other improve-
Construction seven, or as many as 70 to 100 re- ments such as repair of longitudinal
Construction practices vary widely, pairs can be placed per day. joints, undersealing, grinding, etc.,
but there are several aspects that While calcium chloride has been and some costs are shared, such as
could adversely affect repair proce- the general accelerator of choice, traffic control. Also, bid docu-
dures. For example, traffic control several new products and other re- ments, which are the usual source
i is important for this type of con-

struction because the roadway is
pair materials should be examined.
These new rapid hardening ce-
of data, may not reflect total ex-
penditure by item.

A C 1 *COMP-20 93 Ob62949 O506733 841
Table 4 -
Maximum time before sawing is required (hours)
(99 percent confidence level).
I I
Table 5 shows cost data collected
from participating states. Inspec-
I Subbase
1 Slab
length
15" Temp change
Type1
normal
I
TypeIII
25" Temp change
I TYWI I
n o h TypeIII
1
35" Temp change
T-Y_W I
normal
I
TypeIII
type (ft) cement canent cement cement cement cement
tion shows that smaller projects
have higher unit costs (Virginia Site 15 NF 4 NP 4 NF 4
2, Michigan Site 5 , Minnesota Site NF NF
4, and California Site 3). However, NF NF
the cost of traffic control is not
NS
-
4
NF
necessarily affected by the size of
the job. For example, Virginia's Site NF NF
2 has 5.5 times as many cubic yards NF NF
NF NF
gf patching, but the traffic delay
cost is only 63 percent of the Site 1
cost. This may result from the spe-
cific site conditions or bid distribu-
tion practices by the contractor.
In general, the cost per square
yard of patching ranged from $50-
$500/yd2. Data collected indicates a
figure of approximately $75/yd2 as
the best average cost estimate,
Table 5 - Unit costs per square yard for rapid PCC repairs.
which is calculated by dropping the 1 + 2
three highest values and averaging Total cost Total
the data. cost of of rapid contract
patching repair amount*
Repair performance
($I,oooS) ($/Y*) (%1 ,ooos)
Most agencies do not have formal 311 544 387
procedures for monitoring their re- 420 134 554
pairs, however one agency does 1,013 123 1,274
have a formal procedure involving 1,117 120 1,620
condition survey ratings on their re-
pairs. In general, the repair perfor-
mance is monitored by periodic ob- 1,472 52 2,116
servation. The performance of the 294 50 300
repairs under study in this project
were monitored by highway depart- 1,244 49 i ,279
ment personnel throughout the du- 277 66 370
ration of the project. ARE Inc per- 1,319 50 2,049
sonnel made the first and the last
ratings, Site 1 No unit prices available
Subjective reviews of cracking 1 178 I79 74 192
and other distress ratings were ex- 7 73 80 346 609
tremely useful in developing these site 4 7 128 135 1800 148
results. The author used photo-
graphs and crack mapping methods 108 56 110
to monitor repair performance. Ta- 73 38 106
96 i 20 189
ble 6 shows the criteria found from
43 51 45
this study for determining the limits 133 1 05 413
of the repair, or when an existing
repair needs replacement t o pre-
serve the integrity of the surround-
ing pavement.
physical measurements of deflec- Unstable, or poor subbase or
Conclusion tion and/or radar for void detec- support material should be com-
The results from this long-term per- tion should be used to establish the pletely removed down to good ma-
formance monitoring of rapid limits of each repair. terial.
placed (< 24 hours) full depth, full Full depth sawing and removal Minimum repair length should
lane-width PCC repairs provides a by lifting are the most efficient and be 4 ft (1.2 m) and maximum repair
number of conclusive statements: effective method of removing the length should be 20 ft (6.1 m), or an
Detailed distress surveys and existing pavement. interim joint o r reinforcement
16 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 73 = Obb27Ll7 050b714 7 8 8
Table 6 - Criteria for Pavement Repair.
tend to cause longitudinal cracks in

the full width repair (Fig. 2).
By adding these simple conclu-
sive findings into the development
of a rapid repair design and con-
struction specification, an agency
can be assured of the best perform-
ing rapid repair. Other useful in-
dustry publications are available,
and most state DOTS are devel-
3 3 4 ~ 5
oping recommendations, experi-

ence, and specifications in this area.
Quality workmanship in the plan-
ning, design, and construction will
produce repairs that are good look-
ing and perform as expected.
References
1. Carmichael, R.F., I I I , A.H. Meyer,
L . L . Caldwell, a n d B . F . McCullough,
“Rapid Replacement of Portland Cement
Concrete Pavement Segments,” NCHRP
Project 10-24, Research Resulfs Digest No.
169, Transportation Research Board, 1989,
PP.
2. Vallejo, Felipe R.; McCullough, B .
Frank; and Hudson, W.R., “Drying Shrink-
age and Temperature Drop Stresses in
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement,”
Repori No. 177-1, Center for Highway Re-
search, Aug. 1975, pp.
3. “Guidelines for Full-Depth Repair,”
Technical Bulletin N o . T B 002.0 C P R ,
American Concrete Pavement Association,
Arlington Heights, 1989, pp.
4. “Guideline for Partial-Depth Repair,”
Technical Bulletin No. T B 003.0 C P R ,
American Concrete Pavement Association,
Arlington Heights, 1989, pp.
5. “Pavement Rehabilitation Manual,’’
Publication No. FHWA-Ed-88-025, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.,
Feb. 1989, pp.
should be considered (except for and there was some evidence that 6 . Snyder, Mark B.; Reiter, Michael J.;
CRCP pavement) to avoid trans- the T-wings may easily break off, Hall, Kathleen T.; and Darter, Michael I.,
thus its use is not recommended. It “Rehabilitation on Concrete Pavements. V.
verse pavement cracking from envi- 1 - Repair Rehabilitation Techniques,” Re-
ronmental and traffic load stresses. also requires more labor and is dif- p o r ~No. FHWA/RD-88-071, Federal High-
Old joint spacing should be ficult to cast and vibrate well. way Administration, Washington, D.C.,
matched. Repairs made with Type III ce- Apr. 1989.
If an old joint is removed, the ment with an accelerator added can
new repair should replace the re- be opened in 6 t o 8 hours a f t e r
moved joint, so that the existing placement. Our review did not dis-
joint spacing is reestablished. close any agency that was routinely
using exotic concrete mixes or new R. Frank Carmichael III is President
All reestablished joints should of ARE Inc - Engineering Consul-
materials, such as polymers, for
have load transfer devices to pre- tants, Austin, Texas, where he has
large repairs.
vent faulting or tilting. Repairs in adjacent lanes should been employed for the last fourteen
All steel in CRCP should be re- line up so that the joint or end of a years. He received a Bachelor’s de-
tied and the repair should reestab- repair in one lane is not located gree and a Master’s degree in Civil
lish longitudinal steel continuity. Engineering from the University of
mid-panel or offset from the joint Texas at Austin. He is currently com-
Adjacent lanes should be tied in the adjacent lane (Fig. 2). pleting the development of a comput-
together. Full depth, full lane-width re- erized bridge management system
No significant benefit was noted pairs should not be abutted up to (BMS) for the National Cooperative
for the use of the inverted T-repair, partial-width repairs since these Highway Research Program.
17
REPAIR & REHABILITATION II

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 H 0662949 0506715 bL4
Ontario Power
Generating Station
T he headworks of the On-

tario Power Generating Sta-
tion is located about 1.5 km
upstream from the Horse-
shoe Falls, Niagara Falls, Ontario,
Canada. The headwork structures
provide water to the 100 megawatt
spillway, the gatehouse apron, and
maingate sills; building new trash
racks; demolishing an old screen-
house structure; constructing a sce-
nic walkway, and cleaning debris
from the forebay.
by up to 1 m (3.3 ft) on the Niagara
River to enable two 13.7 m (45 ft)
diameter tunnels upstream to pro-
vide water to a reservoir in the eve-
ning for another generating station.
The water flow through the train-
ing wall, limited control of the gates
generation station that was built in at the International Control Dam
the early 1900s at the foot of the Cofferdam and dewatering due to the International Agreement
falls. Constructing the 183 m (600 ft) cof- between Canada and the U.S.A. for
From time to time, minor repairs ferdam along the ice diverter was providing maximum water flows
had been done to maintain the sta- the most difficult and challenging over the Horseshoe Falls during the
tion’s operating efficiency and part of the entire project. The con- tourist season, and minimum envi-
overall safety, but the intake struc- struction and potential safety haz- ronmental impact during the con-
tures had reached a condition where ards at times seemed unmanage- struction and removal of the coffer-
station safety and reliability could able. dam had also to be considered.
no longer be assured. The cofferdam was built along an The solution was to rest EFCO
The gates could no longer be re- ice diverter within the accelerating concrete form panels against a toe
liably closed completely on de- water channel immediately down- beam and header beam, sectionally
mand. Underwater diving inspec- stream from the control gates of the bolted together underwater by com-
tions during scheduled station out- International Control Dam located mercial divers, reacting onto indi-
ages revealed accelerated concrete on the Niagara River (Fig. 1). Al- vidually post-tensioned ice diverter
deterioration on the maingate though a detailed procedure for in- piers and positioned to allow tremie
apron. The operations staff moni- stalling the cofferdam was pre- concrete to be placed between the
tored an increase in loss of genera- pared, several construction anomal- bedrock and the underside of the
tion, loss of forebay water eleva- ies existed. toe beam (Fig. 2).
tion, and loss of water supply to the These included water currents
Niagara Parks Commission Duf- within the accelerating channel, wa-
ferin Island Park. A major rehabil- ter flow through the well fractured Installing the cofferdam
itation program was required. bedrock, and structural integrity of The main cross section of the cof-
The rehabilitation program con- the ice diverter piers (the concrete ferdam consisted of a W 2 1 X 5 5 sili
sisted of constructing and removing condition survey revealed extensive beam positioned horizontally and
a 183 m (600 ft) cofferdam along an cracking due to ice damange over 80 anchored t o react against a bent
existing ice diverter on the Niagara years of service). There also were steel plate assembly that was de-
River; dewatering the inner and concerns about back water pressure signed to allow for any misalign-
outer forebays; structurally upgrad- on the cofferdam during construc- ment caused by localized concrete
ing the ice diverter, outer forebay tion because water levels fluctuate deterioration at the pier face. The
18 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 0506736 5 5 0
Fig. 2-Backside view of cofferdam

Fig. 1-Ontario Power Generatina Station construction site. construct ion.
space between the steel plate and to build a wall on either side of the generating station fully opened.
the concrete pier was filled with tre- sill beam to contain the tremie con- Within four t o five hours, the 10
mie concrete. A W12X53 header crete. hectare area of outer and inner
beam was also positioned horizon- Tremie concrete was then placed forebays were completely dewa-
tally and anchored against the con- t o the web elevation of the sill tered. Leakage from the cofferdam
tinuous concrete wall of the ice di- beam. Beginning at the upstream was minimal and manageable.
verter. side of the river flow, the panels No one was allowed to enter the
The panels (12RX6X10 in.) were were then installed and continu- work area until the cofferdam was
positioned vertically and rested on ously bolted and secured back t o deemed perfectly safe. A written
an angle that was welded t o the the ice diverter using wire rope ca- procedure had been prepared prior
outer flange of the sill beam. Tre- ble. to building the cofferdam detailing
mie concrete was then placed be- Because the divers reported a dif- entry and evacuation of personnel,
tween the sill beam and the bedrock ference in current flows once 80 monitoring the cofferdam during
surface. percent of the EFCO panels were construction restoration, and wa-
The entire operation was per- installed, a special gate assembly tering up of outer and inner fore-
formed by commercial divers with was designed to accept the last sec- bays.
two sectional barges (one with a 45 tions of panels. The panel was po- During a routine cofferdam in-
ton conventional crane) o n t h e sitioned and allowed to slide down spection, a tradesman observed a
downstream side of the ice diverter within a gain arrangement. “blow-out” condition. The repairs
and additional manpower atop the A 1.2 m (4 ft) diameter valve was were made immediately by pump-
ice diverter. designed within a panel to maintain ing tremie concrete and thus secur-
Installing the bent steel plate as- water within the forebay so as not ing the cofferdam.
sembly and tremie concrete within to bottom out the barge. The crane- The cofferdam was designed to
the space between the pier and the mounted barge was then towed to withstand a 7.6 m (25 ft) head of
assembly was performed first at all shore. water; it actually held back a water
24 piers. head of 5.2 m (17 ft). The coffer-
The sill and header beams were Dewatering dam installation took approxi-
then installed and each section Precautions were taken t o insure mately 21 ten-hour working days to
bolted to the next. The elevation of against an unexpected ice diverter complete.
the sill beam was determined by al- failure once the last panel was se-
lowing at least 0.5 m (1.6 ft) of cof- curely positioned. Dewatering be-
ferdam freeboard at the highest re- gan almost immediately. A notice- Rehabilitation of structures
corded water elevation on the Niag- able 0.6 m (2 ft) head difference ex-
ara River. Debris found between the isted between the upstream and Concrete mix proportions
sill beam and the bedrock was then downstream sides of the cofferdam. Separate mix proportions were sub-
vacuumed and removed. Burlap The valve in the panel was then mitted t o the concrete ready-mix
bags filled with concrete were used closed and the main gates t o the supplier for the tremie mix; 30, 25,

A C 1 COMP-20 93 W 0662949 O506737 497 H
and 20 MPa (4350, 3625, and 2900

psi) waterline concretes; grout mix;
and low control strength material at
the time of tendering. Table 1
shows quantity details for the dif- Fig. 3-Gatehouse repairs. Batterwall is at left.
ferent project locations.
Table 2 shows test results for the
various locations. On average, the
strength results exceeded their de- Table 1 - Quantity sheet
sign requirements at 28 days. 50 m m 0
hollow
Rock core rock
Gatehouse pier extension and excavation anchors Concrete,
(concrete (25 mm@ Reinforcing
base sla6lbatterwall demolition), dowels), bars,
The gatehouse houses headgates Location m3 each Mg
and associated mechanical equip- 300 28 80
ment. Two 5.5 m (18 ft) diameter (320)
conduits convey water approxi- Screenhouse (1530) - 6.1 4OoO
mately 2 km (1.25 miles) to the gen-
erating station (Fig. 3). Needledam/ - (840) 20 238 290 3500
(850)
Leakage around the conduits was
noticed some time ago and a moni- Retaining (spill) wall -
toring program prepared. Under-
water inspections indicated that
parts of the gatehouse substructures cofferdam (includes
were deteriorating rapidly. Com- fabrication) 2 4 1 -
plete closing of the gates on de-
mand could no longer be assured.
The base slab and adjoining bed- Reinforcing bars were positioned (2.5 ft) of concrete. A total of 146
rock were demolished using equip- and concrete placed monolithically 50-mm (2-in.) diameter hollow core
ment adaptable to hydraulic demo- at each pier location. The batter- rock anchors and 4080 25-mm
lition hammers. The base slab was wall was also post-tensioned and (1-in.) reinforcing bar dowels
excavated to a depth of 1.5 m (5 ft). concrete placed monolithically. A (candy-canes) were installed.
Concrete for the new base slab total of 482 m3 (630 yd3) of concrete It was decided to leave the old
and pier extensions was placed as a was placed over 60 working days of concrete as a filler and to perform
monolithic reinforced concrete slab two-10 hour shifts. as one side of the concrete form as
with no visible cracking. The base time did not permit the demolition
slab was post-tensioned using 50 and complete rebuilding of the wall.
mm (2 in.) diameter hollow-core Retaining wall Wall sections were formed at 9 m
rock anchors and grouted. A 215 m (705 ft) long retaining (30 ft) lengths along the wall. Key-
Once the base slab concrete was wall, which contains and controls ways and bulkheads were placed at
completed, scaffolding was erected the headworks of the Ontario either end. Filler concrete sections
at each pier location. The old con- Power Generating Station, was were placed after two days.
crete surface was bush-hammered, found in very poor condition. An A total of 635 m3 (830 yd’) of
and 25 mm (1 in.) reinforcing bar hydraulic crawler drill was used to concrete was placed over a period
dowels were installed at 0.5 m (1.6 drill through the concrete and bed- of 50 days of two 10 hour shifts.
ft) spacing. The 12.5 m (41 ft) high rock.
trash rack gain assembly was accu- It was decided to dowelhock an- Screenhouse
rately positioned at all pier loca- chor/grout to the bedrock elevation The original plan was to demolish
tions. and to cap the spillway with 0.75 m the superstructure of the screen-
20 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 = 0662949 05067Lô 323 W
Table 2-Concrete specimen strength tests summary
house and undertake repairs to the

substructure. A public walkway
would then be built over this struc-
ture to provide a scenic view of the
Niagara River Parkway. However,
demolition aggravated the substruc-
ture and complete replacement was
necessary.
It was necessary to design, con-
struct, and complete the entire
walkway in less than 25 days. Three
piers, post-tensioned into the bed-
rock, were constructed. Existing
abutments were rehabilitated to ac-
cept a segmental steel truss walk-
way.
Schedule
The schedule only allowed for 60
days to complete the entire project.
Dewatering occurred on October 6, Fig. 4-Retaining wall construction.

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 0506719 2bT
Fia. 5-Deterioration of oriainal soillwav wall
sion to realize it’s long-term plans

for a scenic public walkway along
the Niagara River bank.
A 60-day work program was
completed on schedule involving
approximately 160 tradesmen work-
ing 90,000 direct and indirect man-
hours. Technological advances in
1987, and the forebays were wa- hydraulic equipment contributed to
tered up on December 7. the timely and economical comple-
Although the cofferdam was de- tion of this concrete restoration
signed to withstand ice loads, there project.
was concern that the cofferdam
might be difficult to remove if icing Acknowledgments
occurred. The potential cost of The author wishes to thank all the associated
heating the generation station and departments within Ontario Hydro who pro-
loss of revenue if the cofferdam vided design and technical advice during the
could not be removed more than construction phase, all the associated trade
unions for providing qualified skilled trades-
justified the decision t o schedule men, and all the tradesmen for insuring the
crews to work two 10-hour shifts completion of the project on schedule.
every day of the week. The work
force on site peaked at 160 trades-
men per two 10-hour shifts.
The main milestone activities on AC1 member Nick
site were installing and removing the P. B a d a is a
general foreman -
cofferdam, placing the gatehouse
Toronto Area (Sta-
base slab, designing and building tions and Hy-
the scenic walkway piers and ap- draulic Construc-
proval, and removing forebay de- tion) for Ontario
bris. Hydro’s Construc-
tion and Services
Conclusion Division. He has a Civil Engineering
The successful five-month work degree, majoring in concrete technol-
program resulted in restoring the ogy, from the University of Toronto. He
structural integrity of the gatehouse has 12 years experience in concrete
construction as a construction engi-
foundation, outer forebay retaining neer and site supervisor. He is Vice
wall, the safe operation of the gates, President of the AC1 Ontario Chapter,
debris protection by the newly in- on the Fund Raising Committee for
stalled screens, and improved es- ACl’s 1990 Spring Convention, and sits
thetics of the intake works. This en- on the Ontario Concrete Conference
abled the Niagara Park Commis- Committee.
22 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 m 0662949 0506720 T B L m
Rehabilitation of an
Elevated Roadway Bridge
R ehabilitation of concrete in
bridges prematurely dam-
aged by deterioration con-
tinues to be a major prob-
lem throughout North America.
Approximately 564,000 bridges are
standing in the United States. At
least 105,500 of them need repair or
replacement. Millions of square feet
of bridge decks show heavy deteri-
oration-cracking, spalling, corro-
sion of reinforcement, etc.
One such bridge, the elevated
roadway at Baltimore/Washington
International Airport, was repaired
between September 1988 and July
1989. Built in 1977, the bridge su-
perstructure is supported by 152
concrete columns and two abut-
ments on spread footings. The 1720
ft (524 m) long concrete structure
(Fig. 1) consists of 73 spans in con-
LOWER ROADWAY
tinuous units three or four spans
long, with cantilevers at the end of
each unit and a suspended slab ROAOWAY RLPAI RS
C/L BRQ,Jf'PROAC H &BUTMENT
from 12 ft (3.7 m) to 28.8 ft (8.8 m)
long between cantilevers (Fig. 2).
An expansion joint is provided at
Fig. 1 - Bridge plan view.
each end of the suspended spans
and at each abutment.
The width of the bridge varies
from 24 to 44 ft (7.3 to 13.4 m) of
clear roadway with a parapet and a
safety walk on one side of the
bridge and a sidewalk on the other.
The bridge deck is a 20 in. (51 cm)
thick cast-in-place reinforced con-
crete slab. The positive moment
regions in the deck slab in each 24 ft
(7.3 m) clear roadway span contain
' bQPIER kq BRG. kq BRG. k t PIER
20 equally spaced 10 in. (25 cm) di-
ameter voids. Fig. 2 - Typical suspended span longitudinal section.

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 W O662949 0506723 918
The specified concrete strength Testing program bottom portions contained deterio-
for the columns and deck slab was A concrete sampling and testing
rated concrete from K in. (12.5
4500 psi (31 MPa). program was carried out to supple- mm) to 3 in. (76 mm) thick. Some
of the cores contained delamina-
Field inspection ment visual observations and to de-
termine the potential durability of tions and cracks, and the reinforc-
The first phase of the project in- the concrete and the expected serv- ment in two cores had corroded to
cluded an in-depth inspection to de- ice life of the structure. This pro- the extent that the bond between
termine the physical condition of concrete and steel was severely af-
gram included obtaining and testing
the structure. The bridge was visu- cores and samples for compressive fected. Average compressive
ally inspected for spalls, cracks, rust strength, chloride ion content, strength of the two cores tested was
stains, discoloration, corrosion of depth of carbonation, pH value, 7590 psi (52 MPa); eight cores could
reinforcement, and other indica- and for performing petrographic not be tested due to either included
tions of concrete deterioration. The examinations. The sampling plan reinforcing bars or delamination
surface areas were also inspected by was designed t o obtain samples and cracking.
sounding (hammer tapping) to lo- from concrete areas judged to have Carbonation
cate delaminated areas. The inspec- light, moderate, and severe deterio-
tion yielded the following: Laboratory measurements of depth
ration. The most severe areas of of carbonation using a phenol-
The top of the slab was free of concrete deterioration were adja- phthalein indicator showed that
deterioration with the exception of cent to expansion joints on the un- color changes occurred at an aver-
some minor spalls along the expan- derside of the deck slab. age depth of X 6 in. (8 mm).
sion joint angles. Cores taken near the expansion Tests for pH value indicated an
joints (Fig. 4) were visually exam- alkalinity of the concrete of about
Cracking, light at most locations ined and tested for compressive
and moderate at others, existed 11.
strength. A total of 15 cores were
t h r o u g h o u t t h e deck surface. taken f r o m various locations Chloride content
Transverse cracking was predomi- throughout the bridge. Sampling and testing for total chlo-
nant, although some longitudinal Using t h e dry pulverizing ride content was carried out in ac-
and random cracking was observed. method, 12 samples for chloride ion cordance with AASHTO T-260.
Severe deterioration was found content were taken from six loca- The shallow samples showed levels
on the underside of the deck slab at tions on the underside of the deck of chlorides that ranged from 0.3 to
the expansion joints. Leakage slab adjacent to expansion joints 7.4 lb/yd3 (0.18 to 4.4 kg/m3) of
through the joints had caused ex- and the longitudinal construction concrete, and the deep samples
tensive corrosion of the reinforce- joint. Six of these were shallow ranged from O to 3.2 lb/yd3 (O to
ment, spalling, and delamination of samples taken at a depth of O to 3 1.9 kg/m3).
the concrete cover (Fig. 3). Con- in. (O to 7.5 cm). The remaining six
were deep samples taken at a depth Petrographic examination
crete spalls at the cantilever sup-
ports were about 4 in. (10 cm) deep of approximately 5 in. (12.5 cm). The results of a petrographic exam-
at several locations and the main For depth of carbonation tests, ination indicated the concrete was
reinforcing bars were heavily cor- cores 3 in. (7.7 cm) in diameter were properly made. The entrained air-
roded. obtained at three locations. Two void system was not entirely ade-
samples of concrete dust (left over quate, but there were no signs of
The specified cover to reinforce- from the chloride ion testing) were freeze-thaw distress. The average
ment at the bottom of the deck slab taken to determine the pH value of entrained air volume was about 5
was 1 in. (25 mm); measurements concrete. percent. The paste was of low wa-
indicated that at some locations the ter-cement ratio and was hard and
cover did not exceed !4 in. (6 mm). dense. The bond of the coarse and
Compressive strength fine aggregates to the cement ma-
The concrete sidewalk at several trix was good. The paste was well
Compression tests performed on
locations had severe random crack- cured and hydrated.
cores taken at the top of the deck in
ing with crack widths varying from The concrete had been affected
suspended slab areas did not indi-
fine to in. (6 mm). by an alkali-silica reaction that gen-
cate concrete deterioration. (Com-
Of the 30 expansion joints, 26 pressive strength averaged 7424 psi erated fine cracks in the concrete.
had preformed neoprene elasto- [51 MPa].) Cores taken from the The orientation of the cracks was
meric compression seals. Four joints underside of the deck at the canti- both parallel and normal to the ex-
had been repaired in 1986 by re- lever supports and adjacent areas of terior concrete surface. A gross
placing the existing compression suspended slabs were visually ex- manifestation of the reaction was
seals. All of the remaining joints amined. The top portions of the the map, or pattern, cracking evi-
were showing evidence of leaks cores (inside the joint) did not show dent on the concrete surface. The
(some very severe.) any concrete deterioration, but the cracks were shallow at some loca-
AC1 COMPILATION
24

A C 1 COMP-20 93 Obb2949 0 5 0 6 7 2 2 ô 5 4
-
Table 1 Concrete mix for pumped
concrete
Mix prc ortions
Material lb/ydl kg/m'
Portland cement Type I 750 445
Fine aggregate 1,400 830
Coarse aggregate 1,650 980
(AASHTO M43 Size 7)
Water 31 gals. 155
Water reducing admixture 112 ozs. 3L
Air entraining admixture 9.5 02s. 0.6 L
Air content 6.5k 1.5% 6.51 1.5%
Totals 4,066 2,414
*t
%*I
Slump 8 + 1 in. 20+ 2.5 cm
Minimum 28-day
Fia. 3 - SDallinq of concrete along the expansion joint. compressive strength 5,000 psi 35 MPa
tions, and penetrated to a depth of Precipitation ponding on top of the pH 12.8 t o p H 9. This change
about 1 in. (2.5 cm) at other loca- slab due to inadequate drainage can causes the reinforcing steel to be
tions. The paste immediately adja- infiltrate the concrete through the unprotected from corrosion by the
cent to the cracks was carbonated. cracks and, in combination with alkaline conditions.
In the interior of the concrete, the subsequent cycles of freezing and The carbonation front moves into
affected chert particles had become thawing, will result in progressive the concrete from the exposed sur-
soft and internally cracked without corrosion of reinforcement and de- face at a rate that is dependant
the cracks extending into the mor- terioration of the concrete. upon the moisture content of the
tar matrix. concrete. The front progresses rap-
Carbonation idly when relative humidity is be-
Test results Carbonation results in various tween 50 and 70 percent and is neg-
physical changes, but the main ef- ligibly slow at both low and high
Cracking fect is a reduction in the alkalinity relative humidities.*
Transverse cracking was the pre- of the concrete from approximately Using a simple relationship, d =
dominant type of cracking ob-
served. Shrinkage, induced by the
differential rate of drying through
the depth of the relatively thick -Q BRG.
slab, is believed to be involved in
transverse cracking. Sizable tensile
stresses tend to be developed in the
first inch or so from the drying
face, whereas restraining compres-
sive stresses tend to develop in the
I
DECK SLAB
rsL SUSPENDED
AB
interior of the slab.'

The longitudinal cracking is be-
lieved to have resulted primarily
from resistance to settlement and
from shrinkage of the plastic con-
crete around void tubes and rein-
forcing bars. Inadequate cover at
the bottom of the deck also in-
creased the shrinkage cracking in
the thin section of the concrete di-
rectly over or slightly offset from
the reinforcing steel.
Initially, cracking may have re- / CORE Bf I c
LCORE
sulted from several causes such as
- $ JOINT
shrinkage, thermal stresses, alkali-
silica reaction, or a combination of
these causes. In any case, once
formed, the cracks are repeatedly
L;LACTOMERIC
BEARING PAD
- 6 112'
opened and closed by traffic action. Fig. 4 - Core location sections
REPAIR 8 REHABILITATION II 25

A C 1 COMP-20 93 = Ob62949 0 5 0 b 7 2 3 790
__
The most important factor in selecting methods and

materials for repair is the compatibility of the
existing concrete and the new materials.
Kc&, where d (mm) is the depth of and more quickly through cracks. also been exposed to repeated cy-
the carbonation reaction front after Because of this, chloride ions are cles of wetting and drying and
time t (years). The carbonation co- not uniformly distributed within the freezing and thawing, often in a
efficient K , is related to the perme- concrete. Chloride differentials saturated condition.
ability of the concrete, the amount along the reinforcing bars or be-
of reactible lime in the concrete, the tween closely located bars, not Alkali-silica reaction
relative humidity, and the carbon merely the total chloride values, The alkali-silica reaction also con-
dioxide content of the particular play a critical role in the corrosion tributed to concrete deterioration. It
environment. K , = 2.6 for the con- initiation process. Portions of the was very difficult, if not impossi-
crete deck bottom s u ~ f a c eand
, ~ the reinforcement remain passive while ble, to determine the existing state
calculated depth of 0.33 in. ( 8 . 5 the chloride ions degrade the pas- of the reaction and to predict the
mm) approximated the actual meas- sive film at other areas of the steel. remaining service life of the struc-
ured values. The amount of chlorides neces- ture. No correlation was observed
The pH of the concrete was about sary to destroy the passive film is between the degree of alkali-silica
11, which correlated with the depth not a single value for all situations. reactivity, the external deteriora-
of carbonation tests and indicated It depends on the pH, water and tion, the age of the concrete, and
that the process of carbonation had oxygen contents, condition of the the results of the compressive
not significantly reduced the nor- interface between concrete and re- strength tests. Considering that the
mal alkalinity of the tested con- inforcement, and possibly other concrete is still structurally in good
crete. Both the position of the car- factors. The pressure developed by condition and remains confined
bonation front and the measured the increased volume of corrosive within the reinforcing steel, struc-
pH clearly indicated that the rein- products of only 0.004 to 0.008 in. tural failure is most ~nlikely.~ Also,
forcing steel with adequate cover in (0.1 to 0.2 mm) may be sufficient to by minimizing moisture and salt
otherwise non-distressed concrete damage the concrete cover by caus- penetration into the concrete fur-
was protected from corrosion. ing cracks to develop radially from ther expansion may be slowed
the reinforcing bar in a variety of down.
Corrosion direction^.^
The total values of chlorides found At slab corners, along the expan- Repairs
at the level of reinforcement in sion joints, the spalling was more The repairs can be broadly classi-
spalled areas were well in excess of severe because the cracking took fied as: repair of spalls along the
critical amounts of chlorides replace more rapidly due t o faster expansion joints, repairs of cracks,
quired to create a corrosion prob- chloride, moisture, and oxygen and repair of expansion joints.
lem. High salt concentrations re- penetration and build-up from the
sulted from a progressive build-up two surfaces. Also at this location, Compatibility of materials
of chloride levels due to saline wa- the resistance to cracking provided The most important factor encoun-
ter passing through the expansion by adjacent concrete for an infinite tered in selecting methods and ma-
and construction joints and capil- surface was lost at the surface terials for repair was the compati-
lary movement of saline solutions boundary. bility of existing concrete and new
through the concrete. At some locations where concrete materials. Many materials change
Deicing salts are carried with cover did not exceed 34 in. (6.5 volume as they initially set, and
snow and ice on the underside of mm), the corrosion process seemed practically all of them change vol-
vehicles. The salty snow and ice that to begin with no chlorides or with a Ume with temperature and moisture
melts was ponding on the bridge low value of chlorides. This may changes. Tensile stresses are in-
deck due to inadequate drainage occur because the front of carbona- duced in one material and compres-
and seeping through damaged seals tion reached the reinforcement and sive stresses in the other, causing a
at expansion joints. Reduced con- the concrete alkalinity did not pro- substantial shear at the interface.
crete cover and some micro-crack- tect the steel from corrosion. Found Identical patterns of stress will re-
ing in the concrete surface permited by visual inspection, these areas sult from the differential shrinkage
moisture, chlorides, and oxygen to were the most severely deteriorated. and different moduli of elasticity.6
penetrate to the reinforcing bars. The zone along the expansion Considering all of these factors,
Chloride ions penetrate the con- joints at the underside of the deck pumped concrete was selected as a
crete to the level of the reinforcing had suffered the most damage from repair material for spalled areas
steel slowly in non-cracked areas corrosion of reinforcing steel. It had along the expansion joints.
26 AC1 COMPILATION

I A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 0506724 627 W
REMOVE EXISTING COMPRESSION SEAL.CLEAN T H E
EXPOSED FACES OF T H E STEEL ANGLES AND RETAINER
€iARS BY SANDBLASTING. P A I N T T H E CLEANED SURFACES
WITH EPOXY PAINT. INSTALL NEW JOINT SEAL.
RUBBERIZED MORTAR (TYP.)

I N S T A L L FORM MATERIAL
ROUGHENED
SELF-DRILLING ANCHORS
PUMPED CONC
EXISTING CONCRETE FOR 3 / B y 0 BOLTS (TYP.)
3/8"0 HOOKED BOLTS

SPACED 12' C/C (MAX.)
BOTH WAYS
FORM FROM
APPROVED MATERIAL PROVIDE TEMPORARY SUPPORT
BEFORE STARTINQ THE REPAIR
DETERIORATED CONCRETE TO BE PROCEDURES.
REMOVED TO SOUND CONCRETE
EUT NOT LESS THAN I 112 INCH Q
BEHIND T H E MAIN REINFORCINO I1ïP.l
REPAIR REINFORCINO BARS
IF REQUIRED.
Fig. 5 - Expansion joint repair detail.
Preparation for repair forcing steel were then sandblasted of a resin and hardener. As part of
Before the repair operation started, and finally cleaned of loose mate- quality control, random cores were
temporary supports for the sus- rial with compressed air. An an- drilled through the repair after cur-
pended slabs were installed. choring system was installed using ing to visually evaluate crack fill-
self-drilling anchors for '/B in. diam- ing. Control of the epoxy proper-
Proper preparation of the surface eter hooked bolts spaced in a 12 x ties such as viscosity, cure tempera-
for repair is critical to the success of 12 in. (30.5 x 30.5 cm) grid (Fig. 5). ture, pot life, and moisture
the repair. In some cases, the care Just prior to pumping the repair insensitivity are very important for
exercised during the removal of de- concrete, the existing surface was successful repairs.
teriorated concrete and preparation dampened with water.
of a repair area will determine the The pumped concrete was an air-
longevity of the repair, regardless of Expansion joints
entrained portland cement concrete
the material and technique used. mixture with a minimum compres- Bridge expansion joints must ac-
sive strength of 5000 psi (31 MPa). commodate all superstructure
The concrete surface was prepared movements and carry impact loads
by removing the deteriorated con- Mix proportions for the pumped
concrete are given in Table 1. while being exposed to the prevail-
crete to sound concrete, but not less ing environmental conditions. Infil-
than to a depth of 1% in. (3.8 cm) tration of incompressible materials
behind the main reinforcement. At Epoxy crack sealing
and water is a severe problem which
several locations, the depth of dete- Cracks wider than X in. (3 mm) and a joint should be designed to pre-
riorated concrete was about 4% in. cracks with spalled edges in the vent. Joints should safely accom-
(1 1.5 cm) into the cantilever sup- horizontal surfaces of the sidewalks modate all traffic passing the bridge
port of a suspended slab and the were repaired using a low viscosity and allow for snow plow operations
cantilever support was completely epoxy that has a workable life of without sustaining damage. Joints
replaced with new concrete. approximately 45 minutes at 75 F should be watertight and easy to
The chipping was done using (24 C) and feeds into the crack by maintain. The design of expansion
hammers with a maximum weight gravity until it hardens. The ex- joints for such severe conditions has
of 30 lb (14 kg). Realizing that it posed face of the crack was V - become a challenging problem.
would not be easy to accurately de- grooved Vi in. (19 mm) deep and % The repair of expansion joints in-
termine when all unsound material in. ( 1 2 mm) wide, cleaned, and cluded installation of elastomeric
is removed, specifications recom- sealed with epoxy. concrete nosing, epoxy coating of
mended removing concrete until the Epoxy pressure injection the steel angles, and installation of
coarse aggregate particles were be- All remaining cracks in the deck new seals.
ing broken rather than simply re- slab, parapets, abutments, and re- The elastomeric concrete used
moved from the cement matrix. The taining walls were repaired by injec- was a pre-packaged material con-
concrete surface and exposed rein- tion of a two-part epoxy composed sisting of three components: a resin,
I REPAIR & REHABILITATION II 27

A C 1 COMP-20 73 0662747 0506725 5 6 3 m
A more detailed version of this article is available in SP-122, “Paul Klieger Symposium on
Performance of Concrete,” an AC1 special publication containing 24 papers presented at
The Paul Kiieger International Symposium on Performance of Concrete, sponsored by
AC1 Committees 201, Durability, and 222, Corrosion of Metais.
a hardener, and a minerai filler ma- and corrosive agents and also in- AC1 member Alex.
terial. The existing concrete was re- creases the probability of shrinkage ander M. Vays-
moved along the expansion joints, cracking in concrete directly over burd is a struc-
the surfaces receiving the new ma- the reinforcing bar. It is very im- turallconcrete ma-
terial were cleaned, and a self-level- portant in specifying the thickness terials engineer for
ing elastomeric concrete mix was of the concrete cover to consider the Greiner, Inc., Ti-
placed. potential displacement of the rein- monium, Maryland.
The old seal was removed from forcing steel during field opera- He is a graduate of
Kiev C i v i l Engi-
the joint and the top and inside tions. neering Institute in the USSR and has
portions of the steel angles were It is very important in assessing more than 29 years of experience in
blast cleaned to a white metal finish the physical condition of a concrete concrete research, design, and con-
immediately before the application structure to determine the depth of struction in the United States and
of the bonding agent and the instal- the carbonation front and levels of abroad. Vaysburd is an author of nu-
lation of the new seal material. Af- chlorides present in concrete. A merous articles, monographs and pat-
ter installation of the new seal, ep- combination of carbonation and ents in concrete technology and ma-
oxy paint was applied t o the ex- chlorides increases the corrosion terials. His current activities include
posed surfaces of the expansion rate and reduces the critical values evaluation, repair and rehabilitation of
of chlorides necessary for initiation deter io rat edldist res sed s t ruc t u res,
joint angles. corrosion resistance, and durability of
of corrosion. concrete. He is chairman of AC1 Sub-
Surface projective treatment A variety of products and meth- committee 21 36, Lightweight Con-
The final step in the rehabilitation ods exists to repair or control cor- crete in Bridges and Parking Struc-
project was the application of a rosion destruction in bridges. To tures, and a member of AC1 Commit-
penetrating sealer to the bridge assure that a proper solution is se- tee 546, Repair of Concrete.
deck, sidewalks, parapets, and lected for a particular condition, the
abutments t o minimize moisture engineer must understand not only
and chloride penetration into the the structural mechanism of the
concrete. problem, but also compatibility of
the materials.
Conclusions
Concrete strength is not a criterion References
for durability of concrete bridge 1. Pickett, Gerald, “Shrinkage Stresses in
structures. Quality factors such as Concrete,” AC1 JOURNAL, Proceedings V.
design, inspection, concrete compo- 42, No. 3, Jan. 1946, pp 165-204, and No. 4,
Feb. 1946, pp. 361-400.
sition, and good workmanship are 2. Smolczyk, H.G., “Physical and Chem-
essential ingredients. ical Phenomena of Carbonation,” Proceed-
To minimize the difficulties and ings, RILEM International Symposium on
associated costs of repairing expan- Carbonation of Concrete, Cement and Con-
crete Association, Wexham Springs, 1976, 10
sion joints, and the related concrete
PP
deterioration, joints should be 3. Holm, I.A.; Bremner, T.W.; Vaysburd,
properly designed to allow for easy A.M., “Carbonation of Marine Structural
maintenance, inspection, cleaning, Lightweight Concretes,” Proceedings, 2nd
and repair. In the author’s opinion, international Conference on Concrete in
Marine Environment, St. Andrews by-the-
good design practice should reduce Sea, 1988, pages 667-675.
the number of expansion joints to 4. Browne, Roger D . , “Mechanisms of
an acceptable minimum. Reduction Corrosion of Steel in Concrete in Relation to
of the amount of the joints may be Design, Inspection, and Repair of Offshore
and Coastal Structures,” Performance of
accomplished by designing for con- Concrete in Marine Environment, SP-65,
tinuity and taking into account the American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1980,
flexibility characteristics of the pp. 169-204.
structure. 5 . Smith, Peter, “Reacting to Alkali-Ag-
Thickness and quality of the con- gregate Reactions,” Concrete International:
Design and Construction, V. 10, No. 4, April
crete in the protective layer are im- 1988, pp. 33-34.
portant for protection of steel rein- 6. Bullock, R.E., “Factors Influencing
forcement against corrosion and Concrete Repair Materials,” Concrete Inter-
durability of a concrete structure. national: Design and Construction, V. 2, No.
9, Sept. 1980, pages 67-68.
Assuming that the permeability of
the concrete is constant, reduced
cover decreases the protective phys- Received and reviewed under Institute publication
ical barrier between reinforcement policies.
28 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 O662949 0506726 4 T T
The cost of rehabilitating a 16 million gallon reservoir was only 20

percent of the cost of constructing a new facility.
L inden Reservoir, used for

storing potable water, is lo-
cated in the City of River-
side about 40 miles east of
Los Angeles, California. It was
constructed in 1927 by cut and fill
methods utilizing an earth embank-
1983 a geotechnical firm was re-
tained by the City to evaluate the
relative stability and adequacy of
the embankment and foundation. A
major concern in the geotechnical
report was that the embankment,
when saturated, would be extremely
sidered, but because of the poor
performance of the original (1 927)
installation and concerns over qual-
ity control, cast-in-place reinforced
concrete was recommended.
Subgrade
ment lined with shotcrete. The res- unstable in the event of an earth- The interior of the reservoir was vi-
ervoir had a capacity of 12 million quake. It was recommended that an sually inspected, along with a sys-
gallons (45 million litres) and a effective impermeable liner be in- tematic sounding of the interior
wood roof supported on approxi- stalled to prevent seepage into the shotcrete lining by hammer tapping
mately 200 columns. embankment. In July 1983 James to delineate voids under the liner.
In 1955, a 5 ft high perimeter wall M. Montgomery, Consulting Engi- Numerous cracks were observed on
was constructed to increase the ca- neers, Inc., Pasadena, California the interior of the reservoir in the
pacity from 12 million gallons (45 was retained to evaluate the lining shotcrete liner. The hammer tap-
million litres) to 16 million gallons options for the facility. ping survey indicated the floor to be
(60 million litres), and the wood in relatively good condition. It was
roof was replaced by a metal roof also discovered by steel probing that
supported on steel beams and 46 Evaluation of alternative subgrade below the reservoir had
concrete columns. The old footings materials areas of soft soils and voids be-
and approximately 200 concrete Various lining options were investi- neath the existing liner in certain
column stubs were left in place. The gated, including reinforced concrete areas. Several major bulges in the
present dimensions of the reservoir lining, spray-on impermeable lin- shotcrete liner were also observed;
are 495 ft (150 m) x 195 ft (60 m) x ers, and rubber liners. Based on the these were due to a pressure grout-
31 ft (9.5 m) deep. life expectancy of each of these lining program undertaken to reduce
By the 1960s water was leaking ings, operation and maintenance seepage. The existing polyurethane
through numerous cracks in the costs, and an economic analysis of liner was extensively bubbled and
shotcrete and through the joint be- the alternatives, a reinforced con- disbonded, and locally peeled back.
tween the perimeter wall and the crete lining with watertight joints to To more specifically delineate the
older embankment. The cracks in be placed on top of the existing areas that would definitely require
the shotcrete were pressure grouted, shotcrete lining was recommended additional subgrade preparation, an
but this operation was not success- as the best alternative. The rubber elaborate field investigation pro-
ful, resulting in bulges on the slope. liner had a low capital cost, but was gram was recommended. This pro-
The leakage was reported to be in not attractive because of its short gram consisted of excavating a total
excess of 400,000 gallons (1.5 mil- life and need for periodic mainte- of 20 areas, each 3 ft x 3 ft (0.9 m x
lion litres) per day; in 1973 a 54 mil nance over the planned 20 year life 0.9 m) in plan dimensions. Sixteen
(1.4 mm) thick polyurethane liner of the facility. The spray-on imper- test areas were located on the inte-
was sprayed on the interior of the meable liner also had a short life rior slopes and four areas were in-
facility, reducing the leakage t o expectancy of about 10 years, as vestigated in the floor of the reser-
14,000 gallons (53,000 litres) per was experienced in 1983. voir. Each of the areas were exca-
day. A reinforced concrete slab was vated to a depth of about 24 in. (61
In January 1983 the reservoir was preferred because of durability, low cm) The shotcrete liner thickness
dewatered for the construction of a maintenance costs, and longer life was measured and pocket pene-
pipeline and it was found that the expectancy. For the reinforced con- trometer resistance readings were
polyurethane liner needed t o be crete alternatives, cast-in-place con- taken on the sides of the excava-
completely replaced. In February crete and shotcrete were both con- tion.

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 Ob62949 0506727 336
Fig. 1 - Single mat sleeve-type joint. Fig. 2 - Waterstop at existing surface.
The shotcrete/subsoil contact and 3 in. (2.5 and 7.6 cm) thick, pable of supporting the new liner
area was visually inspected at each with an average thickness of 2 in. without risk of excessive deforma-
excavation to determine the pres- (5.1 cm) Although some minor tions. Although the test areas were
ence of voids, and a visual descrip- voids were found at the shotcrete/ well distributed over the entire res-
tion of the subgrade material was subsoil contact zone in one test ervoir area, it was conceivable that
recorded. In addition, a % in. (10 area, the shotcrete was generally some potentially weak areas be-
mm) diameter steel probe was found to be in good contact with tween the test locations could have
driven into the bottom of each ex- the subsurface materials. been missed. It was considered,
cavation to determine the relative however, that such areas, if pres-
denseness below the bottom of the Based on the results of the inves- ent, would be relatively small and
excavation and to detect the possi- tigation of 20 test locations distrib- would be easily bridged by the new
ble presence of voids or loose ma- uted over the reservoir area, it was reinforced concrete slab.
terial. concluded that the subsoil under the
liner was generally medium dense to In the bulging areas and where
The tests indicated that the shot- dense with no extensive soft areas grout cement was encountered in
Crete lining was generally between 1 or voids. The subsoil would be ca- test areas, the existing lining had
undergone severe deformation and
these areas were considered to be
weak with a high potential for leak-
age. It was recommended that these
areas be investigated prior to the
construction of the new reinforced
concrete liner by excavating the ex-
isting shotcrete lining and the ce-
ment grout, and by examining and
testing the subsoil. If no major dis-
turbed areas were encountered, the
surface would be recompacted prior
to the construction of the new lin-
ing. The limits of the areas were de-
fined as rectangular panels enclos-
ing the bulged areas.
Based on the geotechnicai inves-
tigation and analysis, it was deter-
mined that the subgrade of the res-
ervoir was basically sound and that
additional subgrade preparation was
only required in four areas totalling
The roof over the reservoir is supported by 200 concrete columns about 5,000 ft2 (465 m2).
AC1 COMPILATION
30

A C 1 COMP-20 73 m Obb2747 050b728 272 m
Shotcrete vs cast-in-place
One of the reasons for the leakage
of the exisiting reservoir was the
quality of the shotcrete layer. The
varying thickness of the shotcrete,
the hollow sounding areas, and the
leakage at perimeter joints exhib-
ited by the existing liner were indic-
ative of the problems resulting from
improperly placed shotcrete. It was
found during the geotechnical in-
vestigations that the subgrade was
in good condition and the hollow
sounding areas were due to poorly
placed shotcrete. Furthermore, the
placing of shotcrete requires spe-
cially trained personnel and the
quality of the finished product is
directly related t o the experience
Thicker concrete and more reinforcement were used for the side slopes. and ability of the construction crew.
The use of cast-in place concrete
was therefore favored.
Design criteria forcement was provided on the Other considerations
slopes. Reinforcement consisted of
Slab thickness #4 (13 mm) bars at 8 in. (20.3 cm) Screeding from bottom of slope to
The minimum slab thickness was each way on the slopes and at 12 in. the top of slope was specified for
determined by minimum cover re- (30.5 cm) each way on the flat ar- better control. Since the concrete
quirements for concrete in contact eas. was to be pumped because of the
with water and for placing concrete enclosed facility by removing roof
against existing shotcrete, each be- panels for access, maximum size of
ing 2 in. (5.1 cm); and the size of aggregate was limited to 1 in. (2.5
Construction joint spacing
reinforcement to be used in both di- A cost comparison between 30 ft cm)
rections which was selected to be a (9.1 m) and 20 ft (6.1 m) joint spac- Construction details
#4 (13 mm) bar. This resulted in a ing showed a very small difference,
minimum slab thickness of 5 in. therefore, 20 ft (6.1 m) joint spac- Floor slab
(12.7 cm) This would also give ade- ing each way was selected. This was The joint detail is shown in Fig. i ,
quate space underneath the water- also consistent with the AC1 Com- which also shows the clearances for
stop t o achieve proper consolida- mittee 350 report. the 5 in. (12.7 cm) and 6 in. (15.2
tion with vibrators.
The thickness was increased to 6
in. (15.2 cm) at the 1.5:l interior
slopes. This increase was necessary
t o maintain the required clearance
while screeding the concrete on the
steep 1.5:l slope, and to allow the
proper installation of and consoli-
dation around the waterstop at
joints on the slopes. The need for
this increase was also substantiated
by the fact that leakage control at
the embankment slopes was critical
to ensure the stability of the em-
bankments. In considering the min-
imum thickness and for ease of
placement, a flat strip waterstop
was preferred for this installation
instead of a center bulb waterstop.
Temperature reinforcement
Since the slopes were more exposed
to the water fluctuations than the
floor area, more temperature rein- Concrete was placed in a checkerboard pattern using a pump.

A C 1 COMP-20 93 Obb2949 0506729 107 M
“VE¡?’ out crœk, s.ndMM
h Fi11 wiîh poivUmihma
suluil II w.ll CnQr
cm) slab, contraction joints utiliz-

ing smooth rods at 24 in. (61 cm) on
center, and a PVC sleeve filled with
grease.
Joints around existing surfaces
Fuæ >,/,,,d
The detail shown in Fig. 2 was used Fia. 3 - Sealant Groove. Fig. 4 - Concrete crack repair.
where concrete was to be poured
against an existing wall or the sides
of the column footings. To assure The cracks were widened to !h x
watertightness, a sealant was placed Construction methods
Since the Linden Reservoir was an Yi x I % in. (13 x 13 x 13 mm)
behind the waterstop which was an- using a concrete saw.
chored to the wall with a in. (5 enclosed facility, some roof panels
had t o be removed and later re- The joint was lightly sandblasted
mm) steel plate and a continuous and primed with a primer.
bead of sealant was placed where 6 placed to permit the placement of
concrete and also to enhance work- Two part polyurethane sealant
in. (15.2 cm) flat strip waterstop was used to seal the joints.
was bent. A sealant groove on top ing conditions by providing ade-
A typical detail for concrete crack
of the slab was also utilized. Essen- quate sunlight. Concrete could ei-
ther be pumped or placed by a repair is shown in Fig. 4.
tially this detail provided a double The rehabilitation of the recer-
line of defense against possible crane and a bucket. Concrete was
pumped utilizing a 5 in. (12.7 cm) voir was completed in May, 1985.
leakage through the joint where ex-
isting concrete joins the new con- line. Concrete was placed in check- Rehabilitation cost
crete. erboard pattern and screeded in an The rehabilitation cost of the facil-
upslope direction using a striker ity was approximately $640,000.
Sealant groove tube. Immersion type vibrators were The capital cost of constructing a
Fig. 3 shows a typical sealant used; concrete was packed by hand new facility of the same size and
groove. The-width-to depth ratio is under the waterstop. construction materials would have
approximately 1:1 at the top and Wall cracks were repaired using been $3.1 to $3.6 million. The re-
1:2 a t the bottom. The primary the following procedure: habilitation cost was approximately
purpose of the sealant groove is to Existing liner was removed to ex- 20 percent of what the total cost of
provide watertightness. This detail pose crack. new construction would have been,
therefore differs from the conven- Existing coating was removed and the life expectancy of the reha-
tional sealant groove detail where it from cracks approximately W x bilitated facility is at least 50 per-
is used as an expansion joint. W x f% in. ( l o x l o x 13 mm) cent of that of a new facility.
Conclusions
Infrastructure rehabilitation is a vi-
able alternative which saves capital
costs and time. This project was a
good example of how a 58 year old
reservoir was rehabilitated at a
fraction of the cost of constructing
a new reservoir. It can thus be con-
cluded that watertightness on floor
slabs can be achieved by providing
adequate contraction joints and
utilizing waterstop and construction
joint sealant.
AC1 member Ashok K. Dhingra is

Vice President, James M. Montgom-
ery, Consulting Engineers, Inc., Pasa-
dena, California. He is a member of
AC1 Committees 344, Circular Pre-
stressed Structures; 350, Environmen-
tal Engineering Structures; and 364,
Concrete on the side slopes was screeded upwards using a striker tube. Rehabilitation.
32 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 0506730 920
Reinforced Overlay and

Shotcrete Restore Integrity to
I U
oon after construction was and supported by concrete pile tests, and chloride content determi-
S completed, before the facil-

ity was opened to the public,
the reinforced concrete decks
of a multistory parking garage ex-
hibited extensive cracking and wa-
foundations. Each level is approxi-
mately 52,000 ft2 (4830 m3); a sche-
matic plan and section of the ga-
rage are shown in Fig. l . The struc-
ture is located in a city that uses
nation.
The extent of cracking found in
the deck slabs significantly ex-
ceeded that to be expected in a con-
ventionally reinforced concrete pan-
ter leakage through the cracks. An deicing salts in the winter. joist framing system. Crack maps
investigation was performed to de- for the three framed levels are
termine the cause of cracking and to shown in Fig. 2. Most of the cracks
evaluate its significance with re- The investigation extended through the entire slab
spect to the integrity and durability A detailed investigation was per- thickness. A view of a representa-
of the structure. Results indicated formed t o determine the extent, tive leaking crack is shown in Fig. 3.
significant repairs were required to cause, and significance of the cracks Deck cracking was attributed to
correct design and construction in the deck slabs. Investigative work restrained volume changes of con-
flaws before the garage could be included review of design docu- crete due to drying shrinkage and
opened to traffic. ments and construction records, temperature changes, and to flex-
The four-level structure consists comprehensive visual inspection, ural behavior of the floor system.
of one level supported on grade and nondestructive testing, and labora- Deck c r a c k i n g was extensive
three framed levels above grade tory analysis of concrete samples throughout the garage because the
connected by ramps located in the removed from the garage. deck slabs contained only one-third
middle of the structure. Conven- Nondestructive testing included of the minimum amount of steel re-
tionally reinforced lightweight con- R-meter and impulse radar surveys inforcement required by the AC1
crete pan-joist construction was to evaluate and characterize embed- Building Code for Reinforced Con-
used for the above-grade parking ded steel reinforcement. Labora- crete. Structural calculations indi-
decks and ramps. Columns are con- tory analysis included petrographic cated the as-built deck slabs did not
structed of normal weight concrete examinations, compressive strength have adequate strength to support
I . . . . I . I . . . d I
1Section I. . . . . . t " " 'i I

No scale
. . . . Li
Fig. 1 - Schematic plan and section of garage.

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 Ob62949 0506733 867 m
Levrl 2
___ -
Leuel 4
Fio. 2 - Observed cracks
the 2000-lb (907-kg) concentrated Additional investigative work was Repair alternatives
wheel load required by the prevail- performed prior to final design of The following four alternatives were
ing municipal building code. slab repairs t o assess the original considered to repair the garage:
structural design and as-built con- 1. Demolish the superstructure
dition of the joists, beams, col- and rebuild the garage using re-
umns, and foundations throughout maining foundations.
the garage. This additional work 2. Remove and replace slabs and
uncovered several other serious strengthen deficient beams.
structural problems. 3. Install supplemental below-slab
Design-related deficiencies that framing to span between joists and
resulted in inadequate shear and strengthen deficient beams.
flexural strength of several beams at 4. Place a bonded reinforced
each floor were discovered. In ad- concrete overlay and strengthen de-
dition, many other beams through- ficient beams.
out the garage contained as-built Important criteria in evaluating
stirrup spacings that varied signifi- repair alternatives included cost,
cantly from the design spacing. construction schedule, construction
Large stirrup spacings resulted in methods, long-term durability, and
shear strength deficiencies in many the effect of repairs on garage op-
beams. erations. The bonded reinforced
Based on the findings of the in- concrete overlay alternative was se-
vestigation, the garage was not lected for the following reasons:
opened to vehicular traffic. Signifi- The cost of $2.2 million was the
cant repairs were necessary t o in- lowest of the four options.
sure structural integrity and provide Repairs could be completed in
Fig. 3 - A typical leaking crack. a durable structure. approximately four months.
e- ‘ n
Fig. 4 - In-place epoxy-coated reinforcement for overlay. Fig. 5 - Placing the overlay concrete.
34 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 = 0662949 O506732 7T3
Fig. 6 - Supplemental shear reinforcement. Fig. 7 - Completed shear repair.
Construction methods were required tensile bond pull-off

proven and many repair contrac- strengths to average a minimum of
tors have overlay experience. 160 psi (1103 kPa) with no single
A new overlay slab would pro- test value less than 120 psi (827
vide a durable wearing surface. kPa). Direct shear strengths greatly
The work could be phased to al- exceeded the 80 psi (552 kPa) value
low portions of the garage to be used to design the overlay.
used prior t o total project com- Construction sequence for plac-
pletion. ing the overlay was as follows:
Epoxy inject all cracks greater
than 0.010 in. (0.25 mm) wide in
Bonded overlay existing slabs.
A bonded reinforced concrete over- Clean and roughen existing slab
lay was used to restore the integrity surface.
of the structurally deficient deck Install shoring below overlay
slabs. Due to limited supplemental placement area.
capacity in the existing framing and Pre-wet and perform final clean-
foundations, the overlay was 2% in. ing of surfaces using high-pres-
(57 rnm) thick and comprised of sure water.
5000 psi (34 MPa) lightweight ag- Vigorously scrub in a portland
gregate concrete. cement/water bonding grout.
Reinforcement consisted of flat Place and consolidate overlay
sheets of epoxy-coated welded wire concrete.
fabric. Additionally, No. 4 rein- Provide a light broom finish.
forcing bars were placed in the Moist cure the overlay for seven
overlay adjacent to columns to pro- days.
vide increased negative movement The cracks were epoxy injected to
capacity and crack control. Move- minimize the potential for reflective Fig. 8 - A nozzleman shoots
ment joints in the existing decks cracking through the overlay. Shor- overhead beam repair.
were matched in the overlay.
Prior t o starting full-scale re-
pairs, a test section of overlay was
I
,Existing Framing 4th Levei
Cevei
placed to evaluate surface prepara- __
tion of the substrate and the tensile
bond strength and direct shear
strength between the new overlay
New Brackets -+!!I
and existing slab. Existing slab top
surfaces were roughened a n d
cleaned using standard shotblast
equipment.
Results of tests performed on the
mockup section indicated an aver-
age tensile bond pull-off strength of
163 psi (1 124 kPa) and an average
direct shear strength of 352 psi
(2427 kPa). Project specifications Fig 9 - Eievation view of new brackets

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 Ob62949 0506733 b3T
Fig. 10 - Reinforcement for a new bracket. Fig. 11 - A completed bracket.
ing was provided so the additional zleman for each day of shooting. overlay was completed to allow for
dead load of the overlay would be Cores were drilled from the test some shrinkage of the overlay to
resisted by composite joist and panels and evaluated for unifor- occur.
beam sections. After approximately mity, presence of voids, and com-
28 days, the overlay was sounded pressive strength. Bond of shotcrete Conclusion
using the chain-drag method to de- encasements to existing beams was Without action t o address serious
tect any unbonded areas. evaluated using tensile bond pull-off design and construction deficiencies
In addition, tensile bond pull-off tests and sounding with a hammer. that resulted in significant struc-
tests were performed on all overlay tural integrity and durability inade-
placements to monitor and evaluate New brackets quacies in garage deck framing
bond strength. Bond pull-off tests members, structural failures of the
Several beams at each floor re- slabs and certain beams could have
performed during construction in-
quired strengthening t o increase occurred fairly early in the service
dicated tensile bond strengths be- both shear and flexural strength.
tween 210 and 330 psi (1448 and life of the garage. Cost-effective re-
After investigating several strength-
2275 kPa) for all overlay place- pair methods were developed to re-
ening alternatives, it was decided to
ments. Fig. 4 shows overlay rein- store structural integrity and pro-
install new reinforced concrete
forcement in place and Fig. 5 shows vide long-term durability.
brackets to reduce the span length
overlay concrete being placed.
of the deficient beams. Brackets
were built around existing columns
Shear strengthening of and tapered to form a flat Y shape,
beams as shown in Fig. 9. Installing brack- AC1 member Kevin
ets resulted in no loss of parking A. Micholc is an
Shear strengthening repairs were re-
spaces and minimal reduction in associate with STS
quired at 83 beams. Deficient beams
overhead clearance. Consultants, Ltd.,
were strengthened by installing sup-
The contractor elected to build Northbrook, Ill., in
plemental stirrups encased in shot- the Structures and
the brackets using shotcrete. Noz-
Crete. Beam surfaces t o receive Materials Group.
zlemen prequalification and quality
shotcrete encasement were prepared He is a member of
control test panel requirements were
using sandblasting to provide rough similar to those described for shear AC1 C o m m i t t e e
and clean surfaces. Fig. 6 shows 546. ReDair of Concrete. and is in-
repairs. Fig. 10 shows a typical re- volved in investigation, testing, and re-
supplemental shear reinforcement
inforcement cage and Fig. 11 shows habilitation of structures with struc-
and Fig. 7 shows new shotcrete en-
a finished bracket. tural integrity and durability perform-
casement. Fig. 8 shows a shotcrete
nozzleman shooting an overhead ance problems.
beam repair. Waterproofing traffic decks
Shotcrete nozzlemen were pre- Since some reflective and shrinkage AC1 member John
qualified for the project by evaluat- cracking was anticipated in the Vincent is an eval-
ing the quality of test panels fabri- overlay, an elastomeric traffic-bear- uation engineer in
cated for both horizontal and over- ing deck coating waterproofing sys- the Structural Eval-
tem was specified. A heavy-duty uation Section at
head shooting positions. Construction Tech-
Prequalification criteria were simi- form of the deck coating was ap- nology Laborato-
lar to those recommended in AC1 plied at all drive aisles and ramps ries, Inc., Skokie,
506.3R-82, “Guide to Certification for increased wear resistance at 111. He is involvad in
of Shotcrete Nozzlemen.” these high traffic areas. evaluating collapsed, distressed, and
Quality control test panels were The deck coating was installed deteriorated structures and the design
fabricated by each approved noz- approximately five months after the of structural repairs.
36 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COUP-20 93 m 0662949 0506734 576 m
Joint Repair with

MMA-Polymer Concrete
T he use of methyl methacry- Insure that repaired joints are tremely inclement weather oc-
late polymer concrete eliminated as sources of foreign curred, and while it didn't delay
(MMA-PC) has been ac- objects. completion, some problems were
cepted for many years in apparent by the spring of 1986. In a
North America, but due to the na- detailed survey, 30 ft (9 m) of joint
ture of the material, problems can Installation technique criteria were found to show signs of dis-
occur that may be seen as limita- Insure permanent edge protec- bonding and another 35 ft (1 1.6 m)
tions to its use or application. There tion. were found t o have transverse
are, however, evaluation methods Control all chipping debris. cracks every 3 to 5 ft (1 to 1.5 m).
and solutions to problems typically Repair all exposed areas within 4 The cracks ranged in size from 0.5
encountered when using MMA-PC hours notice. to 2.5 in. (13 to 64 mm) long, 0.001
for joint repairs or patching. Feather edging prohibited. to 0.003 in. (0.03 to 0.10 mm) wide,
The specific application that Finish material t o -t X 6 in. ( 5 and X 6 to '/8 in. (2 to 10 mm) deep.
brought many of the problems and mm) of grade. Several causes were determined
solutions mentioned here t o light for the cracking and disbonding: 1)
was not particularly unique. Over a moisture at the bond line leading to
period of five years, approximately
The problem bond failure; 2) coarse aggregate
15,000 lineal ft (4572 m) of joints Prior t o 1985, the owner of the exposed to moisture prior to mix-
were repaired using MMA-PC at a parking apron had used various ce- ing; 3) slow reaction time of mate-
high-security military aircraft park- mentitious and epoxy mortars to re- rials caused by improper blend of
ing apron in the northwest United pair the joints, but none of these reactive promoters; 4) excessive fine
States. For several years, edge repairs had been particularly satis- materials in the coarse aggregate
spalling and failure of the petro- factory. Faced with a larger scope supply leading to post-gel shrink-
leum-based joint filler had oc- of work, in December 1985 the age; 5 ) improper aggregate sizing
curred, creating a real concern for owner employed a specialty con- and mix design leading to post-gel
potential damage t o jet engines tractor, who proposed an MMA-PC shrinkage; and 6) improper binder
from the intake of foreign objects material that was claimed to have content caused by Items 3 and 4
- small chips of concrete or debris rapid cure strengths and long-term leading to post-gel shrinkage.
trapped in failed joints. durability.
To repair existing deterioration For a test installation, 2 in. (50
and to slow down future edge and mm) deep cuts were made 3 in. (75 MMA-PC chemistry
joint failure, design criteria were es- mm) each side of the existing joints As with most polymerization proc-
tablished based primarily on mate- and concrete was removed to an ap- esses, conversion of a liquid (mon-
rials and proper installation tech- proximate depth of 4 in. (10 cm). omer) to a solid (polymer) is ac-
niques. Once the cut surfaces were properly complished by an increase in den-
prepared, a two-component MMA- sity, and one manifestation of this
Repair material criteria based primer was applied to insure density change is cure shrinkage.
Obtain rapid (1 to 2 hours) serv- bond of the MMA-PC. A coarse But the detrimental effects of cure
iceable cure and maintain favor- aggregate-extended MMA-PC was shrinkage can be mitigated and
able application properties over a installed to grade in the cuts and compensated for by manipulating
wide range of ambient tempera- cured for 1 to 2 hours before a new the kinetics of polymerization
tures. center line joint was cut. The final shrinkage.
Exhibit curing behavior and step was to install a two-component Simply put, the relationship of
cured mechanical properties that polyurethane jet fuel-resistant seal- the amount of polymer chain devel-
do not fatigue bond or host sub- ant in the new joint. Approximately opment prior to gel (solidification),
strate. 400 ft (122 m) of joint were re- as opposed to following gel, deter-
Bond to properly prepared damp paired. mines the amount of shrinkage. In
concrete substrates with free wa- The test installation was made in concrete repair applications, a high
ter removed. winter, during which some ex- degree of pre-gel shrinkage is desir-

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 0506735 402 H
able as the material is in a fluid volumetrically and 0.02 percent lin- Specify that coarse aggregate be
state and thus free to relieve shrink- early. The low linear shrinkage val- washed and dried twice to cut
age stress. Post-gel shrinkage must ues demonstrate that a large por- down on excessive fines in the
be kept to a minimum as it is occur- tion of cure shrinkage occurs prior mix, which modifies the material
ring in a solidifying mass with lim- to gel. fluidity.
ited capacity to relieve shrinkage The fluidity of the mix is critical Re-evaluate the mix proportions
stress. to not restrain the plasticity re- and extend the prepackaged mix
The formulator’s success in ma- quired to absorb pre-gel shrinkage. material with 70 percent coarse
nipulating shrinkage kinetics can be The fluid character of the mix al- aggregate by weight, which in-
demonstrated easily. The pure lows cure shrinkage to manifest it- sures a fluid mix with an approx-
MMA polymer (no additives) ex- self in the vertical dimension, which imate linear shrinkage of 0.02
hibits a volume shrinkage of 21 per- is subject to the least restraint and percent.
cent. The formulator’s liquid com- not apparent in the linear dimen- Monitor ambient application
ponent (MMA, crosslinking mono- sion. temperatures to evaluate the need
mers, and additives), in this case, To further insure that the major- and/or amount of higher reactiv-
has a 13 percent volume shrinkage. ity of shrinkage would occur in the ity promoter.
Adding prepackaged aggregates and pre-gel state, a long potlife (less ac- Increase ability to keep surfaces
other inorganic fillers puts the tive) liquid component was se- dry and use the one-component
shrinkage at approximately 2.6 per- lected. This component gives an in- moisture-tolerant primer system.
cent. With the field addition of duction time of 20 to 80 minutes at As of May 1990, work was still
properly cleaned, graded, and dried 60 to 100 F (15 to 38 C) so that po- being performed. A detailed survey
coarse aggregate, volumetric lymerization occurs in the pre-gel indicated that approximately 10 ft
shrinkage is about 1.7 percent. state. To maintain proper reactivity (3 m) of joint showed any sign of
The prepackaged system supplied (induction time) from 60 to as low distress and warranted replacement.
for the subject installation has a as 25 F (15 t o - 4 C), increased Over 5 % years, approximately 0.5
volumetric shrinkage of 2.6 percent amounts of a promoter were added percent of the 15,000 ft (4572 m) of
and linear shrinkage of 0.05 per- to the liquid component to act as an repaired joints have required reme-
cent. A system with the addition of accelerator. dial work.
80 percent coarse aggregate exten- A major restriction on the tradi-
sion exhibits 1.7 percent shrinkage tional use of MMA-PC has been the Acknowledgment
lack of bond to damp concrete. A Assistance with application information was
one-component moisture-tolerant supplied by Roger Runacres of the Harry S .
methacrylate-based proprietary pri- Peterson Co., Inc., of Renton, Wash.
mer reacts directly with the MMA-
PC mix and the primer reaction ex-
tends into the portland cement,
which bonds the MMA-PC mix to AC1 member Pete
the substrate before bulk curing of Barlow is the re-
the polymer concrete takes place. gional manager for
This rapid curing process also en- the Harry S. Peter-
hances resistance to shrinkage in the son Co., Inc., Ren-
linear dimension, which induces ton, Wash. He has
shrinkage in the more desirable ver- been involved in
tical dimension. concrete repair
and r e s t o r a t i o n
since 1975 and is a member of AC1
Committees 546, Repair, and 224,
Application modifications Cracking.
An understanding of these specifics
of MMA-PC chemistry helped in Chris Olson is a
developing specific answers t o senior applications
problems that occurred in the origi- specialist for Mas-
nal test installation, which, in turn, ter Builders in San
gave the applicator specific direc- Carlos, Calif. He
tion to modify the handling and ap- has 13 years of re-
search and devel-
plication of the material. The mod- opment experience
ifications adopted were: in polymer materi-
Protect coarse aggregate source als. His current responsibilities involve
from any possible exposure to product development and application
moisture during storage and mix- of polymer concretes, mortars, and
ing. grouts.
38 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 W 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 050b736 3 4 9
Water-jetting helps new concrete bond to old
ImDrovina Concrete Bond in

m U
-
R epairing a concrete bridge
deck should result in a com-
posite concrete deck whose
strength is at least as high as
the original monolithic deck. The
strength of the composite deck de-
pends on the bond between the old
changed the prevalent method of
concrete removal. A thorough dis-
cussion of Swedish experiences with
the water-jet technique is given by
Ingvarsson and Eriksson.2 Besides a
high efficiency, several important
advantages add to the success of the
Table 1
31d
:onCrete
Factors that may
influence concrete bond
Concrete strength
Aggregate/gradation
Salt content
Age
and the new concrete, and conse- method: water-jetting leaves a
quently, knowing about the factors rough and clean surface, no micro-
affecting the bond is important cracks are introduced into the re- Concrete Technique
(Table 1). maining concrete, the reinforce- removal Depth
Repairing a concrete bridge deck ment is undamaged and cleaned
consists of the following phases: from rust, and only deteriorated
concrete is removed, leaving the The interface Microcracks
Removal of unsound concrete sound concrete intact. Roughness
Surface preparation
Cleaning of exposed concrete The “Swedish Regulations for Prewetting
surface and reinforcement Concrete structure^"^ does not per- Other treatment
mit shear transfer at interfaces of (bonding agents, etc.)
Replacement of corroded rein- Surface moisture
forcing steel composite concrete structures un- at time of place overlay
less the reinforcement or the com-
Replacement of removed con- pressive forces cross the interface.
crete The composite member may be Concrete w/c
Curing formed of a precast part and a cast- overlay Cement content
in-place part or two cast-in-place Aggregate/gradation
AC1 Committee 546’ emphasizes parts placed at different times. Sim- Cement type
Fibre content
that chipping tools must be selected ilarly, in the absence of tie rein- Admixtures
that will not damage the surround- forcement or dowels, European and Slump
ing concrete. American concrete codes prescribe Thickness
The use of chipping hammers was comparatively low values for the Compaction method
Compaction time
once the most widespread method permissible shear stress at the inter- Curing
of concrete removal if the deterio- faces (0.22 to 0.62 MPa [32 to 90 Time since placement
ration was deep (roughly 15 mm [ ‘/2 psi] dependent on characteristic
in.] or more).* In recent years, the compressive concrete strength4 and
introduction of the water-jet tech- 0.55 MPa [BO psi]’ respectively). Weather Temperature and humidity
nique (also called hydrodemolition, Consequently, reinforcement cross- conditions after concrete removal
hydrojetting or hydroblasting) has ing the interface is needed as soon

A C 1 COMP-20 93 m 0662949 0506737 285 m
Dowel
2,300 (Rebar 0 161
r /
Ce ment - based I I
J L
Concrete
Fig. 1 - Dowel arrangement according to the practive of

the Swedish National Road Administration.
1 r'
I I
I l Steel Dlate 1'
Fig. 2 - (above) Test slabs.

Fig. 3 - (left) Pull-off test diagram
(measurements in mm, 1 mm = 0.394 in.).
as the applied design shear stress may influence the bond strength, of the pull-off testing, the cube
exceeds these small values. but they will hardly change the rank strength was 52 MPa (7540 psi).
The shear capacity in composite of methods of concrete removal. Corresponding figures for the con-
concrete bridge decks is provided by For simplicity, testing was limited to crete used for the overlays are 0.51 ,
dowels connecting the two concrete pull-off tests on concrete slabs 420 kg/m3 (708 lb/yd3), 12 mm (%
layers (Fig. 1). However, to provide stored indoors without exposure to in.), and 56 MPa (8120 psi).
the entire bridge deck with dowels traffic or environmental factors.
would be very expensive. If the Surface preparation and
shear capacity can be ensured with- Test slabs curing
out dowels for well-defined condi- The test group consisted of five Initially, the base layer thicknesses
tions, then repairing bridge decks composite slabs and two monolithic varied between the different slabs.
will be more economical. slabs. The composite slab overlays After concrete removal or sand-
were cast seven months after the blasting all of the composite slabs
Previous research concrete base layer. One of the had equal base layer thicknesses.
Bond tests on composite concrete monolithic slabs was cast from con- Approximately 20 mm (0.8 in.) of
structures with water-jetted inter- crete used for the base layer, the concrete was removed from four of
faces are scarcely dealt with in test- other was cast from concrete used the slabs with base layer thicknesses
ing literature. Some bond tests on for the overlay. of 120 mm (4.7 in.) using water-jet-
cores from an overlaid precast The slabs were 2 m ( 6 . 6 f t ) ting or hand-held pneumatic ham-
bridge deck are reported by Tay- square. At testing, the total thick- mers. Each method was used on
who obtained shear stresses of ness of all slabs was 150 mm (5.9 two of the slabs. These slabs were
about 3 MPa (440 psi). in.). The ratio between the overlay not sandblasted. The fifth slab was
thickness and the total thickness originally cast 100 mm (3.9 in.)
New tests was ?hfor all of the composite slabs thick. It was sandblasted prior to
Pull-off tests were conducted t o (Fig. 2). placement of the overlay.
find out how the water-jet tech- The concrete used for the base Loose particles and dust were
nique affected the bond between old layer of the composite slabs had a thoroughly removed from all sur-
and new concrete in comparison water cement ratio of 0.56, a ce- faces using high pressure air and
with other methods of concrete re- ment content of 275 kg/m3 (464 vacuum cleaners.
moval. Traffic, weather, deicing lb/yd3), and a maximum aggregate Following the recommendations
salts or other environmental factors size of 32 mm (1 ?A in.). At the time of the Swedish National Road Ad-
40 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 W Ob62949 050b738 111
Fia. 4 - The Dull-off test eaubrnent.
ministration,’ all of the composite to an equal depth in the monolithic ure stress, but also it may be higher.
slabs were wetted and kept moist slabs. Steel plates were glued to the Consequently, a comparison be-
for 48 hours before casting the top surfaces of the cores and a pure tween the pull-off tests with inter-
overlay. They were all superficially axial tensile load was applied t o face failures is most relevant. The
dry when the overlay was placed. them (Fig. 3 and 4). The pull-off problem is that the number of in-
No bonding agent or other treat- tests were carried out twelve months terface failures may be fairly small,
ment was used. after casting of the overlays. making the conclusions inherently
After both the base layer casting Shrinkage-induced strains and uncertain.
and the overlay casting the slabs deflections were measured in the in- Compared to mechanical chip-
were kept moist for seven days us- tervening time. Prior to the pull-off ping, water-jetted interfaces were
ing wet burlap followed by indoor tests, the slabs were supported at twice as strong. Also, a lower per-
storing at a temperature of about 20 the corners and loaded with a single centage of interface failures was
C (68 F) and a relative humidity of central load. No bond failures oc- obtained for the water-jetted slabs.
approximately 30 percent. A proper curred during the shrinkage or When comparing the slabs with
curing of the overlay reduces the loading phases. (These tests are re- water-jetted interfaces to the slab
magnitude and the rate of the dif- ported elsewhere.*) The cores were with a sandblasted interface, failure
ferential shrinkage, delaying the de- drilled in undamaged regions at the stresses above 2 MPa (290 psi) were
velopment of the maximum tensile edges of the slabs. frequently obtained for both cases
stress until the developed available (Table 2). Among the cores with in-
strength is higher.8 Test results terface failures, however, the wa-
The results of the pull-off tests are ter-jetted interface showed the
Pull-off tests shown in Table 2 and summarized highest average bond strength. The
In all, 47 pull-off tests were con- in Fig. 5 and 6 . low percentage of interface failures
ducted on the five composite slabs Theoretically, a failure will occur also indicated the superiority of the
and the two monolithic slabs. Cores at the weakest section of the core. If water-jetted interface.
with a diameter of 100 mm (3.9 in.) an interface failure is obtained, the The differences in interface
were drilled from the top surface bond strength can be defined as the strengths between the three surface
down through the concrete overlay, failure stress. If the failure occurs treatments were due to differences
through the interface, and about 50 elsewhere, the result is more diffi- in surface roughness as well as dif-
mm (2 in.) into the base layer of the cult to interpret: the strength of the ferences in the amount of micro-
composite slabs. Cores were drilled interface may be equal to the fail- cracks in the old concrete (Fig. 7

A C 1 COUP-20 93 m Obb2949 0506739 058 m
7
Table 2 - Laboratory pull-offtests
Failure
Slab Interface Core stress Failure
No. treatment No. (MPa) mode
1 Pneumatic hammex II 1.18 Base'
12 0.92 Base
13 1.20 Base
14 1.82 Base
15
16
1.O3
1.45
Base
Base
Water-jet
17 1.55 Base
18 0.88 Inter fa&
2 Pneumatic hammer 21 0.83 Interface
22 1.O3 Base
23 0.98 Interface
24 1.o2 Base
25 0.90 Interface
26 0.71 Base
27 0.97 Base
28 1.13 Interface
3 Water-jet 31 1.88 Base
32 1.53 Base
33 2.28 Base
34 1.84 Base
35 1.64 Base
37 I .82 Base
38 1.78 Base
4 Water-jet 41
42
2.12
2.23
Base
Interface Jack- hammer
43 2.04 Base
44 2.47 Base
45 2.11 Base
46 2.20 Base
47 2.01 Base
48 1.77 Base
5 Sandblasting 51 2.93 Base
52 2.35 Base
53 2.69 Interface
54 3.04 Base
55 3.04 Base
56 2.51 Base
57 I .86 Interface
58 0.64 Interface
6 Monolithic 61 2.24
Cast of concrete 62 1.82
used for the 63 2.25
base layer 64 2.30
7 Monolithic
Cast of concrete
used for the
71
72
73
3.60
3.53 Sandblasting
3.65
overlay 74 2.90
'Failure mainly in the base layer Fig. 5 - Percentage interface
Pailure mainly an interface failure failures obtained through pull-off
tests.
42 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 'i3 m Ob62949 050b740 8 7 T m
Failure stress (MPa)
2.5 ~
-
m
rn
-
c.
Jack-hammer Water-jet Sandblasting - 1 in.
m-mean value 2Omm
-1 /2in.
1Omm
a
100 200 l LOO 500 mm
Fig. 7 - Comparison between contact surfaces treated by

Fig. 6 - Comparison between pull-off tests resulting in (1) water-jet, (2) pneumatic hammer, and (3) sandblasting.
interface failures on slabs 1-5. Note: the depth scale is exaggerated.
and 8). There was a pronounced decks have been repaired on more creasing the average. Dust and loose
difference in surface roughness due than 300 bridges in Sweden. The particles were found on the inter-
to water-jetting or sandblasting, but water-jet technique has been used to face of some of those and air pock-
the difference in bond strength was remove deteriorated concrete on all ets because of poor compaction
less than expected. Neither of the of these bridge decks. Pull-off tests were found on others.
methods introduced microcracks in have been carried out on about 200 Using the water-jet technique for
the existing concrete. One may con- cores f r o m 30 repaired bridge concrete removal leaves a clean sur-
clude that surface roughness does decks. The same equipment was face if all loose concrete particles
not have a major influence on the used for both field tests and for the are removed. The Swedish National
bond strength, but the relatively laboratory tests. Road Administration7 recommends
high percentage of interface failures The repair procedures were simi- hosing the surface down with water
for the slab with the comparatively lar to the laboratory tests, Le., us- at high pressure. The surface must
smooth sandblasted interface indi- ing conventional concrete (some- be clean at the moment the overlay
cates there may be a threshold times with a steel fiber content) is placed. Furthermore, use of the
value. without applying bonding agents water-jet technique leads to a very
The main difference between wa- prior to placing the new concrete rough surface, and consequently
ter-jetting and mechanical chipping overlay. Old concrete strength, re- compaction is particularly impor-
was the amount of microcracks in- moval depth, surface preparation, tant in order to prevent the creation
troduced. The difference in bond concrete overlay mixture, compac- of air pockets in the surface depres-
strength showed that concrete re- tion, curing, and time at testing sions.
moval must be done by a method have, however, changed with time Since careful cleaning and proper
minimizing microcracking. and from one bridge to another. compaction have become part of
The water-jet technique is supe- the construction practice, the aver-
rior to the mechanical chipping age failure stress has exceeded 1.5
method because it results in higher Test results MPa (220 psi) and the percentage of
failure stresses and lower percent- For pull-off tests carried out be- interface failures has dropped be-
ages of interface failures. tween 1984 and 1988, the average low 20 percent. At present the fail-
failure stress has increased since ure usually occurs in the old con-
Field test 1984 (Fig. 9). Some cores from 1984 crete because all of the deteriorated
Since the early 80s, concrete bridge and 1985 had very low values, de- concrete was not removed.

A C 1 COMP-ZIO 9 3 9 0 b b 2 9 4 9 0506’743 70b
Failure stress fMPal

2
(28%1 1711
-
1.5
i
1
0.5
O 1984 I 7 ~ 1987 I
1985 1986 1988
Percentage interface failures1
Fig. 8 - Differences in amount of microcracks in Fig. 9 - Annual average values of in-situ pull-off tests and
interfaces treated by (a) water-jet and (b) pneumatic corresponding annual average percentage interface
hammers. failures.
Conclusions 2. Ingvarsson, H., and Eriksson, B., “Hy-

drodemolition for Bridge Repairs,” NordrSk
Received and reviewed under institute publication
policies.
Pull-off tests on composite concrete Betong (Stockholm), No. 2-3, 1988, pp. 49-
Acknowledgements
test slabs and on repaired concrete 54.
3. Swedish Regulations f o r Concrete The tests described in this paper were part of
bridge decks show that a good bond a research project carried out at the Depart-
Structures, BBK 79, 2nd Edition, The Na-
between old and new concrete can tional Swedish Committee on Concrete, ment of Structural Mechanics and Engineer-
be obtained without expensive con- Stockholm, 1988, 163 pp. ing at the Royal Institute of Technology in
necting dowels if certain precau- 4. CEBIFIP Model Code f o r Concrete Stockholm in cooperation with the Swedish
tions are taken: Structures, 3rd Edition, Comite Euro-Inter- National Road Administration and the
national du BetodFederation Internationale Stockholm City Streets and Traffic Admin-
Remove concrete without intro- de la Precontrainte, Paris, 1978, 348 pp. istration. The Swedish construction com-
ducing microcracks into the re- 5. AC1 Committee 318, “Building Code pany ABV carried out the water-jet removal
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (AC1 using Atlas Copco’s Conjet equipment. The
maining concrete. This can be done author wishes to express his gratitude to his
318-83),” American Concrete Institute, De-
by proper water-jetting. troit, 1983, 111 pp. former adviser Professor Sven Sahlin, FACI,
Clean the contact surface from 6. Tayabji, Shiraz D., “Bridge Deck and Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm,
Garage Floor Scarification by Hydrojet- for his valuable comments on this article.
dust, grease and loose particles ting,” Concrete International: Design and
prior to placement of the overlay, Construction, V. 8, No. 5, May 1986, pp. 43- AC1 member Jo-
making sure that the surface is still 48. han Silfwerbrand
clean at the time of placing. 7. “Repair of Concrete Bridges,” English received his doc-
translation of Publication No. TB 151, tor’s degree at the
Compact the new concrete over- Swedish National Road Administration, Royal Institute of
lay properly. Borlange, 1985,43 pp. Technology in
8. Silfwebrand, J., “Effects of Differen- Stockholm, where
Cure the overlay properly. tial Shrinkage, Creep and Properties of the he currently is an
Contact Surface on the Strength of Compos-
References ite Concrete Slabs of Old and New Con- assistant professor
1. AC1 Committee 546, “Guide for Repair crete,” Bulletin No. 147, Department of at the Department of Structural Me-
of Concrete Bridge Superstructures,” (AC1 Structural Mechanics and Engineering, Royal chanics and Engineering. He has been
546.1 R-SO), American Concrete Institute, Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1987, researching in the field of repaired
Detroit, 1980, 20 pp. 131 pp. (In Swedish). concrete structures since 1982.
44 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 = O662949 0506742 6 4 2 W
Seismic, sonic and vibration methods are used for quality assurance
and forensic investigation of geotechnical, pavement, and structural
systems.
Q
uality assurance (QA) and hammer to generate a compression V, = Gd/t (1)
forensic applications of non- (P) wave t h a t travels down t h e
foundation. The wave is reflected where V, is the compression wave
destructive testing and eval-
velocity, G, is the embedded geo-
uation (NDTE) are impor- off the bottom of a sound shaft or
phone depth, a n d t is time. The
tant o the construction industry. an irregularity. Receivers at the sur-
12,800 ft/s (3,900 m/s) velocity in-
Sonic, seismic, and vibration meth- face a n d embedded in the shafts
track the wave travel. The embed- dicates good quality concrete.’
ods, based on the measurement of
ded receivers are installed during An increase in vibration accelera-
wave propagation behavior, pro-
tion is apparent at a time of 5.7 ms,
vide d a t a o n dynamic properties shaft construction for QA investi-
RtZ (Fig. 2). The event at 5.7 ms is
that are directly and indirectly re- gations.
Example SE and IR records are identified as an arrival of reflected
lated to physical conditions of the
described f o r two drilled shaft tension P-wave energy. No earlier
system under test. These provide
foundations. The first is a micro- arrival of reflected compression
engineers with critical data that
wave tower shaft in New Jersey, wave energy is identified. A depth,
cannot be economically obtained D,of 36.4 ft ( 1 1 . 1 m) is calculated
with traditional destructive tests. 35.1 ft (10.7 m) long and 4.9 f t (1.5
m) in diameter, where the tests were for the reflected energy according to
Three NDTE methods for deep
the equation
foundations have been under active conducted as part of a QA investi-
research and development since the gation. The second is a research D = ( V , x Rt1)/2 (2)
1960s. Building on this experience, shaft in Texas, 49.9 ft (15.2 m) long
three other similar NDTE tech- and 3.0 ft (0.9 m) in diameter with The estimated SE reflector depth of
niques have been developed for a defect a t 32.1 ft (9.8 m). The 36.4 ft (1 1 . 1 m) compares favorably
testing slabs and pavements, struc- planned defect consists of a 11.8 in. with the actual length of 3 5 . 1 f t
tural systems, and the subsurface. (10.7 m).
(30 cm) thick lens of clay. The event at 5.7 ms is identified
Deep foundations Seismic echo as a second reflection, Rt2, from
A number of NDTE methods exist A two-channel SE test record for the bottom of the shaft. The wave
for deep foundations. There are the tower shaft is shown in Fig. 2. energy is reflected off the bottom,
routine tests f o r QA and special The dashed lines illustrate compres- off the top, and off the bottom a
tests for forensic investigations.’ sion wave travel through the shaft. second time (Fig. 2). Results of the
Two of the more common tests are The top trace is from an accelero- SE tests indicate the shaft concrete
the Seismic Echo (SE) and Impulse meter receiver (A) at the surface, is of good quality and that the shaft
Response (IR) methods. A third ul- and it represents the large initial ac- is sound to full depth.
trasonic test, Crosshole Sonic Log- celeration of the shaft top immedi- Texas research site
ging (CSL) is less common, but is ately after the shaft is hit with a 3 Ib A two-channel SE record of the re-
valuable for QA of drilled shafts or 12 lb (1.4 or 5.4 kg) hammer. search shaft with the defect at 32.1
for difficult subsurface conditions. The surface wave energy begins to f t (9.8 m) is shown in Fig. 3 . A
The SE a n d IR tests a r e con- damp out, while the compression wave arrival at the top surface is
ducted from the surface (Fig. 1 ) . wave travels down the shaft. detected at 4.88 ms. According to
Typical test equipment includes an The b o t t o m trace is f r o m a n Eq. 1 and 2, the reflector depth is
impulse hammer, accelerometer and embedded geophone (G) at 24.0 ft 32.8 ft (10.0 m), which agrees with
geophone receivers, and a dynamic (7.3 m). The direct arrival time of the defect depth. No bottom echo is
signal analyzer. The impulse ham- compression wave energy at 1.87 apparent a t the expected arrival
mer is instrumented with a load cell milliseconds (ms) is indicated on the
to measure the force of the impact. bottom trace. A direct compression
Keywords: dynamic characteristics; evaluation;
Both methods involve hitting the wave velocity of 12,800 ft/s (3,900 foundations; measurement; nondestructive tesls;
t o p of t h e foundation with t h e m/s) is calculated by pavements: quality assurance.
4s
REPAIR 8 REHABILITATION II

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 W 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 050b743 589 =
-
,
0.2
Rtl 5 . 7 ms Rt2 - 11.4 ms 1
\V ,/ \" Iiiusrratian of corn-
pression vave travel
-0.2
2.0
\ I \ I
-2.0 1 t'- 1.87 m s Second bottom reflection

O Time in milliseconds (ms) 10
Fig. 1-SE and IR testing of New Jersey drilled shaft Fig. 2-Seismic echo test record of New Jersey tower
foundation. shaft.
time for a sound 49.9 ft (15.2 m) soil inclusions, breaks, and neck- ously withdrawn from the tubes, at
long shaft. ing. Dynamic stiffnesses should be a rate such that measurements are
Results for the IR test are ana- compared only f o r similar sized conducted at 1.2 to 2.4 in. (3 to 6
lyzed in the frequency domain in- shafts (length and diameter) in sim- cm) intervals coming up the shafts.
stead of in time as for the SE test ilar soils and not used to predict Analyses to evaluate the integrity
and only a surface receiver is used.' foundation capacity. of the concrete include measure-
Dynamic stiffness is measured at ment of wave travel times between
New Jersey site low frequencies where the soil- the source and the receiver, calcula-
An IR mobility plot for the tower foundation system may be idealized tion of corresponding wave veloci-
shaft is shown on Fig. 4. It is a plot as a linear spring and a straight-line ties, and receiver response energy.
of the vibration response a t the response is produced over frequen- Longer travel times a n d corre-
shaft top, normalized t o the im- cies below 100 Hz. The slope of the sponding slower velocities are indic-
pulse force from the hammer blow, straight line defines the flexibility, ative of irregularities in the con-
as a function of frequency. The fre- or millimeters displacement per crete between tubes. The complete
quency, df = 178 Hz, of the spac- Newton force, of the foundation loss of signal is indicative of a de-
ing between resonant peaks and the head. Dynamic stiffness is the in- fect in the concrete between tubes,
velocity of 12,800 ft/s (3,900 m/s) verse of flexibility. The dynamic provided there is direct contact be-
identifies a reflector depth of 36.0 ft stiffness of the tower shaft head is tween concrete and tubes.
(1 1 .O m) according to the equation 12,600kipdin. (2.2 MN/mm). An example log of a Utah re-
D = Vc/(2 x df) (3) An IR mobility plot for the research shaft drilled to a depth of 8.9
search shaft with a defect at 32.0 ft ft (2.7 m) and 6.0 ft (1.8 m) in di-
The estimated IR reflector depth of (9.8 m) is shown on Fig. 5. Reso- ameter is presented. The research
36.0 ft (11.0 m) agrees with the ac- nant peaks identify the shallow de- shaft contains a lense of clayey sand
tual length of 35.1 ft (10.7 m) for fect a t 34.4 ft (10.5 m). The dy- to simulate a defect between 3.0 and
the tower shaft. namic stiffness of the defective 4.9 ft (0.9and 1.5 m) and a gravel
s h a f t i s 9,700 k i p s / i n . (1.7 lens below 7.9 ft (2.4m) to the bot-
Dynamic stiffness MN/mm), compared with 12,600 tom of the drill hole where ground
The IR test also measures the dy- kipdin. (2.2 MN/mm) for a similar water occurred.
namic stiffness at the head of a sized sound shaft at the site. Two example individual receiver
shaft, an indication of soil-founda- response traces are shown on Fig. 7
tion interaction conditions. In a Downhole test from between a pair of tubes in the
simple sense, dynamic stiffness is Crosshole Sonic Logging (CSL) is a research shaft. The tubes are spaced
analogous to placing a weight on a downhole method for quality assur- a distance, d , of 21.3 in. (54 cm)
spring and measuring the deflection ance testing of drilled shaft foun- apart. The upper trace is from a
of the spring to calculate the static dations. Access tubes, typically depth of 3.9 ft (1.2m) in the soil
spring stiffness (Newton's force per PVC plastic or steel, must be cast- defect zone and the lower trace is
millimeter). Hence, dynamic stiff- in-place during construction to per- from a depth of 6.6 ft (2.0m) be-
ness can be correlated with the static mit logging (Fig. 6). low the top of the shaft in a sound
stiffness measured with a load test. Logging involves passing an ul- concrete zone.
Dynamic stiffness is typically tra-sonic pulse through the concrete On the lower trace, the receiver is
f r o m one t o two times t h e low between source and receiver probes quiet until the pulse from the source
strain static stiffness for deep foun- in a water-filled tube pair. Data receiver arrives at a time, I , of 150
dations. Comparatively lower dy- from the receiver probe is recorded microseconds. This corresponds to
namic stiffnesses are measured for and processed by a computerized a sonic compression wave velocity,
foundations with defects such as CSL system. The logging is con- V,, of 11,800 ft/s (3,600m/s) ac-
weak soil-foundation interaction, ducted as the probes are simultane- cording to the equation
46 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 0506744 415
.- I Ptl - 4 . 8 8 ms Arrival exoected I
Ilobility
i n mm
per
seeondl
4.0 r
\ I 1 Newton
ímmps/N)
O Frequ&y i n Hertz (Hz) 1,
-4.0 c - 0.74 ns Fig. 4-Impulse response mobility plot for New Jersey
O T i m e i n m i l l i s e c o n d s (ms) 10 tower shaft.
Fig. 3-Seismic echo test record of Texas research shaft
with defect.
Depth Wheel
Computer
Pulse Recording
Generator System
D r i l l e d Shaft 'es
Wave Travel
I
O Frequency (Hz) 1,000
Fig. 5-Mobility plot for Texas research shaft with defect. Fig. 6-Crosshole sonic logging method.
V, = d / t (4) sponse records covering the length test conditions, surface tests can be
of the shaft between a pair of tubes. conducted in a matter of minutes
The 11,800 ft/s (3,600 m/s) sonic A crosshole sonic log between a and little preparation is required. In
wave velocity is indicative of sound, tube pair of the research shaft is forensic investigations, embedded
good quality concrete. shown on Fig. 8 . The horizontal geophones are not neces~ary.~
On the upper trace from 3.9 ft axis of the log is travel time in mi- The SE and IR methods comple-
(1.2 m), no signal is received. The croseconds ( p s ) . Time O p s corre- ment each other. Reflector depths
signal was highly attenuated and sponds to when the pulse generator and wave velocities are more accu-
delayed by the clayey sand defect. exited the source. The vertical axis r a t e l y e s t i m a t e d w i t h t h e SE
Individual receiver response rec- is the distance below the top of the method, while the IR method also
ords at incremental depths can be shaft (m). Depth O m corresponds measures soil-foundation interac-
reviewed because t h e computer to the top of the shaft. The defects tion conditions. Disadvantages in-
stores each record on a magnetic between 3.0 and 4.9 ft (0.9 and 1.5 clude wave attenuation with depth
disk during logging. For general re- m) and below 8.2 ft (2.5 m) are and the lack of bottom reflections
port presentation of CSL test re- identified by the absence of a signal from foundations in concrete-like
sults, however, the hundreds of in- arrival in time. The slower trans- bedrock.
dividual receiver response records mission of the signal through the An advantage of the downhole
are not presented. Instead, com- groundwater in the gravel defect is CSL test is that it can detect defects
puter software processes the data, also apparent at the bottom of the a t any depth. Disadvantages in-
determines times for the wave t o shaft (Fig. 8). clude the lack of data on soil-foun-
travel from the source t o the re- dation interaction conditions, the
ceiver based on a threshold ampli- Deep foundation NDTE necessary installation of PVC o r
tude selected by the operator, and methods steel pipe, and the requirement that
then plots wave arrival time versus The types of deep foundations that the tubes be well-bonded t o the
depth. can be tested with the surface meth- concrete.
This plot is the crosshole sonic ods include concrete drilled shafts
log, which is a one page presenta- and driven o r augured cast piles.
tion of arrival times versus depth Advantages of the surface tests in- Slabs and pavements
from the hundreds of receiver re- clude speed and cost. Under good The Impulse Response (IR) method
47

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 Obb2949 050b745 351
Depth
Below
Top of
Shaft
(meters)
I transmission
~. 3.0 I
O O 1024
Time in microseconds 1024
Time i n microseconds
Fig. 7-Example individual receiver response records Fig. 8-Crosshole sonic log.
from crosshole sonic log of Utah research drilled shaft
Signal
Impulse Hamer +
Geoohone
O
Subgrade O Frequency (Hz) 1,000
Fig. 9-Impulse response method for slabs and Fig. 10-Mobility of slabs with void and good subgrade
pavements. suDDort.
for integrity testing of deep foun- The subgrade consisted of 3 to 4 sponse from about 200 to 600 Hz,
d a t i o n s has been a d a p t e d f o r in. (8 to 10 cm) of bedding sand and an increasing response there-
subgrade support condition evalua- with a plastic vapor barrier. The after. The mobility plot of a test
tion of concrete slabs and pave- bedding sand was underlain by 1 to point over voids indicates a dy-
m e n t ~ Typical
.~ equipment for IR 8 ft (0.3 to 2.5 m) of structural fill, namic stiffness of 170 kips//in.
testing of slabs is illustrated on'Fig. underlain by residual soils and bed- (0.03 MN/mm) and an irregular re-
9. Analysis of a mobility plot pro- rock. Of the 295 locations tested, sponse thereafter. The slab under-
duced with a 3 Ib (1.4 kg) hammer IR test results indicated void t o lain by voids is more flexible and
and geophone, similar to an IR test weak support conditions at 91 mobile than the slab with good
record from a deep foundation, points and good support at the re- subgrade support.
provides i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e maining 204 points. Representative
subgrade support conditions within IR test records are presented for Void before and after grouting.
a radius of 6 to 12 in. (15 to 30 cm) void versus good subgrade support Slab support conditions can be
of the test point depending on the conditions, and void before and af- checked after repair with the IR
slab thickness. ter grouting. method. For example, mobility
plots are shown on Fig. 1 1 for a test
Void versus good subgrade sup- point over voids before and after
A case history port. Mobility plots are shown in grouting. The mobility plot over
Subgrade support conditions were Fig. 10 f o r void versus g o o d voids before grouting indicates a
evaluated with the IR method at subgrade support conditions. Two dynamic stiffness of 170 kips/in.
proposed column locations on a characteristics of a mobility plot are (0.03 MN/mm) and an irregular re-
slab for an electronic clean room indicative of support conditions; the sponse thereafter. The mobility plot
manufacturing area. The investiga- inverse of the slope of the straight after grouting indicates a dynamic
tion was conducted in response to line portion of the plot (dynamic stiffness of 500 kips/in. (0.09
concern that previous flooding from stiffness), and the mobility at higher MN/mm) and a somewhat less ir-
a sprinkler line break nearby may frequencies. The mobility plot of a regular response thereafter. Results
have created voids below the slab, test point with good support indi- indicate the grout substantially im-
which is approximately 6 in. (15 cm) cates a dynamic stiffness of 910 proved support conditions at this
thick. kipdin. (0.16 MN/mm), a flat re- point.
48 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 = Obb2949 050b74b 298
0.0:
m
1 Before grouting Sound Debonded
Hobílit)
:
I:
A
II n
. Asphalt
(nnnpslN)
Loncrete
O
/k
After grouting
C
Frequency (Hz) i ,006 Top Delamination Bottom Delamination
Fig. 1 i-Mobility plots for slab before and after grouting
of void. Fig. 12-Deck schematic of impact echo test results.
IR slab testing the decks. The deck slab was 8 in. frequency peak corresponds to re-
The types of slabs that can be tested (20 cm) thick and reinforced with #5 flection off a delamination 5.9 in.
with the IR method include con- steel bars. The thickness of the as- (15 cm) above the test point. The
crete slabs, pavements, runways, phalt overlay ranged from O to 1.5 higher frequency peak indicates the
spillways, pond and pool bottoms, in. (O to 3.8 cm) and averaged 1.0 shallower reflecting depth accord-
and tunnel linings. The tests can be in. (2.5 cm). ing to Eq. 5 if a similar velocity is
performed on concrete or any other Dragging chains and listening for assumed. Excellent confirmation of
rigid, concrete-like material. hollow sounds to locate voids was the IE test results was provided by
In forensic investigations, areas not feasible for the parking decks 15 cores.
of voids below slabs can generally because of the asphalt overlay. In-
stead, IE tests were conducted from IE testing
be identified and mapped out at the
time of testing, although the thick- the undersides of the decks with a Impact Echo (IE) tests can be con-
ness of a void cannot be determined small impulse hammer and acceler- ducted from one surface on struc-
by an IR test. As QA testing after ometer. Test results indicate a vari- tures such as slabs, walls, bridge
construction or repair operations, ety o f conditions including sound decks, dams, and tunnel linings as
the method can identify areas of concrete/asphalt deck, top delami- well as parking garage decks. Flaws
potential problems. Checking the nation, debonded concrete/asphalt such as voids, honeycombs, crack-
effectiveness of grout behind a pre- overlay, and bottom delamination ing, and delamination are detected.
cast tunnel liner is an ideal applica- areas (Fig. 12). Test records of the Thicknesses can also be estimated,
tion. As part of a maintenance pro- first two conditions are described and fire and frost damage can be
gram to improve long-term slab below. evaluated. The method can also be
performance, the method has the used for QA purposes and predic-
Sound concretelasphalt. An IE tion of early age concrete strength if
potential to become an integral tool. test record for sound con-
correlated with results from de-
crete/asphalt is shown in Fig. 13. structive test methods.
Structural systems The record is a plot of vibration
displacement (integrated from the Subsurface seismic velocity
The Impact Echo (IE) method is a accelerometer output) per force
sonic test for evaluation of concrete profiling from the surface
(mm/N) or flexibility as a function
member integrity and thickness that of frequency. The dominant fre- A new seismic technique known as
has been researched since the early quency peak at 7 kHz corresponds spectral analysis of surface waves
198Os.'j The nondestructive test is to the periodic compression wave (SASW) has been developed for the
conducted from one surface in a reflections between the top and bot- determination of shear modulus
fashion similar to IR tests of slabs. t o m surfaces of t h e deck. T h e profiles with depth at soil sites and
The IE test involves impacting the 11,150 ft/s (3,400 m/s) velocity of Young's modulus profiles at pave-
concrete at a point. A surface re- the compression wave through the ment Presented are t h e
ceiver measures the vibration of the 9.4 in. (24 cm) thick deck can be SASW method and results of cur-
concrete. Analysis of the frequency calculated according t o the equa- rent research on its potential for
contents of the test results provides tion Arctic permafrost regions.
information on the condition of the
concrete as described in the follow- SASW method
ing case history investigation. VC=2xTxf (5) The SASW method is based upon
the theory of stress waves propagat-
Parking garage deck where V, is the compression wave ing in layered elastic media. The ra-
The investigation was conducted velocity, T i s the thickness of the tio of surface wave velocity to shear
with the IE method in response to deck, and f is the frequency peak. wave velocity varies slightly with
concern regarding spalling and de- Top delamination. An IE test re- Poisson's ratio, but can be assumed
lamination of concrete caused by cord for top delamination is shown to be equal to 0.90 with an error of
the corrosion of reinforcing steel in in Fig. 14. The 12 kHz dominant less than five p e r ~ e n t . ~
REPAIR û REHABILITATION II 49

A C 1 COMP-20 93 Obb2949 0506747 124
1E-5
1E-5
Flexibility
m 7 );HZ
12 IrHz
b Flexibility
in m (UD/N)
per Newton
(=IN)
Measurement of the surface wave Surface wave velocity (V,) is ob- of the SASW method to delineate
velocity of the SASW method simi- tained by dividing the receiver spac- thawed (softer) and frozen (stiffer)
larly allows calculation of compres- ing ( X ) by the travel time at each ground.
sion wave velocity. Knowledge of frequency9 In addition t o SASW tests a t
the seismic wave velocities and mass three sites in Fairbanks, Alaska, a
density of the material layers allows v, = X / t (7) soil boring was drilled at each of the
calculation of shear and Young’s sites and downhole seismic tests
moduli for low strain amplitudes. The wavelength (15,)is related to were performed in the borings at
Surface wave velocity varies with the phase velocity and frequency by two of the sites for comparison with
frequency in a layered system with the SASW results. The following
velocity contrasts, and this fre- are results from a sandy silt and
quency dependence of velocity is silty sand site in a hay field at the
called dispersion. A plot of surface By repeating the above procedure University of Alaska campus.
wave velocity versus wavelength is for every frequency, the surface Shear wave velocity profiles de-
called a dispersion curve. wave velocity corresponding to each t e r m i n e d with t h e SASW a n d
The SASW tests and analyses are wavelength is evaluated, and the downhole seismic tests at the hay
performed in three phases: collec- dispersion curve is determined. field site are shown on Fig. 16, The
tion of data in situ, construction of Inversion is the process of deter- shear wave velocity profiles deter-
a dispersion curve, and inversion of mining the “true” shear wave ve- mined by the two methods are in
the dispersion curve. locity profile from the “apparent” good agreement. A significant in-
The SASW field test consists of velocity of the dispersion curve. The crease in shear wave velocity occurs
impacting the ground surface t o inversion process is iterative and in- between the depths of 33 and 39 ft
generate surface wave energy a t volves assuming a shear wave veloc- (10 and 12 m) for both methods. A
various frequencies that is transmit- ity profile and constructing a theo- substantial increase in the penetra-
ted through the medium. Two ver- retical dispersion curve. The experi- tion resistance of the driven soil
tical receivers located on the sur- mental and theoretical curves are sampler was also noted over this
face monitor the passage of the sur- compared, and the assumed shear depth interval.
face wave energy (Fig. 15). wave velocity profile adjusted until Examination of the soil samples
To obtain more representative the two curves match. An interac- indicated that the soil was frozen
data, several tests with different re- tive computer algorithm, INVERT, below a depth of 34.4 ft (10.5 m).
ceiver spacings are performed by has been developed to compute a The research findings indicate the
doubling the distance between the theoretical dispersion curve based SASW method accurately identified
receivers about the imaginary cen- upon an assumed shear wave veloc- the increase in velocity (stiffness)
terline between the receivers. A sig- ity profile.1° associated with the frozen ground
nal analyzer digitizes the analog re- without drilling a boring. T h e
ceiver outputs and records the sig- Permafrost research with the method is believed to have excellent
nals f o r s p e c t r a l ( f r e q u e n c y ) SASW method potential in permafrost and more
analyses to determine the phase in- Facilities affected by freeze-thaw research is proposed.
formation of the cross power spec- damage in permafrost regions in-
trum between the two receivers for clude structures and their founda-
each frequency. tions, pipelines, highways, run- Conclusion
ï he dispersion curve is developed ways, and utility distribution poles. Nondestructive methods have sev-
knowing the phase ( 4 ) at a given A nondestructive method is needed eral advantages over destructive
frequency u> and then calculating to determine the extent and thick- testing methods:
the travel time (t)between receivers nesses of frozen and thawed ground Economical test coverage of
of that frequency/wavelength by to supplement soil test borings. Be- large areas.
low are results of a feasibility re- Definition of limits and nature
search study of the potential for use of defects.
50 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-120 93 m Obb2949 050b748 Ob0 m
SASW Shear
Wave Velociry
U
12
IR 1
E
:::;ter Vertical Geophone 7

Mechanical Source I 15
Impulse
8 Ground Surface
18
\ \ _ ’ ’
I
I
I I
150 300 450 600 750
Shear Wave V e l o c i t y i n m/s
Fig. 15-Spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW) Fig. 16-Shear wave velocity profiles at the University of
survev method. Alaska havfield.
Portable equipment and ability References 9. Stokoe, K . H., II, and Nazarian, S.,
“Use of Rayleigh Waves in Liquefaction
to test in confined areas. 1. Stokoe, K . H., II; Olson, L. D.; and
Studies,” Measurement and Use of Shear
Data on intact structures rather Reese, L. C., “Integrity Testing of Drilled Wave Velocity f o r Evaluating Dynamic Soil
than laboratory specimens. Shafts,” Proceedings, Geotechnical Engi-
Properties, American Society of Civil Engi-
neering Faculty Workshop, International
Little or no damage due to test- Association of Drilled Shaft Contractors,
neers, New York, 1985.
ing. 10. Nazarian, S., “In Situ Determination
Fort Collins, July 1987, 32 pp.
of Elastic Moduli of Soil Deposits Pavement
The principal advantages of de- 2. Harre], S., and Stokoe, K. H., II, “In-
Systems of Spectral-Analysis-of-Surface-
structive versus nondestructive test- tegrity Evaluation of Drilled Piers by Stress
Waves Method,” Doctoral dissertation, Uni-
Waves,” Research Report No. 257-1F, Cen-
ing are: ter for Transportation Research, University
versity of Texas, Austin, 1984.
Direct measurement of material of Texas, Austin, Jan. 1984, 268 pp.
properties such as strength and den- 3. Stain, R. T., “Integrity Testing,” Civil
sity. Engineering (London), Apr. 1982, pp. 53-59,
and May 1982, pp. 71-73. AC1 member Larry
Accepted standards for quality 4. Olson, L. D., and Thompson, R . W., D. Olson is Presi-
control of construction. “Case Histories Evaluation of Drilled Pier dent and Principal
Tests are familiar to engineers, Integrity by the Stress Wave Propagation Engineer for Olson
architects, and contractors. Method,” Drilled Piers and Caissons I I , Wright NDT & E,
Test results from the seismic, American Society of Civil Engineers, New Lakewood, Colo.
York, 1985, 28-41 pp.
sonic, and vibration methods de- 5 . Pederson, C. M., and Senkowski, L. J . , He received a
scribed in this paper have been cor- “Slab Stabilization of PCC Pavements,” Bachelor’s degree
related with destructive test results presented at the Transportation Research in Civil Engineering
many times to best meet engineer- Board Meeting in Washington, D.C. by the and a Master’s degree in Geotechni-
ing investigation goals in the au- Research and Development Division, Okla- cal Engineering from the University of
homa Department of Transportation, Jan. Texas at Austin. He is a member of
thors’ experience. 1986. AC1 Committees 125, Lunar Concrete,
6 . Sansalone, M., and Carino, N. J., and 228, Nondestructive Testing of
“Impact-Echo: A Method for Flaw Detec- Concrete.
tion in Concrete Using Transient Stress
Acknowledgements Waves,” Report No. NBSIR 86-3452, Na-
The authors would like to thank Dr. Ken- tional Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg,
neth H . Stokoe, 11, and Dr. Soheil Nazarian Sept. 1986, 220 pp. Clifford C. Wright
of the University of Texas for their active 7. Nazarian, S., and Stokoe, K . H., I I , has been with 01-
participation as technical consultants for the “In Situ Determination of Elastic Moduli of son Wright NDT &
SASW research in permafrost. The Phase i Pavement Systems by SASW Method (Prac- E since it was
Study was funded by the Small Business In- tical Aspects),” Reporf No. 368-1F, Center founded in 1985,
novation Research program of the National for Transportation Research, University of and became the
Science Foundation, whose support is grate- Texas, Austin, 1985. firm’s Vice Presi-
fully acknowledged. 8. Nazarian, S., and Stokoe, K . H . , I I ,
dent and Principal
Reprinted with permission from Hemi- “In Situ Determination of Elastic Moduli of
Pavement Systems by SASW Method (Theo- Geologist in 1988.
sphere Publishing Corporation, Nondestruc-
tive Testing and Evaluation f o r Manufactur- retical Aspects),” Report No. 437-2, Center He received a Bachelor’s degree in
ing and Construction, 1990, edited by H. L. for Transportation Research, University of Geology from Carlton College, North-
M. dos Reis. Texas, Austin, 1986. field, Minn.
51

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 0506749 T T 7
T he boom for parking struc-

tures in the United States
began in the 1960s and early
1970s. This coincided with
the increased use of both preten-
sioned and cast-in-place post-ten-
sioned concrete in North America.
Europe. We know today that this
now-defunct post-tensioning system
was particularly vulnerable to cor-
rosion-induced deterioration in
harsh environments such as those
experienced by parking structures in
the northern United States a n d
bility and durability of unbonded
button-headed post-tensioning.
This article, the first of two on
this subject, reviews typical prob-
lems experienced with unbonded
paper-wrapped button-headed post-
tensioning systems in parking struc-
The use of prestressing in parking Canada. However, parking structures and presents general guide-
structures greatly reduced t h e ture designers during the 1960s and lines for rehabilitation strategies for
amount of cracking and subsequent the early 1970s generally had not yet such structures. In the second arti-
leakage in the structure and also al- experienced problems as a result of cle, which will be published in the
lowed economical long-span con- the increased use of deicing salts, March 1992 issue, a set of repair
struction, thereby eliminating the and therefore had not begun t o concepts will be presented and a hi-
need for interior columns which in- make adjustments in design and erarchy for the options established.
terrupted the parking layout. construction methods and materials The set of options is not all-inclu-
The building boom for parking to compensate for the change in the sive, and no “cookbook” solutions
structures also followed closely the environment. for repair of parking structures with
increased use of deicing salts in the After 10 t o 15 years o f service, this post-tensioning system will be
United States. In 1950, less than many of these parking structures provided. Almost every structure is
one million tons of road salt was containing button-headed post-ten- unique with respect to design, con-
used for highway and street deicing sioning have been found to be in a struction, and existing condition.
in the United States. By 1970, the deteriorated condition with varying The engineer’s and contractor’s in-
quantity had increased t o around degrees of damage to the post-ten- genuity are the key ingredients to
nine million tons.* sioning system. M a n y of these finding effective solutions.
By the mid-1970s it had become a structures are currently rapidly ap-
recognized fact in the highway proaching a state of structural im- Typical structural system
bridge field that corrosion of rein- pairment if external protection such characteristics
forcing steel was the primary cause as waterproofing membranes was A review of the structural system
of deterioration and that chloride not installed over the slabs at an characteristics for most typical post-
contamination was the principal early age. tensioned parking structures will be
cause of corrosion of reinforcing While some of these structures helpful, since these characteristics
steel. However, there was a lag in can still be effectively rehabilitated affect both the locations at which
the transfer of knowledge from the by making repairs to the post-ten- deterioration tends t o occur, and
highway departments to private in- sioning system, others have experi- the repair options which may be ap-
dustry. Bridge engineers were ahead enced such extensive damage that propriate.
of parking structure designers in repair of the original post-tension- Many of these structures were de-
their awareness of the effects of ing is no longer technically or eco- signed with a higher degree of post-
road salts. The parking industry did nomically feasible. Restoration pro- tensioning than commonly used to-
not begin to react t o the parking fessionals need an effective strategy day. Designs of that period often
structure deterioration problem un- for both evaluating the condition of produced either a “zero tension”
til the 1970s and early 1980s. the structure (and the post-tension- slab and beam design, o r limited
Many of the early long-span con- ing system in particular), identify- tensile stresses under working loads
crete parking structures were built ing appropriate repair concepts for to less than 3E.This meant that
using the paper-wrapped button- the post-tensioning system, and service load stresses rather than ul-
headed wire post-tensioning system making the most appropriate selec- timate strength considerations gov-
( o r B B R V s y s t e m ) which was tion of repair methods to meet the erned the quantity of reinforcement
brought to the United States from owners short term and long term provided. This conservative design
needs. Without a n appropriate feature can provide some flexibility
methodology, inappropriate deci- for the owner and engineer when
‘See National Association of Corrosion sions can be made based on faulty assessing the urgency and extensive-
Engineers, Materials Performance, Dec. 1989. assumptions regarding the repaira- ness of repairs required.
52 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 W Ob62949 050b750 719 W
9
8 Spandrel cast-in-place.
afiei slab 15 tensioned ‘, I
Y Precast lee’
ter idans Precast tee/ l&
I I
SECTION A-A
Warped slab a!
ctos5-0vei levels
Fig. 2 - A 9 wire unbonded post-

tensioning tendon that was removed
from a 20 year old parking structure.
Note the irregular cross section and
spirally wound kraft paper sheathing,
which makes rethreading of new
tendons through old ducts
- problematic.
Fig. 1 - Typical parking structure floor plan.
Generally, parking structures with quences. The good consequences identify possible interferences that
unbonded button-headed post-ten- have been that, with little conven- may affect the chosen repair ap-
sioning were designed utilizing a tional reinforcement in the slabs, proach as well as to verify whether
one-way slab and beam system (Fig. corrosion-induced spalling of the it is possible to obtain two-way be-
i). In this system, the slabs are cast- slab surface and soffits has often havior or change the direction of
in-place concrete while the beams been minimal. The bad conse- the slab span with new external
may be either cast-in-place or pre- quences have been that with no supports beneath the slabs.
cast. The design was typically based backup bonded reinforcing system These one-way cast-in-place post-
on the 1963 Building Code Require- present, any significant damage to a tensioned slabs typically span be-
ments for Reinforced Concrete, large number of tendons in any one tween either cast-in-place post-ten-
AC1 318-63, and as a result utilized area of a structure, or throughout sioned beams or precast, pre-
only unbonded post-tensioning in the structure, has a severe impact stressed and post-tensioned T-
the slab-span direction. No bonded on the load-carrying capacity of the beams. The post-tensioning in the
reinforcement was required at that system. Since the tendons are un- beams is usually a grouted system
time. Thus, these slabs do not con- bonded, it only requires a single using either button-headed wire
tain either the minimum bonded re- failure location along the length of post-tensioning or stress bar post-
inforcement required by Section a tendon to render the entire ten- tensioning. Provided that the grout-
18.9 of the current Building Code, don between anchorages ineffective ing of the ducts around the post-
AC1 318-89 (Le. 0.004A, first intro- for providing structurai integrity. It tensioning was properly done, the
duced in a supplement to AC1 318- is therefore imperative that the post- beams are usually in much better
63), nor do they contain the so- tensioning system be maintained in condition than the slabs. However,
called “collapse steel’’ currently re- a functional condition unless other some problems with grout protec-
quired by the Uniform Building means of supporting the slabs are tion have also been experienced due
Code, which mandates that suffi- found. to incomplete, or even completely
cient bonded reinforcing steel be In the temperature direction, missing encapsulation of the wires
provided in the slabs and beams to transverse t o the slab span, un- by the grout.
carry ali of the structure’s self- bonded post-tensioning was also Corrosion protection of
weight plus 25 percent of the super- typically provided. In some struc-
imposed live loads, assuming none tures the unbonded post-tensioning unbondedtendons
of the post-tensioning remains ef- was supplemented with or substi- The slab tendons were usually shop
fective (note that this is not re- tuted by bonded conventional rein- fabricated using a varying number
quired by AC1 318-89). forcement, It is important to iden- of 1/, in. (6 mm) diameter, 240 ksi
The lack of bonded reinforce- tify what type of temperature rein- (1655 MPa) stress relieved wires.
ment in the slabs of these structures forcement was provided when Most slab tendons contain six or
has had both good and bad conse- evaluating a facility, both to help seven wires, however, the number
53

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 0 5 0 b 7 5 L b55 ~
WASHER
Fig. 3 - Live end anchorage assembly for button-headed Fig. 4 - Intermediate anchorage assembly for button-
post-tensioning tendon system (Reprinted from Post- headed post-tensioning tendon system. (Reprinted from
Tensioning Manual, second edition, with permission from Post-Tensioning Manual, second edition, with permission
PTI). from PTI).
can vary f r o m f o u r t o ten. T h e tendon was tensioned. The kraft At the dead end anchorages, the
wires were greased, sometimes by paper also held the grease in place paper wrap was discontinued for
hand, and spirally wrapped with a on the wires during shipping, han- some 3 f t (1 m), t h e wires were
reinforced kraft paper. This fabri- dling, and concrete placement. The flared out through a spreader plate,
cation method resulted in a bundle function of the grease was seen to and the bare plate and wires were
having an irregular cross section, be primarily to lubricate the tendon buried in the concrete. Minimum
but generally the wires were packed to allow for lower friction losses specified concrete cover over the
tightly together, encased in grease, during tensioning. Corrosion pro- wires and plate was I$ in. (19 mm),
and with relatively few air voids in- tection of the wires was a secondary and construction tolerances or er-
side the tendon wire bundle. A pho- function of the grease a n d was rors could reduce this cover to g in.
tograph of an actual tendon cross thought to be required for a limited (13 mm) or less.
section is provided in Fig. 2. Fig. 3, duration until the tendons were Since the dead end anchor did not
4, and 5 show typical detailing at “safely” embedded in the concrete. have t o move during stressing, it
live end, intermediate, and dead end Besides the lack of long-term cor- was considered acceptable for the
anchorages, respectively. rosion protection along the length wires of the tendon t o be neither
Major developments in corrosion of the tendon as previously men- greased nor wrapped for this con-
protection of unbonded post-ten- tioned (the absence of any code siderable distance from the spreader
sioning tendons have occurred dur- standards meant the grease used to plate. These bare wires became sus-
ing the last ten years. Our aware- protect and lubricate the tendons ceptible t o premature corrosion
ness of the severity of the environ- was often not a specification item failure as chlorides contaminated
ment to which post-tensioning is and varied in quality and quantity the concrete surrounding the wires
exposed in parking structures and depending on price and availabil- and the plate. Problems would oc-
our awareness of the potential for ity), protection at the ends of the casionally be compounded when in-
corrosion of the high strength wires tendons was also minimal by to- complete consolidation of the con-
have grown tremendously in the last day’s standards.* crete occurred inside the transition
decade. The lack of awareness of the se- cone between the spreader plate and
Post-tensioning was a young in- verity of the chloride contamina- the point at which greasing and
dustry in the United States in the tion and subsequent corrosion-in- wrapping began, leaving voids in
1960s when its use in parking struc- duced deterioration of reinforced the slab in which chloride contami-
tures first became widespread. At concrete parking structures, as well nated water and oxygen could at-
that time, the industry’s perception as the perception of the concrete tack the wires. The corrosion fail-
was generally that the concrete in encasement around the tendons as ures of the wires often show little
which the post-tensioning was em- being permanent protection against general loss of overall cross section,
bedded provided a high quality, im- corrosion for embedded steel, ex- just severe pitting and fracture at a
permeable corrosion protection for plains why we find certain features single location along the length of
the post-tensioning system. The in the design and installation of the any wire. Evaluation of existing
purpose of the sheathing, that is the unbonded button-headed post-ten- strength becomes complicated when
reinforced kraft paper, was primar- sioning systems of the 1960s and only some of the wires at the an-
ily to act as a bond breaker to pre- early 1970s which we now know to chorage have failed, while others
vent the concrete from coming in be non-durable. may be pitted. A conservative as-
contact with the wires of the ten- *See Table 1 in “Specification for Unbonded
sessment is recommended to take
dons, thereby allowing them t o Single Strand Tendons,” PCI Journal, V . 30, No. into account current and future
move freely in the slab when the 2, March/April 1985, pp. 22-39. corrosion damage.
54 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 73 0662749 0506752
there were placed either one or two due to corrosion, the wires on the
“backer bars,” typically #4 (13 mm) front side of the anchorage still ap-
bars, running parallel to the con- pear to be essentially under full ten-
struction joint. Because of the size sion. Naturally, this mechanism
of the transition cone created by the cannot be relied upon for long-term
flaring out of the post-tensioning or ultimate strength.
wires from the point at which they The slab intermediate anchorages
passed through the bearing plate as exhibit all of the above outlined
individual wires, the backup bars problems, sometimes with addi-
generally had n o more concrete tional complications. Occasionally,
cover to protect them than did the the area between stressing washers
top of the bearing plate. As a re- on the “second pour” side of the
sult, these bars would often begin to bearing plate, connected by the
corrode at an early age as chloride threaded coupler rod, would be en-
progressed into the concrete slab. closed in a cardboard or sheet metal
Fig. 5 - Dead end anchorage This also would create fractures and sheath. This created another void
assembly for button-headed post- later spalling over another very sen- inside the concrete slab. Although
tensioning system (Reprinted from sitive part of the anchorage assem- little significant damage typically
Post-Tensioning Manual, second bly, i.e. the transition cone (Fig. 7). occurs t o the coupler rod or the
edition, with permission from PTI). Though the individual wires were stressing washers themselves, occa-
greased, and the entire cone sionally the button-headed ends of
wrapped by the kraft paper, the the post-tensioning wires have been
The detailing at the slab live end void inside the cone was not filled attacked and can no longer be re-
anchorages is also particularly sus- with grease. Efforts were made to lied upon t o provide anchorage of
ceptible t o premature corrosion seal the end of the wrapping of the the individual wire.
damage. Once the wires of the post- cone against the bearing plate using From a corrosion engineering
tensioning tendon pass through the plastic tape. However, the seal was standpoint, the live end anchorage
bulkhead bearing plate they are no not watertight and served primarily and intermediate anchorage config-
longer greased and wrapped. The t o keep concrete f r o m bonding urations of the button-headed wire
bulkhead bearing plate, the shim against the wires. post-tensioning system exhibit a se-
plates, the stressing washer, and the Occasionally the bearing plate ries of built-in durability problems.
wires of the post-tensioning tendon was located outside the bulkhead of When a piece of steel passes from
were often simply embedded in a the slab pour, meaning that the one environment into another, then
concrete pour strip placed after the construction joint would end up be- a differential electrical potential ex-
tendons were stressed to encase the ing located directly over the front ists in the steel between the two ar-
anchorage hardware. Again, this side of the plate and so allow even eas. If a n electrolyte is present
“unprotected” hardware was sus- easier access of water and chloride around that piece of steel, a corro-
ceptible to chloride-induced corro- t o the transition cone. The kraft sion current wil be established.
sion damage. paper would become saturated and Also, if different types of steel that
The problem a t the anchorage helped to retain moisture so that the have different potentials with re-
was further compounded by the fact wires in the cone were constantly spect to one another are in metallic
that the construction joint over the exposed t o a corrosive environ- contact and an electrolyte is present
bearing plate was usually not sealed ment. Severe corrosion damage and around the steel, then corrosion of
with an elastomeric sealant material pitting of the wires is often found in the more active piece of metal will
t o prevent leaking of water and these transition cones. occur. Referring to Fig. 3, 4, and 5
chlorides through the construction Even when the wires on either showing details of the post-tension-
joint. Significant chloride contami- side of the bearing plate appear in ing anchorages, note that the wires
nation of the concrete adjacent to satisfactory condition, there is of- of the post-tensioning system pass
the joint occurred as a result of ten corrosion damage along the through four different environ-
leaking through the unsealed joint. short length of wire where the wire ments along an approximately 18
Corrosion of the upper surface of passes through the bearing plate. in. (460 mm) length at the interme-
the bearing plate typically would An oxygen starvation cell can be diate anchorage, Le. from a tightly
cause corrosion-induced spalling di- created at this location causing cor- wrapped, well greased bundle to a
rectly over the anchorage at an early rosion activity to occur on the wire flared transition cone in which they
age. This spa11 would then act as a inside the hole through the plate. are often poorly greased and where
small reservoir for chloride-con- The cross section can often be se- considerably m o r e oxygen a n d
taminated water, further accelerat- verely reduced inside this area. moisture are present, then through
ing the deterioration process (Fig. Ironically, this corrosion has occa- the bearing plate inside of which lit-
6). Corrosion of the bearing plate, sionally worked to some advantage tle oxygen is available, then into an
shim plates, and post-tensioning by “freezing” the wires of the ten- alkaline (and eventually chloride-
wires was promoted by this almost don inside the bearing plate. Even contaminated) concrete environ-
constant supply of water, chloride, when the wires on the back side of ment over the shim plates, and fi-
and oxygen adjacent to the joint. the bearing plate, adjacent to the nally through the stressing washer.
In front of the bearing plate, shim plates, have completely failed At its extreme end, the highly cold
55

A C 1 COMP-20 93 Obb29Y9 0506753 428
worked button-head is again ex- severe in consequence since even if

posed to the concrete environment. it does occur directly over a slab
At the same time, the post-tension- tendon, as often happens, only the
ing wires are in metallic contact one tendon will be affected by leak-
with as many as four other types of age, leaving adjacent tendons unaf-
steel, that is the bulkhead bearing fected. Such cracking may cause
plate, the shim plates, the stressing damage to temperature reinforce-
washer, and any transverse conven- ment in the bay where it occurs,
tional bonded reinforcing which however.
may contact the wires in the pour The other location between an-
strip or in the transition cone area. chorages where corrosion damage
Thus, there are many corrosion of the tendons can occur is at high
cells at work in the 2 ft (610 mm) of points in the tendon profile, (i.e.
the post-tensioning tendon adjacent over beams) where the concrete
to the anchorage (Fig. 8). This con- cover is at a minimum especially if
dition is then combined with the the paper wrapping was damaged
fact that the high strength steel used and left unrepaired during con-
for the post-tensioning wires is sus- struction. Damage may be due to
ceptible to pitting, so a local intense mishandling, or may have occurred
corrosion attack o n t h e highly due to abrasion or overtightening of
stressed wire can cause failure of the tie wires. At damage locations, the
entire wire (Fig. 9). post-tensioning wires are in direct
The anchorages then, including contact with the surrounding con-
live end, intermediate, and dead crete environment, which eventu-
end, are primarily the sites at which ally becomes chloride contaminated
severe corrosion damage of the and corrosive.
post-tensioning system occurs. At the present time, our under- Fig. 6 - Condition of top of parking
Corrosion damage may also oc- standing of the function of the var- structure slab at construction joint.
cur along the length of the tendon ious components of the post-ten- Note spalls over every post-tensioning
between anchorages, usually at two sioning system is considerably dif- intermediate anchorage. The joint is
basic sites. Where cracking occurs ferent than it was twenty years ago. unsealed, and spalls hold brine over
in the slabs, chloride-contaminated We now recognize the severity of anchorages.
water and oxygen gain easy access the environment in parking struc-
to the tendon, since the kraft paper tures resulting from the ever in-
provides little protection against increasing use of salts for deicing on system. The lack of internal protec-
trusion of these elements. The city streets and highways. In 1985, tion against corrosion in the paper
grease used often did not provide the Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI) wrapped tendon often requires the
long-term corrosion protection as issued a revised specification for installation of some external form
some dried out and became brittle unbonded single strand tendons of protection against the intrusion
with age. Random, unanticipated, (monostrand) which provided con- of water and chlorides. However,
full-thickness shrinkage cracks in siderably more detailed specifica- the unpredictable nature of corro-
slabs may traverse many slab ten- tion requirements for unbonded sion pitting and failure can reduce
dons in a single bay. The corrosion systems in corrosive environments. the confidence level of the repairs
damage on these wires will be very Corrosion protection of the entire when predicting a life expectancy
localized, often no more than a few assembly is emphasized and there for the structure.
inches on either side of the crack, are currently systems on the market
and there may be little evidence of that completely encapsulate and
the corrosion damage on the slab electrically isolate the entire tendon Evaluation and options
surface. Within this area, however, and end anchorages in a waterproof analysis
corrosion damage can be so severe dielectric jacket filled with corro- The initial selection of appropriate
as to render the tendon ineffective sion-inhibiting grease. Section repair concepts and the final selec-
(Fig. 10). When this occurs to many 18.14.3 of AC1 318-89 requires that tion of the optimum repair scheme
tendons in a bay, the load carrying unbonded tendons be protected can only be made after an appro-
capacity of the entire bay may be against corrosion in accordance priate investigation and evaluation
affected. with PTI specifications. of the condition of the facility has
The other type of cracking com- The susceptibility of the anchor- been performed. The investigating
mon to these structures is the trans- ages and wires of the button-headed engineer and the owner must weigh
verse cracking that occurs in facili- wire post-tensioning system to pre- the risks and unknowns, and seek a
ties utilizing precast frames. This mature corrosion failure often balance on costs of the investiga-
cracking transverse to the precast T- greatly reduces the life expectancy tion. A sufficiently complete evalu-
beams results f r o m restraint of of the parking structures in which ation of the structure must be per-
shrinkage of the cast-in-place slabs they have been used unless signifi- formed to minimize the risk of un-
when placed on the precast frame. cant efforts are undertaken to re- covering unanticipated extensive
This type of cracking usually is less pair and protect the post-tensioning damage during construction which
56 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 050b754 3b4
Fig. 7 - Cross section sawn through a slab at a transition

cone adjacent to an intermediate anchorage. Note the Fig. 8 - Longitudinal section sawn through an
delamination caused by corrosion of backer bars and intermediate anchorage in a thickened section of a slab.
shear dowels through the joint, unfilled voids inside Note the location of the construction joint, unfilled voids
transition cones, and partial consolidation of concrete inside the transition cones, and partial consolidation of the
between shim plates. concrete between the shim plates.
may render the entire repair plan the concrete as a function of depth, T o t h e best o f t h e a u t h o r ’ s
obsolete. There have been instances measurement of concrete cover over knowledge, there are currently no
of parking structure restoration reinforcement to be correlated with good non-destructive testing meth-
projects being abandoned o r se- chloride contamination profiles, ods for evaluating the condition of
verely modified part way through coring of the slabs to obtain sam- t h e t e n d o n s inside t h e slab. A
the construction process when it ples for compression testing of the “ g o o d ” testing m e t h o d is o n e
was finally determined that the re- concrete and for petrographic ex- which provides both reliable and
pair scheme selected could not be amination of the concrete. Copper - detailed information about the con-
economically completed. Owners copper sulfate half cell testing may d i t i o n of t h e wires a l o n g their
need to be advised that too limited be a p p r o p r i a t e t o d e t e r m i n e length, and is also inexpensive. The
an evaluation of the facility may re- whether corrosion activity is cur- clutter of reinforcement and an-
sult in critical information not be- rently occurring in areas containing chorage hardware in the vicinity of
ing obtained during the evaluation anchorages and any other bonded anchorages renders x-ray tech-
process, a n d inappropriate deci- conventional reinforcement that niques useless for obtaining de-
sions may be made based on incor- may be contained in the slab and tailed information about pitting and
rect assumptions regarding the con- beam system. Note that half cell loss of cross section of the individ-
dition of the facility. testing may not provide reliable re- ual wires of a given tendon. Acous-
The evaluation of the structural sults for determining whether cor- tic emission testing applied to the
system should follow generally ac- rosion is occurring along the length tendons has been attempted, but is
cepted practices for evaluating con- of the tendon since, if the grease expensive and no proven correla-
crete structures. The evaluation and paper wrapping is still intact, tion exists between test results and
should include a complete visual re- the half cell reading may in fact be the condition of the tendons. Load
view of all structural elements t o a remote reading of other areas of testing of slabs and beams in accor-
identify types and trends of deteri- the reinforcing system which are in dance with AC1 318, Chapter 20,
oration and distress in the facility, metallic contact. The grease and provides perhaps the least reliable
and to identify their cause. A de- paper wrapping may shield the ten- and least detailed information at the
lamination survey should be per- don in the area where half cell read- greatest cost and therefore, in the
formed to locate delaminations in ings are being attempted. If spalling author’s opinion, is not recom-
the slabs and other structural mem- or extensive delamination is already mended. Load testing provides no
bers, using sounding methods or present in areas containing anchor- information about the post-tension-
other methods as may be appropri- ages, then no new information will ing tendons, whether corrosion is
ate. The delamination survey can be obtained in these areas by half occurring, where it is occurring,
serve to determine extent and distri- cell testing. Instead, evidence of ex- how severe the attack is, or what
bution of existing corrosion dam- isting damage is already visible and kinds of repairs to the tendons may
age in the reinforcing system. Typi- the next step is to determine the ex- be required to restore them. Since
cal materials testing t o be per- tent of the damage, and the typical the load tests cost $20,000 or more
formed would include chloride ion form and location of the corrosion per site and are disruptive and time
content testing to determine the ex- damage on the post-tensioning sys- consuming, very few sites are usu-
tent of chloride contamination of tem. ally tested in a building. Whether

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 Obb29q9 050b755 2 T O
Fig. 9 - Remains of intermediate anchorage removed Fig. 10 - Leaking crack at underside of parking structure
from 20 year old parking structure. Wires failed inside slab showing diagonal crack intersecting several slab
transition cone on front side of bearing date. tendons. Note slab tendons have failed.
the results of the load test are valid tative and extensive a sampling as the fact that some time may elapse
for areas of structure that have not the budget can handle. This means before repairs are made and thus
been tested becomes a matter of not only examining those areas sus- appropriate protection t o the ten-
judgement (and risk). Even in the pected to contain the worst dam- dons in the patch areas should be
area tested, it is usually difficult to age, but also those areas which ap- provided.
estimate how long the results of the pear to be in the best condition and Clearly, it is preferable to have
load test will remain valid since on- those areas which appear to be “av- the exploratory work performed by
going corrosion activity will con- erage.” Naturally, if the budget is a contractor who is experienced
tinue to reduce slab capacity. Due limited for such exploratory work with post-tensioning systems, espe-
to shear stiffness of the concrete, then it is probably best to begin by cially the button-headed wire sys-
arching action of the slabs, and investigating the worst situations tems. If an experienced contractor is
confinement of the slabs by sur- a n d d r a w i n g conclusions f r o m not available, the contractor must
rounding bays, deflections meas- there. be made aware that the system is
ured during a full load test are usu- The exploratory excavations, “live” and under high tension. Only
ally extremely small, so pure flex- then, should examine conditions at very limited removals can be made
ural stiffness, strength, and more live end anchorages, intermediate in front of anchorage bearing plates
particularly ductility are not meas- anchorages, dead end anchorages, and these should only be done with
ured by the test. (The author has locations where leaking cracks are the engineer present. Even when re-
directed load testing of post-ten- observed, and where delaminations moving concrete from behind bear-
sioned slabs and found the slabs have been found over beams, possi- ing plates, workers should not stand
passed the full AC1 test with flying bly indicating corrosion of the ten- directly over tendons. At interme-
colors; subsequent exploratory ex- don at high points in the profile. diate anchorages, an unbalanced
cavation of intermediate anchor- The beams should be reviewed, condition may exist if the tendon
ages revealed that 80 percent of the especially at the low points in the has been b r o k e n o n t h e “first
slab post-tensioning tendons in the beam tendon profile if rust staining pour” side of the anchorage. This
bay that passed the load test had or other evidence of water intrusion may cause the entire anchorage as-
previously failed due corrosion!) into the tendon duct is observed. sembly to move very suddenly and
In short, there is no substitute, to The transition cones near the face unexpectedly if too much concrete
the author’s knowledge, for a cer- of the columns may also be exposed has been removed from around the
tain amount of exploratory excava- if a problem is suspected there. stressing washer and coupler rod
tion into the slabs, and possibly the Exploratory excavations should assemble.
beams as well. Fortunately, since not be undertaken without a de-
damage is typically limited to those tailed plan of action, as well as var- When removing concrete from
areas previously described as being ious contingency plans to account around the tendon at locations be-
most susceptible to corrosion, the for possible findings of the explor- tween anchorages, the workers
sites at which exploratory excava- atory work. A specification should should be instructed to work paral-
tion will likely yield the most useful be prepared which outlines safety lel to the tendon and along either
information can be determined precautions, demolition proce- side of it t o avoid damaging the
fairly readily from a review of the dures, and also patching procedures wires during exploratory removals.
structural design drawings and the to put the structure back into serv- The contractor should have grease
findings of the visual review and ice while the evaluation is being on hand which meets the current
delamination survey. completed and a repair program fi- P T I specification requirements.
For decision making purposes, it nally effected. Patching over an- Heavy gauge polyethylene tape
is important to obtain as represen- chorages should take into account should be used for repairing the
58 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 CONP-20 93 m 0662747 0506756 L37 m
tendon “sheathing.” When rewrap- t o details of repairing an existing the condition of the system is worse
ping the transition cones, consider- unbonded reinforcing system in than could be concluded from the
ation should be given to pumping slabs which contain none of the visual review of the structure and
the cones full of the PT grease, par- bonded reinforcement currently re- even from the limited exploratory
ticularly if it is unlikely that the area quired by the codes. Usually there program. Experience a n d good
will be reopened for further repair will be more than one rehabilitation judgement are therefore essential
or protection. In such a case, sand- concept which is technically feasible when predicting service life and
blasting and epoxy coating of ex- for a given facility. Each option will quantities of repairs required.
posed steel may be appropriate. have its own set of estimated initial Finally, also note that to the ex-
costs as well as anticipated future tent the structure will be relying on
These measures assume that the the old post-tensioning or bonded
costs relative to an anticipated serv-
tendons are found to be in good reinforcement in the slabs for on-
ice life. Owner input at this stage is
condition. If severe damage is un-
essential so that service life require- going reinforcement of the struc-
covered the excavations need merely tural system, it is likely to be pru-
ments can be established.
be temporarily filled and an analy-
The final selection will often de- dent to provide additional external
sis made t o determine whether the pend upon the findings of a life cy- corrosion protection t o promote
structure can safely be reopened to longevity of the repaired structure.
cle cost analysis for the total reha-
traffic. The owner should be ad-
bilitation program. The total evalu- This protection could consist, for
vised in advance that some restric- example, of surface sealers, water-
a t i o n a n d rehabilitation scope
tion on parking capacity may be determination for a parking struc- proofing membranes, or specialty
recommended as a result of the ex- ture includes many other items be- bonded concrete overlays such as
ploratory excavation work. latex-modified concrete or silica
sides serviceability of the structural
Once the evaluation is complete system, and other considerations fume concrete.
and the exploratory excavations regarding serviceability may carry Whether any of the above addi-
finished, the engineer needs t o as- equal or more weight in the final tional protective measures can be
semble the data, analyze test re- decision than purely structural con- economically justified depends upon
sults, and perform structural analy- siderations. Other engineering dis- the life expectancy of the repaired
ses of slabs and/or beams as appro- ciplines should be brought in, as system and the estimate of ongoing
priate t o assess not only current well as a parking consultant, t o maintenance and repair costs. At-
load carrying capacity but the ex- provide a complete review of the t e m p t i n g t o provide fifteen t o
tent to which loss of post-tension- facility. twenty more years of service from
ing can be permitted without reduc- When making the selection of re- t h e existing corrosion-damaged
ing the structural load carrying ca- pair options for the unbonded, but- slabs means in many cases doubling
pacity to an unsafe or unacceptable ton-headed post-tensioning system, the current life of the facility. The
level. This requires a review of load bear in mind that the repair has to owner’s life expectancy require-
carrying capacity with respect t o relate to the conditions on both a ments need to be carefully reviewed
current code requirements and with “local” basis, i.e. a tendon by ten- and discussed in light of the uncer-
respect to the actual superimposed don basis, as well as on a more gen- tainties of the possible performance
loads (a fully loaded parking struc- eral basis, i.e. for an entire bay, an of the repair system.
ture typically carries a live load of entire level, or the entire structure.
25 psf [120 kPa] or less). In general, the engineer needs to at- Acknowledgement
The author wishes to acknowledge experi-
tempt to identify which of the fol- ence gained in design, evaluation, and resto-
Building codes need t o be re- lowing categories his given facility’s ration of concrete structures during the last
viewed t o establish original design system best fits into. decade while employed by Walker Parking
requirements for the structural sys- Consultants a n d Carl Walker Engineers,
Category I : Severe but localized
tem as well as current requirements. damage on relatively few tendons. both of Kalamazoo, Michigan. Photographs
The sections of the building code Category 2: Severe damage along 2, 6 , 8, 9, and 10 are courtesy of Carl Walker
which relate to repair of existing fa- Engineers.
the length of the tendon or at sev-
cilities need to be carefully reviewed eral locations along the tendon, but
and interpreted. The 1988 Uniform still relatively few tendons thus af-
Building Code, Section 104.b, for
fected.
example, states that “. . . repairs
Category 3: Severe but localized
may be made to any . . . structure damage on many or most tendons.
without requiring the existing . . . Category 4: Severe damage at many
structure to comply . . . provided locations on many or most tendons.
the . . . repair conforms to that re-
For all but the last of the above
quired for a new structure.” The categories, the engineer must also
1990 BOCA Basic Building Code bear in mind the level of confidence
has similar language i n Section that he has in those portions of the
103.3.
post-tensioning system which have Committee 423, Prestressed Con-
While these code provisions read not been examined during the ex- crete. During the past 11 years he has
clearly enough, they do not gener- ploratory excavations. A fairly large investigated post-tensioned parking
ally provide the structural engineer a m o u n t of extrapolation is re- facilities throughout the midwest and
with clear direction when it comes quired. The author notes that often northwestern USA and Canada.

A C 1 COMP-20 93 Obb2949 0506757 073
Part II - Six basic rehabilitation options
Rehabilitating Parking Structures

with Corrosion-Damaged Button=
Headed Post-Tensioning Tendons
T he first article in this two-

part series, which appeared
in the October 1991 issue of
Concrete International, re-
viewed typical problems experi-
enced with u n b o n d e d p a p e r -
wrapped button-headed post-ten-
dealing with structures containing
corrosion-damaged unbonded pa-
per-wrapped button-headed post-
tensioning tendons:
Repair and protect existing ten-
dons and anchorages.
Replace post-tensioning inter-
here in a definite order, indicating a
hierarchy that relates to the severity
of tendon damage discovered or
suspected as a result of an evalua-
tion of the structure. The first three
rehabilitation concepts can be ap-
plied not only to the individual ten-
sioning systems in parking struc- nally. dons in a structure but to the entire
tures, and presented general guide- Replace post-tensioning exter- structure as well. The last three
lines for evaluation of such struc- nally. concepts tend to apply more to re-
tures. Replace post-tensioning with ex- pair of large portions of the struc-
ternal non-prestressed reinforce- ture or the entire structure when re-
ment. pair of and continued reliance on
RehabiIitat ion concepts Remove and replace existing the original post-tensioning system
This article presents six basic reha- slabs. is no longer a part of the rehabili-
bilitation concepts that cover the Demolish and replace structure. tation concept.
range of applicable procedures for The six concepts are presented The set of options is not all-in-
clusive, and no “cookbook” solu-
tions are provided. Almost every
structure is unique with respect to
design, construction, and existing
condition. The engineer’s and con-
tractor’s ingenuity are the keys to
finding effective solutions.
When selecting repair options for
an unbonded button-headed post-
tensioning system, bear in mind that
the repair has to relate to the con-
ditions on both a “local” (i.e. a
tendon by tendon) basis as well as
on a more general basis (i.e. for an
entire bay, level, or structure). The
engineer needs to identify which of
the following categories the facili-
ty’s system best fits.
Category I : Severe but localized
damage on relatively few tendons.
Category 2: Severe damage along
Fig. 1 - One of several splicing Fig. 2 - A reconditioned anchor with the length of the tendon or at sev-
techniques uses original-type all steel epoxy coated and transition eral locations along the tendon, but
hardware, including C-washers and cones rewrapped and filled with still relatively few tendons thus af-
threaded coupler rods. grease. fected.
60 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 O506758 T O T
REMOVE CONCRETE FROM TO
FROM BOTTOM
Fig. 3 - The trenching method of

internal tendon replacement.
NEW
(Reprinted with Permission of Tech
Research Sales, Inc.
Category 3: Severe but localized ware, which is too bulky to be in- and oxygen to the reinforcing sys-
damage on many or most tendons. stalled at either the high points over tem. If previous cracking of the slab
Category 4: Severe damage at many beams or low points at mid-span of is limited and high abrasion resis-
locations on many or most tendons. the slabs. tance is required, a bonded spe-
A more complete program might cialty concrete overlay may be ap-
Repair and protect existing specify that all tendons be deten- propriate, utilizing latex modified
tendons and anchorages sioned (probably in a skip or alter- concrete or silica fume concrete. If
If the evaluation indicates that nating pattern), and all live, inter- no increase in dead load or reduc-
damage is currently localized and mediate and dead end anchorages tion in head room clearance can be
limited to relatively few tendons, be exposed and repaired as re- tolerated, then consideration for a
and a relatively high degree of con- quired. Even if no repairs are re- traffic bearing membrane water-
fidence in the condition of the rest quired, the exposed steel would be proofing system should be given.
of the post-tensioning system has sandblasted, the transition cone re- When budgeting for such repairs,
been gained as a result of the ex- wrapped and pumped full of grease, the author suggests a rule of thumb
ploratory excavations, then the re- and the hardware steel and exposed figure of $1,000 per splice, $1,000
pair of existing tendons and an- reinforcing steel epoxy coated (Fig. per anchorage that requires recon-
chorages and the installation of ad- 2). As before, any splices to the struction, $500 to detension and re-
ditional corrosion protection to the tendon would be performed and tension a tendon per anchorage,
existing system may be an appropri- restressing completed as outlined and $500 to expose and recondition
ate option. previously. ’ any anchorage at which repairs are
A partial rehabilitation program The choice between a partial and not required or detensioning not al-
might include opening up only those a complete program depends on ready anticipated. For a small num-
tendons that were suspected to be in budget constraints, life expectancy, ber of tendons these costs need to
need of repair based upon the find- and acceptable limits for future re- be increased, while for a large
ings of the evaluation. Those ten- pair costs and frequency. quantity the cost per tendon will go
dons would need to be detensioned, Since the remainder of the post- down, though probably not less
splices made, anchorages repaired tensioning system is still embedded than $500 per splice.
or replaced as appropriate, addi- in the chloride-contaminated slabs It can be seen from the above
tional protection installed to the ex- and has only the original grease and rough budget numbers that this re-
posed anchorages and wires (new kraft paper wrapping for protec- habilitation approach is really only
greasing and wrapping of the ten- tion, the rehabilitation program appropriate to those conditions
dons and epoxy coating exposed should also include the installation where corrosion damage is limited
steel), bearing zones recast, and the of some additional external corro- to relatively few tendons or very
tendons restressed prior to replac- sion protection to limit the availa- few locations on a larger number of
ing the concrete enclosure around bility of water, additional chloride, tendons (Categories 1, 2, or 3).
the anchorages (Fig. 1).
Couplers are usually located at Replace post-tensioning
approximately one-fifth the slab ‘For an example of a splicing project, see internally
“Evaluation of a Deteriorated Post-Tensioned If the findings of the evaluation and
span between beams where the ten- One-way Slab,” by Robert Tracy, Steven Crower,
dons are approximately at mid- and Khadije Zeort, in the June 1991 issue of exploratory excavations indicate
depth. This will allow maximizing Concrete International: and “Restoration of a that extensive damage has occurred
Deteriorated Post-Tensioned One-way Slab,” by
concrete cover over both the top Robert Tracy, Kenneth Lozen, and Kbadije Zeort,
or is suspected at many locations
and bottom of the coupler hard- in this issue. along the length of a tendon or sev-
61

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 0506759 946
Fig. 4 - A parking deck slab with trenches cut prior to installation of new Fig. 5 - Tranch with new tendons
Dlastic sheathed monostrand tendons. and rebars installed.
eral tendons, it may no longer be steel cross-sectional area of a typi- The “broaching method” (for
economically practical to splice the cal wire tendon for slab post-ten- which a patent has been applied for)
existing tendon and may be unwise sioning is almost double that of a !h reuses the original ducts in the slab
to rely for any extended period of in. diameter monostrand tendon, through which the wire post-ten-
time upon the repaired tendon. yet the duct left behind when the sioning system runs. However, since
Even after a $5,000 or more invest- wires are removed is not of such a the cross section of the duct is often
ment in a single tendon, there may configuration that it can receive two very irregular, either oblong a t
still be portions of that tendon that !h in. monostrand replacement ten- times or circular in others, and since
are in a deteriorated condition. In dons. To further complicate mat- the old wire system cannot be re-
such circumstances, the engineer ters, t h e paper wrapping stays moved without leaving the original
may wish to pursue replacement of bonded t o the sides of the duct paper wrapping in place inside the
the entire tendon, both to attempt when the old wires are withdrawn. duct, the original paper-filled and
t o ensure uniform protection and This paper wrapping interferes with irregularly-shaped duct must be
durability along the length of ten- the rethreading process, particu- routed out t o allow for the inser-
don, as well as to minimize cost for larly if the replacement tendons are tion of two !h in. diameter monos-
the repair. at all a tight fit. The new tendons trand tendons. To accomplish this,
In structures using monostrand, need to be welded to the end of the a series of successively larger
where a plastic sheathing is used to old wire tendon and pulled through broaches are pulled through the
encase the tendons, the replacement the duct in the same movement as original duct. These broaches are
procedure is usually more or less the old tendons are being with- attached to the end of a length of
straightforward. The new tendon drawn. This makes it not only es- post-tensioning tendon and the
can be threaded back through the sentially impossible t o replace the broach pulled through the duct by
old duct, which is generally of a total original cross-sectional area of means of hydraulic rams. While the
regular cross section and can ac- steel (and thereby the total original concept is simple, the author’s un-
commodate either the same size post-tensioning force), but also t o derstanding is that the practical im-
strand or a strand of slightly re- provide any additional long-term plementation is somewhat laborious
duced diameter, possibly with a 30 corrosion protection on the replace- and time-consuming and the
mil epoxy coating.* ment strand. To date, the author is method is not currently being used.
The process of rethreading, un- unaware of any project where ep- There remains some concern with
fortunately, is not straightforward oxy coated monostrand has been respect to the corrosion protection
for the paper-wrapped wire post- drawn through old wire post-ten- for the new tendons in the old salt-
tensioning systems. The cross sec- sioning ducts by the above-men- contaminated slabs.
tion of the tendon is generally irreg- tioned process, although a partial The “trenching method” (a pat-
ular and likely t o be somewhat post-tensioning replacement could ented process) uses trenches cut into
more elliptical than circular. The be accomplished by this method. the top of the slab over beams and
There are two approaches that along the underside of the slab at
z“Innovative Rehabilitation of a Parking
have been developed for replacing mid-span between beams, and full-
Structure,” by Bijan Aalami and David Swanson, damaged post-tensioning tendons depth holes cut through the slab at
Concrete international, February 1988. internal to the slabs. approximately the quarter points of
62 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 0506760 bó8
Some of the difficulties with the

external post-tensioning of slabs in-
clude providing fire, corrosion, and
vandalism protection, as well as
trying to confine the tendons for
safety reasons. The tendons are dis-
tributed across the entire width and
length of the slabs. The slab ten-
dons can be bundled t o minimize
the number of locations at which
protection and encasement must be
provided, and the number of pene-
trations through the beams that
must be made to thread the new
tendons. Consideration must be
Fig. 6 - External post-tensioning concept for repairs. Here tendons are passing given to the Code-stipulated maxi-
through columns; in a one-way slab system, they would pass through beams. mum spacing of eight times the slab
(Reprinted with permission from Concrete Construction.) thickness or 5 ft for post-tension-
ing. Shotcrete can be used to encase
the tendons.
the slab span. A new tendon is then post-tensioning tendons where the Another design approach is to use
threaded over beams and under the post-tensioning is essentially con- a bonded external prestressing sys-
s l a b , new a n c h o r s s e t , s l a b s fined to a discrete location, i.e. in tem wherein t h e t e n d o n s a r e
patched, and the tendon restressed beams rather than distributed over stressed, anchored, and then shot-
(Fig. 3). The replacement tendon an entire bay width in slabs. creted to provide bond to the exist-
consists usually of a bundle of plas- One example of such a large scale ing slabs. This has been done for
tic sheathed encapsulated monos- replacement of corrosion-damaged certain box girder bridge repairs in
trand tendons. Costs for this repair beam post-tensioning is the Pier 39 Pennsylvania, for e ~ a m p l e .An-
~
system have run about $9 to $12 per Parking Structure repairs that were chorage can be a somewhat diffi-
square foot of deck repaired. Re- performed in San Francisco in cult detail to handle to minimize the
pair costs can add up fairly quickly 1988,* and a similar method was eccentricity of the post-tensioning
if large areas of slab are involved. used to repair beams in the Kala- force on the slab edge. Aesthetics of
Care must be taken to avoid caus- mazoo City Parking Structure #1 in the underside of the slab after re-
ing significant damage to the plastic Michigan in 1990. New tendons pairs have been completed needs to
sheathing on the new tendons and were run on either side of the exist- be considered.
thereby compromising their long- ing beams, encased inside precast To the author's knowledge, in-
term corrosion protection. A 40 mil concrete tubes. A simple one-point stallation of external post-tension-
sheathing thickness provides addi- harped profile was used. Even ing for repair of parking structures
tional toughness and abrasion pro- though these examples were origi- has been limited, but engineers and
tection. nally monostrand post-tensioning contractors are developing this con-
Newly available hydrodemoli- jobs, the same concept can be ap- cept to further provide cost-effec-
tion-type cutting tools have greatly plied to a wire post-tensioning sys- tive and safe solutions.
simplified this process, making the tem. The slabs on the Pier 39 pro- Replace post-tensioningwith
cutting much cleaner and more pre- ject were repaired by inserting new external non-prestressed
cise, and could open the way t o tendons in the old post-tensioning reinforcement
other variations on this repair tech- ducts, rather than using an external
nique. post-tensioning concept for the On a large-scale basis it is difficult
slabs as well. to actually replace the slab post-
Replace pos1-tensioning tensioning tendons in existing wire
Another example of an external
externally post-tensioning systems, either in-
post-tensioning repair retrofit,
Rethreading new tendons through which was presented in the July ternally or externally. However,
the old post-tensioning ducts or 1991 issue of Concrete Construc- there are several options available
cutting new channels in the con- t i ~ n used
, ~ external struts to create that use external non-prestressed re-
crete slabs is difficult. A less labor- single point harped tendon profiles inforcement.
intensive approach in terms of con- beneath the slabs (Fig. 4). 4"Post-Tensioned Repair and Field Testing of a
crete demolition can be to utilize an Prestressed Concrete Box Beam Bridge," by
external post-tensioning system. A.E.N. Osborn and I1.K. Preston, in External
"'Repair and Retrofit Using External Post- Prestressing in Bridges, AC1 Symposium Volume
This has been most commonly used Tensioning," by Karen J . Barchas, Concrete SP-120, edited by Antoine Naaman and John
to date for replacement of damaged Construction, July 1991. Breen.

A C 1 COMP-20 93 = 0bb2749 OSObïb3 5 T 4
The word “external” is here used

t o imply external t o the original
s l a b . T h e r e a r e t w o basic a p -
proaches, the first being t o con-
tinue to maintain the slab span di-
rection as originally designed, and
the other t o change the slab span
direction and use the temperature
steel as the main reinforcement.
One method that has been tried is
the application of a bonded con-
crete overlay on top of the slab with
negative bending reinforcement em-
bedded in the overlay. On the un-
derside of the slab, positive mo-
ment reinforcement consisting of
steel straps is bolted and epoxied to
the slabs, and subsequently fire- Fig. 7 - Placing new conventionally-reinforced slabs on an existing precast
proofed and protected against cor- prestressed concrete frame after removal of original post-tensioned slabs.
rosion by the application of a pneu-
matically applied concrete covering.
There can be a concern here with If the beams and columns of the factory condition, then it may be
the long-term bond of the overlay. existing structure cannot handle the possible to arrange the steel beams
If the bond is lost the composite be- added dead load of a new bonded perpendicular to the existing con-
havior of the reinforced topping is concrete overlay, the negative mo- crete beams. These new beams carry
lost and the overlay ends up simply ment steel could be added t o the the slab load to the existing con-
adding dead load t o the already structure by installing the top rein- crete frame that is still relied upon
weakened structure without provid- forcement in slots cut into the top for both vertical and horizontal
ing any additional strength. Simi- of the slabs. The rebar is placed in load carrying capacity (Le. lateral
larly the bottom reinforcement, that the slots and the slots are grouted. stability). The direction of the slab
is the new straps, must be securely As before, performance of this sys- span is thereby changed. The beam
anchored. If the new external rein- tem is dependent upon long-term spacing is governed by both service
forcement is expected t o behave bond of the grout to obtain com- load and ultimate strength consid-
compositely then it is important that posite behavior. erations in the “temperature” di-
the long-term bond of the shotcrete Installing so-called “piggyback” rection of the slabs. Some interpre-
covering also be maintained. slabs (where entirely new slabs are tation may be required when con-
Long-term bond performance of cast on top of the existing slabs) is sidering Code requirements for
overlays and shotcrete “patches” is basically not practical in parking positive and negative bending rein-
difficult to predict and may be dan- structures. The new slabs increase forcement in light of this repair ap-
gerous to rely upon. Many things the loads on existing beams, col- proach.
affect the bond performance of umns, and footings and signifi- The clear advantage that an ex-
overlays, including possible ongo- cantly reduce headroom at ali levels ternal steel beam system has over
ing corrosion activity of the origi- except the roof. Continued corro- those previously mentioned is that
nal embedded reinforcement and sion-induced spalling of the under- the condition of the steel beams is
hardware in the slabs, or materials side of the old slabs remains as one always verifiable, and thus a con-
deficiencies of the original concrete of many concerns, along with long- siderably greater comfort level can
of the slabs. Such deficiencies may term integrity of the old slab t o be established as to the safety of the
include poor freeze-thaw durability support its own weight. system.
or alkali-silica reactivity of the ag- To avoid these long-term bond If the beam tendons are also
gregates. Because all of these prob- performance concerns, another ap- damaged, then it is conceivable that
lems are exacerbated by moisture proach is to erect a steel framing even the beams could be supple-
penetration into the slabs, it may be system on the underside of the mented with external steel beams,
prudent t o add a waterproofing slabs. The system can be arranged possibly adding new steel columns
membrane system on t o p of the many different ways. If the temper- at acceptable locations to minimize
slabs to attempt to prevent debond- ature reinforcement, either bonded the depth and weight of the new
ing of both the overlay and any mild steel reinforcement or temper- steel beams. Lateral stability of the
shotcrete coverings on the under- ature post-tensioning, is determined structure needs to be considered,
side of slabs. This adds to the ex- to be in good condition, and the because the original rigid frame be-
pense of the repairs. Ongoing main- beam post-tensioning and columns havior may no longer be present.
tenance is essential. are also determined to be in satis- With these external non-pres-
64 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COUP-20 93 = 0662949 0506762 430 H
tressed reinforcement approaches to likely to present a problem, partic- ficult, such as new walls, buildings,
structure rehabilitation, the original ularly in the gravity direction. Be- additions t o the parking structure,
slab post-tensioning is no longer re- cause removal of the slabs also etc. A non-prestressed concrete slab
lied upon for structural load carry- means complete removal of the will likely have to be thicker than
ing capacity of the slabs. It may be flanges of the tee beam cross sec- the original prestressed slab, so a
desirable, however, from a comfort tion, the lateral stability may also be structural review of the beam and
standpoint to save the original slab a problem. It may be necessary to column capacity is required.
post-tensioning so that at an ulti- install hold downs through or over The replacement slabs can incor-
mate load, or a near-collapse con- the beam in order to balance the porate many state-of-the art “de-
dition safety net is provided by the post-tensioning uplift. This is a dif- sign for durability’’ features. The
original slab tendons. A recent arti- ficult and expensive procedure be- new slabs will likely contain all ep-
cle in Concrete International dis- cause a good deal of counter weight oxy coated reinforcement in both
cusses the redundancy and reserve can be required, particularly if the top and bottom mats. Also, all ex-
capacity of buildings constructed beams are heavily post-tensioned. isting reinforcement to remain in
with unbonded ten don^.^ Column stability also needs to be the tops of beams, etc., should be
investigated when the slabs have sandblasted and epoxy coated. Ad-
Remove and replace existing been removed, because the columns dition of corrosion inhibitors to the
slabs will now have no bracing transverse concrete mix could also be consid-
It is generally found that the slabs to the frame direction. Buckling of ered in lieu of epoxy coatings, but
experience the most severe and the column is not likely to be a ma- the effectiveness of corrosion inhib-
widespread deterioration, while very jor concern, since most of the live itors at the anticipated shrinkage
often the beams and columns are in load and subsequently the dead load cracks in the slabs may be question-
good condition. The perfarmance is removed from the column during able. In either case, some addi-
of the grouted wire post-tensioning the construction process. However, tional external protection in the
in the beams (provided the grouting plumbness of the frames and over- form of a waterproofing membrane
was properly done) is usually better all lateral stability in the “long” di- is likely t o be required, both to
than that of the unbonded tendons rection of the structure need to be minimize intrusion of moisture and
in the slabs. Also, the beam and maintained. chlorides as well as to minimize the
column reinforcement does not All of the old slab concrete and amount of leaking through the slabs
usually experience the chloride con- reinforcement, both good and bad, at the anticipated shrinkage cracks.
tamination that the slabs are ex- is removed with the slab replace- A waiting period of six months or
posed to. Removal and replacement ment option, so the number of de- more after the last slab pour may be
of the slabs that were in the Cate- cisions required during the demoli- p r u d e n t t o allow most of t h e
gory 3 or 4 condition can therefore tion process is minimized and the shrinkage of the new concrete to
result in a rehabilitated structure number of unknowns with respect occur and most of the shrinkage
with long-term life expectancy and to the condition of the post-ten- cracks to develop prior to installing
low maintenance costs (Fig. 6 ) . sioning tendons and mild steel rein- the membrane waterproofing. This
The lateral stability of the beam forcement are sidestepped com- will ensure that all cracks can be
is not likely to be affected when re- pletely, thereby minimizing the con- properly detailed with the coating
moving the cast-in-place slabs from struction contingency required. system and the incidence of mem-
precast spread single-tee beams, be- The replacement slabs do not brane failure at shrinkage cracks
cause the beam width to length ra- necessarily need t o be post-ten- minimized. The thickness of the
tio is not likely to exceed a factor of sioned, which can further simplify membrane may also be increased
eight. The vertical stability must be the reconstruction procedures. In somewhat to provide additional
reviewed, but in the author’s expe- fact, it is often difficult to effec- elongation capability.
rience the stresses within the precast tively post-tension a new slab on an It should be possible to improve
tee remain within allowable limits old existing frame. There is a good the drainage in those areas that
even with full effective prestressing deal of restraint in the direction of were previously cast with inade-
(both bonded pre-tensioning and the precast or cast-in-place frames, quate drainage by warping the new
bonded post-tensioning) and no su- and shrinkage cracking can be an- slabs, for example by building ba-
perimposed dead load or live load. ticipated transverse to the beams sins in each bay of the structure
Some additional cambering of the even when temperature post-ten- with a new drain located in the cen-
tee beam will be experienced when sioning is provided in the new slabs. ter of the bay. This makes forming
the slabs are removed. There may also be restraint condi- of the slab and maintaining slab
Removing the slabs from cast-in- tions transverse to the old frames thickness relatively constant a chal-
place rectangular tee beams is more that need to be taken into consider- lenge, because the old beams may
ation. There may be interferences be horizontal or even cambered up-
that were not there during original wards at midspan. Alternatively,
“‘Structural Integrity of Buildings Constructed drains may be placed along the col-
with Unbonded Tendons,” by Clifford L.
construction that make the post-
Freyermuth, Concrete Internaiional, March 1989. tensioning configuration more dif- umn lines, which may make form

A C 1 COMP-20 93 m Obb2749 050b7b3 377
work of the slabs simpler. In either cut into manageable pieces, say 5 When examining lifecycle costs
case. the designer must bear in mind foot squares, and lifted out of the for the total demolition and re-
that he will be resetting the slab el- structure to be disposed of. Re- placement option, one should keep
evations and must coordinate these moval of the bonded concrete slab in mind that unless deterioration of
new slab elevations with old bound- over the old beams can be accom- the structure has been severe, it is
ary conditions such as entrances, plished using either chipping ham- likely that the demolition and re-
doorways, storage areas, etc. mers or hydrodemolition tech- placement need not be implemented
Replacement of the floor slabs niques. There will likely be some fi- immediately. Instead, a program of
will usually automatically imply nal “touch up” demolition with “emergency repairs only” can be
complete removal and replacement small pneumatic hammers (5 to 15 implemented economically to ex-
of the electrical and lighting system pounds) to complete removals at tend the usefulness of the structure
and the drainage system. If fire beam column connections and so for a period. In this way, the utility
protection is involved this may be forth. of the remaining structure can be
either removed and reinstalled or, Although slab replacement is a maximized and the funding for, and
depending on its age and condition, straightforward concept, the actual timing of, the replacement can be
completely replaced. Forced air implementation of this process is more carefully planned.
ventilation systems may also re- likely to be complicated and will re-
quire removal and replacement or quire close cooperation between Summary
modification. In any event, this owner, engineer, and contractor. No single approach will be right for
major construction effort will prob- Sequencing of the work requires every structure, and even within a
ably warrant major reconditioning careful planning especially if the structure it may be appropriate to
or upgrading of all mechanical and owner desires to maintain partial use a combination of repair meth-
electrical systems. occupancy during the reconstruc- ods. Simplicity and economy of fu-
tion process. However, not all ture maintenance and repair should
As far as the actual demolition
functional configurations will lend be strived for.
process itself is concerned, the first
themselves to partial occupancy. There are doubtless other repair
step is likely to be complete shoring
techniques besides those mentioned
of all the slabs down to grade in the Demolish and replace structure here. The author’s intent has been
area where slab removal is re- If the costs, apparent risks, or lim- to organize and systematize the ap-
quired. This will probably be true ited life expectancies of the above proach taken to selection of repairs
regardless of the demolition method methods for rehabilitation are un- for parking structures with corro-
chosen, because the tendons should acceptable, the demolition and re- sion-damaged button-headed post-
all be detensioned prior to removal placement of the structure remains tensioning. As new methods are de-
of the concrete of the supported as the final option. This generally veloped, more cost-effective means
floor slabs. Once the tendons have will have the highest associated ini- of keeping existing structures in
been relaxed, the crews can work tial costs and will displace Parkers service should become available. An
safely on the slabs. Detensioning it- for the longest period of time. effective strategy for evaluation and
self can be done quickly and safely However, from a lifecycle cost repair option selection is key t o
by simply running a saw across the analysis, this option is often found making cost effective decisions.
entire width of the bay. Due to the to be the most cost-effective when
heavy confinement of the anchor- examined over a 30 to 50 year pe- Acknowledgement
age hardware, no “blow outs” of riod. This approach also presents The author wishes to acknowledge experi-
the anchorage have ever occurred in the fewest unknowns because there ence gained in design, evaluation, and resto-
the author’s experience. Also, be- is no reliance placed on existing ration of concrete structures during the past
cause of the large degree of friction components whose condition can- decade while employed by Walker Parking
along the length of the paper- Consultants and Carl Walker Engineers,
not be ascertained prior to con- both of Kalamazoo, Michigan. Photographs
wrapped wire system as well as the struction. It also allows for a state- 1 , 2, and 7 are courtesy of Carl Walker En-
shallow drape of these tendons in of-the-art facility to go back in, in- gineers.
the thin slabs, there is not likely to cluding design for maximum dura-
be any breaking out of the tendon bility as well as security and up-
along its length at high points over graded functional performance. The
the beams or low points at midspan life expectancy of the replacement
of the slabs as the energy is released structure can be more reliably pre-
upon sawcutting. For safety rea- dicted to be 40 years or more pro-
sons, no one should be standing viding it is properly designed and
above or below the slabs along the constructed.
length of the tendons being cut. Another feature of the demoli-
Once the tendons have been de- tion and replacement approach that
tensioned, the slabs can be removed none of the other options can offer Committee 423, Prestressed Con-
by any number of methods. Using is the ability to either increase or crete. During the past 11 years he has
jackhammers is laborious, noisy, decrease the size of the facility to investigated post-tensioned parking
and dusty but can be cost-effective. meet the owner’s current and antic- facilities throughout the midwest and
Alternatively, the slabs can be saw- ipated future needs at that site. northeast USA and Canada.
66 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 0506764 203
The subsurface void system was caused by a lack of Cores were taken from the area where the epoxy injection
consolidation of the plastic concrete. system was tested.
High Performance Pavement
T he construction of high per-

formance concrete pave-
ments is a complex job that
requires extensive experi-
ence and knowledge of equipment,
labor, and materials. Even when
these demands are satisified there
to evaluate the extent of the voids.
The investigation determined that
there were both large areas and in-
termittent narrow strips containing
subsurface voids the full length of
the runway.
The obvious concern was water
likely produce local failures of the
concrete at the surface.
Three solutions were investigated
as options to repair the problem:
Remove and replace pavement
Excavate using a scarifier to the
lower portions of the surface void
are many conditions that can pro- filling the subsurface void system, system, and replace with a modified
duce problems. freezing, and subsequently destroy- portland cement concrete
A combination of conditions on ing the upper layer of concrete. Epoxy injection.
one high performance pavement That problem, coupled with a sur- It was determined that the first pro-
project led to a layer of voids being face that failed to meet the mini- cedure was applicable for surface
formed just below the surface and mum structural requirements, could areas that could be confirmed as
above the top layer of reinforcing
steel. The voids were created during
the placement operation when, for
reasons not completely explained,
the plastic concrete did not consoli-
date as expected.
The subsurface void system was
discovered when small holes were
observed in the concrete surface
during a routine inspection of the
pavement (an airport runway) ap-
proximately 1 year after comple-
tion. A closer examination of the
pavement revealed a large number
of small voids penetrating the sur-
face. The holes were predominantly
at the bottom of the transverse saw
cuts that were made in the surface
to eliminate hydroplaning.
Core samples 6 in. (15 cm) in di-
ameter and the full 15 in. (38 cm) The concrete in the area of full depth repair was broken up using large impact
depth of the pavement were taken hammers.

A C 1 COMP-20 93 Obb2949 0.506765 L 4 T
Table 1 - Mix proportions

for concrete used in partial
depth repair.
Cement 705 Ib/yd’
Water 200 Ib/yd’
Coarse (% in.) aggregate 1,660 Ib/yd’
Fine aggregate (sand) 1,350 Ib/yd3
being larger than one panel in size,
Cores were cut into 3/4 in. slices to and for critical areas. This condi-
Silica fume 70 lb/yd’ determine the extent of penetration of
Entrained air 8 070 tion was determined to exist in only
the epoxy.
three panels. The second procedure
was applicable for a series of areas
that were on the shoulders of the
pavement, and for non-critical areas
of the pavement. The third proce-
dure was applicable for small areas
in critical sections of the pavement.
It could not be confirmed that the
subsurface void system was inter-
connected. Therefore, to determine
the effectiveness of the epoxy injec-
tion system, a test was performed
on a selected area. The test area was
injected through holes drilled into
the void system three inches on cen-
ter each way. The holes were drilled
with a hollow core bit and a vac-
uum chuck, which ensured that all
of the pulverized concrete powder
produced during the drilling opera-
tion was removed, and eliminated
the possibility of the flow of epoxy
into the subsurface void system
being blocked. Injection ports were
then installed and the surface area
in the immediate vicinity of the
ports was sealed with an epoxy.
A scarifier very rapidly removed concrete from the areas designated for partial The standard process of injecting
depth repair.
epoxy into one port until it flowed
f r o m a n adjacent port was fol-
lowed. This was repeated until all
the injection ports had been ad-
dressed. In some cases there was no
indication of any transfer of epoxy
from one port t o another. All of
this work v d s performed at less
than 35 psi injection pressure.
After a 24 hour cure period, sev-
eral cores were taken from the area
and inspected to determine the ex-
tent of penetration of the epoxy
into the void system. To further de-
termine the extent of the success,
the cores were cut into % in. (2 cm)
slices. This combination of inspec-
tion procedures revealed that a
minimum of 85 percent of the sub-
surface void system could be suc-
cessfully filled by epoxy injection.
Paste from the silica fume concrete was scrubbed into the pre-wetted scarified The owner agreed that an 85 per-
concrete surface. cent success ratio under those con-
68 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 ,COMP-20 73 = Obb2949 O506766 O B 6
Perimeters of the partial repair areas were saw cut and The scarified areas were extremely rough, which helped
chipped to provide a vertical shoulder. orovide a strona bond with the reDair concrete
ditions was acceptable, and gave his than one panel ended up being scar- The perimeters of the partial re-
authorization to proceed with all ified. Even though this area would pair areas were then saw cut and
three repair solutions. normally have been designated for chipped to provide a vertical shoul-
complete removal and replacement, der. A concrete mix containing sil-
Full depth repair it was decided t o g o ahead a n d ica fume (Table l ) was used for
The removal and replacement re- complete the repair using the par- these areas to provide a compres-
pair was initiated by sawing along tial repair method since it was in a sive strength greater than 4000 psi
the perimeter of the designated area noncritical section of the runway. (27.5 MPa) in 72 hours.
to the full depth of the pavement.
The concrete was then broken up by
large impact h a m m e r s a n d re-
moved. Dowels were installed along
the perimeter, the reinforcing steel
installed, a n d t h e new concrete
placed using standard procedures.
The concrete was proportioned to
meet the following FAA require-
ments for airport runway pave-
ment: 28-day flexural strength >
750 psi (5 MPa); slump < 1% in.
(38 mm); w / c < 0.35.
Partial depth repair
The partial depth repair required
the removal of 2 to 4 in. ( 5 to 10
cm) of concrete. The areas in ques-
tion were designated and then a
scarifier was brought in. It was able
to excavate concrete to the specified
depth at a very rapid rate. Most
areas that had been designated from
the surface and then excavated with
the scarifier proved to be accurate.
There was one section in which the
inspecting engineers had underesti- Curing compound was applied at twice the manufacturer's recommended rate
mated the area affected and more after the concrete had been struck off and bullfloated.

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 I0662949 0506767 T I 2
The following placement proce- the surface receiving the silica fume At the conclusion of the epoxy
dure was used: The area that had concrete. (Experience on other jobs injection process, the surface sealer
been scarified was extremely rough, where portland cement concrete and injection ports were removed
with an amplitude equivalent to ap- containing either silica fume or la- by grinding. The saw-cut grooves
proximately 1 in (25 m m ) . Paste tex was used has shown that it is remained full of the epoxy applied
from the silica fume concrete was generally wiser to put n o more as a surface sealer.
scrubbed into the pre-wetted sur- joints in the topping than abso-
face to provide a bond coat. The lutely necessary. Each saw cut cre- Runway down time
new concrete was placed in the large ates a potential for curling, and the All three repair solutions were exe-
areas, struck off with a vibrating resulting delamination must then be cuted and completed in a timely
screed, and bull floated. A curing repaired by epoxy injection. Such manner. The airport runway was
compound was then applied at twice supplementary repairs can be mini- down for two weeks. Down time is
the manufacturer’s recommended mized by putting joints in the top- expensive and must be considered
rate within minutes of placement, ping that reflect the requirements of an integral part of the cost. Once
and the surface covered with burlap the parent material only, a tech- this cost is factored into the evalua-
that was kept wet. (The silica fume nique that is normally applied t o tion process, it has a bearing on the
concrete has an extremely low wa- plain portland cement concrete top- repair process and the material se-
ter cement ratio and was applied in pings.) lection.
a relatively thin section, so it was
imperative that the moisture loss be Epoxy injection
kept t o an absolute minimum t o The epoxy injection repair proce-
minimize shrinkage cracking.) dure was exactly the same as that
used in the test program. The epoxy AC1 member Myles A. (Tony) Murray
The large areas repaired with the
is president of Restruction Corpora-
silica fume concrete were saw cut 5 system conformed to the require- tion, Sedalia, Colo., specialists in the
ft ( 1 . 5 m) on center each way t o ments of ASTM-C881, Type IV. In repair and restoration of structures.
help minimize cracking and to re- all cases the void system accepted He has a BSc in architectural engi-
lease internal stresses. This proce- the epoxy in a manner similar to the neering from the University of Colo-
dure seems to have worked in this test program. A few areas exhibited rado, and is a member of AC1 Commit-
particular application primarily be- a higher percentage of interconnect- tees 503, Adhesives for Concrete, and
cause of the degree of roughness of ing voids. 546, Repair of Concrete.
70 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 m Obb2949 050b7bô 959 m
Surface Preparation of Concrete
6
oncrete rehabilitation com- tua1 site conditions, nor have they epoxy to the top of the unbroken
monly includes removing been proven to accurately evaluate core.
poor concrete and replacing in-situ bond strength. After the epoxy has cured, an ad-
it with patches and overlay A new method has been devised justable loading frame is placed and
materials. Proper surface prepara- to determine the strength and qual- leveled over the test area. Then the
tion of the substrate and bonding of ity of bond directly. NTH Consul- test is performed using the pullout
the new material are important fac- tants, Ltd. of Farmington Hills, instrument to apply a tensile force
tors in the success of these repairs, Michigan, and Trow, Ltd. of On- until failure occurs (Fig. 3 and 4).
creating a need to accurately and tario, Canada, pioneered and devel- The force required to cause failure
positively determine the quality and oped a successful method in which divided by the cross-sectional area
strength of concrete bonding. in-place direct tensile tests of con- of the concrete core is a direct mea-
Indirect tests have been used with crete can be performed using the sure of the tensile strength of the
a variety of apparatus and applica- LOK-TEST pullout device. The tech- material across the failure plane.
tions. Some of these tests include nique has been very successful in The core hole left by the test can be
the split-shear test, the shear test, quality control of overlay and patch filled with a nonshrink concrete
and the direct tensile test (Fig. 1). work during concrete repair pro- mortar.
The first test uses samples pre- grams, providing consistent and re- Since failure occurs along the
pared, bonded, cured, and tested liable results. weakest plane, this test not only
under ideal conditions in the labo- The procedure calls for a partial provides a quantitative measure of
ratory. The other two tests can use depth core to be drilled in the test tensile strength but also identifies
core samples from the field or sam- area. The depth of the test cut the location and nature of failure.
ples prepared in the laboratory, but should extend beyond the bonded This often provides valuable insight
all specimens require laboratory interface into the original concrete into specific problems, such as weak
testing. The results of these tests are material to adequately evaluate the bond, poor base or overlay mate-
used to evaluate the quality and bond strength (Fig. 2). A circular rials, improper surface preparation,
strength of the bond; however, steel plate with a threaded insert is or other surface defects.
some of them do not represent ac- then bonded with a fast-setting Using pneumatic hammers for
concrete removal has been standard
practice; however, in-place bond
4 testing has shown that the pneu-
matic hammers cause the formation
of a “bruised” layer extending from
the prepared surface to a depth of
approximately ?/s in. (9 mm). Mi-
croscopic examination of this layer
reveals microcracking due to the
dynamic action of the hammers.
Fig. 5 and 6 illustrate the bond
interface, indicated by the black
outlined arrows, while the lower
solid black arrows identify micro-
cracking of the prepared surface.
The number of microcracks and the
thickness of the bruised layer de-
pend on the rated capacity of the
Fig. 1-Schematic diagrams of laboratory bond strength tests: (a) split-shear hammer, concrete quality, and the
test; (b) shear test; (c) direct tensile test. amount of effort exerted.

A C 1 COMP-20 93 = 0662749 0506769 895
CORE CUT BELOW
f w+
BONDED SURFACE DIAL READOUT
OVERLAY CONCRETE
LOK-TEST JACK
STEEL PLATE p
EPOXIED LOADING FRAME
. LEVELING
TO CONCRETE
& SCREWS
L BONDED
*,EX I ST I N 0 C O N C RETE
SURFACE^
BONDED SURFACE
Fig. 2-Schematic representation of in-place bond test CUT CORE PAST BONDED SURFACE
meoaration. Fig. 3-Schematic representation of test apparatus.
Tests performed on bonded equipment. The process can achieve Increased number of micro-
sound concrete with base surfaces selective removal of concrete be- pores.
prepared using pneumatic hammers cause it provides the ability to con- Greater surface area.
have typically s h o w n tensile trol the amount of energy released. Experience has shown that when
strengths ranging from 70 to 300 psi The equipment is designed to re- hydrodemolition is used bond
(0.48 to 2.07 MPa) (Table i), but move concrete to a prescribed and strength has generally increased to
the majority of test results fall in controlled depth; when unsound
the order of 100 psi (0.69 MPa), concrete is encountered during hy-
with failure occurring within the drodemolition, the poor concrete is
bruised region. The variations in removed until sound material is
bond strength values depend on the reached.
depth of the bruised layer, the type The surfaces prepared by hydro-
of bond material, and the quality of demolition do not develop signifi-
the surface preparation and/or con- cant microcracking; examination of
crete materials. AC1 Committee the interface (Fig. 7 and 8) does not
503' stipulates that a minimum reveal the presence of a bruised
pullout strength of 100 psi (0.69 layer. Minor microcracks can de-
MPa) must be developed at the pre- velop in some cases, but they are
pared surface to achieve adequate negligible in comparison with the
bonding. surface damage created by the
The problem of microcracking2 pneumatic hammers. In addition,
and resultant weakening at the bond the surfaces prepared by hydrode-
interface has been considerably im- molition provide increased percent-
proved by using hydrodemolition, ages of micropores in the cement
also called hydroblasting or hydro- paste, as well as greater surface
jetting. The method uses high-pres- area.
sure water jets to remove concrete Using hydrodemolition in con-
by three separate mechanisms: di- crete repair work produces a bond
rect impact on the surface, pressur- interface superior to the jack ham-
izing the cracks, and ~avitation.~ mer method due to the following
Water pressures range from factors:
12,000 to 35,000 psi (82.8 to 241.4 Lack of a bruised layer.
MPa), depending on the type of Irregular wavy surface profile. Fig. 4-The test apparatus.
Table 1-Comparison of bond strengths using different methods of surface preparation

Type of repair Jack hammer Jack hammer Jack hammer Jack hammer Hydrodemolition Hydrodemolition Hydrodemolition
Number of breaks 6 4 75 10 4 4 10
'
below bond interface
Bondingagent 1 Epoxy I Polymer-

modified
cement slurry
I Epoxy 1 Epoxy I Cementslurry
Range of bond 94- 150 45-25 1 144-245 144-197 103-278 173-257

70-125
strengths, psi
Mean bond 124 135 174 175 210 212
108
strength, psi
72 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 m 0bb2949 050b770 50’7 m
Fig. 5-Typical microcracking below interface using Fig. 6-Typical microcracking below interface using
jackhammer. jackhammer.
Fig. 8-Minor microcracking at interface using

Fig. 7-No cracking at interface using hydrodemolition. hydrodemolition.
almost twice the strength achieved minimizes microcracking and pro- crete Institute, Detroit, 1979, 6 pp.
when surfaces are prepared by pneu- vides a superior surface for bond- 2. Pfaff, R., and Nasirddin, M., “Con-
matic hammers. Table 1 presents crete Removal and Repair using Hydrodeo-
ing. Bond strength can be double molition Method,” Jet-Blast Corporation,
comparative results using both meth- that of a surface prepared by a Weston.
ods of removal and the in-place pneumatic hammer. 3. Medeot, Remo, Theory and Practice of
bond test method. The tabulated In view of the accurate and reli- Hydrodemolition, FIP Industriale, Padua.
data represents projects in North able nature of the in-place bond test
America using various materials and its representation of actual field Received and reviewed under Institute publi-
and methods of surface preparation. conditions, it is recommended that cation policies.
AC1 consider adoption of the pro-
Conclusions and cedure as a standard for general AC1 member Ka1
recommendations use. Additionally, the use of pneu- R. Hindo is a prin-
The in-place bond test is a valuable matic hammers for concrete re- cipal in the firm of
tool to determine directly the bond moval and surface preparation NTH Consultants,
should be discouraged and replaced Ltd., Farmington
strength and the quality of the pre- Hills, Mich., which
pared surface. Two important ad- where applicable with the hydrode-
provides consult-
vantages are that the test is per- molition method. ing engineering
formed in-situ and represents actual services in the
field conditions and it is a useful Acknowledgments
geotechnical, geoenvironmental, and
tool for quality control during con- The author would like to express his special the materials of construction. He has
thanks to John Bickley of John Bickley As- 30 years of experience in concrete
struction repairs. Using pneumatic sociates, Ltd.; Boris Dragunsky of Chicago
hammers in concrete causes a Concrete Consultants, Ltd.; Ken Lozen of technology and rehabilitation and res-
bruised surface layer and creates a Tracy Materials Consultants; and Thomas toration of concrete, and holds an
zone of weakness below the inter- Kline of NTH Consultants, Ltd., for con- MSCE degree from the University of
face. tributing data used in developing this article. Notre Dame. He is Chairman of AC1
Committee 214, Evaluation of Results
Hydrodemolition has demon- References of Tests to Determine the Strength of
strated the ability to remove con- 1. AC1 Committee 503, “Standard Speci- Concrete; and a member of AC1 Com-
crete without damage below the fication for Repairing Concrete with Epoxy mittee 228, Nondestructive Testing of
prepared surface. The technique Mortars, (AC1 503.4-79),” American Con- Concrete.

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 W Ob62949 0 5 0 b 7 7 L 443
Factors Influencing Performance

For over twenty years, polymers in Recommendations for successful tensile, and impact strengths. They
various forms have played a part in the installation, including techniques for have the added advantage of being
protection and repair of piles in marine job site monitoring and in situ testing
environments. From simple coatings to are discussed. relatively easy to install and the po-
plastic wraps, to membranes and tential of providing maintenance-
composites, they have been used with
oncrete’s use in marine envi- free protection for long periods of
widely varying degrees of success. time.
Composite systems, or encapsulations,
consisting of fiber reinforced plastic
jackets and polymer grouts are
examined. Several factors that influence
the long-termserviceability of polymer
(5 ronments has recieved some-
what mixed reviews. Its du-
rability has been well-dem-
onstrated on countless marine
structures, yet examples of con-
However, even with all their ad-
vantages, polymer encapsulations
have been installed with disappoint-
ing results on a number of projects.
encapsulations are outlined, along with Based on field observations of a
recent developments that specifically crete’s vulnerability have also been
address those factors. observed all too frequently. The large number of marine concrete
structures, this article deals with
word “permanent” is not used to
some of the more prevalent prob-
describe concrete in marine envi-
ronments as often as it once was. lems found on the structures and
Concrete’s principal enemy is with some of the newer develop-
corrosion, both in chemical attack ments that address those problems.
of its aggregate/cement matrix and Problems
in the corrosion of the steel rein-
forcement necessary for its tensile While field observations alone can-
strength. not pinpoint exact causes for spe-
In recent years, polymers have cific types of failure, there are cases
played an increasing role in new where overwhelming evidence indi-
cates that the selection of certain
construction to improve concrete’s
resistance to corrosion. Polymer materials or practices has directly
modifiers have improved the con- led t o the failure. Conclusions
crete itself, and polymer reinforce- drawn here are based primarily on
visual evidence, combined with
ment is being used more often to
some project histories and various
replace some, if not all, of the steel
field and laboratory tests.
reinforcement. Polymers are widely
used to protect existing structures Based on these observations, his-
tories, and tests, the following list
through barrier systems designed to
of most prevalent symptoms of dis-
isolate concrete from the forces of
tress has been developed (though
corrosion.
not necessarily ranked in order of
One of the most widespread uses
frequency of occurrence):
of polymer barrier systems is in the
field of pile encapsulation. All- Discontinuity of polymer grout.
polymer systems, utilizing epoxy Lack of bond between polymer
grouts and glass fiber-reinforced grout and FRP jacket.
plastic (FRP) jackets, have a num- Lack of bond between polymer
ber of significant advantages over grout and substrate.
Fig. 1-Failed encapsulation: FRP Improper mixing and/or cure of
jacket is completely gone. Grout other systems. The encapsulation
appears to have been placed from top materials are highly corrosion resis- polymer grout.
of jacket, as evidenced by percolation tent, they have very low permeabil- Thermal incompatibility of poly-
paths through grout and discontinuity ity, and they have high physical mer encasement with substrate.
at water line. Photo taken at low tide. properties, such as compressive, UV deterioration of FRP jacket.
74 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 O662949 0506772 3 8 T W
Fig. 2-(/efl) Failed encapsulation:

Pile at left shows evidence of grout
having been cast from top of jacket
through water. Note percolation and
discontinuity at water line.
Fig. 3-(be/uw /eff) Failed

encapsulation: This pile, encapsulated
with a 3 in. thickness of portland
cement grout, topped off with a 6 in.
cap of epoxy mortar. Grout was
completely missing at water line and
jacket failed at that point.
Fig. 4-(be/ow right) Translucent FRP

jacket: Workman observes polymer
grout (light in color) rising just above
the water line as grout is pumped into
the jacket from the bottom up. Water
inside jacket (dark in color) rises
above the grout.

A C 1 COMP-20 9 3 W Obb29LI9 050b773 2Lb W
Symptoms, causes, and

suggested remedies
Discontinuity of polymer grout
In most cases where discontinuity of
the polymer grout within the jacket
was observed, the grout had appar-
ently been poured into the jacket
from the top, with the grout falling
through water for at least a portion
of the grouted length. Evidence of
discontinuity was most prevalent at
or near the original standing water
elevation (Fig. 1). In some in-
stances, discontinuity was mani- Fig. 6-Debonded FRP jackets: Center pile shows open jacket seam and pile on
fested by void areas at lower eleva- right has jacket partially torn away. Polymer grout is discontinuous at water line.
tions, apparently caused by entrap-
ment of standing water as the grout
cascaded down through the water These two important causes for cause, is responsible for the major-
from above (Fig. 2). discontinuity are easily corrected by ity of failures observed. When the
Discontinuity of grout is not con- the following two simple steps: bond is inadequate, the system de-
fined to all-polymer systems. Port- laminates from the pile and the en-
land cement grouts, usually cast at Pump the epoxy grout into the
jacket from the bottom up. capsulation fails (Fig. 5 ) .
3 to 5 in. (8 to 13 cm) thicknesses,
will manifest the same symptoms if Witness the grout progression The most common cause for
cast from the top of the jacket through a translucent jacket and bond failure between the grout and
through water (Fig. 3). make any necessary corrections be- the substrate is most likely im-
Another principal cause of dis- fore the grout hardens (Fig. 4). proper surface preparation of the
continuity is inadequate stand-Offs substrate. At minimum, surface
to maintain the proper spacing be- Lack of bond between polymer preparation should consist of the
tween the jacket and the pile, re- grout and substrate removal of marine growth and any
sulting in a restriction that the grout The lack of bond between the grout loose or broken concrete. Deleteri-
cannot pass. and the substrate, regardless of ous substances, such as oils and
previously applied coatings, should
also be removed. The creation of a
suitable anchor profile a t the
cleaned surface is also essential.
Another cause of improper bond
of polymer grouts to all types of
substrate is the presence of marine
biofilms, which begin to develop on
submerged surfaces immediately af-
ter cleaning. They develop rapidly
and can become an effective bond
inhibitor within a few days. The
best way to combat the effects of
biofilms is to keep the interval be-
tween surface preparation and grout
placement to an absolute minimum.
Persons familiar with the appli-
cation of polymer coatings and
grouts under water are aware that
these materials tend to bond better
when “scrubbed” onto the surface.
This is due, in part, to the presence
Fig. 5-Failed Encapsulations: These three piles, all encapsulated with about a of a mono-molecular film of water
Yi in. thickness of polymer grout, are examples of the effect of poor bond at the immediate substrate surface
between the grout and the pile. Bond was obviously poor between the grout and that is difficult t o displace. The
the FRP jacket as well. scrubbing action forces the film of
76 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 Obb2949 O506774 152
inside surface of the jacket, the

presence of deleterious substances
such as mold release agent residue
on the FRP jackets, marine biof-
ilms, or the simple lack of any dy-
namic force in the grout placement
process.
The solutions to these shortcom-
ings are again the obvious:
Store the jackets in a clean loca-
tion and texture the inside of the
jackets at the job site just prior to
installation, preferably by light grit
blasting. Some jacket manufactur-
Fig. 7-Debonded FRP jacket: This jacket was retrieved off the bottom, still ers make jackets with a liner that
around the pile, after becoming completely debonded from encapsulation grout.
protects the cleanliness of the jack-
ets and leaves an anchor profile on
the inside surface of the jacket
water away from the surface, rather Lack of bond between polymer when the liner is peeled off just
than trapping the water between the grout and FRP jacket prior to installation.
coating and the surface. Bond failure between the grout and
When polymer materials are sim- the FRP jacket usually goes hand- Pump the grout into the jacket
ply poured against a submerged in-hand with the lack of bond be- from the bottom up. The rising
surface, the chances of accomplish- tween the grout and the substrate. grout also “scours” the jacket sur-
ing bond are seriously reduced. In The jacket is subjected to wave ac- face, as it does the substrate sur-
observations of failed polymer en- tion and is either torn away in face, creating a better bond.
capsulations where the polymer pieces or falls away from the pile as
grout was simply poured into the a unit (Fig. 6 and 7). Minimize the time periods be-
FRP jacket, bond between the grout When bond failure occurs at the tween surface preparation, installa-
and the substrate in the submerged interface between the jacket and the tion of jackets, and placement of
areas was practically nil. polymer grout, the most probable grout to avoid the effects of marine
By recognizing the factors influ- causes are improper texturing of the biofilms.
encing bond, the following steps in
the proper application of a polymer
encapsulation system become ob-
vious:
Establish proper surface prepara-
tion techniques, including suitable
anchor profile. Water blasting is a
quick and effective means of re-
moving marine growth, loose mate-
rials, and most deleterious sub-
stances, but sand blasting and/or
abrasion with powdered rotary tools
appear t o create a better anchor
profile.
Minimize the time periods be-
tween surface preparation, installa-
tion of jackets, and placement of
grout. In tropical waters, the total
time span should be less than 36
hours.
Pump the grout into the jacket
from bottom up to displace the wa-
ter within the jacket. The grout ris- Fig. 8-Plural component polymer grout handling equipment: Epoxy reactive
ing within the confinement of the components are kept separate as each is mixed with filler. Filled components
jacket also enhances the scouring are pumped through separate hoses to a blending unit at the injection port into
effect necessary for proper bond. the FRP jacket.
77

A C 1 COMP-20 93 = ûbb2949 0 5 0 b 7 7 5 O99
Improper mixing andior curing

of grout
Of the various polymers available,
epoxy is one of the most widely
used for pile encapsulation, primar-
ily because of its better underwater
curing characteristics. Epoxy can
present a challenge to the contrac-
tor, however, if he is not prepared Fig. 1O-Failed FRP jackets: Ultra-violet deterioration appeared to play a
to properly batch, mix, and handle significant part in the failure shown. Jacket material was chalky in appearance
the material within its limited pot- and broke readily when bent.
life. Because pile encapsulations re-
quire relatively small amounts of
epoxy grout, some contractors elect tainers, using drill motor pail mix- action time, allowing the contractor
t o pre-mix the materials by the ers, operated by relatively unskilled to concentrate on the other factors
“hot-pot” method. This is usually labor. related to installing a sound encap-
done by mixing in the shipping con- If the epoxy is to be pumped, the sulation. Cleaning of equipment
contractor finds himself trying to and purging of hoses, with the at-
get the material mixed, into the tendant use of solvents, is kept to a
pump, through the hoses, and into minimum.
the jacket before the exotherm To minimize the effects of con-
catches up with him. If he has had tractor error when mixing, a few
the previous experience of having to simple steps need to be followed:
scrap his equipment because the Select epoxy components of
epoxy went off too soon, he tends sharply contrasting colors. When
to rush the process, with results that properly mixed, they will produce a
vary greatly. completed product of a uniform
The field observations showed third color, free of any streaks of
that a number of the failed encap- the original colors. The colors usu-
sulations appeared to be caused by ally selected are black and white,
improper mixing. The epoxy grout which produce a final color of uni-
that remained was of a rubbery form grey (Fig. 9).
consistency and peeled off the sub- Batch, mix, and pump by the
strate with little effort. In other plural component method.
cases, soft spots of uncured mate- Pump into the jacket from the
rials were found under sections of bottom up to prevent segregation of
jackets that had somehow remained the aggregate filler from the other
in place. components as the mixture falls
This basic problem has been ad- through water.
dressed by building special handling
equipment that mixes, batches, and Thermal incompatibility of the
pumps the filled epoxy grout by the polymer encasement with the
plural component method (Fig. 8). substrate
With this equipment, the reactive Polymers have much higher coeffi-
components are kept separate cients of expansion than the sub-
throughout the entire process and strate materials over which they are
Fig. 9-Plural component polymer are blended, to start the reaction, at usually applied. Evidence of their
grout handling equipment: Snow white the downstream end of the hoses, incompatibility with the substrate is
epoxy component is batched and just prior t o entering the FRP most prevalent where polymer
mixed with filler on one side of unit jacket.
while jet black component is batched
patching materials have been im-
on the other side. When combined at The grout components can be properly applied to spalls in con-
downstream blending unit, they kept in the mixers, hoppers, pumps, crete. The patch seems to curl up at
produce a grout of uniform grey color. and hoses without concern for re- the edges and soon becomes at least
78 AC1 COMPILATION

A C 1 COMP-20 93 m 0662747 050b77b T25 m
Fig. 1I-Hand laid-up translucent jackets: Note molded Fig. 12-Modified Elcometer Bond Strength Tester: Test
injection port and adjustable polymer stand-Offs on jacket device, shown here being used underwater, applies
at upper left. Jackets of this quality have high impact and calibrated tensile load to isolated specimen of
tensile strength and excellent weathering characteristics. encapsulation, to determine in situ bond strength.
partially debonded. Evidence of this be heated and warm water pumped UV screening agents may be
occurring in encapsulations is into the installed jackets for a pe- added to the jacket resins, if tests
somewhat more difficult to pin- riod prior to grout injection, effec- indicate the need.
point, primarily because the jacket tively duplicating the summer con- Under extreme UV exposure, the
disguises what is happening at the dition. completed encapsulation can be
polymer/substrate interface. coated with a compatible paint to
When polymer encapsulations are UV deterioration of jacket block the UV rays.
properly installed and good bond is Field observations revealed that a
achieved, both between the epoxy number of jacket failures appeared In situ bond testing
grout and the substrate and be- t o be related t o ultra-violet (UV) The single most prevalent cause of
tween the epoxy grout and the FRP deterioration. The jackets readily distress or failure in polymer encap-
jacket, distress caused by thermal broke when bent and the surface sulations is lack of bond, yet until
incompatibility is apparently elimi- appeared chalky. The jackets all recently, there have been no conve-
nated. It appears that if sufficient had some white or grey internal nient means of testing for bond in
bond is achieved, the polymer will pigmentation and most appeared to situ. The Modified Elcometer Bond
yield to the expansion and contrac- be fabricated with random glass fi- Strength Tester is now gaining ac-
tion dictates of the substrate. bers (Fig. 10). ceptance as an easy-to-use reliable
Therefore, to minimize the ef- In more recent applications, field test device that determines di-
fects of thermal expansion and con- jackets are hand laid up, using a rect tensile bond on an isolated sec-
traction, the following steps should combination of woven roving, mat tion of a completed encapsulation.
be taken: fibers, and an outside gel coat. UV Shown in Fig. 12, the tester ap-
Follow all of the proper proce- screening agents mixed with the plies a calibrated tensile load on a 3
dures necessary to achieve the max- jacket resins also appear to increase in. (8 cm) diameter test “dolly” that
imum bond. UV resistance. Translucent jackets has been adhered to the outside of
Test the actual encapsulation in that are !A in. (0.3 cm) thick, con- the FRP jacket. Before the load is
situ t o see t h a t bond has been sisting of one woven roving and two applied, the test area below the
achieved. mats plus gel coat, have passed 500- dolly has to be isolated from the
Where possible, install encapsu- hour accelerated weathering tests rest of the encapsulation by coring
lations during the summer months without any measurable distress a groove around the dolly through
so that the polymer materials will be (Fig. 11). the F R P jacket and the epoxy
placed around the substrate when To minimize the effects of UV grout, until the substrate surface
both are in a more expanded state. deterioration, the following is sug- has been contacted.
As ambient temperatures drop, the gested: Evaluation of several hundred
epoxy grout will contract a t a Use hand laid up or pultruded tests performed with the device
greater rate than the substrate, and jackets with proper resin cover over show that the bond of the dolly to
the FRP jacket will contract at a the glass. Chopper gun fabricated the jacket is usually greater than the
greater rate than the grout, creating jackets do not have sufficient resin bond between the jacket and the
a tightly bonded system. If installa- cover over the glass, unless a spe- grout, which in turn is generally
tion must occur during the colder cial gel coat is added at the time of greater than the bond between the
months, the grout materials should fabrication. grout and the substrate. As a result,

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662949 050b777 961
TEMPORARY
I I WORK PLATFORM
A L - - - L s - - u - - u ~ -_
PILE CLEANING PILE CLEANING JACKET EPOXY GROUT
PHASE 1 PHASE 2 INSTALLATON INJECTION
Fig. 13-Various phases of a successful polymer Fig. 14-Principal components of a successful pile
encapsulation system are shown from left to right. encamulation.
tests run to failure almost always elements, both above and below the within the jacket and will also help
occur at the grout-to-substrate in- water line (Fig. 13 and 14): level the grout if it climbs too high
terface, or more importantly, as a Proper surface preparation, in- on one side of the jacket.
tension failure of the concrete sub- cluding a suitable anchor profile in Conduct periodic bond strength
strate immediately below the sub- the substrate, is imperative. tests to insure that the above steps
strate surface. If this occurs, an en- Select proper hand laid-up or are getting the desired results.
capsulation is achieved whose com- pultruded, translucent jackets, with Acknowledgement
ponents are bonded together at sufficient stand-Offs to maintain
values higher t h a n the tensile Fig. 13 and photos of translucent FRP
spacing between pile and jacket. jackets, plural component grout handling
strength of the concrete over which Prepare substrate, install jackets, equipment, and in situ bond test device
they have been placed. and pump grout into jackets within depict features of the Advanced Pile
the minimum time frame possible, Encapsulation (A-P-E) process and are
Conclusion furnished by Master Builders Inc.,
preferably in less than 36 hours. Cleveland, Ohio.
All-polymer pile encapsulation as a Select 100 percent solids epoxy
method of protecting concrete piles components of sharply contrasting
has come of age. For the most part, colors with the capability of being
the various factors influencing per- filled and pumped at filler to liquid AC1 member Rich-
formance have been identified, and ratios of greater than 3.2 to 1. ard K. Snow pres-
ently consults in
where distress or failure might have Batch, mix, and pump by the the field of infra-
occurred in the past, the causes plural component method. structure repairs,
have been addressed and viable so- Pump filled epoxy grout into the with special em-
lutions presented. The following list translucent FRP jacket from the phasis on repairs
of steps will result in a dense, cor- bottom up, through injection ports in marine environ-
rosion resistant, tightly bonded, installed in the jacket for that pur- ments. Prior t o
highly impermeable barrier system pose. this, he was with I
to protect piles and other structural tional Builders for 34 years, where he
Observe the progression of grout held assignments in research and
upwards within the translucent product development, marine and on
jacket and make corrections as the land concrete construction, and spe-
Keywords: bonding; concrete piles; deterioration; need occurs. For example, light cial projects including the develop-
encapsulating; epoxy resins; grouting; manne
atmospheres; performance; plastics; polymers and
tapping on the outside of the jacket ment, installation, and testing of pile
resins; thermal properties. will usually free an obstruction encapsulation systems.
AC1 COMPILATION
80

A C 1 COMP-20 93 0662947 0506778 8 T 8
Repair & Rehabilitation I I
The AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE
was founded in 1905 as a nonprofit membership organization dedicated to

public service and to representing user interests in the field of concrete. It
gathers and distributes information on the improvement of design, construc-
tion, and maintenance of concrete products and structures. The work of the
Institute is done by individual members and by volunteer committees.
The committees, as well as the Institute as a whole, operate under a
consensus format, which assures all members the right to have their views
considered. Committee activities include the development of building codes
and specification standards; analysis of research and development results;
presentation of construction and repair techniques; and education.
Anyone interested in the activities of the Institute is encouraged to seek
membership. There are no educational or employment requirements. En-
gineers, architects, scientists, constructors, and representatives from a va-
riety of companies and organizations form the Institute membership.
All members are eligible and encouraged to participate in committee ac-
tivities that relate to their specific areas of interest. Membership information,
a publications catalog, and listings of educational activities are available.
american concrete institute

BOX 19150, REDFORD STATION
DETROIT, MICHIGAN 48219


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A C 1 COMP-20 93 D 0662947 0506697 8 7 9 D

American Concrete Institute

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

Repair & Rehabilitation II

29 Rehabilitation of Linden Reservoir, by Ashok 67 Repair of Subsurface Voids in a High

37 Joint Repair with MMA-Polymer Concrete, by 74 Polymer Pile Encapsulation: Factors

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

(left) Original condition of parking slab.

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

fine grid lockup potential at the net-

evaluate the suitability of the fil-

Table 2 - Weighted performance

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

(top left and right) Concrete removal revealed significant

(bottom left) Spot repairs were made to less than 10

(middle right) The insulation and protection layers and

(bottom right) Damage to concrete parapet walls required

REPAIR & REHABILTTATION II 5

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

mized t o avoid damage t o the Performance Abrasion resistence of geosyn-

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

REPAIR & REHABILITATION II 7

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Protection against the invasion of

Repair process using

Salt damage prevention

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o Crossectional repair material

Fig. 2 - Repair procedure using prepacked aggregate.

REPAIR & REHABILITATION II 9

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Effect of the type of polymer

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range of Fig. 5.) When the paint

Eiji Sawada is Chief Researcher at

REPAIR & REHABILITATION II 11

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

REPAIR & REHABILITATION II 13

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Tables 1 and 2 show the effects of

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

ments, polymers, and other mate-

i is important for this type of con-

REPAIR & REHABILITATION II 15

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COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

Table 6 - Criteria for Pavement Repair.

tend to cause longitudinal cracks in

oping recommendations, experi-

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

T he headworks of the On-

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

Fig. 2-Backside view of cofferdam

REPAIR & REHABILITATION II 19

COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)

and 20 MPa (4350, 3625, and 2900