5.

Governing equation and eigen-value solutions for continuous systems 21

___________________________________________________________________________

5. Governing Equation and Eigen-value Solutions for Continuous Systems

In a previous chapter we considered the classical mass-spring-system and developed

different solutions for free and forced vibration. We will now see how the vibration of a
continuous system can be described by means of several, superimposed SDOF systems. This
will be done on a general form, i.e. without addressing a specific structure. We will also make
use of the model for structural damping whereby D denotes the complex Young's modulus.
This elasticity modulus, however, is not a complete description of the damping since the
dissipative losses can be split up in two contributions, material losses and boundary losses. The
material losses comprise the relaxation exhibiting hysteresis and "inner friction" while
boundary losses is a collective term for radiation to an ambient medium as well as energy flow
across discontinuities to peripheral structural sub-systems.

The governing equation for a continuous system can be written on a general, differential
form as

r ⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂⎞r
ρξ&+ D ⋅ L ⎜ , , ⎟ ξ = p eiω t
& (5.1)
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠

r r
where ξ ( x, y, z) is the displacement, ρ the density, p the external force per unit volume and L
the differential operator associated with the system, which describes the elastic strains in the
material. In equation (5.1), the first term on the left hand side describes the inertia forces in the
system and the second the elastic forces.

One of the advantages in using a damping model as the structural model, is that the
solution for the continuous system can be obtained as an expansion of the displacement in terms
of the natural displacement functions of the corresponding loss-free system, provided the
dissipative losses are small. (In this context, the losses are small when the loss factor η is of
the order of one percent or less.) Accordingly, we assume
r r
i ωt
ξ = ∑ ξn e (5.2)
n

r
where ξ is the vectorial, natural function which is non-normalised and can contain a constant
multiplier. Those functions represent the amplitude distribution for non-trivial, periodic
solutions.

For every natural vibration pattern n, we can write the amplitude distribution on the form
r r
ξ n = ξˆn γ (x, y, z)ei ω n t (5.3)
5. Governing equation and eigen-value solutions for continuous systems 22
___________________________________________________________________________

and for each such vibration pattern understand the homogeneous differential equation as:

r ⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂⎞r
ρξ&&n + D ⋅ L ⎜ , , ξn = 0 (5.4)
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠

This equation can be reduced to

⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂⎞r r
D ⋅ L⎜ , , ξ n = ρ ω n2ξ n (5.5)
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠

if we make use of the complex notation for periodic vibration and where a time derivative is
simply replaced by the multiplier iω . Indeed, there is no limitation introduced by our choice to
build the solution from an expansion in periodic components since practically all physically
realisable vibrations can be developed from their Fourier components [4].

Equation (5.5) is of fundamental importance because it indicates a way to substitute the

operator L. The quantities ω n2 are called the eigen-values of the system and the natural
vibration pattern according to equation (5.3) the eigenfunctions. As pointed out previously, the
ω n are termed eigen-frequencies.

If we introduce our assumption for the system, given by equation (5.1), we obtain the
equation for the inhomogeneous, damped system,

r ⎛∂ ∂ ∂⎞ r r
− ρ ω 2 ∑ ξn + ∑ D ⋅ L ⎜ , , ξn = p (5.6)
n n ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠

since the frequency on the right and left hand sides must be equal.
r
The eigen-functions ξ n are orthogonal and this implies that

⎧
⎪0 ;n≠ m
rr ⎪
∫ ξnξm dV = ⎨ (5.7)
V ⎪r 2
⎪ ξn V; n = m
⎩

r 2 r
where ξn is the quadratic, spatial average of the amplitude distribution ξ n , over the system.

For a proof of the orthogonality property of the eigenfunctions, the reader is referred to [3].
5. Governing equation and eigen-value solutions for continuous systems 23
___________________________________________________________________________

The series solution according to equation (5.6)

r can be reduced to a simple identity by
multiplying both the sides with the eigenfunction ξ m and then integrating over the system,

r rr
[ ]V
2
ρ − ω 2 + (1 + i η)ω n2 ∫ ξ n dV = ∫ pξn dV (5.8)
V

since, by means of equation (5.5) we have

r r r r rr
− ρω 2 ∑ ∫ ξ m ξn dV + ρ∑ ω n2 (1 + iη ) ∫ ξ m ξ n dV = ∫ pξ m dV (5.9)
nV n V V

where then the orthogonality is utilized.

Upon dividing (normalising) with the value of the nth eigenfunction for an observation
point, A = x A , y A , z A say, equation (5.8) can be rewritten in the more manageable form

r
ρV ξ n
2
r rr
ξ n (x, y, z)dV r
[−ω 2
+ (1+ i η)
ω n2 ] r . ξ (A) = ∫
p
r ξn (A) (5.10)
( )
n
ξn2 (A) V ξ n (A)
2

Obviously the normalisation must be done with respect to an amplitude which is non-zero, i.e.
ξ n (A) ≠ 0. In the literature quite a few normalisations are used but perhaps the most common
is to choose a maximum, i.e. to choose the observation point A such that the nth eigenfunction is
maximum at this point.

For simplicity in this analysis we have assumed that the density is uniformly distributed
over the system, i.e. the term ρ ⋅V = M represents the total mass of the system. In a general
case, of course, the density may vary over the system but by introducing a mass distribution
function, the same principal form of the equations can be preserved. The usefulness of the
normalisation with respect to the amplitude at the observation point A becomes evident if we
introduce the following abbreviations:

r 2
ξn
Mn ( A) = M r 2 (5.11a)
ξ n (A)

r
F0 = ∫ p(x,y,z)dV (5.11b)
V
5. Governing equation and eigen-value solutions for continuous systems 24
___________________________________________________________________________
r r
r p(x, y,z ) ξn (x,y,z) r
κ n ( A) F0 = ∫ r ξ n (A) dV (5.11c)
( )
2
V ξn (A)

By means of these abbreviations equation (5.10) becomes,

r
[−ω ]Mn (A) ξ n (A)
r
+ (1+ i η) ω n2 = κ n (A) F0
2
(5.12)

r
The most important step in this development is the introduction of κ n ( A). This factor which
can be termed the excitation constant reveals how much of the total external force Fo excites
or "drives" the nth eigenfunction. Moreover, one can move the excitation constant to the left
hand side of equation (5.12) to obtain a yet more condensed form of the dynamic characteristics
of the continuous system

r
Mn ( A)
r
κn (A)
2
[ 2
]r
− ω + (1+ i η)ω n ξ n (A) = F0 eκ (5.13)

r
Herein, eκ is the unit vector for the excitation constant.

In this way we have arrived at an expression for the motion at point A, seen as that
portion of the system which participates at point A, due to a uniformly distributed density and a
structurally controlled stiffness (elasticity) and due to an external force. From a physical point
of view, the time differentiated form is easier to interpret,

r r r ω
v ( A) = i ω ∑ ξ n ( A) = F0 eκ ∑ M (A) (5.14)
n n rn
κ n (A) [(
i ω 2 − ω 2n + ω n2 η ) ]
Owing to the fact that the terms in the denominator of equation (5.17) can be identified as,

eff Mn (A)
Mn (A) = r (5.15a)
κ n (A)

r
κ n ( A)
cneff (A) = (5.15b)
ω n2 Mn (A)

ω n2 Mn (A)
eff
Rn (A) = η r (5.15c)
ω κ n (A)

we can finally write the velocity as

5. Governing equation and eigen-value solutions for continuous systems 25
___________________________________________________________________________

r r 1
v = F0eκ ∑ (5.16)
1
n i ωMneff + + Rneff
i ωcn
eff

Herein, Mneff constitutes the effective mass, cneff the effective compliance (inverse to the
stiffness) and Rneff the effective resistance of the nth eigenfunction as seen at an arbitrary
observation point A.

Each of the terms, n, in the series of equation (5.16) constitutes the "mobility" of the
eigenfunction. Accordingly, the mobility of the system can be written as a sum of modal or
eigenfunction mobilities,
r
v
r = Y = ∑ Yn (5.17)
F0 eκ n

It must be emphasized that the mobility Y of equation (5.17) strictly does not constitute a point
mobility since F0 , in this case, is the total external force acting on the system. The mobility Y,
however, is reduced to the point mobility if the total force acting on the system solely is made
up by a point force applied at the observation point A and which is co-linear with the velocity
vector. In such a case the excitation constant becomes
r r r r r
r ξn (A) F0δ (x − A)ξn ( x ) r
κ n (AA) = r ∫ r dV = eξ (5.18)
( )
2
F V ξn (A)

In a similar way, a transfer or cross-transfer mobility can be developed in terms of the

eigenfunction mobilities whenever the observation and the excitation point do not coincide or
r
the excitation and the response vectors are not co-linear, respectively. In place of κ n ( AA) , the
'transfer excitation constant' is introduced which is defined by

r r r r r r
r ξ (A) F0 δ ( x − B)ξ n ( x ) ξ n (B) r
κ n ( AB) = n r ∫ r dV = r eξ (5.19)
( )
2
F V ξ n (A) ξn (A)

This constant is subsequently substituted into equations (5.15) whereby an expression

corresponding to that in equation (5.16) is obtained for the velocity at point A due to a force at
point B. It can be noted that the distinction made herein between transfer and cross-transfer
mobilities is often essential for the physical interpretation but that, at the same time however,
such a convention is far from common practice.
5. Governing equation and eigen-value solutions for continuous systems 26
___________________________________________________________________________