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10 1016@j Destud 2010 06 003
10 1016@j Destud 2010 06 003
decision-making in design:
A Sartrean approach
Philippe d’Anjou, School of Architecture, Florida Atlantic University,
111 East Las Olas Blvd, Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33301, USA
T
he study of design ethics can be applied to the development of ethical
decision-making models that might enable designers to make
ethical design decisions in both profession and education.1 A number
of ethical decision-making models exist in the literature of professional and ap-
plied ethics, which can be used to help designers in making ethical decisions.2
Ethical decision-making models are usually based on theories of ethics, how-
ever, existentialist philosophy is largely excluded from these models. This pa-
per develops on this, and draws specifically on the existentialist philosophy
and ethics of Jean-Paul Sartre to propose an ethical decision-making model
for design practice. Design has a projective nature and is aimed at changing
and transforming the world; design is an exercise of freedom in an existentialist
sense. As such, this paper is in line with some recent research on design ethics
from a Sartrean existentialist perspective and extends that research into the
realm of methodology (d’Anjou, 2009, 2010). Even if Sartre’s existentialism
is mostly of a descriptive nature, his efforts address the issue of existence in
‘bad faith’, or self-deception, and its avoidance towards ‘authenticity’. In
the sense that ‘bad faith’ can be prevented or at least reduced, the philosophy
of Sartre can contribute to a normative decision-making model.
Corresponding author:
Philippe d’Anjou The first part of the paper focuses on a brief critical review of ethical decision-
pdanjou@fau.edu making models found in much of the literature on professional ethics and
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applied ethics. The second part consists of a brief discussion of the important
aspects of Sartre’s existentialism relevant to an ethical decision-making model
for design. It also indicates some previous incorporations of Sartrean existen-
tialism within the area of design. Finally, based on Sartre’s philosophy, an
ethical decision-making model for design is proposed with a discussion of sig-
nificant issues that such a model might reveal.
Most texts in applied ethics and professional ethics provide guidelines and pro-
cesses to engage in ethical decision-making. Their form, structure, and ap-
proach are quite similar (Findeli, 1994, pp. 60e61). The decision-making
process usually follows a standard cycle: setting the problem, analysis, pro-
posed solution, and evaluation. If a case is complex, this process might need
a series of iterations and to be resumed several times before reaching a final
decision. The book by Caroline Whitbeck, Ethics in Engineering Practice
and Research, is a typical example of this process (Whitbeck, 1998). The steps
that she proposes are: research of the questions, analysis of the situation, pro-
posal generation, evaluation, and choice. In Ethics and the Practice of Archi-
tecture, Barry Wasserman et al. propose a similar process for ethical
decision-making in architectural practice (Wasserman et al., 2000, p. 94).
The process they propose is: definition of the dilemma at hand, assessment
of the ethical content of the situation, development of a set of proposals, de-
liberation, and resolution. Regardless of the numerous variations proposed,
and of the sometimes very complex methods required by the various phases
of the process, especially with analysis and evaluation, this simple and basic
structure seems to be the standard everywhere.
Some works though propose more complex and flexible models that recog-
nize the non-linear, open-endedness, complex, and messy nature of ethical sit-
uations in professional practice, and point to a sense of invention, autonomy,
and freedom in the ethical decision-making process (Dorst & Royakkers,
This is exemplary of the fact that ethical decision-making is not very different
from any other decision-making process. But a Sartrean analysis shows that
any process of ethical decision-making, choice, and action in design rests on
one fundamental aspect (d’Anjou, 2010). It calls for total engagement and ac-
ceptance of both freedom and responsibility on the part of the individual in-
volved in such process, and implies that it has to start over again for each
individual case since there is no universal or objective truth; subjectivity is
constitutive and intrinsic.
The first tenet is that humans are always, and fundamentally, projective or
goal oriented, whereas objects that are not human are complete in themselves,
they do not project their becoming. Sartre coins two concepts to describe this
ontological reality of being: ‘Being-for-itself’ and ‘Being-in-itself’. ‘Being-for-
itself’ refers to beings with consciousness, i.e., humans, which, because of
The reality of humans, because they are conscious and projective beings, is to
continually make free choices. Freedom is the very condition of humans, re-
gardless of the situation one finds him/herself in. The individual is free to
make choices, including how a given situation is interpreted. Sartre declares
that we are ‘condemned to be free’ and that freedom is the ‘foundation of
all values’ (Sartre in Kaufmann, 1956, pp. 295e307).
Sartre stresses the fact that there is a significant difference between facts and
values. He asserts that values are subjective and relative. Facts are things
that simply are what they are and values are ideals and states of affairs that
do not as yet exist. According to Anderson (1979, p. 23),
since values . are beyond what is, what reality they have can be due only
to a being that is itself able to transcend what is and posit what is not. Such
a being is, of course, human consciousness. Hence values are due to human
consciousness.
The fact that values are attributed to human consciousness implies, according
to Sartre, that absolute and objective justifications for one’s choices do not
exist; it also means that there are no absolute rules or principles that one
can rely on in order to support one’s choices. The individual encounters ab-
surdity at his/her essential existence that is characterized by free choice but
that lacks any objective foundation.
It is in the mode of subjects, and not as interplay of laws, that are objective and
scientific, that individuals experience their existences. The experience of the
person is totally subjective. This defies the view that ‘the differing interests
and concerns of people can be satisfied through their comprehension within
an all-embracing objective understanding of the universe’ (Baldwin in
Honderich, 1995, pp. 257e261). Envisioning existence as totally subjective
greatly differs with traditional ethical approaches that pretend to objectivity
as well as with ethical decision-making models that offer universal rules to
guarantee ethical actions.
Thus, values do not determine choices, but are their consequence. According
to Sartre, values are more accurately comprehended as a consequence of the
individual’s ethical decisions than as a determinant of the individual’s choices.
This is due to the nature of values, which is subjective, and to the way in which
the individual constructs his/her own existence through exercising his/her free
choices. For instance, one’s life is characterized by the value of courage if one
acts courageously in a consistent manner through his/her life. Acting coura-
geously makes one courageous, one does not act courageously because one
is courageous.
Five phases compose the model.6 The first phase is the awareness and accep-
tance of complete freedom and responsibility in design practice. The second
phase consists in reflecting on prior design choices. The third phase is to reflect
on external demands from actors involved in the design situation. Phase four is
to reflect on the practical limitations of the design situation. And, finally, the
fifth phase consists in enacting the design choice that most reveals awareness of
freedom and acceptance of personal responsibility.
As such, the architect, in the case above, has to accept that he/she is fully re-
sponsible for all his/her design choices and actions. Appealing to the fact that
he/she does not have much of a choice because the principal of the firm is ‘forc-
ing’ him/her to use hazardous materials from a questionable provider, would
be unethical from a Sartrean point of view because not authentic. The authen-
tic architect has to accept that any design choice and action in this case e in-
cluding the design choice of using the materials to achieve his/her career goal,
or not to design the given project, or to resign, etc. e is his/hers, and that he/
she is fully responsible for it. The goal of achieving success in the firm is his/her
free choice and responsibility.
The second phase refers to the reflection on prior design choices. Typically, the
designer’s prior design choices reflect his/her personal existential goals and
projects. The design choices of the designer are not separate occurrences;
they are part of his/her goals at a relative level as well as at a fundamental
one. Even if the concept of freedom in design necessarily includes the possibil-
ity to begin a new existential project, through a design project (like a new
building), or to change his/her course of design action, it is beneficial that
the designer identify and take into account his/her existential goals and pro-
jects. Indeed, in the case that the designer chooses to maintain them as they
are, then a specific course of design action is likely to be suggested.
In this case, if the architect wants to pursue his/her goal of progressing within
the firm, then at this point he/she may not consider the option of resigning. On
reevaluating his/her career goals he/she may, however, consider that he/she
has gotten to a point at which the goal of progressing within the firm is not
relevant anymore and is in conflict with a different goal, such as to promote
The third phase involves reflection on external demands from actors involved
in the design situation e client, user, contractor, builder, etc e and ways they
can have an influence on the decision of the designer. In this phase, the aim is
to foster an individual design decision that is carried out in freedom and with
complete acceptance of responsibility. In professional design practice, such as
architecture, this would imply that the ‘believed to be intrinsic’ assumptions
that the professional title carries, which usually predetermines the actions
and practices expected by the profession, be critically reflected upon. Justifying
his/her design choices and actions on the basis that one is an architect, and that
is what architects do, would be an attitude of ‘bad faith’ and therefore not eth-
ical according to Sartrean ethics. The designer does not have to blindly reject
external demands, such as official regulation, codes of ethics, etc. But in order
for the designer’s decision to be ‘authentic’ it should not result from ‘following’
external demands for their own sake.
Then, for the architect’s design decision to be ethical, i.e., authentic, he/she has
to make sure that choosing to use the hazardous materials for the project or to
resign his/her job for the project of sustainability come from his/her own
choices of his/her existential projects. The architect’s design choices and ac-
tions should not result from the influence of external demands such as the prin-
cipal’s request, economical crisis, judgment of colleagues and friends, etc. The
architect should be aware that he/she is always in the position where he/she
can refuse the request of the firm’s principal.
As for the fourth phase, the designer should consider the practical limitations
of the design situation and the way to engage them. Sartre calls ‘facticity’ the
practical limitations of the situation within which people operate. Facticity in-
cludes the constraining factors placed on individuals by physical features,
time, and place. No matter how much free choice the designer has in design
practice, it cannot change these practical constraints. So it is necessary for
the designer to take these into account before coming to a design decision
that could simply prove to be impossible to carry out. The problems encoun-
tered at this point in the process would require going back over the previous
phases in order to identify other possible design choices that could be
implemented.
Going back to the architect’s case, the possibility for him/her to resign his/her
position could have then been excluded because of practical constraints when
in reality it may reflect the underlying goal to progress within the architecture
firm, which had not yet been addressed.
If the architect freely chooses and accepts the existential project of becoming
successful in the firm as a principal partner, then not to resign his/her job and
going ahead with the integration and use of hazardous materials in the design
project he/she is designing represent an authentic and, therefore, ethical deci-
sion. Indeed the architect is authentic since he/she accepts his/her entire re-
sponsibility and freedom to make design choices. At this point, the architect
has considered his/her choices of existential projects and is aware that he/
she is able to refuse external demands.
From what is described above, it appears clearly that the main focus of the
model is on encouraging design awareness and reflection. What makes
the model flexible is that it is not prescriptive, it does not dictate a specific
course of design choices and actions in particular design circumstances.
Each designer and each situation in design is different, and ethical dilemmas in
these diverse and wicked situations cannot be appropriately resolved through
a trade-off of different ethical arguments. In this regard, the Sartrean-based
model proposed here is successful in its consideration of the designer’s own
personal goals and projects, in fostering individual design responsibility, and
in avoiding to simply follow the external ‘ethical’ impositions.
The model presented can be questioned in regard to the same issues that Sar-
trean existentialism is, an example being the belief that all humans are funda-
mentally free. But on the other hand, the model can find support and
corresponds to human experience where Sartre’s philosophy does.
We can further this kind of ethical relativism with an extreme example. If the
personal existential projects of the architect are geared only towards his/her
career advancement, is he/she then allowed to assassinate the principal if
this fulfills these projects? If the decision is made in ‘authenticity’, i.e., the ar-
chitect completely accepts his/her freedom and responsibility, then the model
has to answer affirmatively. It appears very clear that this opposes all common
sense of ethics. For instance, in architecture, if an architect discovers an oppor-
tunity to secretly misinform clients about design projects and this is consistent
with his/her personal goals of getting commissions, then the existentialist
model would again support the action as ethical only if the decision is made
in ‘authenticity’. But, for Sartre, to be ethical implies that one put freedom
as the ultimate goal, for both oneself and the other. The issue, therefore,
becomes whether the designer’s choice and action takes freedom as an end.
In this sense, killing or undermining the firm’s principal would be denying
him/her freedom.
And when we say that man is responsible for himself, we do not mean that
he is responsible only for his own individuality, but that he is responsible
for all men (p. 23).
I am therefore responsible for myself and for everyone else, and I am fash-
ioning a certain image of man as I choose him to be. In choosing myself,
I choose man (pp. 24e25).
For Sartre, freedom is the ultimate, and not objective, value (Sartre in
Kaufmann, 1956). Freedom therefore becomes the standard to refer to for
judging actions. The issue at stake is whether or not the design choices and
actions are supportive of the designer’s fundamental freedom and of the other
actors’ fundamental freedom. For anyone in the field of design practice,
including profession and education, this remains difficult to apply, even if
this is in conformity with the core concepts of Sartre’s existentialism. In ref-
erence to the comment above, even if this may preclude the assassination of
the firm’s principal, since such action clearly denies somebody’s freedom, it
appears to be more ambiguous that misinforming clients about architectural
design projects is equivalent to a denial of freedom, or that underlying a prin-
cipal’s work is a denial of freedom. This problem is especially obvious in
reference to Sartre’s early ontology, where the individual is fundamentally
free in all circumstances.
Finally, ethical dilemmas in design comprise dilemmas of all kinds. Often, eth-
ical issues in design are related to professional activity, and it is unclear
whether the entire professional activity can be limited to some individuals’ de-
cisions. The culture of a design profession such as architecture can indeed go
on without much change despite changes in practice. The decision-making
structures in the architecture profession might grant ethical agency to the pro-
fession itself, independently of its practitioners, but the model presented is
grounded in Sartre’s phenomenological ontology, which is about the singular-
ity of human consciousness. The issue of ‘authenticity’ is accordingly based on
Sartre’s understanding of consciousness and absurdity; therefore, it cannot
simply incorporate the architecture profession as an entity since it lacks
consciousness and is a ‘being-in-itself’.
6 Conclusion
Compared to most ethical theories, Sartre’s existentialism and ethics offers
a singular view of human activity and human consciousness and of how indi-
viduals are to exist. Sartre’s philosophy shows human experience as completely
subjective. It fosters the awareness of individual freedom and responsibility.
Consequently, an ethical decision-making model for design grounded in
Sartre’s philosophy shows a very different set of phases compared to most
existing ethical decision-making models. Accordingly, such model can lead
to an insightful new range of ethical design choices, actions, and outcomes.
Notes
1. The paper uses the term design with an implicit reference to the discipline of architecture,
but the ideas and model presented can relate to any discipline of design. In that sense, it
refers to the professional practice of design in general.
2. In architecture there are two books that specifically focus on applied ethics for architec-
tural practice. See Wasserman et al. (2000) and Fisher (2008).
3. For a more detailed examination of Sartre’s philosophy, see Anderson (1979); Barnes
(1973); Cooper (1999); and Warnock (1967).
4. The term ‘bad faith’, which is ‘mauvaise foi’ in French, is the usual term used in English.
It is also translated as ‘self-deception’ by Kaufmann (1956).
5. Sartre calls this phenomenon ‘the look’ (Sartre, 1956, pp. 252e302).
6. Although the phases appear sequential, some that are more like action/activities can be
partly done in parallel.
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