1.

1 Introducing the Concepts:

Test, Measurement, Assessment & Evaluation
Test
The terms Test, Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation are confused because all may be involved in a
single process. The following definitions describes the terms Test, Measurement, Assessment and
Evaluation:
Test is an instrument or technique that measures students’ knowledge of something to determine what he/she
has learned. It is a set of questions that requires to answer orally and written.
According to Robert L. Linn (2008) “A test is a particular type of assessment that typically consist of a set
of questions administered during a fixed period of time under reasonably comparable conditions for all
students”
According to Robert L. Ebel, David A. Frisbie (1991) “A test is a set of questions each of which has a
correct answer, that examinee usually answer orally or in writing”.
Measurement
Measurement takes place when a test is given, and a score is obtained.
According to Robert L. Ebel, David A. Frisbie (1991) “Measurement is assigning of numbers to the
results of a test or other type of assessment according to specific rules e.g. counting correct answers etc.”
According to Robert L. Linn (2008) “The process of obtaining a numerical description of the degree to
which an individual possesses a particular characteristic. Measurement answers the question, How much?”
Assessment
Assessment is the interpretation of measurement data.
According to Robert L. Linn (2008) “Any of a variety of procedures used to obtain information about
students’ performance. Includes traditional paper-and-pencil tests as well as extended responses (e.g.
essays), performances of authentic tasks (e.g. laboratory experiments), teachers’ observations, and self-
report. Assessment answers the question How well does the individual perform?”
According to Murray Print (1993) “Assessment involves the interpretation of measurement data. It makes
sense of the data collected on students’ performance”.
Evaluation
It is a process that concerned with making judgments on the worth or value of a performance, answer the
question “how good, adequate, or desirable”. It is also the process of obtaining, analyzing, and interpreting
information to determent the extent to which students achieve instructional objective.
According to Norman Edward Gronlund (1985) “Evaluation is the systematic process of collecting,
analyzing, and interpreting information to determine the extent to which pupils are achieving instructional
objectives”.
According to Murray Print (1993) “Evaluation usually refers to making judgments about students’
performance and behavior and the use of that information to enhance both learning/teaching and the
curriculum”. it answers the question, How good?

1.2Instructional Process and &Role of Assessment

The main purpose of classroom assessment is to help students achieve a set of intended learning goals.
These goals should typically include desired changes in the intellectual, emotional, and physical spheres.
When classroom instruction is viewed in this light, assessment because an integral part of teaching-learning
process. The intended learning outcomes are established by the instructional goals, the desired changes in
students are brought about by the planned learning activities, and the students’ learning progress is
periodically assessed by the tests and other assessment devices. It is more than that for both the teacher and
the learner.
Hamidi (2010) developed a framework to answer the Why; What, How and When to assess. This is helpful in
understanding the true nature of this concept.
Why to Assess: Teachers have clear goals for instruction and they assess to ensure that these goals have been or are
being met. If objectives are the destination, instruction is the path to it then assessment is a tool to keep the efforts on
track and to ensure that the path is right. After the completion of journey assessment is the indication that destination
is ahead.
What to Assess: Teachers cannot assess whatever they themselves like. In classroom assessment, teachers are
supposed to assess students' current abilities in a given skill or task. The teacher can assess students’ knowledge, skills
or behavior related to a particular field.
Who to Assess: It may seem strange to ask whom a teacher should assess in the classroom, but the issue is of great
concern. Teachers should treat students as 'real learners', not as course or unit coverers. They should also predict that
some students are more active and some are less active; some are quick at learning and some are slow at it. Therefore,
classroom assessment calls for a prior realistic appraisal of the individuals teachers are going to assess.
How to Assess: Teachers employ different instruments, formal or informal, to assess their students. They can adjust
the assessment types to what they are going to assess.
When to Assess: There is a strong agreement of educationists that assessment is interwoven into instruction. Teachers
continue to assess the students learning throughout the process of teaching. They particularly do formal assessments
when they are going to make instructional decisions at the formative and summative levels, even if those decisions are
small. For example, they assess when there is a change in the content, when the effect of the given materials or
curriculum on learning process is examined.
Identification of instructional goals
The first step in both teaching and assessment is determining the learning outcomes to be expected from
classroom instruction. The teaching learning process take place instructional assessment and shapes the
reason why we evaluate? With influence of this question we concern about how to evaluate? Evaluation is
an integral part on instructional process. in sum, in instructional process, a good teaching requires planning,
and proper use of assessment tools. Following describe the role of assessment in instructional process:
1) Guiding and counselling
2) Motivation
3) Self-accountability
4) Promoting pedagogical skills
5) Judges different capabilities
6) Identification of individual differences
7) Improving learning process and professional development
8) Determines special students
9) Feedback
1.3Assessment of Learning and Assessment for Learning

Assessments of Learning

Assessment of learning (AoL) is typically administered at the end of a unit or grading period and evaluate a
student’s understanding by comparing his or her achievement against a class-, district-, or nationwide
benchmark or standard. The purpose of this kind of assessment is usually SUMMATIVE.

Assessment of learning refers to strategies designed to confirm what students know, demonstrate whether
they have met curriculum outcomes or the goals of their individualized programs, or to certify proficiency
and make decisions about students’ future programs or placements. It is designed to provide evidence of
achievement to parents, other educators, the students themselves, and sometimes to outside groups (e.g.,
employers, other educational institutions). Assessment of learning is the assessment that becomes public and
results in statements or symbols about how well students are learning. It often contributes to pivotal
decisions that will affect students’ futures. It is important, then, that underlying logic and measurement of
assessment of learning be credible and defensible. (Rethinking Classroom Assessment with Purpose in
Mind” Page 55).

Assessment for Learning (AfL)

The emphasis shifts from summative to FORMATIVE assessment in Assessment for Learning. Assessment
for Learning happens during the learning, often more than once, rather than at the end. Students understand
exactly what they are to learn, what is expected of them and are given feedback and advice on how to
improve their work. Assessment for learning (AfL) also described as assessments as learning (AaL) assess a
student’s comprehension and understanding of a skill or lesson during the learning and teaching process. It
helps to

 Identify at-risk students early

 Adjust instruction accordingly and immediately
 Monitor student progress1

Assessment for learning occurs throughout the learning process. It is designed to make each student’s
understanding visible, so that teachers can decide what they can do to help students progress. Students learn
in individual and idiosyncratic ways, yet, at the same time, there are predictable patterns of connections and
preconceptions that some students may experience as they move along the continuum from emergent to
proficient. In assessment for learning, teachers use assessment as an investigative tool to find out as much as
they can about what their students know and can do, and what confusions, preconceptions, or gaps they
might have. The wide variety of information that teachers collect about their students’ learning processes
provides the basis for determining what they need to do next to move student learning forward. It provides
the basis for providing descriptive feedback for students and deciding on groupings, instructional strategies,
and resources. (Rethinking Classroom Assessment with Purpose in Mind” Page 29).

1.4 Principles of Assessment

1- Assessment should be valid
Validity ensures that assessment tasks and associated criteria effectively measure student attainment of the
intended learning outcomes at the appropriate level.
2 - Assessment should be reliable and consistent
There is a need for assessment to be reliable and this requires clear and consistent processes for the setting,
marking, grading and moderation of assignments.
3 - Information about assessment should be explicit, accessible and transparent
Clear, accurate, consistent and timely information on assessment tasks and procedures should be made
available to students, staff and other external assessors or examiners.
4 - Assessment should be inclusive and equitable
As far as is possible without compromising academic standards, inclusive and equitable assessment should
ensure that tasks and procedures do not disadvantage any group or individual.
5 - The amount of assessed work should be manageable
The scheduling of assignments and the amount of assessed work required should provide a reliable and valid
profile of achievement without overloading staff or students.
6 - Formative and summative assessment should be included in each Program
Formative and summative assessment should be incorporated into programs to ensure that the purposes of
assessment are adequately addressed. Many programmed may also wish to include diagnostic assessment.
7 - Timely feedback that promotes learning and facilitates learning
Students are entitled to feedback on submitted formative assessment tasks, and on summative tasks, where
appropriate. The nature, extent and timing of feedback for each assessment task should be made clear to
students in advance.
 Classification of Assessment based on

1.5.1 Nature of Assessment

Assessment may be classified into two broader categories because of nature as Maximum performance and
Typical performance. These classes were labeled by Cronbach (1990). Maximum performance type is used
to determine a person’s developed abilities or achievements. Maximum performance is the type that
concerned with how well an individual perform when they are motivated to obtain as high scores as
possible. In short, assessment results indicate what an individual can do when they put forth their best effort.
Aptitude and achievement tests are included in this category. Typical performance is how students perform
on a regular basis, while maximum performance is how students perform when exerting as much effort as
possible.
For example, an algebra test designed to measure achievement at the end of the course also may be used to
predict success in the future mathematics courses.

1. Test of typical performance. In this case, an individual's performance is assessed according to a

given situation. Answers are not right or wrong, but identify choices, preferences, and strengths of
feeling.
2. Test of maximum performance: These assess the individual's ability to perform effectively under
standard conditions. Performance on these tests, which includes ability and aptitude tests, can be
judged as right or wrong. Ability tests come in many different forms and may test a general
intellectual functioning or a specific ability.

1.5.2 Purpose of Assessment

Assessment procedure can also be classified in terms of their functional role in classroom instruction. It is
identified by the Airadian and Madauus (1972).
1. Placement assessment: to determine students’ performance at the beginning of instruction
2. Diagnostic assessment: to diagnose learning difficulties during instruction
3. Formative assessment: to monitor learning progress during instruction
4. Summative assessment: to assess achievement at the end of the instruction
1. Placement Assessment
Placement assessment is concerned with the student’s entry performance and typically focusses on questions
such as the following: (a) Does the students possessed the knowledge and skills needed to begin the planned
instruction? (b) to what extent students already mastered the objectives of the planned instruction? (c) to
what extent the students interested, work, habit, and personal characteristics indicate that one mode of
instruction is better than other? It is usually determined the students’ performance at the beginning of
instructions e.g. entry test, GRE, GAT, NTS
2. Diagnostic Assessment
Diagnostic assessment can help you identify your students’ current knowledge of a subject, their skill sets
and capabilities, and to clarify misconceptions before teaching takes place. Knowing students’ strengths and
weaknesses can help you better plan what to teach and how to teach it. The types of Diagnostic Assessments
are as Pre-tests (on content and abilities), Self-assessments (identifying skills and competencies), Discussion
board responses (on content-specific prompts), and Interviews (brief, private, 10-minute interview of each
student).
Advantages
It determines the causes of learning problems.
It helps to formulate plan of remedial actions.
It is comprehensive to search errors.
It helps to understand psychological, individual, and social need.
3. Formative Assessment
Formative assessment provides feedback and information during the instructional process, while learning is
taking place, and while learning is occurring. Formative assessment measures student progress but it can
also assess your own progress as an instructor. A primary focus of formative assessment is to identify areas
that may need improvement. For example, at the end of the third week of the semester, you can informally
ask students questions which might be on a future exam to see if they truly understand the material.
According to Ebel and Frisbie (1986) “Formative assessment is conducted to monitor instructional process,
to determine whether learning is taking place as planned”
Types of Formative Assessment
 Observations during in-class activities; of students’ non-verbal feedback during lecture
 Homework exercises as review for exams and class discussions)
 Reflections journals that are reviewed periodically during the semester
 Question and answer sessions, both formal—planned and informal—spontaneous
 Conferences between the instructor and student at various points in the semester
 Students’ feedback collected by periodically answering specific question about the instruction and their
self-evaluation of performance and progress
Advantages
It continuously provides feedback for students.
It identifies learning errors that needed correction.
It provides feedback for the teacher concerning learning success and failure.
It helps teacher to modify and redesign teaching methods.
It highlights students’ improvement.
4. Summative Assessment
Summative assessment takes place after the learning has been completed and provides information and
feedback that sums up the teaching and learning process. Typically, no more formal learning is taking place
at this stage, other than incidental learning which might take place through the completion of projects and
assignments. Summative assessment is more product-oriented and assesses the final product, whereas
formative assessment focuses on the process toward completing the product. Once the project is completed,
no further revisions can be made.
Norman E. Gronlund (1985) stated that “Summative evaluation comes at the end of a course or until of
instruction. It is designed to determine extent to which the instructional objectives have been achieved and is
used primarily for assigning course grades or certifying pupil mastery of the intended learning outcomes”.
According to Ebel and Frisbie (1986)
“Summative evaluation is conducted at the end of an instructional segment to determine if learning is
sufficiently complete to warrant moving the learner to the next segment of instruction”.
Types of Summative Assessment
 Examinations (major, high-stakes exams)
 Final examination (a truly summative assessment)
 Term papers (drafts submitted throughout the semester would be a formative assessment)
 Projects (project phases submitted at various completion points could be formatively assessed)
 Portfolios (could also be assessed during its development as a formative assessment)
 Performances
 Student evaluation of the course (teaching effectiveness)
Advantages
It determines overall success and failure of students.
It is comprehensive and vast.
It is used to promote, upgrade, and certify the students.
It identifies the academic potential.
It helps for future decision and prediction.
It also helps to compare the performance of groups.

1.5.3 Forms of Assessment

Fixed Choice Test

Fixed-choice Test measures knowledge and skills effectively and efficiently e.g. Standard multiple-choice
test. The student selects an answer from available options. (May include t/f, multi choice, and matching).
Fixed Choice Tests include questions that consist of multiple choice, true/false, and matching. These types
of tests are easy to score, and can cover a large amount of material, but are difficult to create and typically
do not involve higher order thinking skills.
Advantages
 Objective scoring
 Students can respond to many items in a short time.
 Can be machine scored
 High reliability
 Cost effective
Limitations
 Tend to overemphasize factual knowledge and low-level skills
Complex-performance assessment
Complex-performance assessment measures the performance of learners in context and on problems valued
in their own rights e.g. Hands-on laboratory experiments, projects, essays, oral presentation.
Complex performance assessment - requires students to solve problems of importance outside the classroom,
such as written essays. Complex Thinking type of learning target that asks students to apply their knowledge
and/or to use different types of reasoning strategies.

Advantages
 Useful in measuring student achievement.
 May assess at higher levels of the taxonomy of objectives.

1.5.4 Methods of Interpreting Results

There are two basic ways of interpreting students’ performance Norm-references and Criterion-references.
1-Interpreting Results by Norm-referenced test (NRT)
Norm-references describes the performance in terms of relative position held in some known groups. It
involves ranking of scores and expressing given scores in relation to the other scores. It usually tells how an
individual is better as compared with other persons who have taken the same test.
Norm-referenced is a type of test that assesses the test taker’s ability and performance against other test
takers. It could also include a group of test takers against another group of test takers. This is done to
differentiate high and low achievers. The test’s content covers a broad area of topics that the test takers are
expected to know, and the difficulty of the content varies. This test must also be administered in a
standardized format. Norm-referenced test helps determine the position of the test taker in a predefined
population.
2-Interpreting Results by Criterion-referenced test (CRT)
Criterion-references interpretation describes the specific performance that was demonstrated. It describes an
individuals test performance without refereeing to the performance of other students.
Criterion-Reference is a type of test that assesses the test taker’s ability to understand a set curriculum. In
this test, a curriculum is set in the beginning of the class, which is then explained by the instructor. At the
end of the lesson, the test is used to determine how much did the test taker understand. This test is
commonly used to measure the level of understanding of a test taker before and after an instruction is given.
It can also be used to determine how good the instructor is at teaching the students.
Comparison between NRT and CRT
Characteristics NRT CRT
Definition Norm-Referenced tests measure the Criterion-Reference tests measure the
performance of one group of test takers performance of test takers against the
against another group of test takers. criteria covered in the curriculum.
Purpose To measure how much a test taker To measure how much the test taker
knows compared to another student. known before and after the instruction
is finished.
Types of interpretation Relative (percentage) Absolute (percentage)
Content Typically covers a large domain of Typically focuses on a delimited
learning task. domain of learning.
Administration Norm-Referenced tests must be Criterion-Reference tests need not be
administered in a standardized format. administered in a standardized format.
Score reporting Norm-Referenced test scores are Criterion-Reference test scores are
reported in a percentile rank. reported in categories or percentage.
Score interpretation In Norm-Referenced tests, if a test In Criterion-Reference, the score
taker ranks 95%, it implies that he/she determines how much of the
has performed better than 95% of the curriculum is understood by the test
other test takers. taker.
Major emphasize Measure Extent of Individual Describe What A Student Can and
Differences. Cannot Do.

1.5.5 Teacher made vs standardized test

There are generally two types of tests used to evaluate environmental education programs: standardized tests
(prepared by publishing companies, formal testing agencies, and universities), and teacher made tests
(prepared by the teacher).
Standardized test
Standardized test refers as constructed by the experts and includes explicit instructions for uniform
administration scores. Standardized tests are formal tests that allow you to compare your students with other
students in the region or country. These tests are usually valid and reliable because they have been tested on
large sample populations and have been revised to eliminate unreliable or invalid questions. They are useful
if you want to compare your students with other students or if you want to rank students against the "norm."
(Ratings of validity and reliability are published for standardized tests and you can check on the
documentation).
 Examples of Standardized Tests: TOEFL (Test of English as Foreign Language, TOEIC (Test of English for
International Communication), IELTS (International English Language Testing System), GMAT (Graduate
Management Admission System), etc.
Teacher Made Test
A test developed by the teacher in order to assess the achievements and performance of students’ subject
called teacher made test. It is useful as:
 Evaluating the learning outcomes and content unique class or school.
 Evaluating students’ day to day progress and their achievements on work units of varying sizes.
 Evaluating knowledge of current developments in such rapidly changing content areas as science and
social studies.
Differences between Standardized Test and Teacher Made Test

Standard test Teacher-made test

1. Generally prepared by specialists who know 1. Made by teachers who may not know very well the
very well the principles of test construction; principles of test construction;
2. Prepared very carefully following principles of 2. Often prepared hurriedly and haphazardly to be able
test construction; to meet the deadline for administration;
3. Given to a large proportion of the population for 3. Usually given only to a class or classes for which the
which they are intended for the computation of tests are intended; usually, no norms are computed;
norms;
4. Generally correlated with other tests of known 4. Teacher-made tests are not subjected to any
validity and reliability or with measures such as statistical procedures to determine their validity and
school marks to determine their validity and reliability;
reliability;
5. Generally, are high objective; 5. May be objective and may essay in which case
scoring is subjective;
6. Have their norms computed for purposes of 6. Have no norms unless the teacher computes the
comparison and interpretation; median, mean, and other measures for comparison and
interpretation;
7. Measure innate capacities and characteristics as 7. Generally, measure subject achievement only;
achievement;
8. Intended to be used for a long period of time 8. Intended to be used only once or twice to measure
and for all people of the same class in the culture achievement of students in a subject matter studied
where they are validated. during a certain period;
9. Accompanied by manuals of instructions on 9. Do not have manuals of instructions, only the
how to administer and score the tests and how to directions for the different types of tests which may be
interpret the results; given orally or in writing.
10. Generally copyrighted. 10. Not copyrighted.

Sources:
 Robert L. Linn (2008). Measurement and Assessment in Teaching, Pearson Education India
 Norman Edward Gronlund (1985). Measurement and evaluation in teaching, Macmillan,
 Murray Print (1993). Curriculum Development and Design, Allen & Unwin
 Robert L. Ebel, David A. Frisbie (1991). Essentials of Educational Measurement, Prentice Hall, the
University of Michigan
 Freeman, Richard, (2OO4). Planning and Implementing Assessment. New York: Routledge Flamer.
 Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence & Educational Innovation at Carnegie Mellon University. “What
is the difference between formative and summative assessment?”