ROAD DESIGN

PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY DESIGN

I. Highway Location V. Pavement Design
• Coverage • Design Variables
II. Highway Design • Performance Criteria
• Geometric • Material Properties
• Structural • Structural Characteristics
• Drainage • Joints
• Roadside Facilities VI. Drainage Design
III. Geometric Design • Hydrology Analysis
IV. Cross Section Elements • Hydraulic Design
• Pavement • Procedures for Selection of
• Lane Width Culvert Size
• Shoulders VII. Slope Protection
I. Highway Location

Coverage:
 Reconnaissance
 Preliminary Survey/
Data gathering
 Office Projection
Reconnaissance:
Plan the best possible horizontal and
vertical alignment.
PRELIMINARY SURVEY:
Topography of the strip/s flagged is
obtained and from which a topographic
map is prepared to be utilized as the Basic
framework for the projection of the
alignment.
 OFFICE PROJECTION:

Best alignment is projected on the

topographic map which is fitted as
close as possible into the terrain
within the desired standards.
II. Highway Design

Composition:
 Geometric
 Structural
 Drainage
 Roadside Facilities
 GEOMETRIC:
Embraces the grade line, alignment and the
width of the several component parts
including intersections.
STRUCTURAL:
Includes the thickness of pavement and
bases, stability of sub-grade foundation and
type of slope protection works.
DRAINAGE:
Involves culverts and lined ditches/canals.
Roadside Facilities:
Involve traffic barriers, road signages
and other road safety related facilities.
• These are primarily installed for the reason
of safety, which is the most important
ingredient in a highway particularly when
the elements of the highway design are
being relaxed for various reasons.
• For uniformity of design and installation,
refer to the DPWH Road Safety Design
Manual, 2012.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN OF A
NEW HIGHWAY OR REDESIGN OF AN OLD
HIGHWAY
 Suitable for the traffic routine
 Consistent and must avoid surprise changes
in alignment
 Pleasing to the user and to those who live
along it
 Can be maintained at the least cost
 And safe for driving and ensure confidence
for the motorist.
III. Geometric Design

Basic Data Required:

• Traffic Density – pertains to the volume of
traffic.
• Character of Traffic – involves vehicle’s weight,
dimension and mobility.
• Design Speed – selected speed used to determine
the minimum values for superelevation, lane
width and sight distances.
Design Elements:

 Sight Distance
 Horizontal Alignment
 Vertical Alignment
Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance:

Height of Driver’s Eye

= 1.08 m (for passenger cars)
= 2.330 m (for large trucks)
Height of Object
= 600 mm (for stopping)
= 1080 mm (for passing)
Types of Sight Distance:

1. Stopping (Non-Passing) Sight Distance

2. Passing Sight Distance
3. Decision Sight Distance
1. Stopping (Non-Passing) Sight Distance

- Available distance on a roadway to enable

a vehicle traveling at the design speed to
stop before reaching a stationary object.

- It is the sum of the break reaction and

braking distances.
2. Passing Sight Distance
- Distance required for a driver to see a
sufficient object to complete the passing
maneuver without cutting off the passed
vehicle in advance of meeting an opposing
vehicle appearing during maneuver.
3. Decision Sight Distance
- Length of a road a driver needs to receive
and interpret information, select an
appropriate speed and path and begin and
complete an action in a safe maneuver.
Horizontal Alignment:
 Design Considerations
 Radius of Curve
 Length of Curve
 Super elevation
 Widening on Curve
 General Controls
Design Considerations:

 safety
 grade profile
 type of facility
 design speed
 topography
 and construction cost
Radius of Curve

 The combination of a given design speed

and maximum superelevation controls
maximum degree of curvature.

 Minimum radius is 30 m for a design speed

of 30kph and e=6-8%
Length of Curve

 Desirably, the minimum length of

horizontal curve on main highways should
be about 3x the design speed.
 Minimum (LVC) Length of Vertical Curve is
equal to 60.00 meters.
Superelevation

 In recognition of safety consideration, use

of maximum superelevation of 4% should be
limited to urban conditions and on bridge
structures.

 Maximum superelevation rate for open

highways is 8%.
 Widening on Curve

 The objective of widening along horizontal

curve is to make operating conditions on
curves comparable to those on tangent.
WIDENING Principal points of concern
in design:
1. On simple curves, widening should be applied on the
inside edge only.
2. On curve design with spiral, widening may be placed
on the inside or divided equally between the inside
and outside curve.
3.Curve widening should be attained gradually over a
length sufficient to
make the whole of the traveled way fully usable.
4. Minimum width of widening on curve is 0.60 m.
5. Maximum width of widening on curve is 1.50 m.
General Controls
• Alignment should be as directional as
possible but should be consistent with the
topography and preserving developed
properties.
• Alignment should be consistent and sharp
curves should not be introduced at the end
of long tangents.
• For small deflection angles, curves should
be sufficiently long to avoid the appearance
of a kink.
General Controls

 Caution should be exercised in the use of

compound curve. Where topography or
RROW restrictions make their use
necessary, the radius of the flatter curve
shall not be more than 50% greater than
the radius of the sharper curve.
General Controls

• Any abrupt changes/reversal in alignment

should be avoided. The minimum length of
tangent between reversed curves should be
50m and in no case should be less than 30m.
• The “broken-back” or “flat-back” arrangement
of curve (having a short tangent between two
curves in the same direction) should be
avoided except where very unusual
topographical conditions dictate otherwise.
General Controls

 To avoid the appearance of inconsistent

distortion, the horizontal alignment
should be coordinated carefully with
the profile design.
 Ending a curve on a bridge is
undesirable, unsightly and adds
needless complication to design and
construction.
Vertical Alignment:

Three (3) Terrain Classifications:

 Flat Terrain
 Rolling Terrain
 Mountainous Terrain
Three (3) Terrain Classifications:
Level Terrain or Flat Terrain
– is that condition where highway sight distances are
generally long or could be made to be so without
major expense.
Rolling Terrain
- Is that condition where the natural slope
consistently rise above
or fall below the road grade.
Mountainous Terrain
- Is that condition where longitudinal and transverse
changes in the elevation of the ground with respect
to the road.
Design Considerations:

 Gradient
 Critical Length of
Upgrades
 Vertical Curves
Gradient
 For economy of vehicle operation, grades
should be as flat as practicable;
 For Philippine national roads, the
maximum grade is reduced or
compensated on sharp curves according to
the following rule:
“For every degree of curvature over six (6)
degrees, the ruling grade shall be reduced
by 0.10 percent”.
Gradient
 In areas subject to inundation, grades
should be established 0.50m above water
level;

 Grades of bridges should allow 1.50 m

free board above the maximum flood
water elevation;

 Maximum grade widely used is 6%

Gradient

 On through cut sections, grades should

at least be 0.50% to provide longitudinal
drainage.

 A minimum of 0.35% may be used on

curb type pavements and accurately
crown to facilitate drainage discharge.
Critical Length of Upgrades

The following critical

length of upgrades
when approached by a
level section should
not be used as a
control but should be
referred to as a guide:
 Vertical Curves
 All intersections of grade tangents shall be
connected by parabolic vertical curve either
symmetrical or unsymmetrical, where the latter
should be avoided whenever possible.
 Crest vertical curves should be long enough to
permit sight distance.
 Headlight sight distance controls the length of
sag vertical curve.
 Vertical Curves
 The required length of vertical curves to satisfy the requirement of stopping
sight distance should be shorter than L=KA

The minimum requirement of vertical

curve
length without considering K-Value is 60m.
 General Controls
 A smooth grade line with gradual changes should
be sought for in preference to a line with
minimum breaks.
 The ‘roller coaster” or the hidden-dip type of
profile should be avoided.
 Undulating grade lines involving substantial length
of momentum grades should be evaluated for their
effect on traffic operation.
 A “broken-back” grade line should be avoided.
 General Controls
 On long grades, it may be preferable to place the
steepest grades at the bottom and flatter the
grades near the top of the ascent.
 Where at-grade intersections occur on roadway
sections with moderate to steep grades, it is
desirable to reduce the grades through the
intersection.
 Sag vertical curves should be avoided in cuts
unless adequate drainage can be provided.
IV. Cross Section Elements
 Pavement
- Surface Type
- Cross Slope
 Lane Width
 Shoulders
Pavement:
-Surface Type, selection is based on:
 Traffic Volume and Composition
 Soil Characteristics
 Weather
 Performance of Pavements in the Area
 Availability of Materials
 Energy Conservation
 Initial Cost, and
 Overall Annual Maintenance Cost
 Pavement:
-Cross Slope

For multilane highway, the two-lane adjacent to the

crown line should be pitched at the normal minimum
slope, and on each successive pair of lanes outward,
the rate may be increased by about 0.50%.
Lane Width

 Width of pavement is determined by the

lane width.
 Desirable lane width is 3.65m which
allows large vehicles to pass without
either vehicle having to move sideways
towards the edge of pavement.
 Lane width as low as 2.75m may be used
on grounds of economy.
Lane Width

 Roads with pavement width of less than

5.5m should be regarded as single lane.
 Pavement width greater than 7.32m for
2-way direction is not recommended for
2-lane roads as some drivers will attempt
to travel their vehicles abreast.
Shoulders
• Shoulders on fill preferably should be wider
than in cuts, although the present practice
is to make them equal.
• Regardless of the width, shoulders should
be continuous.
• Although it is desirable that a shoulder be
wide enough for a vehicle to be driven
completely of the traveled way, narrower
shoulders are better than none at all.
Shoulders

 Shoulder width of 0.60m may be considered on

difficult terrain and on low-volume highway.
 If the shoulder are to be used by animal drawn
vehicles, pack animals or pedestrians, greater
width should be considered.
 Preferably, shoulder width of 2.5m is
recommended for high speed/traffic volume.
V. Pavement Design

 Design Variables
 Performance Criteria
 Material Properties
 Structural
Characteristics
 Joints
Design Variables
Analysis Period
– refers to the period of time for which the
analysis is to be conducted, which is analogous
to the term design life.
Traffic
– refers to the cumulative expected 18-kip single
axle loads (ESAL) during the analysis period in
the design lane.
Design Variables
Load Equivalence Factor
– derived from the allowable gross vehicle weight
set forth in the Republic Act No. 8794.
Reliability
– is the probability that a pavement section will
perform satisfactorily over the traffic and
environmental conditions for the analysis period.
Performance Criteria

Serviceability
– is defined as its ability to serve the type of
traffic that uses the facility and is
expressed as Present Serviceability Index
(PSI), which ranges from 0 (impassable
road) to 5 (perfect road).
Material Properties

 Effective Roadbed Soil Resilient

Modulus (MR)
 PCCP Elastic Modulus (Ec)
 PCCP Modulus of Rapture (Sc)
Material Properties

Effective Roadbed Soil Resilient Modulus

(MR)
– refers to the material’s stress-strain
behavior under normal pavement loading
conditions and it is related to the soil
support value which is expressed by
MR=1500 x CBR.
 Material Properties
PCCP Elastic Modulus (Ec)
– is a fundamental engineering property of any paving or roadbed material
which are subject to significant permanent deformation under load.
Material Properties

PCCP Modulus of Rapture (Sc)

– refers to the flexural strength of
concrete determined after 28 days using
the third point loading method.
Structural Characteristics

 Drainage Coefficient (Cd)

 Load Transfer (J)
 Loss of Support (LS)
 Structural Characteristics
Drainage Coefficient (Cd)
– refers to the quality of drainage and the
percent of time when the pavement structure
would normally be exposed to moisture levels
approaching saturation.
 Structural Characteristics
Load Transfer (J)
– is a factor used in rigid pavement design to
account for the ability of a concrete pavement
structure to transfer load across discontinuities
such as joints or cracks.
 Structural Characteristics
Loss of Support (LS)
– included in the design of rigid pavement to
account for the potential loss of support
arising from sub-base erosion and/or
differential vertical soil movements.
 JOINTS
Three General Types of Joints:
1. Contraction or weakened-plane joints are
provided to relieve
the tensile stresses due to temperature, moisture
and friction, thereby controlling cracking.
2. Expansion joint provides
space for the expansion of the
pavement to prevent development of compressive
stresses which can cause pavement to buckle.
3. Construction joint are required to facilitate construction.
 JOINTS
Joint Spacing
The joint spacing (feet) of transverse contraction
joints for plain concrete pavements should not
exceed twice the slab thickness (inches). The ratio
of slab width to length should not exceed 1.25.
Joint Dimension
The depth of transverse contraction joint should be ¼
of the slab thickness and 1/3 for longitudinal joint.
 JOINTS
Joint Sealant Dimension

The depth to width sealant ratio should be

within a range of 1 to 1.5, with a minimum
depth of 9mm and 12mm for longitudinal and
transverse joints, respectively.
Dowel Bar

The dowel bar (plain bar) diameter shall be

equal to the slab thickness multiplied by 1/8.
The dowel spacing and length are normally 12
inches (300mm) and 18 inches (450mm),
respectively.
 JOINTS
Tie Bar
Tie bars at the longitudinal joints shall be
deformed bars. The length shall be 625mm
and 750mm for 12mm and 16mm diameter,
respectively. The spacing recommended for
12mm and 16mm deformed bars are 600mm
and 750mm, respectively.
VI. Drainage DesignJOINTS

 Hydrology Analysis
Requirements
 Hydraulic Design
Requirements
 Procedures for Selection of
Culvert Size
Hydrology Analysis Requirements:

 Determination of drainage areas by

topographic maps or aerial photographs;
 Run-off coefficient according to the
surface condition, slope, soil nature and
rainfall duration in the drainage area;
 Rainfall intensity derived from the
maximum rainfall for the design storm
frequency and the time of concentration;
Hydrology Analysis Requirements:

 Time of concentration required for run-off

from the remotest point of the drainage or
catchment area to arrive at the outlet point;
and
 Determination of design run-off normally
adopted for ungauged water sources having
drainage areas not exceeding 20 sq. km. by
the Rational Method: Q = 0.278 CIA
Hydraulic Design Requirements:

• Design discharge Q (in cu.m./sec)

• Approximate length of culvert (in meter)
• Slope of culvert (in %)
• Allowable headwater depth (in meter),
which is the vertical distance from the
culvert elevation (flow line) at the entrance
to the surface elevation permissible in the
headwater pool or approach channel
upstream from the culvert
Hydraulic Design Requirements:

 Mean and maximum flood velocities in

natural stream and allowable outlet
velocities if scour is a problem
 Type of culvert selected including barrel
material, cross sectional shape and
entrance type
 Procedures for Selection of Culvert Size:
1. List given data.
2. Determine a trial size culvert.
3. Find headwater depth for trial size culvert.
4. Check outlet velocities for size selected.
5. Try a culvert of another type or shape and
determine size and headwater by the above
procedure.
6. Record final selection of culvert with size,
type, outlet velocity, required headwater and
economic justifications.
 VII. Slope Protection
 Cut slope varies with type and condition of soil
and height of cut slope. Desirably, a 1.50 meter
wide berm shall be provided at every height
interval of 7.0 meter (maximum).
 Embankment slope is designed in accordance with
the kind of embankment materials, geological
condition of embankment foundation and other
conditions. A 1.50 meter wide berm shall be
provided at every height interval of 5.0 meter
(maximum).
VII. Slope Protection

 Protection work aims to eliminate or

minimize erosion and/or weathering by
constructing or implementing the
countermeasure either directly on the
surface of the slope or subsurface as+
the case maybe, and are classified into
two types, namely; vegetation and
protection works with structures.
 VII. Slope Protection
 Slope stability analysis/calculation by Slice
method of Circular Failure Surface is commonly
applied for various slope problems. The slope is
adequately safe and stable when the minimum
factor of safety is equal to 1.20.
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