STUDY OF RELAY TECHNOLOGY AND TESTING

The Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED
By
M.P.PRASANNA KUMAR 06U41A0227
M.PRASAD KUMAR 07U45A0203
V.SAGAR 06U41A0237
S.REVATHI 06U41A0236
G.J.S.P.R.JYOTHSHNA RANI 06U41A0216
B.NAVEEN 06U41A0224
Under The Esteemed Guidance of
Mr.M.SAI SESHA

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
DADI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
ANAKAPALLE, J.N.T.UNIVERSITY, KAKINADA

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project entitled

“STUDY OF RELAY TECHNOLOGY AND TESTING”

is a bonifide work done by

M.P.PRASANNA KUMAR pursuing his B.Tech in

DADI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY ANAKAPALLE.

J.N.T.UNIVERSITY, KAKINADA

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Date: External Guide

Place: Mr.B.Srinivasa Reddy
Senior manager (Electrical)
Visakhapatnam Steel Plant

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project work entitled

2
“STUDY OF RELAY TECHNOLOGY AND TESTING”

is a bonifide work of

M.P.PRASANNA KUMAR M.PRASAD KUMAR

V.SAGAR, S.REVATHI, G.J.S.P.R.JYOTHSHNA RANI, B.NAVEEN

DADI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ANAKAPALLE.
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
Mr.M.SAI SESHA
Associate Prof. (Electrical Dept.)
DADI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT INTERNAL GUIDE

Mr.K.V.L.NARAYANA. M.SAI SESHA.

Date:
Place:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We humbly express our sincere profound sense of gratitude for

Mr.B.JAGAN MOHAN RAO, Principal for giving us an

opportunity to take up the project work in a prestigious organization

like Visakhapatnam Steel Plant.

It is needed a great privilege to express our deep sense of

gratitude and in debt ness to our distinguished Head of the Dept.

Mr. K.V.L.NARAYANA, Associate Prof. for his scholarly

inspiration, valuable guidance and immerse help. Our Sincere thanks

to Mr. B.SRINIVAS REDDY, Senior Manager (Electrical) that he

has extended us for the successful completion of this endeavor. It is

proud to privilege to have the opportunity of guidance from a great

personality like him.

Last but not the least; we would like to convey our thanks to

Mr. M.SAI SESHA, Associate Prof. for the kind guidance to do this

project in this prestigious organization with his vast knowledge

Radiance in Electrical Field of Stream.

CONTENTS

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1. Introduction

2. Introduction to Visakhapatnam Steel Plant

3. Introduction to Protective Relaying

12

4. Important Terms and Fault Characteristics 20

5. Requirements of Protective Relaying 21

6. Types of Electromechanical Relay 26

7. Static Relays 33

8. Latest Era in Relays -Numerical Relays 37

9. Testing of Relays and Procedures 39

10. Suggestions for the forthcoming batches 47

11. Conclusion 49

12. References

50

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 INTRODUCTION
In a power system consisting of generator, transformer,
transmission and distribution circuits, it is inevitable that sooner
or later some failure will occur somewhere in the system, it must
be quickly detected and disconnected from the system. There are
two principal reasons for it. Firstly if the fault is not cleared
quickly it may cause unnecessary interruption of service to the
customers secondly rapid disconnection of the faulted apparatus
limits the amount of damage to it and prevents effects of fault
from spreading into the system. The capital investment involved
in a power system for the generation, transmission and
distribution of electrical power is so great that proper precautions
must be taken to ensure that the equipment not only operates as
nearly as possible to peak efficiency but also that it is protected
from accidents.

The purpose of protective relays and protective relaying

system is to operate the correct the circuit breakers so as to
disconnect only the fault equipment from system as quickly as
possible, thus minimizing the trouble and damage caused by
faults when they occur. The modern power system is very
complex and even though protective equipments from 4% to 5%

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of the total cost involved in the System, they play a very
important role in the system design for good quality of reliable
supply. The protective relays do not eliminate the possibility of
faults on the system, rather their action starts only after the fault
has occurred on the system. It would be ideal if protection could
anticipate and prevent faults but this is impossible except where
the original cause of fault creates some effects which can operate
a protective relay. A protective relay is device that detects the
fault and initiates the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate
the defective element from the rest of the system. The relay
detects the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by
constantly measuring the electrical quantities which are different
under normal and fault conditions.

The electrical quantities which may change under fault

conditions are voltage, current, frequency and phase angle.
Through the changes in one or more of these quantities the faults
signal their presence, type and location to the protective relays.
Having detected the fault the relay operates to close the trip
circuit of breaker. This results in the opening of breaker and
disconnection of faulty circuit. The relay circuit connections can
be divided into three parts viz..,

• First part is primary winding of a current transformer

(C.T) which is connected in series with the line to be
protected.

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 • Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and the
relay operating coil.
• Third part is tripping circuit which may be either A.C or
D.C. It consists of a source supply, the trip coil of the circuit
breaker and the relay stationary contacts. When a short circuit
occurs at a certain point on the transmission line the current
flowing in line increases to an enormous value. This result in a
heavy current flow through the relay coil, causing the relay to
operate by closing its contacts. This in turn closes the trip circuit
of the breaker, making the circuit breaker open and isolating the
faulty section from the rest of the system. In this way the relay
ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from damage and
normal working of the healthy portion of the system. The
demand for electrical power is increasing at a very fast rate.
This necessitates the installation of transmission lines reaching
to all the areas of the state. When large bulk of power is to be
transmitted at very long distances, the efficiency should be
high. It requires extra high voltage and ultra high voltage
transmission lines to be erected. These transmission lines are
required to be protected by comprehensive and quite
complicated protective schemes. So that the power interruption
is reduced to minimum, with regard to both the time of
interruption and the area affected by power interruption. The
protective scheme must operate fast and selectively before the
power system becomes unstable.
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 Our project is dedicated for discussion of different
protective schemes i.e. by the usage of Relays and mainly on
distance protection of transmission lines of power system.
Before going into the details of the Project Theme Line let’s
know about the Overview of Steel Plant.

OVER VIEW OF VISAKHAPATNAM STEEL PLANT

BRIEF DESCRIPTION:

Visakhapatnam Steel plant is located on the coast of Bay of

Bengal, 16 km to the South – West of Visakhapatnam. The
decision of the Government of India to set up an Integrated
Steel Plant at Visakhapatnam was announced by the Prime
Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi in Parliament on 17th April 1970.
The formal inauguration was done on 20th January 1971 by
the then Prime Minister. The Government of India and USSR
signed an agreement in 1979 in setting up the 3.4 million tones
integrated Steel plant at Vizag.

The project was estimated to cost Rs.3897.28 corers

based on 1981 prices but the cost has increased substantially
over the sanctioned cost and finally the project is estimated to
cast Rs.5822.17 corers as per 1987. Vizag Steel, also known
as Visakhapatnam Steel Plant, is a steel company based in the
outskirts of Visakhapatnam, India. Its vision - Infrastructuring

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India. Vizag Steel bagged the first prize in Energy
Conservation constituted by Government, consecutively for
the last 2 years primarily due to its focus on energy
conservation, cost reduction and waste utilization. Vizag Steel
Plant today is among the lowest cost steel producers in the
world. The Visakhapatnam Steel Plant has been awarded the
Safety Innovation Award - 2006 by the Institution of
Engineers for its "outstanding contributions in the field and
adoption of the best and the most innovative safety practices".
The plant was awarded the Prime Minister's trophy for the best
steel plant in the country, for the year 02-03. VSP added
another feather to its cap by bagging six Government of India,
Vishwakarma Rashtriya Puraskar (VRP) Awards at national
level out of total number of 28 awards announced by Ministry
Of Labour, Government of India.

PRODUCT MI:
VSP produces angles, channels, bars, wire rods and billets for
re-rolling. The Plant produces Pig Iron, 1.44 million tones per
annum of granulated slag and there are also normal by-
products from coke-oven and coal chemical plant.
PLANT FACILITIES:
VSP has these major production facilities.
1. Three coke-ovens Batteries.
2. Two Sinter machines of 312 m square area.

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3. Two Blast Furnace of 3200 m cube use full volume.
4. Steel Melt shop with three L D converters of 150 tons.
5. Light & Medium Merchant mill of 7, 10,000 tones per year.
6. Wire Rod Mill of 850000 tons per year.
7. Medium Merchant & Structural Mill of 850000 tons.

MODERN TECHNOLOGY:

VSP is the most sophisticated and modern integrated steel

plant it contains selective crushing of coal.
1. 7metres tall coke-ovens.
2. Dry quenching of coke.
3. On ground blending of sinter base mix.
4. 100% continuous casting of liquid steel.
5. Hot metal de-sulphurisation.
6. Computerization for process control. And many more
Integrated systems are being used in this plant.

POWER SUPPLY:

The plant has in plant power generation from a power plant

having three turbo generators of 60 MW and one 67.5 MW
generators totally supplying 247.5 MW power supply. And an
inclusion of Auxiliary Unit constitutes the plant with an Extra
of 40 MW (2 x 20 MW) resulting the total power supply to

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287.5 MW in total. The plant is estimated to cost about Rs.
8755 crores based on prices as on 1994.

INTRODUCTION TO PROTECTIVE RELAYING

About Protective Relaying:

Protective relaying is necessary with almost every electrical
plant, and no part of the power system is left unprotected. The
choice of protection depends upon several aspects such as type
and rating of the protected equipment, its importance, location,
probable abnormal conditions, cost etc. Between generators
and the final load points, there are several electrical equipment
and the machines of various ratings. Each need is certain
adequate protection. The protective relaying senses the
abnormal conditions in a part of the power system and gives an
alarm or isolates that part from the healthy system. The relays
are compact, self-contained devices which respond to
abnormal condition. The relays distinguish between normal
and abnormal condition. Whenever an abnormal condition
develops, the relays close its contacts. There by the trip current
of the circuit breaker is closed. Current from the battery supply
flows in the trip coil of the circuit breaker opens and the faulty

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part is disconnected from the supply. The last thirty years have
seen enormous changes in relay technology. The
electromechanical relay in all of its different forms has been
replaced successively by static, digital and numerical relays,
each change bringing with it reductions and size and
improvements in functionality. At the same time, reliability
levels have been maintained or even improved and availability
significantly increased due to techniques not available with
older relay types. This represents a tremendous achievement
for all those involved in relay design and manufacture. The
entire process, ‘occurrence of fault-operation of the relay-
opening of circuit breaker, removal of faulty part from the
system’ is automatic and fast.
Circuit breakers are switching devices which can interrupt
normal currents and fault currents. Besides relays and circuit
breakers, there are several other important components in the
protective relaying scheme. These include: protective current
transformers and voltage transformers, protective relays, time
delay relays, auxiliary relays, secondary circuits, trip circuits,
auxiliaries and accessories etc. Each component is important
protective relaying is a team work of these components.
The functions of protective relaying include the following:

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 To sound an alarm or to close the trip circuit of circuit-
breaker so as to disconnect a component during an abnormal
condition in the component, which include over-load, under-
voltage, temperature rise, unbalanced load, reverse power,
under-frequency, short circuits etc...

 To disconnect the abnormally operating part so as to

prevent the subsequent faults.

Example: Over-load protection of a machine protects the

machine and prevents insulation failure.

• To disconnect the faulty path quickly so as to minimize

the damage to the faulty part eg: if a machine is
disconnected immediately after a winding fault, only a
few coils may need replacement. If the fault is sustained,
entire winding may get damaged and machine may be
beyond repairs.

• To localize the effect of fault by disconnecting the

faulty path, from the healthy part, causing least
disturbance to the healthy system.

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 • To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to improve the
system stability, service continuity and system
performance. Transient stability can be improved by
means of improved protective relaying. Faults can’t be
avoided completely .They can be minimized. Protective
relaying plays an important role in minimizing the faults
and also minimizing the damage in the event of faults.

IMPORTANT TERMS:
It is desirable to define and explain some important terms
much used in connection with relays.

1. PICK-UP CURRENT:
It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay
starts to operate. So long as the current in the relay is less than
pick-up value, the relay does not operate and the breaker
controlled by it remains in the closed position. However, when
the relay coil current is equal to or greater than the pick-up
value, the relay operates to energize the trip coil which opens
the circuit breaker.

2. CURRENT SETTING:
It is often desirable to adjust the pick-up current to any
required value. This is known as current setting and is usually

15
achieved by the use of tappings on the relay operating coil.
The taps are brought out of a plug bridge as shown in figure.

The plug bridge permits to alter the number of turns on the

relay coil. This changes the torque on disc and hence the time
of operation of the relay. The values assigned to each tap are
expressed in terms of percentage full-load rating of Current
Transformer with which the relay is associated and represents
the value above which the disc commences to rotate and
finally closes the trip circuit. Therefore, pick-up current=rated
secondary current of C.T.*current setting.

3. PLUG-SETTING MULTIPLIER (P.S.M.):

It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pick-up current
i.e.., P.S.M= fault current in the relay coil / pick-up current.
= fault current in the relay coil / rated secondary
Current of C.T.*100

4. TIME SETTING MULTIPLIER:

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A relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of
operation. The time setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in
steps of 0.05sec as shown in figure. These figures are
multipliers to be used to convert the time derived from time
/P.S.M. curve into the actual operating time.

Thus if the time setting is the 0.1 and the time obtained from
the time/P.S.M curve is 3 seconds, then actual relay operating
time is 3*0.1=0.3sec. For instance, in an induction relay the
time of operation is controlled by adjusting the amount of
travel of the disc from its reset position to its pick up position.
This is achieved by the adjustment of the position of a
movable backstop which controls the travel of the disc and
thereby varies time in which the relay will close its contacts
for given values of fault current. A so-called time dial with an
evenly divided scale provides this adjustment. The time of
operation is calculated by multiplying the time setting

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multiplier with the time obtained from time /P.S.M. curve of
the relay.

FAULTS, CAUSES AND EFFECTS:

A fault in its electrical equipment is defined as a defect in its
electrical circuit due to which the flow of current is diverted
from the intended part. Faults are caused by breaking of
conductors or failure of insulation fault impedance is generally
low and fault currents are generally high. Fault currents being
excessive, they can damage not only the faulty equipment but
also the installation through which the fault current is fed.
For ex: if a fault occurs in a motor, the motor winding is
likely to get damaged. Further if the motor is not disconnected
quickly enough the excessive fault currents can cause damage
to the starting equipment, supply connections etc.
Faults in certain important equipment can affect the
stability of the power system for ex: a fault in bus-zone of a
power station can cause tripping of all the generator units in
power station and can affect the stability of interconnected
systems. These are several causes of faults occurring in a
particular electrical plant. Faults can be minimized by

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 improved system design improved quality of components,
better maintenance etc. however the faults can’t be entirely
eliminated.

Equipment Cause of fault %of total faults

1.Overhead lines 1.Lightening strokes, 30-40 30-40
2.storms, earthquakes, icing
3. Birds, trees, kites, airplanes etc.
4.Internal over voltages
2.Under ground 1.Damage during digging 8-10
cables 2. Insulation failure due to
temperature rise.
3.Failure of joints
3.Alternators 1.Stator faults 6-8
2.Rotor faults
3.Abnormal conditions
4.Faults in associated equipment
5.Faults in protective system
4.Transformers 1.Insulation failure 10-12
2.Faults in tap changer
3.Faults in protection circuit
4.Inadequate protection
5.Faults in bushing
6.Over loading, overprotection
5.Switchgear 1.Insulation failure 10-12
and protection 2.Mechanical defect

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 3.Leakage of air/oil/gas
4.Inadequate rating
5.Lack of maintenance

METHODS OF BACK UP PROTECTION:

1. Relay Back-up:
Same breaker is used by both main and back-up protection,
but the protective systems are different. Separate trip coils may
be provided for the same breaker.
2. Breaker Back-up:
Different breakers are provided for main and back up
Protection, both the breakers being in the same station.
3. Remote Back-up:
The main and back up protections provided at different
stations and are completely independent.
4. Centrally Co-ordinate Back-up:
The system having central control can be provided with
centrally controlled back-up. Central control continuous
supervises load flow and frequency in the system. The
information about load flow and frequency is assessed
continuously .If one of the components in any part of system
fails (ex: a fault on a transformer, in some system) the load
flow in the system is affected .The central coordinating station

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receives info about the abnormal condition through high
frequency carrier signals. Main protection is at various stations
and back up protection for all stations is at central control
center.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF PROTECTIVE
RELAYING:
A well design and efficient protective relaying should have
1. Speed
2. Selectivity
3. Sensitivity
4. Reliability
5. Simplicity

Speed:
Protective relaying should disconnect a faulty element
as quickly as possible. This is desirable for many reasons,
principles among which are:
a) Improves power system stability
b) Decreases the amount of damage incurred
c) Lessens annoyance to electric power consumers and
decreases total outage time for power consumers
d) Decreases the likelihood of development of one type of
fault into other more severe type.
e) Permits use of rapid re closure of circuit-breakers to restore

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 service to customers.

Selectivity:
It is the basic requirement of relay in which it should
be possible to select which part of the system is faulty and
which is not and should isolate the faulty part of the system
from the healthy one. Selectivity is achieved in two ways:
(i)Unit system of protection
(ii)Non-unit system of protection
Unit system of protection means the one in which if
the protection responds only to faults with in its own zone and
does not make any note of the conditions else where, e.g., the
differential protection of transformers and generators. Here,
the protection scheme will work only if the fault is in the
transformer or generator respectively. Non-unit system of
protection is one in which the selectivity is obtained by
grading the time or current settings of the relay at different
locations, all of which may respond to a given fault. Any
failure occurring within a given zone will cause the opening of
all breakers within that zone. The various protective zones are
a) Generators or generator transformer unit
b) Transformers

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 c) Bus bars
d) Transmission lines
e) Distribution circuits

Sensitivity:
It is the capability of the relaying to operate reliably
under the actual conditions that produce the least operating
tendency. There may be abnormalities in the normal operating
conditions or the faults for which the protection has been
designed. It is desirable to have the protection as sensitive as
possible in order that it shall operate for low values of
actuating quantity. However, a protection with high degree of
sensitivity is more complex and uses more equipment and
circuitry and therefore is more expensive.
Reliability:
Reliability means that the protective relaying must be
ready to function, reliable and correct in operation at all times
under any kind of fault and abnormal conditions of the power
system for which it has been designed.
Simplicity:
Simplicity of construction and good quality of the relay,
correctness of design and illumination qualified maintenance
and supervision, etc. are the main factors which influence
protective relaying. As a rule, the simple the protective scheme

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and the lesser the number of relays, circuits and contacts it
contains, the greater will be its reliability.

Economy:
As with all good engineering designs, economics play a
major role. It is futile to achieve all important general
requirements together, so compromises become necessary. Too
much protection is as bad as too little and the relay engineer
must strike a sensible compromise with due regard to practical
situation.

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“Relays and relay settings are not to be changed from what
is indicated on current issues of relay data sheets unless
authorized by regional or project personnel with the
proper responsibility.”

TYPES OF ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAY

These relays were earliest forms of relay used for the

protection of power systems, and they date back nearly 100

years. They work on the principle of a mechanical force

causing operation of a relay contact in response to a stimulus.

The mechanical force is generated through current flow in one

or more windings on a magnetic core or cores, hence the term

“ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAY”. The principle

advantage of such relays is that they provide galvanic isolation

between the inputs and outputs in a simple, cheap and reliable

form – therefore for simple on/off switching functions where

the output contacts have to carry substantial currents, they are

still use. They work on the following two main operating

principles:

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 (1)Electromagnetic attraction

(2)Electromagnetic induction

ELECTROMAGNETIC ATTRACTION RELAYS:

Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by virtue of an

armature being attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or a

plunger being drawn into a solenoid. Such relays may be

actuated by d.c or a.c quantities. The principle advantage of

such relays is that they provide galvanic isolation between the

inputs and outputs in a simple, cheap and reliable form –

therefore for simple on/off switching functions where the

output contacts have to carry substantial currents, they are still

used. The important types of electromagnetic attraction are:

• Attracted armature type relay

• Solenoid type relay

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 • Balanced beam type

ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE RELAY:

The figure shows the schematic arrangement of an attracted
armature type relay.

It consists of a laminated electromagnet M carrying a

coil C and a pivoted laminated armature. The armature is
balanced by a counter weight and carries a pair of spring
contact fingers at its free end. Under normal operating
conditions, the current through the relay coil increases
sufficiently and the relay armature is attracted upwards. The
contacts on the relay armature bridge a pair of stationary
contacts attached to the relay frame. This completes the trip
circuit which results in the opening of the circuit breaker and
therefore in the disconnection of the faulty circuit. The

27
minimum current at which the relay armature is attracted to
close the trip circuit is called pickup current. It is a usual
practice to provide a number of tapings on the relay coil so that
the number of turns in use and hence the setting value at which
the relay operates can be varied.

SOLENOID TYPE RELAY:

Under normal operating conditions, the current through the

relay coil C is such that it holds the plunger by gravity or
spring in the position However, on the occurrence of a fault,
the current through the relay coil becomes more than the
pickup value, causing the plunger to be attracted to the
solenoid. The upward movement of the plunger closes the trip
circuit, thus opening the circuit breaker and disconnecting the
faulty circuit
BALANCED BEAM TYPE RELAY:

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It consists of an iron armature fastened to a balanced beam.
Under normal operating conditions, the current through the
relay coil is such that the beam is held in the horizontal
position by the spring. However when a fault occurs, the
current through the relay coil becomes greater than the pickup
value and the beam is attracted to close the trip circuit. This
cause the opening of the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty
circuit.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION RELAYS:

Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle of
induction motor and widely used for protective relaying
purposes involving a.c. quantities. They are not used with D.C.
quantities owing to the principle of operation. An induction
relay essentially consists of a pivoted aluminum disc placed in
two alternating magnetic fields of the same frequency but
displaced in time and space. The torque is produced in the disc
29
by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the
currents induced in the disc by the other.
The important types of structures are commonly used for
obtaining the phase difference in the fluxes and hence the
operating torque in induction relays:
(i) shaded-pole structure
(ii) Watt-hour meter or double winding structure
(iii) Induction cup structure.

SHADED-POLE STRUCTURE:
The general arrangement of shaded pole structure is shown in
figure. It consists of a pivoted aluminum disc free to rotate in
the air-gap of an electromagnet. One-half of each pole of the
magnet is surrounded by a copper band known as shading ring.
The alternating flux Φs in the shaded portion of the poles will,
owing to the reaction of current induced in the ring, lag behind
the flux Φu in the unshaded portion by angle α. These two a.c.
fluxes differing in phase will produce the necessary torque to
rotate the disc.
The driving torque T is given by
T α Φs Φu sinα
Assuming the fluxes Φs and Φu to be proportional to the
current I in the relay coil,
T α I^2sinα

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This shows that driving torque is proportional to the square of
current in the relay coil.

WATT-HOUR METER OR DOUBLE WINDING

STRUCTURE:
This structure gets its name from the fact that it is used in
Watt-hour meters. The general arrangements of this type of
relay are shown in figure. It consists of a pivoted aluminum
disc arranged to rotate freely between the poles of two
electromagnets the upper electromagnet carries two winding;
the primary and the secondary. The primary winding carries
the relay current I1 while the secondary winding is connected
to the winding of the lower magnet. The primary current
induces e.m.f in the secondary and so circulates a current I2 in
it. The flux Φ2 induced in the lower magnet by current in
secondary winding of the upper magnet will lag behind Φ1 by
an angle α. The two fluxes Φ1 and Φ2 differing in phase by α
will produce a driving torque on the disc proportional to Φ1
Φ2sinα.

31
 INDUCTION CUP STRUCTURE:
This figure shows the general arrangement of an induction cup
structure. It most closely resembles an induction motor; expect
that the rotor iron is stationary, only the rotor conductor
portion being free to rotate. The moving element is a hollow
cylindrical rotor which turns on its axis. The rotating field is
produced by to pairs of coils wound on four poles as shown.
The rotating field induces current in the cup to provide the
necessary torque. If Φ1 and Φ2 represent the fluxes produced
by the respective pairs of poles, then torque produced is
proportional to Φ1 Φ2 sinα where α is the phase difference
between two fluxes. A control spring and the back stop for
closing of the contacts carried on an arm are attached to the
spindle of the cup to prevent the continuous rotation.

32
Induction cup structures are more efficient torque producers
than either shaded-pole or the watt-hour meter structures.
There fore this type of relay has very high speed and may have
an operating time less then 0.1second.

STATIC RELAYS
The term ‘static’ implies that the relay has no moving parts.
This is not strictly the case for a static relay, as the output
contacts are still generally attracted armature relays. In a
protection relay, the term ‘static’ refers to the absence of
moving parts to create the relay characteristic. Introduction of
static relays began in the early 1960’s. Their design is based on
the use of analogue electronic devices instead of coils and
magnets to create the relay characteristic. Early versions used
discrete devices such as transistors and diodes in conjunction
with resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc., but advances in
electronics enabled the use of linear and digital integrated

33
circuits in later versions for signal processing and
implementation of logic functions.
While basic circuits may be common to a number of
relays, the packaging was still essentially restricted to a single
protection function per case, while complex functions required
several cases of hardware suitably interconnected. User
programming was restricted to the basic functions of
adjustment of relay characteristic curves. They therefore can
be viewed in simple terms as an analogue electronic
replacement for electromechanical relays, with some additional
flexibility in settings and some saving in space requirements.
In some cases, relay burden is reduced, making for reduced
CT/VT output requirements. The term static relay refers to a
relay which incorporates solid state components like
transistors, diodes etc., for the measurement or comparison of
electrical quantities. The static network is so designed that it
gives an output signal in the tripping direction whenever a
threshold condition is reached.
The output signal in turn operates a trip device which
may be electronic or electromagnetic. The need for the static
relays arose because of the requirement of fast and reliable
protective schemes for the modern power systems which is
growing both in complexity and fault levels. The scheme
should be fast so as to preserve dynamic stability of the system

34
as the character and loading approach design limits. The
supply problem associated with the thermionic valves has been
solved with the use of semi-conductors. The transistors have
made it possible to achieve greater sensitivity and at the same
time excellent mechanical stability which is not possible with
the electro-mechanical relays. It is to be noted here that is
usually not economical to replace existing electro-mechanical
relays with their static counter parts just to reduce
maintenance. The protective relays, now -a-days, are being fed
by iron cored current transformer and hence excessive
saturation should be avoided to ensure high speed and
discriminative operation the static relays reduce the burden on
the current transformer .It is interesting to note that the static
relays have first been commercially manufactured for the
distance and differential protective schemes whereas the much
simpler over current relays have not been brought out.
The reason behind this that distance and differential
schemes are more amenable to mathematical analysis whereas
the over current characteristics are more of empirical nature.
Therefore, a static over current relay cannot compete with the
conventional electro-mechanical relay. With the use of static
relays it has been possible to obtain many varied and complex
distance protection characteristics which are impossible to
obtain with the conventional electro-mechanical relays.

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 Transistor relays are the most widely used static relays.
In fact static relays are generally mean Transistor relay. The
fact that a transistor can be used both as an amplifying device
and as a switching device makes this component suitable for
achieving any functional characteristics.
The transistor circuit can not only perform essential
functions of relay such as comparison of inputs, summation
and integrating them but they also provide necessary flexibility
to suit the various relay requirements the advantages of
transistor relays can be summarized as follows:
• The power consumption is low and hence provides less
burden on C.T’s and P.T’s as compared to the
conventional electro mechanical relays.
• The relays are fast in operation.
• No moving parts, hence friction or contact troubles are
absent and as result minimum maintenance is required.
• The relays have greater sensitivity as amplification of
signals can be obtain very easily.
• The relay has a high reset pick-up ratio and the reset is
very quick
• The use of printed circuits avoids wiring errors and
facilitates rationalization of batch production.
• It is possible to obtain wide range of characteristics
approaching more or less to the ideal requirements.

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Transistor relays, however, have the following limitations:
1. The characteristics vary with temperature and ageing.
2. The reliability of the scheme depends upon a large
number of small components and their electrical
connections.
3. The relays have low short time over load capacity
compared with electromechanical relay.
NUMERICAL RELAYS
INTRODUCTION TO MICOM
MiCOM is a comprehensive solution capable of meeting all
electricity supply requirements. Central to the MiCOM
concept is flexibility. MiCOM provides the ability to define an
application solution and, through extensive communication
capabilities, to integrate it with power supply control system.
Additional Features for the P442 Relay Model:
• Single pole tripping and auto-reclose.
• Real Time Clock Synchronization - Time
synchronization is possible from the relay IRIG-B input.
• Fiber optic converter for IEC60870-5/103
communication (optional).
• 16 Logic Inputs - For monitoring of the circuit breaker
and other plant status.
• 21 Output relay contacts - For tripping, alarming, status
indication and remote control.

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MiCOM includes extensive facilities for recording information
on the state and behavior of the power system using
disturbance and fault records. The settings and functions of the
MiCOM protection relay can be accessed both from the front
panel keypad and LCD, and via the front and rear
communication ports.

PC – relay signal connection

Remote communication connection arrangements

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TESTING OF RELAYS BY ANNUAL INSPECTION

All relays shall be given an annual inspection. This inspection

should include the following:

1. A visual inspection should be made of all relays on a

terminal including the tripping auxiliaries and accessories.
Any draw out type relay should be withdrawn from its case
for a close-up examination. All other, including auxiliaries,
should at least have covers removed. Included in this visual
inspection should be a check for loose connections, broken
studs, burned insulation, and dirty contacts. Each relay
should be checked to be in agreement with its setting sheet.

39
 On some distance relays it may have been necessary to set
the taps on something other than specified values in order to
get proper calibration.

2. b. A test trip should be made of all relay systems. All relay

elements which initiate some protective function should be
checked. This includes reclosing, carrier starting, or any
similar type function. After proving that tripping relays will
successfully trip the circuit breaker and that all reclosing
schemes work, continuity checks should be used, where
applicable, to complete the checkout of the circuit breaker
trip circuits.

TEST PROCEDURES

Tests to be performed during routine maintenance are

determined by the type of relay to be tested. The following
tests should be included for all electromechanical relays.

1. A visual inspection of the relay cover can reveal valuable

information. Any excessive dust, dirt, or. Metallic material
deposited on the cover should be noted and removed, thus
preventing such material from entering the relay when the
cover is removed. A cover glass which is fogged should be
cleaned. Fogging is in most cases a normal condition due to

40
 volatile materials being driven out of coils and insulating
materials, and is not an indication of a problem.

2. Mechanical adjustments and inspection should be made

according to instructions shown following:

(1) Check to see that all connections are tight. Several loose
connections could indicate excessive vibration which should
be corrected.

(2) All gaps should be checked that they are free of foreign
material. If foreign material is found in the relay, the case
gasket should be checked and replaced if necessary.

(3) All contact or armature gaps should be measured and

values compared with previous measurements. Large
variations in these measurements may indicate excessive wear,
and worn parts should be replaced. Also an adjusting screw
could have worked loose and must be tightened.

(4) All contacts except those not recommended for

maintenance should be burnished, and measured for alignment
and wipe.

(5) Since checking bearings or pivots usually involves

dismantling the relay, it is recommended that such a test be

41
made only when the relay appears to be extremely dirty, or
when subsequent electrical tests indicate undue friction.

3. Electrical tests and adjustments should be made

according to the instructions shown following:
(1) Contact function.-Manually close or open the contacts, and
observe that they perform their required function; such as trip,
reclose, or block.

(2) Pickup.-Gradually apply current or voltage to see that

pickup is within limits. The current or voltage should be
applied gradually in order to yield data which can be compared
with previous or future tests and not be clouded by such effects
as transient overreach.

(3) Dropout or reset.-To test for excess friction, reduce current

until the relay drops out or resets. Should the relay be sluggish
in resetting or fail to reset, then the jewel bearing and pivot
should be examined. A four power magnification is adequate
for examining the pivot, and the jewel bearing can be
examined with the aid of a needle which will reveal any cracks
in it. If dirt is the problem, the jewel can be cleaned with an
orange stick and the pivot can be wiped clean with a soft, lint
free cloth. No lubricant should be used on either the jewel or
pivot.

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 PORTABLE TEST KITS

Portable test equipment type ZFB for distance relays:

In testing high speed distance relays it is important to apply
simulated fault conditions suddenly, otherwise the behavior of
the relay in service may be different from its behavior in test.
Checking the relay characteristic by reducing the voltage or by
increasing the current until the relay operates is not realistic, as
the voltage and current change simultaneously in magnitude
and phase angle when a fault occurs in service.

Relay System Factor Reducing Test Factors lengthening Test

Variables Interval Interval
Complex (distance, Simple (hinged armature
Type of Relays
differential), plunger).
Age of Relays New installations with 5-10 years old with a good
little operating history. operating history
Systems 20 years or older
where insulation aging,
etc., can be a problem
Environment Dusty area, contaminated
Clean and/or air
atmosphere, temperature
conditioned area.
extremes.
History and Subjected to severe or
Experience frequent faults. Often Subjected to moderate or
required adjustments few faults.
when tested.

43
Current Rating Relays rated 5 amperes Relays operated at or below
which are called upon to their 5 ampere rating
carry 7 or 8 amperes due
to load requirements.
Control Voltage Relays operated in battery Relays operated in battery
circuit more than 5 circuit within _+ 5 percent
percent above nominal
relay rated voltage of
nominal relay rated
voltage
Station Service Station service voltage Station service Voltage
supplied is more than 5 supply operated within + 5
percent above nominal percent of
relay rated voltage.
Table 1.- Criteria to determine possible alteration of the test period for relays

This causes transient mechanical, electrical and magnetic

conditions in the relay which may cause overreach unless its
operating time exceeds four cycles, during which the transient
conditions will have disappeared.
Description:
The test equipment is contained in three portable metal cases.
a. Supply unit
b. Control unit
c. Fault impedance unit plus external current transformer
Supply unit:
The unit comprises:

44
1. Three single phase transformers (T1, T2 and T3) ratio
420,400,380/110, 63.5V connected Y/Y to form a three phase
transformer bank. Transformer is used to supply the control
unit at 100V or 63.5V as designed and is continuously rated
at 12A secondary output. This transformer also has a further
115V secondary winding rated at 300mA to give an auxiliary
supply to the fault contactor in the control unit. Transformers 2
and 3 are used nearly to supply quadrate or polarizing voltage
to relays that require such voltages in addition to the normal
fault voltage. These transformers are continuously rated at 1A
secondary.

2. Fault selector switch is included to facilitate quick selection

of fault in the scheme. Having once connected the 3-phase
voltage and current leads to the relay scheme, anyone of the
measuring or starting relays in the scheme can quickly be
selected by the 6 position switches. This avoids possible
human error when changing connections from the relay in
the scheme to another.
3. The selector switch connections are arranged such that
when injecting into a phase to neutral connecting measuring
relay the fault voltage and current are supplied from
transformer T1 of the main supply bank while T/F’s T2 and

45
 T3 supply the necessary quadrate voltage for the starting
relays in the scheme.
When injecting into a phase-phase connected measuring relay
the fault voltage and current are again supplied from
transformer T1 while additional voltage connection for the
starting relay is taken from transformer T3.
Control unit:
The unit comprises:
1. The source impedance (L2) tapped to provide a range of 0.5
to 24ohms. This impedance is used to control the relay current
and vary the source to line (fault) impedance ratio, in
conjunction with the fault impedance L1 and R1.
2. The voltage auto-transformer (T4) which is connected
across the line impedance via the fault contactor is tapped in
10% and 1% steps from 0-100%.
3. The load impedance which is connected in series with the
line impedance via the load push button, permits load current
to be passed the relay coils prior to the fault being applied.
The load resistance is fixed to give a current of approximately
5A for phase to phase faults and 2A for phase to earth faults
4. The fault contactor is energies from the 115V ac supply
from the supply unit via the bridge rectifier and the push
button. The contactor is fitted with an economy resistance
when the coil is continuously rated.

46
5. The current reversing switch is included to enable the
current supply to the relay to be reversed and so check that the
relays are measured in the correct direction.
FAULT IMPEDANCE RELAY:
This unit represents the line impedance as seen by the relays
under the fault condition. The impedance is made up from a
tapped choke L1and tapped resistance R1. The choke is the
type as used for the source impedance L2 and has ohmic range
of approximately 0.5ohm to 24ohms in 8 steps. The angle of
the choke varies approximately between 72˚ and 82˚
depending upon the ohmic tap. The resistance has 15 taps
giving an ohmic range of approximately 0.2 to 10ohms.

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT:

The outdoors provides an extremely powerful medium for

training students in new skills or helping them to improve old
ones, largely because outdoor learning is experimental in
nature .Our Industrial training certainly served the purpose. As
We all learn through experience. The basic idea behind our
training was to provide motivation and we were very much
benefited by it as it provided an encouraging physical and
psychological security framework for these experiences, as
well as theoretical and practical aids. Our training program
focused on teamwork and Interpersonal Skills Management

47
and provided ample opportunity for us to understand its
importance and develop better relationships. It helped us to
appreciate the changes we will encounter later in life. The
training program also provided an insight to our behavior
patterns in different situations. These aspects helped us in
overcoming areas of concern or weakness and provide a
platform for all-round development of an individual
personality. Another aspect which this training brought to the
fore was safety. Safety has been the overriding concern in the
practical world. This is particularly true in the outdoor, where
the potential for danger is often higher.

SUGGESTIONS FOR OUR FORTHCOMING

BATCHES & MOTIVATION FOR THE
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING:
• Try to attain permission from industries as early as
possible so that there will no tension at the last minute
• Students should form themselves into groups and create
their own websites which would feature the lists of the
students, their resume, tour plans, the companies to be visited
and the benefits which the sponsors would get.

48
• Maintain dignity at the industries you visit so that our
juniors will also be benefited. It will also help to improve our
college name and fame.
• Through this tour we got idea about industrial
environment and we can behave well in the industrial training
that will be in 4rth year-2nd Semester.

• With these experiences we got knowledge about

communication, corporate culture & competitive world. More
of all I got the reason why I have to work hard in my B-Tech.

• Through this tour I felt “I lessen my fear to talk with

Corporate Workers” and I improved my communication skills.

CONCLUSION
Lines or feeders can be protected by several methods. Each
method has some advantages and some limitations .The classes
of protective relays used for line protection.
Roughly in ascending order of cost and complexity are:
• Instantaneous over current relay
• Directional over current relay
• Time over current relay

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• Distance relay
• Pilot(Pilot wire, power line carrier or microwave) relay
Graded time lag and graded over current protection is used
for single radial feeders where time lag can be permitted.
Differential protection is of unit type. It gives us fast relaying
pilot wire differential relaying used for short lengths. In
distance protection distance relaying is based on measurement
of impedance between relay location and fault point. It has
three types namely impedance type, reactance type, mho type.
The relay operates if the impedance is below the set value .In
distance protection if electro magnetic relays are replaced by
static relays then the operation will be more reliable. Because
in electro magnetic relays, the relay operates with moving coil
but in static relays the relay operates without moving coil.

In distance protection the operation will be more efficient by

 Fast operation
 Independent zones of operation
 Current transformer supervision
 Voltage transformer supervision

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 REFERENCES
1. A Text book on Power System Engineering -
A.Chakrabarthi
M.L.Soni
P.V.Gupta
U.S.Bhatnagar
2. Switch gear and protection - Sunil.S.Rao
3. Instruction Manuals - MRT I, Stage-I
4. Protective Relays Application Guide, 3rd edition.
ALSTOM T&D Protection and Control, 1987.
5.” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 16, No.2, pp.
238-246, April 2001.

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