Projection of Straight Line: Line Inclined To Both HP & VP

Projection of straight line
Line inclined to both HP & VP

Type-I
Given projections (FV & TV) of the line. To find True length & true
inclination of the line with HP (θ) and with VP(Φ).
PROBLEM
End A of a line AB is 15mm above HP & 20mm in front of VP while
its end B is 50mm above HP and 75mm in front of VP. The distance
between end projectors of the line is 50mm. Draw projections of the
line and find its true length and true inclination with the principal
planes. Also mark its traces.
b’ b1’
θ: True inclination of
the line with HP = 24º
50
a’ b2’ α : Inclination of FV of
θ α the line with HP/XY
HT VT’ 15
X Y
v
h’
50
Ø: True inclination of
20
Φ β b1 the line with VP = 41º
a
β : Inclination of TV of
75 the line with VP/XY
b b2
Line inclined to both HP & VP
Type –II
Given (i) T.L., θ and Ø,
(ii) T.L., F.V., T.V.
to draw projections, find α, β,H.T. and V.T.
PROBLEM
A line AB, 70mm long, has its end A 15mm above HP and 20mm in front
of VP. It is inclined at 30° to HP and 45°to VP. Draw its projections and
mark its traces.
b’ b1’
a’ 30°
HT b2’
15 VT’ Y
X
h’ v
20
b1
a 45°
b2
b
Q10.11 The top view of a 75mm long line AB measures 65mm,while its front
view measures 50mm. Its one end A is in HP and12mm in front of VP. Draw the
projections of AB and determine its inclination with HP and VP
To draw FV &TV of the line
Given, Hint: Draw ab1=65mm // to XY.
AB
TL=75mm,TV=65mm,FV=50mm Because when TV is // to XY, FV
To find θ & Ø gives TL.
A is in HP & 12mm→VP b’ b1’
Ans. θ=31º
Ans. Ø=49º
a’
X Y
31º
12
65 b1
a
49º
b b2
Q10.12 A line AB, 65mm long has its end A 20mm above H.P. and 25mm in
front of VP. The end B is 40mm above H.P. and 65mm in front of V.P. Draw the
projections of AB and show its inclination with H.P. and V.P.
Given, To draw FV &TV of the line Hint1:Mark a’ 20mm above

AB H.P & a 25mm below XY
TL=65mm
To find θ & Ø
A is 20mm ↑ HP & 25mm →V.P. b’ b1’ Hint2:Draw locus of b’ 40mm
B is 40mm ↑ & 65mm → V.P. above XY & locus of b 65 mm
below XY
a’ b2’
40
18º
20
X Y
25
38º Ans. θ=18º

b1
a 65
Ans. Ø=38º
b b2
Q10.13:The projectors of the ends of a line AB are 5cm apart. The end A is
2cm above the H.P and 3cm in front of V.P. The end B is1cm below H.P. and
4cm behind the V.P. Determine the true length and traces of AB, and its
inclination with the two planes
Given,
To find,
A0B0=50mm True Length, θ,Ø, H.T. and V.T.
A is 20mm ↑ HP & 30mm →V.P.
B is 10mm ↓ & 40mm ← V.P.
b b2
a’
40
HT
b2’
20
VT’
v
X h’ Y
50
10
b’ 20º
30
Ans. θ=20º
a 50º b1
Ans. Ø=50º
Q10.14:A line AB, 90mm long, is inclined at 45 to the H.P. and its top view
makes an angle of 60 with the V.P. The end A is in the H.P. and 12mm in front
of V.P. Draw its front view and find its true inclination with the V.P.
b’
Given, b1’
T.L.=90mm, θ=45º, β=60º A
is in the H.P. & 12mm→V.P.
To find/draw,
F.V.,T.V. & Ø
Ans. Ø = 38º
a’
X Y
45º
12
b1
60º 38º
a
b b2
Q10.16:The end A of a line AB is 25 mm behind the V.P. and is below
the H.P. The end B is 12 mm in front of the VP and is above the HP The
distance between the projectors is 65mm. The line is inclined at 40 to
the HP and its HT is 20 mm behind the VP. Draw the projections of the
line and determine its true length and the VT
Given, To find/draw,
A0B0=65mm F.V., T.V., T.L., VT’
A is 25mm ←V.P.& is ↓H.P. B
is 12mm →V.P. & is above HP θ
= 40º b’ b1’
b2’
VT’
a
b1
HT
25
b2
20
X h’
v
Y
12
40º
a’
b
65
10.17:A line AB, 90mm long, is inclined at 30 to the HP. Its end A is 12mm above the HP and
20mm in front of the VP. Its FV measures 65mm. Draw the TV of AB and determine its
inclination with the VP
b’ b1’
a’
30°
12
X Y
20
44° b1
a
Ans: Ø = 44º
b b2
Q10.23:Two lines AB & AC make an angle of 120 between them in their FV & TV. AB is
parallel to both the HP & VP. Determine the real angle between AB & AC.
c2’ c1’
c’
112° Ans. 112º

b’ 120° a’
X Y
b a
c2 c1
120°
c
Q8:A line AB 65 mm long has its end A in the H.P. & 15 mm infront of the V.P.The end B is in
the third quadrant. The line is inclined at 30 to the H.P. and at 60 to the V.P. Draw its
projections.
Q10.19 A line AB, inclined at 40º to the V.P. has its end 50mm and 20mm above the H.P.
the length of its front view is 65mm and its V.T. is 10mm above the H.P. determine .the
true length of AB its inclination with the H.P. and its H.T.
Given, To find,
Ø = 40º, A is 20mm↑HP, B TL, θ & HT
is 50 mm ↑ HP, FV=65mm, VT is
10mm ↑ HP
b1’ b’
a’
50
b2’ 21º HT
VT’
20
10
X Y
40º v h’
b1 Ans,
a
TL = 85 mm,
θ = 21º &
HT is 17 mm
behind VP
b2
Q6. The top view of a 75mm long line CD measures 50 mm. C is 50 mm in front of the VP &
15mm below the HP. D is 15 mm in front of the VP & is above the HP. Draw the FV of CD &
find its inclinations with the HP and the VP. Show also its traces.
Given, To draw,
TL = 75 mm, FV =50 mm, FV & to find θ & Ø
C is 15mm ↓ HP & 50 mm → VP,
D is 15 mm → VP d1’
d’
Hint 1: Cut anarc of 50 mm
from c on locus of D
Hint 2: Make TV (cd), // to XY
so that FV will give TL
X Y
15
d2
d Ans: Ø=48º
c’ Locus of D
50
Ø=48º Ans: θ=28º
θ=28º d1
c
Q10.10 A line PQ 100 mm long is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and at 45º to the V.P. Its
mid point is in the V.P. and 20 mm above the H.P. Draw its projections, if its end P is in
the third quadrant and Q is in the first quadrant.
Given,
To draw,
TL = 100, θ = 30º, Mid point M is
20mm↑HP & in the VP FV & TV
End P in third quadrant &
End Q in first quadrant
q’ q1’
p2 p
p2’ m’ q2’
30º
20
p1
X Y
m q2
p1’ p’
q q2
PROJECTIONS OF PLANES
In this topic various plane figures are the objects.
What is usually asked in the problem?

To draw their projections means F.V, T.V. & S.V.
What will be given in the problem?

1. Description of the plane figure.
2. It’s position with HP and VP.
In which manner it’s position with HP & VP will be described?
1.Inclination of it’s SURFACE with one of the reference planes will be given.
2. Inclination of one of it’s EDGES with other reference plane will be given
(Hence this will be a case of an object inclined to both reference Planes.)
Study the illustration showing
surface & side inclination given on next page.
CASE OF A RECTANGLE – OBSERVE AND NOTE ALL STEPS.
SURFACE PARALLEL TO HP SURFACE INCLINED TO HP ONE SMALL SIDE INCLINED TO VP

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION PICTORIAL PRESENTATION PICTORIAL PRESENTATION
ORTHOGRAPHIC ORTHOGRAPHIC ORTHOGRAPHIC

TV-True Shape FV- Inclined to XY FV- Apparent Shape
FV- Line // to xy TV- Reduced Shape TV-Previous Shape
VP
VP VP
d1’ c1’
a’ d’ a1’ b1’
b’ c’
a d a1 d1
b c b1 c1
HP A HP B HP
C
PROCEDURE OF SOLVING THE PROBLEM:
IN THREE STEPS EACH PROBLEM CAN BE SOLVED:( As Shown In Previous Illustration )
STEP 1. Assume suitable conditions & draw Fv & Tv of initial position.
STEP 2. Now consider surface inclination & draw 2nd Fv & Tv.
STEP 3. After this,consider side/edge inclination and draw 3rd ( final) Fv & Tv.
ASSUMPTIONS FOR INITIAL POSITION:

(Initial Position means assuming surface // to HP or VP)
1.If in problem surface is inclined to HP – assume it // HP
Or If surface is inclined to VP – assume it // to VP
2. Now if surface is assumed // to HP- It’s TV will show True Shape.
And If surface is assumed // to VP – It’s FV will show True Shape.
3. Hence begin with drawing TV or FV as True Shape.
4. While drawing this True Shape –
keep one side/edge ( which is making inclination) perpendicular to xy line
( similar to pair no. A on previous page illustration ).
Now Complete STEP 2. By making surface inclined to the resp plane & project it’s other view.
(Ref. 2nd pair B on previous page illustration )
Now Complete STEP 3. By making side inclined to the resp plane & project it’s other view.
(Ref. 3nd pair C on previous page illustration )
APPLY SAME STEPS TO SOLVE NEXT ELEVEN PROBLEMS

Q12.4: A regular pentagon of 25mm side has one side on the ground. Its plane is inclined at
45º to the HP and perpendicular to the VP. Draw its projections and show its traces
Hint: As the plane is inclined to HP, it should be kept

parallel to HP with one edge perpendicular to VP
a’ b’
e’ d’ c’
45º
X Y
b b1
a a1
25
c c1
e e1
d d1
Q.12.5:Draw the projections of a circle of 5 cm diameter having its plane vertical and
inclined at 30º to the V.P. Its centre is 3cm above the H.P. and 2cm in front of the V.P. Show
also its traces
50 Ø
4’ 41’
3’ 5’ 31’ 51’
2’ 6’ 61’
21’
11’ 71’
1’ 7’
121’ 81’
12’ 8’
30
91’
11’ 9’ 111’
X 10’ Y
101’
20
30º
1 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
12 11 10 9 8
X Y
Q12.7: Draw the projections of a regular hexagon of 25mm sides, having one of its
side in the H.P. and inclined at 60 to the V.P. and its surface making an angle of 45º
with the H.P.
Plane inclined to HP
at 45°and ┴ to VP Side on the H.P. making 60°
with the VP.
Plane parallel to HP
e1’ d1’
f1’
c1’
a’ b’ c’ f’ d’e’ 45º
a1’
X f1 Y
f 60º b1’
a e a1 e1
b d b1 d1
c c1
Q12.6: A square ABCD of 50 mm side has its corner A in the H.P., its diagonal AC inclined at
30º to the H.P. and the diagonal BD inclined at 45º to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. Draw its
projections.
Keep AC parallel to the H.P. Incline AC at 30º to the H.P.

& BD perpendicular to V.P. i.e. incline the edge view Incline BD at 45º to the V.P.
(considering inclination of (FV) at 30º to the HP
AC as inclination of the
plane)
c1’
b1’ d1’
b’
a’ d’ c’ 30º
X Y
45º 45º a1’
b1
b
a c a1 c1
d d1
Q4: Draw projections of a rhombus having diagonals 125 mm and 50 mm long, the smaller
diagonal of which is parallel to both the principal planes, while the other is inclined at 30º to
the H.P.
Keep AC parallel to the H.P. Incline AC at 30º to the H.P. Make BD parallel to XY
& BD perpendicular to V.P.
(considering inclination of
AC as inclination of the
plane) c1’
d1’ b1’
b’
d’ c’
a’ 30º
X Y
a1’
125
b b1
b1
c1
a1
50
a c
c1
a1
d
d1
d1
Q 2:A regular hexagon of 40mm side has a corner in the HP. Its surface inclined at45° to
the HP and the top view of the diagonal through the corner which is in the HP makes an
angle of 60° with the VP. Draw its projections.
Top view of the diagonal

Plane inclined to HP making 60° with the VP.
Plane parallel to HP at 45°and ┴ to VP
d1’
c1’
e1’
b1’
f1’
b’ c’
a’ f’ e’ d’ 45° a1’ Y
X 60°
f1
f1 e1 a1
f e
e1
b1
a d d1
a1
d1
c
1
b c
b1 c1
Q7:A semicircular plate of 80mm diameter has its straight edge in the VP and inclined at 45
to HP.The surface of the plate makes an angle of 30 with the VP. Draw its projections.
Plane inclined at 30º to the V.P.
Plane in the V.P. with and straight edge in the H.P. St.edge in V.P. and
straight edge ┴ to H.P inclined at 45º to the H.P.
1’ 11’
2’ 21’
3’ 31’
4’
Ø 80
41’
5’ 51’
6’ 71’ 61’
7’ 45º 71 11
X 30º Y
1 2 3 4
21
7 6 5 61
31
51 41
Q12.10: A thin rectangular plate of sides 60 mm X 30 mm has its shorter side in the V.P. and
inclined at 30º to the H.P. Project its top view if its front view is a square of 30 mm long sides
A rectangle can be seen as a F.V. (square) is drawn first Incline a1’b1’ at 30º to the
square in the F.V. only when its H.P.
surface is inclined to VP. So for
the first view keep the plane //
to VP & shorter edge ┴ to HP
60
b’ c’ b1’ c1’
30
a’ d’ a1’ d1’ b1 a1 30º

X Y
c
a a
d
b b
c c1 d1
d
Q12.11: A circular plate of negligible thickness and 50 mm diameter appears as an ellipse in
the front view, having its major axis 50 mm long and minor axis 30 mm long. Draw its top
view when the major axis of the ellipse is horizontal.
A circle can be seen as a

ellipse in the F.V. only when its Incline the T.V. till the Incline the F.V. till the
surface is inclined to VP. So for distance between the end major axis becomes
the first view keep the plane // projectors is 30 mm horizontal
to VP.
50 Ø
4’ 41’
41’
3’ 5’ 31’ 51’
51’
31’
2’ 6’ 21’ 61’
21’
61’
11’ 71’
1’ 7’
71’
11’
12’ 8’ 121’ 81’
121’
81’
111’ 91’
11’ 9’ 101’
111’
91’
X 10’ Y
11’
101’
121’ 21’
30
31’
111’
1 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
101’ 41’
12 11 10 9 8
91’ 51’
81’ 61’
a’ a1’
c’ c1’
50
b’
b1’ 45º
a.b 70 c a.b a1 b1
c c1
Problem 1: Read problem and answer following questions
Rectangle 30mm and 50mm 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
sides is resting on HP on one 2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to HP
small side which is 300 inclined 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
to VP,while the surface of the 4. Which side will be vertical? ---One small side.
plane makes 450 inclination with Hence begin with TV, draw rectangle below X-Y
HP. Draw it’s projections. drawing one small side vertical.
Surface // to Hp Surface inclined to Hp

d’c’ c’1 d’1
a’b’ c’d’
a’ b’ 450 b’1 a’1 Y
X 300
a d a1 d1 Side
Inclined
to Vp
b c b1 c1
4’ 4”
3’ 5’
5”3”
2’ 6’
6”2”
1’ 7’ 7”1”
12’ 8’ 8”12”
60º 9”11”
11’ 9’ 10”
X 10’
X Y
Problem 12.9: Read problem and answer following questions
A 300 – 600 set square of longest side 1 .Surface inclined to which plane? ------- VP
100 mm long, is in VP and 300 inclined 2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to VP
to HP while it’s surface is 450 inclined 3. So which view will show True shape? --- FV
to VP.Draw it’s projections 4. Which side will be vertical? ------longest side.
(Surface & Side inclinations directly given)

Hence begin with FV, draw triangle above X-Y
keeping longest side vertical.
a’ a’1
c’ c’1
side inclined to Hp
c’1
a’1
b’1
b’1
b’
300
X a
b 450 a1 b1 Y
a c
b c1
c
Surface // to Vp Surface inclined to Vp
A 300 – 600 set square of longest side 1 .Surface inclined to which plane? ------- VP
100 mm long is in VP and it’s surface 2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to VP
450 inclined to VP. One end of longest 3. So which view will show True shape? --- FV
side is 10 mm and other end is 35 mm 4. Which side will be vertical? ------longest side.
above HP. Draw it’s projections
Hence begin with FV, draw triangle above X-Y
(Surface inclination directly given.
Side inclination indirectly given) keeping longest side vertical.
First TWO steps are similar to previous problem.

Note the manner in which side inclination is given.
a’ a’1 End A 35 mm above Hp & End B is 10 mm above Hp.
So redraw 2nd Fv as final Fv placing these ends as said.
c’ c’1
c’1
a’1
35
b’1
b’1
b’
X 10 Y
a a1
b 450 b1
a c
b c1
c
A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides is 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
resting on HP on one of it’s sides with it’s 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
surface 450 inclined to HP. 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
Draw it’s projections when the side in HP 4. Which side will be vertical? -------- any side.
makes 300 angle with VP Hence begin with TV,draw pentagon below
SURFACE AND SIDE INCLINATIONS X-Y line, taking one side vertical.
ARE DIRECTLY GIVEN.
d’ d’1
c’e’
e’1 c’1
b’ a’
X b’ a’ c’e’ d’ b’1 Y
450 a’1
a1 300
e e1
e1
a a1 b1
d1
d
d1 c1
b b1
c c1
A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides is resting 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
on HP on one of it’s sides while it’s opposite 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
vertex (corner) is 30 mm above HP. 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
Draw projections when side in HP is 300 4. Which side will be vertical? --------any side.
inclined to VP. Hence begin with TV,draw pentagon below
SURFACE INCLINATION INDIRECTLY GIVEN X-Y line, taking one side vertical.
SIDE INCLINATION DIRECTLY GIVEN:
ONLY CHANGE is
the manner in which surface inclination is described:
One side on Hp & it’s opposite corner 30 mm above Hp. d’ d’1
Hence redraw 1st Fv as a 2nd Fv making above arrangement.
Keep a’b’ on xy & d’ 30 mm above xy. c’e’ c’1
30 e’1
b’ a’ c’e’ d’ a’
X b’ a’1 b’1 Y
300
e1 a1
e
e1
a a1 b1
d d1
d1 c1
b b1
c c1
c’1
b’1
Problem 8: A circle of 50 mm diameter is a’ b’ d’ c’
resting on Hp on end A of it’s diameter AC 300 a’1 d’1 Y
X
which is 300 inclined to Hp while it’s Tv d1
450
d
is 450 inclined to Vp.Draw it’s projections.
a ca c1
1
Read problem and answer following questions

1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP b b1
2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV The difference in these two problems is in step 3 only.
4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------- AC In problem no.8 inclination of Tv of that AC is
Hence begin with TV,draw rhombus below given,It could be drawn directly as shown in 3rd step.
X-Y line, taking longer diagonal // to X-Y While in no.9 angle of AC itself i.e. it’s TL, is
given. Hence here angle of TL is taken,locus of c1
Is drawn and then LTV I.e. a1 c1 is marked and
final TV was completed.Study illustration carefully.
Problem 9: A circle of 50 mm diameter is
resting on Hp on end A of it’s diameter AC
which is 300 inclined to Hp while it makes c’1
450 inclined to Vp. Draw it’s projections. b’1
a’ b’ d’ c’
a’1 d’1
d d1
300
Note the difference in
a ca c1
construction of 3rd step 1
in both solutions.
b b1
Read problem and answer following questions
Problem 10: End A of diameter AB of a circle is in HP 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
A nd end B is in VP.Diameter AB, 50 mm long is 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
300 & 600 inclined to HP & VP respectively. 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
Draw projections of circle. 4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------- AB
Hence begin with TV,draw CIRCLE below
X-Y line, taking DIA. AB // to X-Y
The problem is similar to previous problem of circle – no.9.

But in the 3rd step there is one more change.
Like 9th problem True Length inclination of dia.AB is definitely expected
but if you carefully note - the the SUM of it’s inclinations with HP & VP is 900.
Means Line AB lies in a Profile Plane.
Hence it’s both Tv & Fv must arrive on one single projector.
So do the construction accordingly AND note the case carefully..
300
X Y
600
SOLVE SEPARATELY
ON DRAWING SHEET
GIVING NAMES TO VARIOUS
POINTS AS USUAL,
AS THE CASE IS IMPORTANT
A hexagonal lamina has its one side in HP and 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
Its apposite parallel side is 25mm above Hp and 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
In Vp. Draw it’s projections.
Take side of hexagon 30 mm long.
3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------- AC
ONLY CHANGE is the manner in which surface inclination Hence begin with TV,draw rhombus below
is described: X-Y line, taking longer diagonal // to X-Y
One side on Hp & it’s opposite side 25 mm above Hp.
Hence redraw 1st Fv as a 2nd Fv making above arrangement.
Keep a’b’ on xy & d’e’ 25 mm above xy.
e’1 d’1
25 f’1 c1’
X a’b’ c’ f’ d’e’ a’1 b’1 Y
f f1 e1 d1
f1 c1
a e a1 e1
a1 b1 As 3rd step
b d b1 d1 redraw 2nd Tv keeping
c1
side DE on xy line.
c
Because it is in VP
as said in problem.
FREELY SUSPENDED CASES.
IMPORTANT POINTS
1.In this case the plane of the figure always remains perpendicular to Hp.
Problem 12: 2.It may remain parallel or inclined to Vp.
An isosceles triangle of 40 mm long 3.Hence TV in this case will be always a LINE view.
base side, 60 mm long altitude Is 4.Assuming surface // to Vp, draw true shape in suspended position as FV.
freely suspended from one corner of (Here keep line joining point of contact & centroid of fig. vertical )
Base side.It’s plane is 450 inclined to 5.Always begin with FV as a True Shape but in a suspended position.
Vp. Draw it’s projections. AS shown in 1st FV.
a’1
a’
C
b’1
b’ g’ g’1
H
G c’ c’1
H/3
X Y
A B
b a,g c 450
First draw a given triangle
With given dimensions,
Locate it’s centroid position
And Similarly solve next problem
join it with point of suspension. of Semi-circle
IMPORTANT POINTS
Problem 13 1.In this case the plane of the figure always remains perpendicular to Hp.
:A semicircle of 100 mm diameter 2.It may remain parallel or inclined to Vp.
is suspended from a point on its 3.Hence TV in this case will be always a LINE view.
straight edge 30 mm from the midpoint 4.Assuming surface // to Vp, draw true shape in suspended position as FV.
of that edge so that the surface makes (Here keep line joining point of contact & centroid of fig. vertical )
an angle of 450 with VP. 5.Always begin with FV as a True Shape but in a suspended position.
Draw its projections. AS shown in 1st FV.
A
a’
20 mm
p’
P
G b’
CG g’
c’
e’
d’
X Y
First draw a given semicircle

With given diameter,
Locate it’s centroid position b c a p,g d e
And
join it with point of suspension.
To determine true shape of plane figure when it’s projections are given.
BY USING AUXILIARY PLANE METHOD
WHAT WILL BE THE PROBLEM?
Description of final Fv & Tv will be given.
You are supposed to determine true shape of that plane figure.
Follow the below given steps:

1. Draw the given Fv & Tv as per the given information in problem.
2. Then among all lines of Fv & Tv select a line showing True Length (T.L.)
(It’s other view must be // to xy)
3. Draw x1-y1 perpendicular to this line showing T.L.
4. Project view on x1-y1 ( it must be a line view)
5. Draw x2-y2 // to this line view & project new view on it.
It will be the required answer i.e. True Shape.
The facts you must know:-

If you carefully study and observe the solutions of all previous problems,
You will find
IF ONE VIEW IS A LINE VIEW & THAT TOO PARALLEL TO XY LINE,
THEN AND THEN IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL SHOW TRUE SHAPE:
NOW FINAL VIEWS ARE ALWAYS SOME SHAPE, NOT LINE VIEWS:
SO APPLYING ABOVE METHOD:
Study Next
WE FIRST CONVERT ONE VIEW IN INCLINED LINE VIEW .(By using x1y1 aux.plane) Four Cases
THEN BY MAKING IT // TO X2-Y2 WE GET TRUE SHAPE.
Problem 14 Tv is a triangle abc. Ab is 50 mm long, angle cab is 300 and angle cba is 650.
a’b’c’ is a Fv. a’ is 25 mm, b’ is 40 mm and c’ is 10 mm above Hp respectively. Draw projections
of that figure and find it’s true shape.
As per the procedure-
1.First draw Fv & Tv as per the data.
2.In Tv line ab is // to xy hence it’s other view a’b’ is TL. So draw x1y1 perpendicular to it.
3.Project view on x1y1.
a) First draw projectors from a’b’ & c’ on x1y1.
b) from xy take distances of a,b & c( Tv) mark on these projectors from x1y1. Name points a1b1 & c1.
c) This line view is an Aux.Tv. Draw x2y2 // to this line view and project Aux. Fv on it.
for that from x1y1 take distances of a’b’ & c’ and mark from x2y= on new projectors.
4.Name points a’1 b’1 & c’1 and join them. This will be the required true shape.
Y1
a1b1 Y
2
b’ b’1
15
a’
15
C1
10 C’ X1
X X2 a’1
Y
c c’1
ALWAYS FOR NEW FV TAKE

DISTANCES OF PREVIOUS FV
300 650 AND FOR NEW TV, DISTANCES
a OF PREVIOUS TV
b
50 mm REMEMBER!!
Problem 15: Fv & Tv of a triangular plate are shown.
Determine it’s true shape.
USE SAME PROCEDURE STEPS 50

OF PREVIOUS PROBLEM: 25
BUT THERE IS ONE DIFFICULTY: c’
15
NO LINE IS // TO XY IN ANY VIEW. a’
1’
MEANS NO TL IS AVAILABLE.
20
IN SUCH CASES DRAW ONE LINE b’
// TO XY IN ANY VIEW & IT’S OTHER 10
X Y
VIEW CAN BE CONSIDERED AS TL 15
x1
FOR THE PURPOSE. a c
HERE a’ 1’ line in Fv is drawn // to xy. 40

HENCE it’s Tv a-1 becomes TL. 1 c’1
a’1 y2
b
THEN FOLLOW SAME STEPS AND
c1
DETERMINE TRUE SHAPE. b’1
(STUDY THE ILLUSTRATION) y1
x2
ALWAYS FOR NEW FV TAKE b1

DISTANCES OF PREVIOUS FV
AND FOR NEW TV, DISTANCES d1
OF PREVIOUS TV
REMEMBER!!
PROBLEM 16: Fv & Tv both are circles of 50 mm diameter. Determine true shape of an elliptical plate.
ADOPT SAME PROCEDURE.

a c is considered as line // to xy.
Then a’c’ becomes TL for the purpose.
Using steps properly true shape can be
50D y1
Easily determined. b’ b1 y2
Study the illustration.
TL ac1 1
a’ c’ b’1
c’1
d’ d
X1 1
X d Y
X2
ALWAYS, FOR NEW FV

a’1
TAKE DISTANCES OF d’1
PREVIOUS FV AND a c TRUE SHAPE
FOR NEW TV, DISTANCES
OF PREVIOUS TV
REMEMBER!! 50 D. b
Problem 17 : Draw a regular pentagon of
30 mm sides with one side 300 inclined to xy.
This figure is Tv of some plane whose Fv is
A line 450 inclined to xy.
Determine it’s true shape. b1
a1
c1
IN THIS CASE ALSO TRUE LENGTH
IS NOT AVAILABLE IN ANY VIEW. X1
BUT ACTUALLY WE DONOT REQUIRE

TL TO FIND IT’S TRUE SHAPE, AS ONE a’ e1 d1
VIEW (FV) IS ALREADY A LINE VIEW.
SO JUST BY DRAWING X1Y1 // TO THIS b’
VIEW WE CAN PROJECT VIEW ON IT e’
AND GET TRUE SHAPE:
c’ Y1
d’
STUDY THE ILLUSTRATION.. 450
X 300 Y
e
d
ALWAYS FOR NEW FV a
TAKE DISTANCES OF
PREVIOUS FV AND FOR
NEW TV, DISTANCES OF
PREVIOUS TV c
REMEMBER!! b
SOLIDS
To understand and remember various solids in this subject properly,
those are classified & arranged in to two major groups.
Group A Group B
Solids having top and base of same shape Solids having base of some shape
and just a point as a top, called apex.
Cylinder Cone
Prisms Pyramids
Triangular Square Pentagonal Hexagonal Triangular Square Pentagonal Hexagonal
Cube Tetrahedron
( A solid having ( A solid having
six square faces) Four triangular faces)
SOLIDS
Dimensional parameters of different solids.
Square Prism Square Pyramid Cylinder Cone

Apex Apex
Top
Rectangular Slant
Face Edge Triangular
Longer Base Face Base Base
Base
Edge
Corner of Edge Edge Corner of

Generators
base of of base
Imaginary lines
Base Base
generating curved surface
of cylinder & cone.
Sections of solids( top & base not parallel) Frustum of cone & pyramids.
( top & base parallel to each other)
STANDING ON H.P RESTING ON H.P LYING ON H.P
On it’s base. On one point of base circle. On one generator.
(Axis perpendicular to Hp (Axis inclined to Hp (Axis inclined to Hp
And // to Vp.) And // to Vp) And // to Vp)
F.V. F.V. F.V.
X Y
While observing Fv, x-y line represents Horizontal Plane. (Hp)
X While observing Tv, x-y line represents Vertical Plane. (Vp) Y
T.V. T.V. T.V.
STANDING ON V.P RESTING ON V.P LYING ON V.P

On it’s base. On one point of base circle. On one generator.
Axis perpendicular to Vp Axis inclined to Vp Axis inclined to Vp
And // to Hp And // to Hp And // to Hp
STEPS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS IN SOLIDS
Problem is solved in three steps:
STEP 1: ASSUME SOLID STANDING ON THE PLANE WITH WHICH IT IS MAKING INCLINATION.
( IF IT IS INCLINED TO HP, ASSUME IT STANDING ON HP)
( IF IT IS INCLINED TO VP, ASSUME IT STANDING ON VP)
IF STANDING ON HP - IT’S TV WILL BE TRUE SHAPE OF IT’S BASE OR TOP:
IF STANDING ON VP - IT’S FV WILL BE TRUE SHAPE OF IT’S BASE OR TOP.
BEGIN WITH THIS VIEW:
IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL BE A RECTANGLE ( IF SOLID IS CYLINDER OR ONE OF THE PRISMS):
IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL BE A TRIANGLE ( IF SOLID IS CONE OR ONE OF THE PYRAMIDS):
DRAW FV & TV OF THAT SOLID IN STANDING POSITION:
STEP 2: CONSIDERING SOLID’S INCLINATION ( AXIS POSITION ) DRAW IT’S FV & TV.
STEP 3: IN LAST STEP, CONSIDERING REMAINING INCLINATION, DRAW IT’S FINAL FV & TV.
GENERAL PATTERN ( THREE STEPS ) OF SOLUTION:

GROUP B SOLID. GROUP A SOLID. GROUP B SOLID. GROUP A SOLID.
CONE CYLINDER CONE CYLINDER
AXIS AXIS
AXIS AXIS INCLINED HP INCLINED HP
AXIS AXIS VERTICAL INCLINED HP
VERTICAL INCLINED HP
er AXIS er AXIS
AXIS AXIS TO VP AXIS TO VP
INCLINED VP AXIS INCLINED INCLINED
INCLINED VP VP VP
Three steps Three steps Three steps Three steps

If solid is inclined to Hp If solid is inclined to Hp If solid is inclined to Vp If solid is inclined to Vp
Study Next Twelve Problems and Practice them separately !!
CATEGORIES OF ILLUSTRATED PROBLEMS!
PROBLEM NO.1, 2, 3, 4 GENERAL CASES OF SOLIDS INCLINED TO HP & VP
PROBLEM NO. 5 & 6 CASES OF CUBE & TETRAHEDRON
PROBLEM NO. 7 CASE OF FREELY SUSPENDED SOLID WITH SIDE VIEW.
PROBLEM NO. 8 CASE OF CUBE ( WITH SIDE VIEW)
PROBLEM NO. 9 CASE OF TRUE LENGTH INCLINATION WITH HP & VP.
PROBLEM NO. 10 & 11 CASES OF COMPOSITE SOLIDS. (AUXILIARY PLANE)
PROBLEM NO. 12 CASE OF A FRUSTUM (AUXILIARY PLANE)

Solution Steps :
Problem 1. A square pyramid, 40 Triangular face on Hp , means it is lying on Hp:
mm base sides and axis 60 mm long, 1.Assume it standing on Hp.
2.It’s Tv will show True Shape of base( square)
has a triangular face on the ground 3.Draw square of 40mm sides with one side vertical Tv &
and the vertical plane containing the taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
axis makes an angle of 450 with the 4.Name all points as shown in illustration.
5.Draw 2nd Fv in lying position I.e.o’c’d’ face on xy. And project it’s Tv.
VP. Draw its projections. Take apex 6.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
nearer to VP 7.Then construct remaining inclination with Vp
( Vp containing axis ic the center line of 2nd Tv.Make it 450 to xy as
shown take apex near to xy, as it is nearer to Vp) & project final Fv.
o’
a’1 b’1
Y
X a’b’ c’d’ d’1 c’1 o’1
a1
a d d1 a1
o1
o
b c c1 b1 (APEX
NEARER (APEX
TO V.P). AWAY
For dark and dotted lines
FROM V.P.)
1.Draw proper outline of new view DARK. 2. Decide direction of an observer.
3. Select nearest point to observer and draw all lines starting from it-dark.
4. Select farthest point to observer and draw all lines (remaining)from it- dotted.
Q Draw the projections of a pentagonal prism , base 25 mm side and axis 50 mm long,
resting on one of its rectangular faces on the H.P. with the axis inclined at 45º to the V.P.
As the axis is to be inclined with the VP, in the first view it must be kept perpendicular to the
VP i.e. true shape of the base will be drawn in the FV with one side on XY line
b’ 2’
b1’ 21’
a’ 1’ c’ 3’ a1’ 31’
c1’ 11’
X e’ 5’ d’ 4’ e1’ d1’ 41’ Y

45º 51’
25 c
d
d
a e b c b
e
a
3
50
4
2
5
1
1 5 2 4 3
Solution Steps:
Problem 2: Resting on Hp on one generator, means lying on Hp:
A cone 40 mm diameter and 50 mm axis 1.Assume it standing on Hp.
is resting on one generator on Hp 2.It’s Tv will show True Shape of base( circle )
which makes 300 inclination with Vp 3.Draw 40mm dia. Circle as Tv &
taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
Draw it’s projections. 4.Name all points as shown in illustration.
5.Draw 2nd Fv in lying position I.e.o’e’ on xy. And
For dark and dotted lines
1.Draw proper outline of new vie project it’s Tv below xy.
DARK. 6.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted,
2. Decide direction of an observer. as per the procedure.
3. Select nearest point to observer 7.Then construct remaining inclination with Vp
and draw all lines starting from ( generator o1e1 300 to xy as shown) & project final Fv.
it-dark.
4. Select farthest point to observer o’
and draw all lines (remaining) a’1
from it- dotted.
h’1 b’1
g’1
f’1 c’1
X a’ h’b’ c’ g f’ d’ e’ o’
e’1 d’1 Y o1
30
’
g g1
g1 o1
h f f1 h1 h1
f1 a1
a e e1 a1 o1
e1 b1
b d d1 b1
d1
c c1 c1
Solution Steps:
Problem 3: Resting on Vp on one point of base, means inclined to Vp:
A cylinder 40 mm diameter and 50 mm 1.Assume it standing on Vp
2.It’s Fv will show True Shape of base & top( circle )
axis is resting on one point of a base 3.Draw 40mm dia. Circle as Fv & taking 50 mm axis project Tv.
circle on Vp while it’s axis makes 450 ( a Rectangle)
with Vp and Fv of the axis 350 with Hp. 4.Name all points as shown in illustration.
5.Draw 2nd Tv making axis 450 to xy And project it’s Fv above xy.
Draw projections.. 6.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
7.Then construct remaining inclination with Hp
( Fv of axis I.e. center line of view to xy as shown) & project final Tv.
4’d’ d’ 4’
3’
1’ a’ c’ a’ c’ 3’
1’
2’ b’ b’ 2’
X 350
Y
a bd c 450 c1
d1
b1
a1
3
4
2
1 24 3
1
Solution Steps :
1.Assume it standing on Hp but as said on apex.( inverted ).
Problem 4:A square pyramid 30 mm base side 2.It’s Tv will show True Shape of base( square)
3.Draw a corner case square of 30 mm sides as Tv(as shown)
and 50 mm long axis is resting on it’s apex on Hp,
Showing all slant edges dotted, as those will not be visible from top.
such that it’s one slant edge is vertical and a
4.taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
triangular face through it is perpendicular to Vp. 5.Name all points as shown in illustration.
Draw it’s projections. 6.Draw 2nd Fv keeping o’a’ slant edge vertical & project it’s Tv
7.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
8.Then redrew 2nd Tv as final Tv keeping a1o1d1 triangular face
perpendicular to Vp I.e.xy. Then as usual project final Fv.
a’ b’d’ c’ a’1
d’1 b’1
c’1
X o’ o’1 Y
d d1
a bo c ao1 b1 c1
1
Solution Steps:
Problem 5: A cube of 50 mm long 1.Assuming standing on Hp, begin with Tv,a square with all sides
edges is so placed on Hp on one equally inclined to xy.Project Fv and name all points of FV & TV.
corner that a body diagonal is 2.Draw a body-diagonal joining c’ with 3’( This can become // to xy)
parallel to Hp and perpendicular to 3.From 1’ drop a perpendicular on this and name it p’
Vp Draw it’s projections. 4.Draw 2nd Fv in which 1’-p’ line is vertical means c’-3’ diagonal
must be horizontal. .Now as usual project Tv..
6.In final Tv draw same diagonal is perpendicular to Vp as said in problem.
Then as usual project final FV.
a’1
d’1
d’1
a’ b’d’ c’
3’
c’1
3’ 1’ 1’ 1’
X d
Y
d1
a c a1 c1
b b1
Problem 6:A tetrahedron of 50 mm Solution Steps
long edges is resting on one edge on As it is resting assume it standing on Hp.
Hp while one triangular face containing Begin with Tv , an equilateral triangle as side case as shown:
this edge is vertical and 450 inclined to First project base points of Fv on xy, name those & axis line.
Vp. Draw projections. From a’ with TL of edge, 50 mm, cut on axis line & mark o’
(as axis is not known, o’ is finalized by slant edge length)
IMPORTANT: Then complete Fv.
Tetrahedron is a In 2nd Fv make face o’b’c’ vertical as said in problem.
special type And like all previous problems solve completely.
of triangular
pyramid in which
base sides & o’1
slant edges are o’
equal in length. TL
Solid of four faces. a’1
Like cube it is also 900
described by One X a’ b’ b’1
c’ c’1 Y
dimension only.. 450
Axis length c c1
generally not given.
a o a1 o1
b b1
FREELY SUSPENDED SOLIDS:
Positions of CG, on axis, from base, for different solids are shown below.
H
CG
H/2 CG
H/4
GROUP A SOLIDS GROUP B SOLIDS

( Cylinder & Prisms) ( Cone & Pyramids)
Solution Steps:
Problem 7: A pentagonal pyramid In all suspended cases axis shows inclination with Hp.
30 mm base sides & 60 mm long axis, 1.Hence assuming it standing on Hp, drew Tv - a regular pentagon,corner case.
is freely suspended from one corner of 2.Project Fv & locate CG position on axis – ( ¼ H from base.) and name g’ and
base so that a plane containing it’s axis Join it with corner d’
remains parallel to Vp. 3.As 2nd Fv, redraw first keeping line g’d’ vertical.
Draw it’s three views. 4.As usual project corresponding Tv and then Side View looking from.
LINE d’g’ VERTICAL d”

o’ d’
c’e’ e” c”
FOR SIDE VIEW
g’
H a’b’
a” b”
g’
H/4 o”
IMPORTANT: a’ b’ c’ e’ d’ Y
X
When a solid is freely e1
e
suspended from a a1
corner, then line a
d1
joining point of o do
1
contact & C.G. b b1
remains vertical. c c1
( Here axis shows
inclination with Hp.)
So in all such cases,
assume solid standing
on Hp initially.)
Solution Steps: Problem 8:
1.Assuming it standing on Hp begin with Tv, a square of corner case. A cube of 50 mm long edges is so placed
2.Project corresponding Fv.& name all points as usual in both views. on Hp on one corner that a body diagonal
3.Join a’1’ as body diagonal and draw 2nd Fv making it vertical (I’ on xy) through this corner is perpendicular to Hp
4.Project it’s Tv drawing dark and dotted lines as per the procedure. and parallel to Vp Draw it’s three views.
5.With standard method construct Left-hand side view.
( Draw a 450 inclined Line in Tv region ( below xy).
Project horizontally all points of Tv on this line and
reflect vertically upward, above xy.After this, draw
horizontal lines, from all points of Fv, to meet these
lines. Name points of intersections and join properly. a’’
For dark & dotted lines
locate observer on left side of Fv as shown.)
d’’ b’’
a’ b’d’ c’
c’’
X 1’ Y
1’
d d1 1’
a c a1 c1
b b
Problem 9: A right circular cone, This case resembles to problem no.7 & 9 from projections of planes topic.
40 mm base diameter and 60 mm In previous all cases 2nd inclination was done by a parameter not showing TL.Like
long axis is resting on Hp on one Tv of axis is inclined to Vp etc. But here it is clearly said that the axis is 400 inclined
point of base circle such that it’s to Vp. Means here TL inclination is expected. So the same construction done in those
axis makes 450 inclination with Problems is done here also. See carefully the final Tv and inclination taken there.
Hp and 400 inclination with Vp. So assuming it standing on HP begin as usual.
Draw it’s projections.
o’ o’1
a’1
h’1 b’1
g’1 c’1
450 f’1 d’1

X a’ h’b’ c’ g’ f’ d’ e’
e’1
y
Axis True Length
g g1 400
h f h1 f1
Axis Tv Length
a e a1 1 e1
o1
Locus of
Center 1
b1 d1 1
b d
c c1
Axis Tv Length
Problem 10: A triangular prism,
40 mm base side 60 mm axis
is lying on Hp on one rectangular face
with axis perpendicular to Vp.
One square pyramid is leaning on it’s face F.V.
centrally with axis // to vp. It’s base side is
30 mm & axis is 60 mm long resting on Hp
on one edge of base.Draw FV & TV of
both solids.Project another FV
on an AVP 450 inclined to VP. X Y
450
Steps :
Draw Fv of lying prism
( an equilateral Triangle)
And Fv of a leaning pyramid. T.V.
Project Tv of both solids.
Draw x1y1 450 inclined to xy
and project aux.Fv on it. Aux.F.V.
Mark the distances of first FV
from first xy for the distances
of aux. Fv from x1y1 line.
Note the observer’s directions
Shown by arrows and further
steps carefully.
Problem 11:A hexagonal prism of
base side 30 mm longand axis 40 mm long,
is standing on Hp on it’s base with
one base edge // to Vp.
A tetrahedron is placed centrally
on the top of it.The base of tetrahedron is
a triangle formed by joining alternate corners
of top of prism..Draw projections of both solids. o’
Project an auxiliary Tv on AIP 450 inclined to Hp.
STEPS:
Draw a regular hexagon as Tv of
standing prism With one side // to xy Y1
and name the top points.Project it’s Fv – a’ b’ f’ c’ e’ d’
a rectangle and name it’s top.
Now join it’s alternate corners Fv
a-c-e and the triangle formed is base
of a tetrahedron as said. X Y Aux.Tv
Locate center of this triangle e1 o1
450
& locate apex o
f e
Extending it’s axis line upward f1 d1
mark apex o’
By cutting TL of edge of tetrahedron
equal to a-c. and complete Fv Tva o d a1 c1
of tetrahedron.
Draw an AIP ( x1y1) 450 inclined to xy b1
And project Aux.Tv on it by using similar b c
Steps like previous problem. X1
Problem 12: A frustum of regular hexagonal pyrami is standing on it’s larger base
On Hp with one base side perpendicular to Vp.Draw it’s Fv & Tv.
Project it’s Aux.Tv on an AIP parallel to one of the slant edges showing TL.
Base side is 50 mm long , top side is 30 mm long and 50 mm is height of frustum.
Fv
AIP // to slant edge
1’ 2’5’ 3’4’ Y1
Showing true length
i.e. a’- 1’
4
5 3
1 2
X a’ b’ e’ c’ d’ Y Aux.Tv
e d1
c1
d e1
Tv 5
4 X1 a1 b1
a 1
3
2
c
b
a’b’ a1’ b1’
a’b’ c’d’
c’d’
d1’ c1’
1’2’ 11’
21’
450
3’4’ 3’4’ 41’ 31’
1’2’ 21
300
b2 c3 21 31 b1 c1
11
31
b1
41
a1
d4 11 41 a1 d1
a1
c1
d1
Q13.22: A hexagonal pyramid base 25 mm side and axis 55 mm long has one of its slant
edge on the ground. A plane containing that edge and the axis is perpendicular to the H.P.
and inclined at 45º to the V.P. Draw its projections when the apex is nearer to the V.P. than
the base.
The inclination of the axis is given indirectly in this problem. When the slant edge of a pyramid rests
The
on thevertical plane
HP its axis containing
is inclined theHP
with the slant edgedeciding
so while on the HP firstand
viewthe
the axis is the
axis of seen in must
solid the TV
be
as operpendicular
kept 1d1 for drawing auxiliary
to HP i.e. trueFV draw
shape of an
the auxiliary plane
base will be seenXin1Ythe
1 atTV.
45ºSecondly
from d1when
o1 drawing
extended.
hexagon Then
in the TV draw
we have projectors from
to keep the eachatpoint
corners i.e. a1 to
the extreme f1 perpendicular to X1Y1 and
ends.
mark the points measuring their distances in the FV from old XY line.
o’
f1’
a’
a1’
e1’
b’ X1
f’ b1’
c1’
c’ d1’
e’
b’ c’ d’ o’
X a’ f’ e’ d’ Y
f1 o1’
e1
f e
a
d d1 a1
o 45º Y1
o1
b c c1 b1
Contents
Objective of CD
1. Scales
2. Engineering Curves - I
3. Engineering Curves - II
4. Loci of Points
5. Orthographic Projections - Basics
6. Conversion of Pictorial View into Orthographic Views
7. Projections of Points and Lines
8. Projection of Planes
9. Projection of Solids
10. Sections & Development
11. Intersection of Surfaces
12. Isometric Projections
13. Exercises
14. Solutions – Applications of Lines
EXIT
Scales
1. Basic Information
2. Types and important units
3. Plain Scales (3 Problems)
4. Diagonal Scales - information
5. Diagonal Scales (3 Problems)
6. Comparative Scales (3 Problems)
7. Vernier Scales - information
8. Vernier Scales (2 Problems)
9. Scales of Cords - construction
10. Scales of Cords (2 Problems)

Engineering Curves – I
1. Classification
2. Conic sections - explanation
3. Common Definition
4. Ellipse – ( six methods of construction)
5. Parabola – ( Three methods of construction)
6. Hyperbola – ( Three methods of construction )
7. Methods of drawing Tangents & Normals ( four cases)

Engineering Curves – II
1. Classification
2. Definitions
3. Involutes - (five cases)
4. Cycloid
5. Trochoids – (Superior and Inferior)
6. Epic cycloid and Hypo - cycloid
7. Spiral (Two cases)
8. Helix – on cylinder & on cone
9. Methods of drawing Tangents and Normals (Three cases)

Loci of Points
1. Definitions - Classifications
2. Basic locus cases (six problems)
3. Oscillating links (two problems)
4. Rotating Links (two problems)

Orthographic Projections - Basics
1. Drawing – The fact about
2. Drawings - Types
3. Orthographic (Definitions and Important terms)
4. Planes - Classifications
5. Pattern of planes & views
6. Methods of orthographic projections
7. 1st angle and 3rd angle method – two illustrations

Conversion of pictorial views in to orthographic views.
1. Explanation of various terms
2. 1st angle method - illustration
3. 3rd angle method – illustration
4. To recognize colored surfaces and to draw three Views
5. Seven illustrations (no.1 to 7) draw different orthographic views
6. Total nineteen illustrations ( no.8 to 26)

Projection of Points and Lines
1. Projections – Information
2. Notations
3. Quadrant Structure.
4. Object in different Quadrants – Effect on position of views.
5. Projections of a Point – in 1st quadrant.
6.
7. Lines
Simple– Cases
Objective & Types.
of Lines.
8. Lines inclined to one plane.

9. Lines inclined to both planes.
10. Imp. Observations for solution
11. Important Diagram & Tips.
12. Group A problems 1 to 5
13. Traces of Line ( HT & VT )
14. To locate Traces.
15. Group B problems: No. 6 to 8
16. HT-VT additional information.
17. Group B1 problems: No. 9 to 11
18. Group B1 problems: No. 9 to 1
19. Lines in profile plane
20. Group C problems: No.12 & 13
21. Applications of Lines:: Information
22. Group D: Application Problems: 14 to 23
Projections of Planes:
1. About the topic:
2. Illustration of surface & side inclination.
3. Procedure to solve problem & tips:
4. Problems:1 to 5: Direct inclinations:
5. Problems:6 to 11: Indirect inclinations:
6. Freely suspended cases: Info:
7. Problems: 12 & 13
8. Determination of True Shape: Info:
9. Problems: 14 to 17
Projections of Solids:
1. Classification of Solids:
2. Important parameters:
3. Positions with Hp & Vp: Info:
4. Pattern of Standard Solution.
5. Problem no 1,2,3,4: General cases:
6. Problem no 5 & 6 (cube & tetrahedron)
7. Problem no 7 : Freely suspended:
8. Problem no 8 : Side view case:
9. Problem no 9 : True length case:
10. Problem no 10 & 11 Composite solids:
11. Problem no 12 : Frustum & auxiliary plane:

Section & Development
1. Applications of solids:
2. Sectioning a solid: Information:
3. Sectioning a solid: Illustration Terms:
4. Typical shapes of sections & planes:
5. Development: Information:
6. Development of diff. solids:
7. Development of Frustums:
8. Problems: Standing Prism & Cone: no. 1 & 2
9. Problems: Lying Prism & Cone: no.3 & 4
10. Problem: Composite Solid no. 5
11. Problem: Typical cases no.6 to 9

Intersection of Surfaces:
1. Essential Information:
2. Display of Engineering Applications:
3. Solution Steps to solve Problem:
4. Case 1: Cylinder to Cylinder:
5. Case 2: Prism to Cylinder:
6. Case 3: Cone to Cylinder
7. Case 4: Prism to Prism: Axis Intersecting.
8. Case 5: Triangular Prism to Cylinder
9. Case 6: Prism to Prism: Axis Skew
10. Case 7 Prism to Cone: from top:
11. Case 8: Cylinder to Cone:

Isometric Projections
1. Definitions and explanation
2. Important Terms
3. Types.
4. Isometric of plain shapes-1.
5. Isometric of circle
6. Isometric of a part of circle
7. Isometric of plain shapes-2
8. Isometric of solids & frustums (no.5 to 16)
9. Isometric of sphere & hemi-sphere (no.17 & 18)
10. Isometric of Section of solid.(no.19)
11. Illustrated nineteen Problem (no.20 to 38)

OBJECTIVE OF THIS CD
Sky is the limit for vision.
Vision and memory are close relatives.
Anything in the jurisdiction of vision can be memorized for a long period.
We may not remember what we hear for a long time,
but we can easily remember and even visualize what we have seen years ago.
So vision helps visualization and both help in memorizing an event or situation.
Video effects are far more effective, is now an established fact.

Every effort has been done in this CD, to bring various planes, objects and situations
in-front of observer, so that he/she can further visualize in proper direction
and reach to the correct solution, himself.
Off-course this all will assist & give good results

only when one will practice all these methods and techniques
by drawing on sheets with his/her own hands, other wise not!
So observe each illustration carefully
note proper notes given everywhere
Go through the Tips given & solution steps carefully
Discuss your doubts with your teacher and make practice yourself.
Then success is yours !!
Go ahead confidently! CREATIVE TECHNIQUES wishes you best luck !

SCALES
DIMENSIONS OF LARGE OBJECTS MUST BE REDUCED TO ACCOMMODATE

ON STANDARD SIZE DRAWING SHEET.THIS REDUCTION CREATES A SCALE FOR FULL SIZE SCALE
OF THAT REDUCTION RATIO, WHICH IS GENERALLY A FRACTION.. R.F.=1 OR ( 1:1 )
SUCH A SCALE IS CALLED REDUCING SCALE MEANS DRAWING
AND & OBJECT ARE OF
THAT RATIO IS CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR. SAME SIZE.
Other RFs are described
SIMILARLY IN CASE OF TINY OBJECTS DIMENSIONS MUST BE INCREASED as
FOR ABOVE PURPOSE. HENCE THIS SCALE IS CALLED ENLARGING SCALE. 1:10, 1:100,
1:1000, 1:1,00,000
HERE THE RATIO CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR IS MORE THAN UNITY.
USE FOLLOWING FORMULAS FOR THE CALCULATIONS IN THIS TOPIC.
DIMENSION OF DRAWING
A REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR (R.F.) =
DIMENSION OF OBJECT
LENGTH OF DRAWING
=
ACTUAL LENGTH
AREA OF DRAWING
=
V ACTUAL AREA
VOLUME AS PER DRWG.
=3
V ACTUAL VOLUME
B LENGTH OF SCALE = R.F. X MAX. LENGTH TO BE MEASURED.

BE FRIENDLY WITH THESE UNITS.
1 KILOMETRE = 10 HECTOMETRES
1 HECTOMETRE = 10 DECAMETRES
1 DECAMETRE = 10 METRES
1 METRE = 10 DECIMETRES
1 DECIMETRE = 10 CENTIMETRES
1 CENTIMETRE = 10 MILIMETRES
TYPES OF SCALES:
1. PLAIN SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO SINGLE DECIMAL)
2. DIAGONAL SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
3. VERNIER SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
4. COMPARATIVE SCALES ( FOR COMPARING TWO DIFFERENT UNITS)
5. SCALE OF CORDS ( FOR MEASURING/CONSTRUCTING ANGLES)
PLAIN SCALE:-This type of scale represents two units or a unit and it’s sub-division.
PROBLEM NO.1:- Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure maximum distance of 6 m.
Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm.
CONSTRUCTION:- DIMENSION OF DRAWING

PLAIN SCALE
a) Calculate R.F.=
DIMENSION OF OBJECT
R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100

Length of scale = R.F. X max. distance
= 1/100 X 600 cm
= 6 cms
b) Draw a line 6 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 4 m 6 dm on it as shown.
4 M 6 DM
10 0 1 2 3 4 5 METERS
DECIMETERS
R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.
PROBLEM NO.2:- In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cms long. Calculate the R.F. and construct
a plain scale to read kilometers and hectometers, for max. 12 km. Show a distance of 8.3 km on it.
CONSTRUCTION:-
a) Calculate R.F.
R.F.= 45 cm/ 36 km = 45/ 36 . 1000 . 100 = 1/ 80,000
PLAIN SCALE
Length of scale = R.F. max. distance
= 1/ 80000 12 km
= 15 cm
b) Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 12 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 8.3 km on it as shown.
8KM 3HM
10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
KILOMETERS
HECTOMETERS
R.F. = 1/80,000
PLANE SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS AND HECTOMETERS
PROBLEM NO.3:- The distance between two stations is 210 km. A passenger train covers this distance
in 7 hours. Construct a plain scale to measure time up to a single minute. RF is 1/200,000 Indicate the distance
traveled by train in 29 minutes.
CONSTRUCTION:-
PLAIN SCALE
a) 210 km in 7 hours. Means speed of the train is 30 km per hour ( 60 minutes)
Length of scale = R.F. max. distance per hour

= 1/ 2,00,000 30km
= 15 cm
b) 15 cm length will represent 30 km and 1 hour i.e. 60 minutes.
Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent 5 km and 10 minutes.
c) Sub divide the first part in 10 equal parts,which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
Each smaller part will represent distance traveled in one minute.
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a proper look of scale.
e) Show km on upper side and time in minutes on lower side of the scale as shown.
After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance traveled in 29 minutes, which is 14.5 km, on it as shown.
DISTANCE TRAVELED IN 29 MINUTES.
14.5 KM
KM 5 2.5 0 5 10 15 20 25 KM
MIN 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 MINUTES
R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.
We have seen that the plain scales give only two dimensions,
such as a unit and it’s subunit or it’s fraction.
DIAGONAL
SCALE
The diagonal scales give us three successive dimensions
that is a unit, a subunit and a subdivision of a subunit.
The principle of construction of a diagonal scale is as follows.

Let the XY in figure be a subunit. X Y
From Y draw a perpendicular YZ to a suitable height. 10
Join XZ. Divide YZ in to 10 equal parts. 9
Draw parallel lines to XY from all these divisions 8
and number them as shown.
7
From geometry we know that similar triangles have
their like sides proportional. 6
5
Consider two similar triangles XYZ and 7’ 7Z, 4
we have 7Z / YZ = 7’7 / XY (each part being one unit)
3
Means 7’ 7 = 7 / 10. x X Y = 0.7 XY
:. 2
Similarly 1
1’ – 1 = 0.1 XY
2’ – 2 = 0.2 XY Z
Thus, it is very clear that, the sides of small triangles,
which are parallel to divided lines, become progressively
shorter in length by 0.1 XY.
The solved examples ON NEXT PAGES will

make the principles of diagonal scales clear.
PROBLEM NO. 4 : The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km.
In a railway map it is represented by a line 5 cm long. Find it’s R.F.
Draw a diagonal scale to show single km. And maximum 600 km.
DIAGONAL
Indicate on it following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 km SCALE
SOLUTION STEPS: RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000
Length of scale = 1 / 40, 00, 000 X 600 X 10 5 = 15 cm
Draw a line 15 cm long. It will represent 600 km.Divide it in six equal parts.( each will represent 100 km.)
Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will represent 10 km.Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance. Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9th sub-division of horizontal scale
with 10th division of the vertical divisions. Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions and
complete diagonal scale.
569 km
459 km
336 km
222 km
10
9
8
7
6
KM
5
4
3
2
1
0
KM
100 50 0 100 200 300 400 500 KM
R.F. = 1 / 40,00,000
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS.

PROBLEM NO.5: A rectangular plot of land measuring 1.28 hectors is represented on a map by a similar rectangle
of 8 sq. cm. Calculate RF of the scale. Draw a diagonal scale to read single meter. Show a distance of 438 m on it.
SOLUTION : DIAGONAL
1 hector = 10, 000 sq. meters SCALE
1.28 hectors = 1.28 X 10, 000 sq. meters
Draw a line 15 cm long.
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm
8 sq. cm area on map represents It will represent 600 m.Divide it in six equal parts.
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm on land ( each will represent 100 m.)
1 cm sq. on map represents Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 sq cm on land represent 10 m.
1 cm on map represent Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance.
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 cm
Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9th sub-division
= 4, 000 cm of horizontal scale with 10th division of the vertical divisions.
1 cm on drawing represent 4, 000 cm, Means RF = 1 / 4000 Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions
Assuming length of scale 15 cm, it will represent 600 m. and complete diagonal scale.
438 meters
10
9
8
7
6
5
M
4
3
2
1
0
M 100 50 0 100 200 300 400 500 M
R.F. = 1 / 4000
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING METERS.

PROBLEM NO.6:. Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 1: 2.5, showing centimeters
and millimeters and long enough to measure up to 20 centimeters.
SOLUTION STEPS: DIAGONAL

R.F. = 1 / 2.5 SCALE
Length of scale = 1 / 2.5 X 20 cm.
= 8 cm.
1.Draw a line 8 cm long and divide it in to 4 equal parts.
(Each part will represent a length of 5 cm.)
2.Divide the first part into 5 equal divisions.
(Each will show 1 cm.)
3.At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and
on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
4.Complete the scale as explained in previous problems.
Show the distance 13.4 cm on it.
13 .4 CM
10
9
8
7
6
MM
5
4
3
2
1
0
CM 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 CENTIMETRES
R.F. = 1 / 2.5
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING CENTIMETERS.
COMPARATIVE SCALES: EXAMPLE NO. 7 :
These are the Scales having same R.F. A distance of 40 miles is represented by a line
but graduated to read different units. 8 cm long. Construct a plain scale to read 80 miles.
These scales may be Plain scales or Diagonal scales Also construct a comparative scale to read kilometers
and may be constructed separately or one above the other. upto 120 km ( 1 m = 1.609 km )
SOLUTION STEPS:
CONSTRUCTION:
Scale of Miles:
Take a line 16 cm long and divide it into 8 parts. Each will represent 10 miles.
40 miles are represented = 8 cm
Subdivide the first part and each sub-division will measure single mile.
: 80 miles = 16 cm
R.F. = 8 / 40 X 1609 X 1000 X 100
= 1 / 8, 04, 500
Scale of Km: CONSTRUCTION:

Length of scale On the top line of the scale of miles cut off a distance of 14.90 cm and divide
= 1 / 8,04,500 X 120 X 1000 X 100 it into 12 equal parts. Each part will represent 10 km.
= 14. 90 cm Subdivide the first part into 10 equal parts. Each subdivision will show single km.
10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 KM
5
10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 MILES
R.F. = 1 / 804500
COMPARATIVE SCALE SHOWING MILES AND KILOMETERS
SOLUTION STEPS:
Scale of km.
COMPARATIVE SCALE: length of scale = RF X 60 km
= 1 / 4,00,000 X 60 X 105
= 15 cm.
EXAMPLE NO. 8 : CONSTRUCTION:
A motor car is running at a speed of 60 kph. Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts.
On a scale of RF = 1 / 4,00,000 show the distance ( each part will represent 10 km.)
traveled by car in 47 minutes. Subdivide 1st part in `0 equal subdivisions.
( each will represent 1 km.)
Time Scale:
Same 15 cm line will represent 60 minutes.
Construct the scale similar to distance scale.
It will show minimum 1 minute & max. 60min.
47 MINUTES
10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 MINUTES
MIN.
KM 5 40
10 0 10 20 30 50 KM
47 KM
R.F. = 1 / 4,00,000
COMPARATIVE SCALE SHOWING MINUTES AND KILOMETERS
EXAMPLE NO. 9 :
A car is traveling at a speed of 60 km per hour. A 4 cm long line represents the distance traveled by the car in two hours.
Construct a suitable comparative scale up to 10 hours. The scale should be able to read the distance traveled in one minute.
Show the time required to cover 476 km and also distance in 4 hours and 24 minutes.
SOLUTION: COMPARATIVE
4 cm line represents distance in two hours , means for 10 hours scale, 20 cm long line is required, as length SCALE:
of scale.This length of scale will also represent 600 kms. ( as it is a distance traveled in 10 hours)
CONSTRUCTION:
Distance Scale ( km)
Draw a line 20 cm long. Divide it in TEN equal parts.( Each will show 60 km)
Sub-divide 1st part in SIX subdivisions.( Each will represent 10 km)
At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
And complete the diagonal scale to read minimum ONE km.
Time scale:
Draw a line 20 cm long. Divide it in TEN equal parts.( Each will show 1 hour) Sub-divide 1st part in SIX subdivisions.( Each will
represent 10 minutes) At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
And complete the diagonal scale to read minimum ONE minute.
TIME SCALE TO MEASURE MIN 1 MINUTE.
10
MIN.0
60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 hrs 24 min. ( 264 kms ) HOURS
476 kms ( 7 hrs 56 min.)
10
kM
0
kM 60 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540
DISTANCE SCALE TO MEASURE MIN 1 KM KILOMETERS
Vernier Scales:
These scales, like diagonal scales , are used to read to a very small unit with great accuracy.
It consists of two parts – a primary scale and a vernier. The primary scale is a plain scale fully
divided into minor divisions.
As it would be difficult to sub-divide the minor divisions in ordinary way, it is done with the help of the vernier.
The graduations on vernier are derived from those on the primary scale.
Figure to the right shows a part of a plain scale in

which length A-O represents 10 cm. If we divide A-O B 9.9 7.7 5.5 3.3 1.1 0
into ten equal parts, each will be of 1 cm. Now it would

not be easy to divide each of these parts into ten equal
divisions to get measurements in millimeters.
A 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Now if we take a length BO equal to 10 + 1 = 11 such

equal parts, thus representing 11 cm, and divide it into
ten equal divisions, each of these divisions will
represent 11 / 10 – 1.1 cm.
The difference between one part of AO and one division

of BO will be equal 1.1 – 1.0 = 0.1 cm or 1 mm.
This difference is called Least Count of the scale.
Minimum this distance can be measured by this scale.
The upper scale BO is the vernier.The combination of
plain scale and the vernier is vernier scale.
Example 10:
Draw a vernier scale of RF = 1 / 25 to read centimeters upto Vernier Scale
4 meters and on it, show lengths 2.39 m and 0.91 m
SOLUTION: CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier)

Length of scale = RF X max. Distance Take 11 parts of Dm length and divide it in 10 equal parts.
= 1 / 25 X 4 X 100 Each will show 0.11 m or 1.1 dm or 11 cm and construct a rectangle
= 16 cm Covering these parts of vernier.
CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale)
Draw a line 16 cm long. TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:
Divide it in 4 equal parts. (1) For 2.39 m : Subtract 0.99 from 2.39 i.e. 2.39 - .99 = 1.4 m
( each will represent meter ) The distance between 0.99 ( left of Zero) and 1.4 (right of Zero) is 2.39 m
Sub-divide each part in 10 equal parts. (2) For 0.91 m : Subtract 0.11 from 0.91 i.e. 0.91 – 0.11 =0.80 m
( each will represent decimeter ) The distance between 0.11 and 0.80 (both left side of Zero) is 0.91 m
Name those properly.
2.39 m
0.91 m
1.1 .99 .77 .55 .33 .11 0
1.0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 0 1 1.4 2 3 METERS

METERS
Example 11: A map of size 500cm X 50cm wide represents an area of 6250 sq.Kms.
Construct a vernier scaleto measure kilometers, hectometers and decameters Vernier Scale
and long enough to measure upto 7 km. Indicate on it a) 5.33 km b) 59 decameters.
SOLUTION: CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale) TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:
AREA OF DRAWING Draw a line 14 cm long. a) For 5.33 km :
RF = Divide it in 7 equal parts. Subtract 0.33 from 5.33
V ACTUAL AREA
i.e. 5.33 - 0.33 = 5.00
( each will represent km )
= 500 X 50 cm sq. Sub-divide each part in 10 equal parts. The distance between 33 dm
V 6250 km sq. ( left of Zero) and
( each will represent hectometer ) 5.00 (right of Zero) is 5.33 k m
= 2 / 105 Name those properly. (b) For 59 dm :
Subtract 0.99 from 0.59
Length of CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier) i.e. 0.59 – 0.99 = - 0.4 km
scale = RF X max. Distance ( - ve sign means left of Zero)
Take 11 parts of hectometer part length
= 2 / 105 X 7 kms The distance between 99 dm and
and divide it in 10 equal parts. - .4 km is 59 dm
= 14 cm Each will show 1.1 hm m or 11 dm and (both left side of Zero)
Covering in a rectangle complete scale.
59 dm 5.33 km
Decameters
99 77 55 33 11
90 70 50 30 10
10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
HECTOMETERS
KILOMETERS
800 900
700
600 SCALE OF CORDS
500
400
300
200
100
00 A O
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
CONSTRUCTION:
1. DRAW SECTOR OF A CIRCLE OF 900 WITH ‘OA’ RADIUS.
( ‘OA’ ANY CONVINIENT DISTANCE )
2. DIVIDE THIS ANGLE IN NINE EQUAL PARTS OF 10 0 EACH.
3. NAME AS SHOWN FROM END ‘A’ UPWARDS.
4. FROM ‘A’ AS CENTER, WITH CORDS OF EACH ANGLE AS RADIUS
DRAW ARCS DOWNWARDS UP TO ‘AO’ LINE OR IT’S EXTENSION
AND FORM A SCALE WITH PROPER LABELING AS SHOWN.
AS CORD LENGTHS ARE USED TO MEASURE & CONSTRUCT

DIFERENT ANGLES IT IS CALLED SCALE OF CORDS.
PROBLEM 12: Construct any triangle and measure it’s angles by using scale of cords.
CONSTRUCTION: SCALE OF CORDS
First prepare Scale of Cords for the problem. 0
Then construct a triangle of given sides. ( You are supposed to measure angles x, y and z) 800 90
700
To measure angle at x: 600
Take O-A distance in compass from cords scale and mark it on lower side of triangle 500
as shown from corner x. Name O & A as shown. Then O as center, O-A radius
400
draw an arc upto upper adjacent side.Name the point B.
Take A-B cord in compass and place on scale of cords from Zero. 300
It will give value of angle at x
To measure angle at y: 200
Repeat same process from O1. Draw arc with radius O1A1.
100
Place Cord A1B1 on scale and get angle at y.
To measure angle at z: A O
00
Subtract the SUM of these two angles from 1800 to get angle at z. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
B1
z
550 300
y x
O1 A1 A O
Angle at z = 180 – ( 55 + 30 ) = 950

PROBLEM 12: Construct 250 and 1150 angles with a horizontal line , by using scale of cords.
CONSTRUCTION: SCALE OF CORDS
First prepare Scale of Cords for the problem. 0
Then Draw a horizontal line. Mark point O on it. 0 800 90
70
To construct 250 angle at O. 600
Take O-A distance in compass from cords scale and mark it on on the line drawn, from O 500
Name O & A as shown. Then O as center, O-A radius draw an arc upward.. 400
Take cord length of 250 angle from scale of cords in compass and
from A cut the arc at point B.Join B with O. The angle AOB is thus 250 300
To construct 1150 angle at O.
This scale can measure or construct angles upto 900 only directly. 200
Hence Subtract 1150 from 1800.We get 750 angle ,
100
O
which can be constructed with this scale.
Extend previous arc of OA radius and taking cord length of 750 in compass cut this arc
A
00
at B1 with A as center. Join B1 with O. Now angle AOB1 is 750 and angle COB1 is 1150. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
B B1
250
A O
750
1150
C
A O
To construct 250 angle at O. To construct 1150 angle at O.

ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
OF
THE PRINCIPLES
OF
PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDES.
1. SECTIONS OF SOLIDS.
2. DEVELOPMENT.
3. INTERSECTIONS.
STUDY CAREFULLY
THE ILLUSTRATIONS GIVEN ON
NEXT SIX PAGES !
SECTIONING A SOLID. The action of cutting is called
An object ( here a solid ) is cut by SECTIONING a solid
some imaginary cutting plane &
to understand internal details of that object. The plane of cutting is called
SECTION PLANE.
Two cutting actions means section planes are recommended.
OBSERVER
A) Section Plane perpendicular to Vp and inclined to Hp. ASSUME

UPPER PART
( This is a definition of an Aux. Inclined Plane i.e. A.I.P.) REMOVED
NOTE:- This section plane appears (A)

as a straight line in FV.
B) Section Plane perpendicular to Hp and inclined to Vp.

( This is a definition of an Aux. Vertical Plane i.e. A.V.P.)
NOTE:- This section plane appears (B)
as a straight line in TV.
Remember:-
1. After launching a section plane ASSUME
LOWER PART
either in FV or TV, the part towards observer REMOVED
OBSERVER
is assumed to be removed.
2. As far as possible the smaller part is
assumed to be removed.
For TV
ILLUSTRATION SHOWING
IMPORTANT TERMS
IN SECTIONING.
SECTION
PLANE
TRUE SHAPE
Of SECTION
x y
Apparent Shape
of section
SECTION LINES
(450 to XY)
SECTIONAL T.V.
Typical Section Planes
&
Typical Shapes
Of
Sections. Section Plane Ellipse
Section PlaneTriangle Through Generators
Through Apex
Section Plane Parallel Section Plane Hyperbola

to end generator. Parallel to Axis.
Ellipse Trapezium
Cylinder through Sq. Pyramid through

generators. all slant edges
DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES OF SOLIDS.
MEANING:-
ASSUME OBJECT HOLLOW AND MADE-UP OF THIN SHEET. CUT OPEN IT FROM ONE SIDE AND
UNFOLD THE SHEET COMPLETELY. THEN THE SHAPE OF THAT UNFOLDED SHEET IS CALLED
DEVELOPMENT OF LATERLAL SUEFACES OF THAT OBJECT OR SOLID.
LATERLAL SURFACE IS THE SURFACE EXCLUDING SOLID’S TOP & BASE.
ENGINEERING APLICATION:
THERE ARE SO MANY PRODUCTS OR OBJECTS WHICH ARE DIFFICULT TO MANUFACTURE BY
CONVENTIONAL MANUFACTURING PROCESSES, BECAUSE OF THEIR SHAPES AND SIZES.
THOSE ARE FABRICATED IN SHEET METAL INDUSTRY BY USING
DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUE. THERE IS A VAST RANGE OF SUCH OBJECTS.
EXAMPLES:-
Boiler Shells & chimneys, Pressure Vessels, Shovels, Trays, Boxes & Cartons, Feeding Hoppers,
Large Pipe sections, Body & Parts of automotives, Ships, Aeroplanes and many more.
WHAT IS
To learn methods of development of surfaces of
OUR OBJECTIVE
different solids, their sections and frustums.
IN THIS TOPIC ?
1. Development is different drawing than PROJECTIONS.
But before going ahead, 2. It is a shape showing AREA, means it’s a 2-D plain drawing.
note following 3. Hence all dimensions of it must be TRUE dimensions.
Important points. 4. As it is representing shape of an un-folded sheet, no edges can remain hidden
And hence DOTTED LINES are never shown on development.
Study illustrations given on next page carefully.
Q 14.11: A square pyramid, base 40 mm side and axis 65 mm long, has its base on the HP and all
the edges of the base equally inclined to the VP. It is cut by a section plane, perpendicular to the
VP, inclined at 45º to the HP and bisecting the axis. Draw its sectional top view, sectional side
view and true shape of the section.
X1
21 31
o’ o”
41 3”
3’
4” 2”
11
2’ 4’
1’
1”
X b’ d’ Y
a’ 45º c’
d d” a” c” b”
4
1
a o 3
c
2
b
Y1
Q 14.14: A pentagonal pyramid , base 30mm side and axis 60 mm long is lying on one of its triangular faces
on the HP with the axis parallel to the VP. A vertical section plane, whose HT bisects the top view of the axis
and makes an angle of 30º with the reference line, cuts the pyramid removing its top part. Draw the top view,
sectional front view and true shape of the section and development of the surface of the remaining portion of
the pyramid. o’
a’
6’
60
b’e’ 1’
5’ 2’
a’ b’e’ c’d’ o’
X Y
b c’d’ b1 4’ 3’
c c1
2
a1 o1
o 1 3
30
a
4 31’
d1 6 21’
d 5 41’
e e1
11’
51’
61’
Q 14.6: A Hexagonal prism has a face on the H.P. and the axis parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a vertical section
plane the H.T. of which makes an angle of 45 with XY and which cuts the axis at a point 20 mm from one of
its ends. Draw its sectional front view and the true shape of the section. Side of base 25 mm long height
65mm.
a’ b’ c’
f’ e’ d’
6’ 7’
a’ f’ a’ f’
65
1’
5’
b’ e’ b’ e’
2’
c’d’ c’d’ Y
X a’ b’ c’ 4’ 3’
f’ e’ d’
b b1 b1
1 2
a c 37
a1 c 1 a1 c 1
25
Y1
4 6
f1 d1 f1d1
f d 20 31’ 21’
e1 e1
e
5 11’
41’
71’
X1
51’
61’
Q 14.24: A Cone base 75 mm diameter and axis 80 mm long is resting on its base on H.P. It is cut by a section
plane perpendicular to the V.P., inclined at 45º to the H.P. and cutting the axis at a point 35 mm from the
apex. Draw the front view, sectional top view, sectional side view and true shape of the section.
X1
o’ o”
35
g”
g’ f” h”
f’
e’ h’ i”
e”
i’
d’
j’ d” j”
c’ c” k”
k’
b’ b” l”
a’ l’
a”
2 3 4 5 6 Y
X 1 12 11 10 9 8 7 4” 5” 6” 7” 8” 9”10”
3” 2” 1” 12” 11”
4
3 5
2 c
d
6
b e
f
a
o g
1 7
h
l i
12 k j 8
11 9
10 Y1
Development of lateral surfaces of different solids.
(Lateral surface is the surface excluding top & base)
Cylinder: A Rectangle
Pyramids: (No.of triangles)
Cone: (Sector of circle)
D
D
H= Height D= base diameter 
Prisms: No.of Rectangles R=Base circle radius. L= Slant edge.
L=Slant height. S = Edge of base
 R 3600
=L
H
S S H= Height S = Edge of base

Cube: Six Squares.
Tetrahedron: Four Equilateral Triangles
All sides
equal in length
FRUSTUMS
DEVELOPMENT OF DEVELOPMENT OF
FRUSTUM OF CONE FRUSTUM OF SQUARE PYRAMID
Base side
Top side
 = R 3600
L
R= Base circle radius of cone

L= Slant height of cone L= Slant edge of pyramid
L1 = Slant height of cut part. L1 = Slant edge of cut part.
STUDY NEXT NINE PROBLEMS OF

SECTIONS & DEVELOPMENT
Problem 1: A pentagonal prism , 30 mm base side & 50 mm axis Solution Steps:for sectional views:
is standing on Hp on it’s base whose one side is perpendicular to Vp. Draw three views of standing prism.
It is cut by a section plane 450 inclined to Hp, through mid point of axis. Locate sec.plane in Fv as described.
Draw Fv, sec.Tv & sec. Side view. Also draw true shape of section and Project points where edges are getting
Development of surface of remaining solid. Cut on Tv & Sv as shown in illustration.
C
Join those points in sequence and show
B Section lines in it.
D Make remaining part of solid dark.
Y1
A A B C D
E E A
d” c”
X1 e” b”
X a”
Y
e DEVELOPMENT
d
For True Shape: a For Development:
Draw x1y1 // to sec. plane
Draw development of entire solid. Name from
Draw projectors on it from c
cut-open edge I.e. A. in sequence as shown.
cut points.
b Mark the cut points on respective edges.
Mark distances of points
Join them in sequence in st. lines.
of Sectioned part from Tv,
Make existing parts dev.dark.
on above projectors from
x1y1 and join in sequence.
Draw section lines in it.
It is required true shape.
Problem 2: A cone, 50 mm base diameter and 70 mm axis is Solution Steps:for sectional views:
standing on it’s base on Hp. It cut by a section plane 450 inclined Draw three views of standing cone.
to Hp through base end of end generator.Draw projections, Locate sec.plane in Fv as described.
sectional views, true shape of section and development of surfaces Project points where generators are
of remaining solid. getting Cut on Tv & Sv as shown in
illustration.Join those points in
sequence and show Section lines in it.
Make remaining part of solid dark.
Y1 A
SECTIONAL S.V
o’ B
DEVELOPMENT C
X1 E
X a’ h’b’ c’ g’ f’ d’ e’ Y
g” h”f” a”e” b”d” c” F
g
For True Shape: h G
f
Draw x1y1 // to sec. plane
Draw projectors on it from For Development: H
cut points. a e Draw development of entire solid.
Mark distances of points Name from cut-open edge i.e. A. A
of Sectioned part from Tv, in sequence as shown.Mark the cut
on above projectors from b d
points on respective edges.
x1y1 and join in sequence. c Join them in sequence in curvature.
Draw section lines in it. SECTIONAL T.V
Make existing parts dev.dark.
It is required true shape.
Problem 3: A cone 40mm diameter and 50 mm axis is resting on one generator on Hp( lying on Hp)
which is // to Vp.. Draw it’s projections.It is cut by a horizontal section plane through it’s base
center. Draw sectional TV, development of the surface of the remaining part of cone.
Follow similar solution steps for Sec.views - True shape – Development as per previous problem!
o’ DEVELOPMENT
A
B
HORIZONTAL
SECTION PLANE C
D
X a’ h’b’ c’ g’ f’ d’ e’ o’ Y
g O E
g1
h f f1 h1 F
a e e1 a1 o1 G
O
H
b d d1 b1
c A
c1
SECTIONAL T.V
(SHOWING TRUE SHAPE OF SECTION)
Note the steps to locate Problem 4: A hexagonal prism. 30 mm base side &
Points 1, 2 , 5, 6 in sec.Fv: 55 mm axis is lying on Hp on it’s rect.face with axis
Those are transferred to // to Vp. It is cut by a section plane normal to Hp and
1st TV, then to 1st Fv and 300 inclined to Vp bisecting axis.
a’ b’ c’ f’ d’ e’ Then on 2nd Fv. Draw sec. Views, true shape & development.
3
SECTIONAL F.V.
4
Use similar steps for sec.views & true shape.
NOTE: for development, always cut open object from
2 5 From an edge in the boundary of the view in which
sec.plane appears as a line.
Here it is Tv and in boundary, there is c1 edge.Hence
1 6 it is opened from c and named C,D,E,F,A,B,C.
X Y
8 7
f
f1
e a1 e1
a
A.V.P300 inclined to Vp
Through mid-point of axis.
b d b1 d1
AS SECTION PLANE IS IN T.V.,

c X1 c1 CUT OPEN FROM BOUNDRY EDGE C1 FOR DEVELOPMENT.
C D E F A B C
Y1
DEVELOPMENT
Problem 5:A solid composed of a half-cone and half- hexagonal pyramid is
3 shown in figure.It is cut by a section plane 45 0 inclined to Hp, passing through
2 mid-point of axis.Draw F.v., sectional T.v.,true shape of section and
4 development of remaining part of the solid.
Y1 ( take radius of cone and each side of hexagon 30mm long and axis 70mm.)
5
1 O’ Note:
6 A Fv & TV 8f two solids
sandwiched
7 B Section lines style in both:
Development of
4’ half cone & half pyramid:
3’
X1 5’ F.V.
C
2’ 6’ 4 2
3
1 D
1’ 7’
X Y
d’e’ c’f’ g’b’ a’ O
f
E
g 7
6
e 5
SECTIONAL 7 4 5 6
4
TOP VIEW. a
F
1 3
d 2 b G
c
A
Problem 6: Draw a semicircle 0f 100 mm diameter and inscribe in it a largest TO DRAW PRINCIPAL
circle.If the semicircle is development of a cone and inscribed circle is some VIEWS FROM GIVEN
curve on it, then draw the projections of cone showing that curve. DEVELOPMENT.
E
D F
o’ R=Base circle radius. 4
L=Slant height. 3 5
 = R 3600 C
L
G
1’
7’ 2 6
B H
6’
2’
1
3’ 5’ 4’
 7
X a’ h’ b’ c’ g’ d’f’ e’ Y
A A
O
g L
6
h f Solution Steps:
5
Draw semicircle of given diameter, divide it in 8 Parts and inscribe in it
a largest circle as shown.Name intersecting points 1, 2, 3 etc.
a 7
o Semicircle being dev.of a cone it’s radius is slant height of cone.( L )
4 e
Then using above formula find R of base of cone. Using this data
1
draw Fv & Tv of cone and form 8 generators and name.
Take o -1 distance from dev.,mark on TL i.e.o’a’ on Fv & bring on o’b’
b 3 d and name 1’ Similarly locate all points on Fv. Then project all on Tv
2
on respective generators and join by smooth curve.
c
Problem 7:Draw a semicircle 0f 100 mm diameter and inscribe in it a largest TO DRAW PRINCIPAL
rhombus.If the semicircle is development of a cone and rhombus is some curve VIEWS FROM GIVEN
on it, then draw the projections of cone showing that curve. DEVELOPMENT.
Solution Steps:
o’ Similar to previous
Problem:
E
D F
C G
2’ 6’
B H
3’ 5’
a’ h’ b’ c’ g’ f’ d’ e’ 
X 1’ 7’ 4’ Y
g A A
O L
7 6
h f
5
R=Base circle radius.
L=Slant height.
a 4 e  = R 3600
L
b 3
d
2
1
c
Problem 8: A half cone of 50 mm base diameter, 70 mm axis, is standing on it’s half base on HP with it’s flat face
parallel and nearer to VP.An inextensible string is wound round it’s surface from one point of base circle and
brought back to the same point.If the string is of shortest length, find it and show it on the projections of the cone.
TO DRAW A CURVE ON
PRINCIPAL VIEWS
FROM DEVELOPMENT. Concept: A string wound
from a point up to the same
o’ Point, of shortest length
A Must appear st. line on it’s
Development.
B
Solution steps:
Hence draw development,
1 C Name it as usual and join
3’ A to A This is shortest
2’ 4’ Length of that string.
D
1’ 2
Further steps are as usual.
3 On dev. Name the points of
Intersections of this line with
X Y 4 E
a’ b’ c’ d’ e’ Different generators.Bring
O Those on Fv & Tv and join
a o 4 e
by smooth curves.
Draw 4’ a’ part of string dotted
3 As it is on back side of cone.
1 2
b d
c
A
Problem 9: A particle which is initially on base circle of a cone, standing
on Hp, moves upwards and reaches apex in one complete turn around the cone.
Draw it’s path on projections of cone as well as on it’s development.
Take base circle diameter 50 mm and axis 70 mm long.
It’s a construction of curve

o’ Helix of one turn on cone:
7’ DEVELOPMENT Draw Fv & Tv & dev.as usual
HELIX CURVE
6’ On all form generators & name.
A Construction of curve Helix::
5’
4’
B Show 8 generators on both views
3’ Divide axis also in same parts.
2’ 1
Draw horizontal lines from those
1’ C
points on both end generators.
X Y 2 1’ is a point where first horizontal
a’ h’b’ c’ gg’ f’ d’ e’ D Line & gen. b’o’ intersect.
3
2’ is a point where second horiz.
h f O 4 E Line & gen. c’o’ intersect.
7
6 6 5 In this way locate all points on Fv.
5
a
7
F Project all on Tv.Join in curvature.
O e For Development:
4
Then taking each points true
3 G
b 1 d Distance From resp.generator
2 from apex, Mark on development
c H & join.
A
ISOMETRIC DRAWING TYPICAL CONDITION.
IT IS A TYPE OF PICTORIAL PROJECTION IN THIS 3-D DRAWING OF AN OBJECT,
IN WHICH ALL THREE DIMENSIONS OF ALL THREE DIMENSIONAL AXES ARE
AN OBJECT ARE SHOWN IN ONE VIEW AND MENTAINED AT EQUAL INCLINATIONS
IF REQUIRED, THEIR ACTUAL SIZES CAN BE WITH EACH OTHER.( 1200)
MEASURED DIRECTLY FROM IT.
3-D DRAWINGS CAN BE DRAWN NOW OBSERVE BELOW GIVEN DRAWINGS.

IN NUMEROUS WAYS AS SHOWN BELOW. ONE CAN NOTE SPECIFIC INCLINATION
ALL THESE DRAWINGS MAY BE CALLED AMONG H, L & D AXES.
3-DIMENSIONAL DRAWINGS, ISO MEANS SAME, SIMILAR OR EQUAL.
OR PHOTOGRAPHIC HERE ONE CAN FIND
OR PICTORIAL DRAWINGS. EDUAL INCLINATION AMONG H, L & D AXES.
HERE NO SPECIFIC RELATION EACH IS 1200 INCLINED WITH OTHER TWO.
AMONG H, L & D AXES IS MENTAINED. HENCE IT IS CALLED ISOMETRIC DRAWING
H
H H
PURPOSE OF ISOMETRIC DRAWING IS TO UNDERSTAND
OVERALL SHAPE, SIZE & APPEARANCE OF AN OBJECT PRIOR TO IT’S PRODUCTION.
SOME IMPORTANT TERMS:
ISOMETRIC AXES, LINES AND PLANES:
The three lines AL, AD and AH, meeting at point A and making
1200 angles with each other are termed Isometric Axes.
A
The lines parallel to these axes are called Isometric Lines.
The planes representing the faces of of the cube as well as
H
other planes parallel to these planes are called Isometric Planes.
ISOMETRIC SCALE:
When one holds the object in such a way that all three dimensions
are visible then in the process all dimensions become proportionally
inclined to observer’s eye sight and hence appear apparent in lengths.
This reduction is 0.815 or 9 / 11 ( approx.) It forms a reducing scale which

Is used to draw isometric drawings and is called Isometric scale.
In practice, while drawing isometric projection, it is necessary to convert

true lengths into isometric lengths for measuring and marking the sizes.
This is conveniently done by constructing an isometric scale as described
on next page.
TYPES OF ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS
ISOMETRIC VIEW ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

Drawn by using True scale Drawn by using Isometric scale
( True dimensions ) ( Reduced dimensions )
D
4
H 2 C H
4
1 3
2
CONSTRUCTION OF ISOM.SCALE.
0 From point A, with line AB draw 300 and
1
450 inclined lines AC & AD resp on AD.
450 Mark divisions of true length and from
0 300
A B each division-point draw vertical lines
Isometric scale [ Line AC ] upto AC line.
The divisions thus obtained on AC
required for Isometric Projection give lengths on isometric scale.
1 Isometric view if the Shape is
ISOMETRIC SHAPE
OF
F.V. or T.V.
D
PLANE FIGURES H
RECTANGLE D
A D A
AS THESE ALL ARE
C
2-D FIGURES C
WE REQUIRE ONLY TWO A
ISOMETRIC AXES.
B C B B
IF THE FIGURE IS B
H
FRONT VIEW, H & L
TRIANGLE B
AXES ARE REQUIRED. 1
3
B 1 3
IF THE FIGURE IS TOP A A
VIEW, D & L AXES ARE 3
1
REQUIRED.
2 A 2 2
Shapes containing 4
Inclined lines should PENTAGON H E
be enclosed in a 1 E
4 1 D 4
rectangle as shown. D
Then first draw isom. A D A
E
of that rectangle and 1 3

then inscribe that 3 A C
C
shape as it is. 2 B
B C 3 B
2 2
STUDY 2
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF A

CIRCLE IF IT IS A TV OR FV.
FIRST ENCLOSE IT IN A SQUARE.

IT’S ISOMETRIC IS A RHOMBUS WITH
D & L AXES FOR TOP VIEW.
THEN USE H & L AXES FOR ISOMETRIC
WHEN IT IS FRONT VIEW.
FOR CONSTRUCTION USE RHOMBUS
METHOD SHOWN HERE. STUDY IT.
2
A B
3 4
D C
1
3
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
25 R
DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE FIGURE

SHOWN WITH DIMENTIONS (ON RIGHT SIDE)
CONSIDERING IT FIRST AS F.V. AND THEN T.V.
50 MM
IF FRONT VIEW
100 MM
IF TOP VIEW
ISOMETRIC SHAPE IF F.V. IF T.V. 4
OF
PLANE FIGURES HEXAGON
AS THESE ALL ARE

2-D FIGURES
WE REQUIRE ONLY
TWO ISOMETRIC
AXES. CIRCLE
IF THE FIGURE IS
FRONT VIEW, H & L
AXES ARE REQUIRED.
IF THE FIGURE IS
TOP VIEW, D & L For Isometric of Circle/Semicircle use Rhombus method. Construct Rhombus
AXES ARE REQUIRED. of sides equal to Diameter of circle always. ( Ref. topic ENGG. CURVES.)
SEMI CIRCLE
For Isometric of
Circle/Semicircle
use Rhombus method.
Construct it of sides equal
to diameter of circle always.
( Ref. Previous two pages.)
5
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
PENTAGONAL PYRAMID
STANDING ON H.P.
(Height is added from center of pentagon)
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF BASE OF

PENTAGONAL PYRAMID
STANDING ON H.P.
4
4
D
D E
E
1 3 1 3
A C
A C
B
2
B
2
6
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
PENTAGONALL PRISM
LYING ON H.P.
4
H E
1 D
3
C
B
2
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
HEXAGONAL PRISM
STANDING ON H.P.
7
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
CYLINDER STANDING ON H.P.
CYLINDER LYING ON H.P.

8
STUDY
Z HALF CYLINDER
ILLUSTRATIONS
STANDING ON H.P.
( ON IT’S SEMICIRCULAR BASE)
HALF CYLINDER
LYING ON H.P.
( with flat face // to H.P.)
9
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
STUDY
Z A FRUSTOM OF SQUARE PYRAMID
ILLUSTRATIONS
STANDING ON H.P. ON IT’S LARGER BASE.
60
FV
X Y
40 20
TV
STUDY 10
ILLUSTRATION
PROJECTIONS OF FRUSTOM OF ISOMETRIC VIEW

PENTAGONAL PYRAMID ARE GIVEN. OF
FRUSTOM OF PENTAGONAL PYRAMID
DRAW IT’S ISOMETRIC VIEW.
SOLUTION STEPS:
60
FV
FIRST DRAW ISOMETRIC
OF IT’S BASE.
x y THEN DRAWSAME SHAPE

E AS TOP, 60 MM ABOVE THE
1 4 BASE PENTAGON CENTER.
A
THEN REDUCE THE TOP TO
20 MM SIDES AND JOIN WITH
TV 40 20 D THE PROPER BASE CORNERS.
B
2 3
C
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF 11
STUDY A FRUSTOM OF CONE
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS STANDING ON H.P. ON IT’S LARGER BASE.
60
FV
X Y
40 20
TV
PROBLEM: A SQUARE PYRAMID OF 30 MM BASE SIDES AND 12
STUDY 50 MM LONG AXIS, IS CENTRALLY PLACED ON THE TOP OF A
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS CUBE OF 50 MM LONG EDGES.DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE PAIR.
13
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
c
PROBLEM: A TRIANGULAR PYRAMID
OF 30 MM BASE SIDES AND 50 MM a
LONG AXIS, IS CENTRALLY PLACED o
ON THE TOP OF A CUBE OF 50 MM p a
LONG EDGES. b
DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE PAIR. o c
p
SOLUTION HINTS.
TO DRAW ISOMETRIC OF A CUBE IS SIMPLE. DRAW IT AS USUAL.
BUT FOR PYRAMID AS IT’S BASE IS AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE,

IT CAN NOT BE DRAWN DIRECTLY.SUPPORT OF IT’S TV IS REQUIRED.
SO DRAW TRIANGLE AS A TV, SEPARATELY AND NAME VARIOUS POINTS AS SHOWN.

AFTER THIS PLACE IT ON THE TOP OF CUBE AS SHOWN.
THEN ADD HEIGHT FROM IT’S CENTER AND COMPLETE IT’S ISOMETRIC AS SHOWN.
14
STUDY PROBLEM:
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
A SQUARE PLATE IS PIERCED THROUGH CENTRALLY
BY A CYLINDER WHICH COMES OUT EQUALLY FROM BOTH FACES
OF PLATE. IT’S FV & TV ARE SHOWN. DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW.
FV 30
10
30
30 D
50 +
50
TV
15
STUDY PROBLEM:
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS A CIRCULAR PLATE IS PIERCED THROUGH CENTRALLY
BY A SQUARE PYRAMID WHICH COMES OUT EQUALLY FROM BOTH FACES
OF PLATE. IT’S FV & TV ARE SHOWN. DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW.
FV 30
10
30
40 SQUARE
60 D
TV
16
STUDY
Z F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
ILLUSTRATIONS
10
20
40
FV
40
X Y
TV
50 D 30 D
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS OF SPHERE & HEMISPHERE 17
450 r
300 R r
r
Isom. Scale
P
C
r r
R C
R TO DRAW ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
R OF A HEMISPHERE
P r
P Adopt same procedure.
C = Center of Sphere. Draw lower semicircle only.
Then around ‘C’ construct
P = Point of contact Rhombus of Sides equal to
R = True Radius of Sphere Isometric Diameter.
r = Isometric Radius. For this use iso-scale.
Then construct ellipse in
TO DRAW ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF A SPHERE this Rhombus as usual
1. FIRST DRAW ISOMETRIC OF SQUARE PLATE. And Complete
2. LOCATE IT’S CENTER. NAME IT P. Isometric-Projection
3. FROM PDRAW VERTICAL LINE UPWARD, LENGTH ‘ r mm’ of Hemi-sphere.
AND LOCATE CENTER OF SPHERE “C”
4. ‘C’ AS CENTER, WITH RADIUS ‘R’ DRAW CIRCLE.
THIS IS ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF A SPHERE.
PROBLEM: 18
A HEMI-SPHERE IS CENTRALLY PLACED STUDY
ON THE TOP OF A FRUSTOM OF CONE. Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
DRAW ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS OF THE ASSEMBLY.
r
50 D
R r
30 D
r
50
P
50 D
FIRST CONSTRUCT ISOMETRIC SCALE.

USE THIS SCALE FOR ALL DIMENSIONS
IN THIS PROBLEM.
450
300
19
STUDY A SQUARE PYRAMID OF 40 MM BASE SIDES AND 60 MM AXIS
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
IS CUT BY AN INCLINED SECTION PLANE THROUGH THE MID POINT
OF AXIS AS SHOWN.DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF SECTION OF PYRAMID.
3’ 4’
3 1’2’
X Y
1 a d
1
4
2
o
3
b 2 c
20
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
50
O
X Y
20
25
O
25 20
21
STUDY
Z F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
ILLUSTRATIONS
35
FV
35
10
x y
O
10 20 30
40
70
TV
O
22
STUDY
Z F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
ILLUSTRATIONS
FV
30 10 30 SV
30
10
30
x y
ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

TV
24
STUDY
Z F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
ILLUSTRATIONS
ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL
FV SV
x y
10
40 60
40
TV
60
F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
25
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL
FV SV
x y
10
40 60
40 TV
60
26
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW
20
20
20
x y
O
50
20
30
O
20 20 20
TOP VIEW
27
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. and S.V.of an object are given.
Draw it’s isometric view.
30 SQUARE
40 20
50
20
10
O 30
60
F.V.
S.V.
O
28
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
FV
40
10
O
30 D 45
10
50
O
80
TV
29
STUDY F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
FV 40
X O 10 Y
100
10
25
TV
10 30 10
25
30 R O
20 D
30
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
30
FV
RECT.
SLOT
10 50
35
10
X Y
O
20 D
TV
60 D
30 D
O
31
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
10
25 15
25
40 10
25
25
O O
80 25
F.V. S.V.
32
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
450
30
FV
40
X Y
O
30 D
40 TV
15
O 40
33
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
HEX PART
30
20
20
40
20
O 50
20
15
O 30
100 60
34
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
20 40
F.V.
30
10
X Y
O
10
30
10
30
O 80
T.V.
35
10 10 15 STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
25
25
X Y
O 50 10
FV LSV
36
NOTE THE SMALL CHZNGE IN 2ND FV & SV.
DRAW ISOMETRIC ACCORDINGLY.
10
X Y
O FV LSV
37
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

30 20 10 20
15
10
15
O
15
30
15
X O Y
50
F.V. LEFT S.V.
38
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
30 10
60
30
O
O 40 40
F.V. S.V.
DRAWINGS:
( A Graphical Representation)
The Fact about:

If compared with Verbal or Written Description,
Drawings offer far better idea about the Shape, Size & Appearance of
any object or situation or location, that too in quite a less time.
Hence it has become the Best Media of Communication

not only in Engineering but in almost all Fields.
Drawings
(Some Types)
Portraits
Botanical Drawings ( human faces,
Nature Drawings ( plants, flowers etc.) expressions etc.)
( landscape, Geographical
scenery etc.) Zoological Drawings
Drawings Engineering Drawings,
(creatures, animals etc.)
( maps etc.) (projections.)
Building Related Drawings. Machine component Drawings
Orthographic Projections Isometric ( Mech.Engg.Term.)

(Fv,Tv & Sv.-Mech.Engg terms) or Perspective(Civil Engg.Term)
(Plan, Elevation- Civil Engg.terms)
(Working Drawings 2-D type) (Actual Object Drawing 3-D)
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS:
IT IS A TECHNICAL DRAWING IN WHICH DIFFERENT VIEWS OF AN OBJECT
ARE PROJECTED ON DIFFERENT REFERENCE PLANES
OBSERVING PERPENDICULAR TO RESPECTIVE REFERENCE PLANE
Different Reference planes are
Horizontal Plane (HP),
Vertical Frontal Plane ( VP )
Side Or Profile Plane ( PP)
And
Different Views are Front View (FV), Top View (TV) and Side View (SV)
FV is a view projected on VP.
TV is a view projected on HP.
SV is a view projected on PP.
IMPORTANT TERMS OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS:
1 Planes.
2 Pattern of planes & Pattern of views
3 Methods of drawing Orthographic Projections
PLANES
1
PRINCIPAL PLANES
HP AND VP
AUXILIARY PLANES
Auxiliary Vertical Plane Auxiliary Inclined Plane Profile Plane

(A.V.P.) (A.I.P.) ( P.P.)
A.V.P.
⊥ to Hp &  to Vp
PATTERN OF PLANES & VIEWS (First Angle Method)
2
THIS IS A PICTORIAL SET-UP OF ALL THREE PLANES.
ARROW DIRECTION IS A NORMAL WAY OF OBSERVING THE OBJECT.
BUT IN THIS DIRECTION ONLY VP AND A VIEW ON IT (FV) CAN BE SEEN.
THE OTHER PLANES AND VIEWS ON THOSE CAN NOT BE SEEN.
PROCEDURE TO SOLVE ABOVE PROBLEM:-

TO MAKE THOSE PLANES ALSO VISIBLE FROM THE ARROW DIRECTION,
A) HP IS ROTATED 900 DOUNWARD
B) PP, 900 IN RIGHT SIDE DIRECTION.
THIS WAY BOTH PLANES ARE BROUGHT IN THE SAME PLANE CONTAINING VP.
Click to view Animation On clicking the button if a warning comes please click YES to continue, this program is
safe for your pc.
VP PP
Y
FV LSV
X Y
X TV
HP
ACTUAL PATTERN OF PLANES & VIEWS

HP IS ROTATED DOWNWARD 900 PP IS ROTATED IN RIGHT SIDE 900 OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
AND AND DRAWN IN
BROUGHT IN THE PLANE OF VP. BROUGHT IN THE PLANE OF VP. FIRST ANGLE METHOD OF PROJECTIONS
3 Methods of Drawing Orthographic Projections
First Angle Projections Method Third Angle Projections Method

Here views are drawn Here views are drawn
by placing object by placing object
in 1st Quadrant in 3rd Quadrant.
( Fv above X-y, Tv below X-y ) SYMBOLIC ( Tv above X-y, Fv below X-y )
PRESENTATION
OF BOTH METHODS
WITH AN OBJECT
STANDING ON HP ( GROUND) TV
FV ON IT’S BASE.
X Y NOTE:- X Y
HP term is used in1st Angle method
& FV
TV
For the same
G L
Ground term is used
in 3rd Angle method of projections
FIRST ANGLE
FOR T.V.
PROJECTION
IN THIS METHOD,
THE OBJECT IS ASSUMED TO BE
SITUATED IN FIRST QUADRANT
MEANS
ABOVE HP & INFRONT OF VP.
OBJECT IS INBETWEEN
OBSERVER & PLANE.
VP PP
FV LSV
X Y
TV
HP
ACTUAL PATTERN OF
PLANES & VIEWS
IN
FIRST ANGLE METHOD
OF PROJECTIONS
THIRD ANGLE FOR T.V.
PROJECTION
IN THIS METHOD,
SITUATED IN THIRD QUADRANT
( BELOW HP & BEHIND OF VP. )
PLANES BEING TRANSPERENT

AND INBETWEEN
OBSERVER & OBJECT.
TV
X Y
LSV FV
ACTUAL PATTERN OF
PLANES & VIEWS
OF
THIRD ANGLE PROJECTIONS
{ MACHINE ELEMENTS }
OBJECT IS OBSERVED IN THREE DIRECTIONS.
THE DIRECTIONS SHOULD BE NORMAL
TO THE RESPECTIVE PLANES.
AND NOW PROJECT THREE DIFFERENT VIEWS ON THOSE PLANES.
THESE VEWS ARE FRONT VIEW , TOP VIEW AND SIDE VIEW.
FRONT VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON VERTICAL PLANE ( VP )

TOP VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON HORIZONTAL PLANE ( HP )
SIDE VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON PROFILE PLANE ( PP )
FIRST STUDY THE CONCEPT OF 1ST AND 3RD ANGLE

PROJECTION METHODS
AND THEN STUDY NEXT 26 ILLUSTRATED CASES CAREFULLY.

TRY TO RECOGNIZE SURFACES
PERPENDICULAR TO THE ARROW DIRECTIONS
FIRST ANGLE
FOR T.V.
PROJECTION
IN THIS METHOD,
SITUATED IN FIRST QUADRANT
MEANS
ABOVE HP & INFRONT OF VP.
OBJECT IS INBETWEEN
OBSERVER & PLANE.
VP PP
FV LSV
X Y
TV
HP
ACTUAL PATTERN OF
PLANES & VIEWS
IN
FIRST ANGLE METHOD
OF PROJECTIONS
FOR T.V.
THIRD ANGLE
PROJECTION
IN THIS METHOD,
SITUATED IN THIRD QUADRANT
( BELOW HP & BEHIND OF VP. )
PLANES BEING TRANSPERENT

AND INBETWEEN
OBSERVER & OBJECT.
TV
X Y
LSV FV
ACTUAL PATTERN OF
PLANES & VIEWS
OF
THIRD ANGLE PROJECTIONS
FOR T.V.
1
x y
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN TOP VIEW

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
FOR T.V.
2
X Y
TOP VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

FOR T.V.
3
X Y
TOP VIEW

4
FOR T.V.
X Y
TOP VIEW

FOR T.V.
5
X Y

TOP VIEW

6
FOR T.V.
X Y
TOP VIEW

7
FOR T.V.
X Y

STUDY 8
FOR T.V.
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
FRONT VIEW
50
X Y
20
25
25 20
TOP VIEW

9
FOR T.V.
X Y
TOP VIEW
10
FOR T.V. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
X Y

FOR T.V. 11
X Y
TOP VIEW
12
FOR T.V.
X Y

STUDY 13
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS FOR T.V.
35
FV
35
10
x y
10 20 30
40
70
TV
O
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
STUDY
Z 14
ILLUSTRATIONS
FOR T.V. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FV
30 10 30 SV
30
10
30
x y
ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

TV
STUDY 15
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
FOR T.V.
ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL
FV SV
x y
10
40 60
40
TV
60
FOR T.V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 16
ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL
FV SV
x y
10
40 60

40
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD 60
17

30 SQUARE
40 20
50
20
10
X Y
30
O 60
F.V.
S.V.
DRAW FV AND SV OF THIS OBJECT
FOR T.V.
FV
40
X 10 Y
O
30 D 45
O
10
50
80
TV
19
FOR T.V.
FV 40
X O 10 Y
100
10
25
TV
10 30 10
25
30 R O
20 D
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 20
30
FOR T.V.
FV
RECT.
SLOT
10 50
35
10
X Y
20 D
TV
60 D
30 D
TOP VIEW
O
21
10
25 15
25
40 10
25
25
O O
80 25
F.V. S.V.

DRAW FV AND SV OF THIS OBJECT
FOR T.V.
22
450
30
FV
40
X Y
30 D
40 TV
O
15
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT 40
23
HEX PART
30
20
20
40
20
O 50
20
15
O 30
100 60
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW
DRAW FV ABD SV OF THIS OBJECT
FOR T.V.
20 40
FRONT VIEW
F.V.
30
10
X Y
O
10
30
10
30
O 80
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN T.V. TOP VIEW
25
10 10 15
25
25
X Y
O 50 10
FV LSV

DRAW FV AND LSV OF THIS OBJECT
26 DRAW FV AND SV OF THIS OBJECT
30 20 10 20
15
10
15
O
15
30
15
X Y
50
F.V. LEFT S.V.

Projection of Straight Line: Line Inclined To Both HP & VP

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Projection of Straight Line: Line Inclined To Both HP & VP

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Projection of straight line

Line inclined to both HP & VP

Given, To draw FV &TV of the line Hint1:Mark a’ 20mm above

38º Ans. θ=18º

112° Ans. 112º

Ø=48º Ans: θ=28º

What is usually asked in the problem?

What will be given in the problem?

In which manner it’s position with HP & VP will be described?

SURFACE PARALLEL TO HP SURFACE INCLINED TO HP ONE SMALL SIDE INCLINED TO VP

ORTHOGRAPHIC ORTHOGRAPHIC ORTHOGRAPHIC

ASSUMPTIONS FOR INITIAL POSITION:

APPLY SAME STEPS TO SOLVE NEXT ELEVEN PROBLEMS

Hint: As the plane is inclined to HP, it should be kept

Keep AC parallel to the H.P. Incline AC at 30º to the H.P.

Top view of the diagonal

a’ d’ a1’ d1’ b1 a1 30º

A circle can be seen as a

Surface // to Hp Surface inclined to Hp

(Surface & Side inclinations directly given)

First TWO steps are similar to previous problem.

Read problem and answer following questions

The problem is similar to previous problem of circle – no.9.

First draw a given semicircle

Follow the below given steps:

The facts you must know:-

ALWAYS FOR NEW FV TAKE

USE SAME PROCEDURE STEPS 50

HERE a’ 1’ line in Fv is drawn // to xy. 40

ALWAYS FOR NEW FV TAKE b1

ADOPT SAME PROCEDURE.

ALWAYS, FOR NEW FV

BUT ACTUALLY WE DONOT REQUIRE

Triangular Square Pentagonal Hexagonal Triangular Square Pentagonal Hexagonal

Square Prism Square Pyramid Cylinder Cone

Corner of Edge Edge Corner of

F.V. F.V. F.V.

X While observing Tv, x-y line represents Vertical Plane. (Vp) Y

T.V. T.V. T.V.

STANDING ON V.P RESTING ON V.P LYING ON V.P

GENERAL PATTERN ( THREE STEPS ) OF SOLUTION:

Three steps Three steps Three steps Three steps

PROBLEM NO.1, 2, 3, 4 GENERAL CASES OF SOLIDS INCLINED TO HP & VP

PROBLEM NO. 5 & 6 CASES OF CUBE & TETRAHEDRON

PROBLEM NO. 7 CASE OF FREELY SUSPENDED SOLID WITH SIDE VIEW.

PROBLEM NO. 8 CASE OF CUBE ( WITH SIDE VIEW)

PROBLEM NO. 9 CASE OF TRUE LENGTH INCLINATION WITH HP & VP.

PROBLEM NO. 10 & 11 CASES OF COMPOSITE SOLIDS. (AUXILIARY PLANE)

PROBLEM NO. 12 CASE OF A FRUSTUM (AUXILIARY PLANE)

X e’ 5’ d’ 4’ e1’ d1’ 41’ Y

GROUP A SOLIDS GROUP B SOLIDS

LINE d’g’ VERTICAL d”

450 f’1 d’1

2. Types and important units

3. Plain Scales (3 Problems)

4. Diagonal Scales - information

5. Diagonal Scales (3 Problems)

6. Comparative Scales (3 Problems)

7. Vernier Scales - information

8. Vernier Scales (2 Problems)

9. Scales of Cords - construction

10. Scales of Cords (2 Problems)