Finite element modeling of welding

processes

Swarup Bag
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
 Module 1
Introduction to welding processes

Introduction
Classification
Fusion welding
Brazing and soldering
Solid state welding processes
Advanced welding processes
Wire additive manufacturing processes
Introduction - Materials processing technologies

Materials processing - manufacture of raw-materials into

finished goods

Industrial processes - various mechanical or chemical

procedures, and produce large quantities or batches.

Raw materials - either extracted from minerals or

produced from basic chemicals or natural substances.

Additional processes - smelting and alloying are used to

produce the metal that is to be fabricated into parts that are
eventually assembled into a product
3
 Introduction - Metals and alloys
• Ferrous: iron as main constitute
• Non ferrous: other than iron as main constitute
• Steel: carbon less than 2 %
• Cast iron: carbon more than 2%
• Cu alloy: Pure Cu – electrical industry
• Al alloy: Automotive frame
• Ni alloy: Outstanding strength and corrosion resistance
• Ti alloy: High temperature engineering material
• Superalloys: High strength, creep resistance, oxidation and
corrosion resistance, fatigue resistance even at high temperature
- Jet engine, rocket and nuclear application
- Ni based – Inconel, Hastelloy
- Iron-based
- Cobalt- based
 Introduction - Physical properties
Thermal conductivity: Property of a material to conduct
heat flow
High thermal conductivity material – Copper, Aluminum,
Silver, Gold
Materials with low thermal conductance – Polymer,
alumina – can be used for insulation purpose

Thermal expansion - Change in volume in response to

change in temperature
 Creates thermal strain in solid
 Degree of expansion per unit change in temperature is
called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion
 However, it varies with temperature
 Introduction - Mechanical properties
Strain 𝜺 : Change in dimension per unit original dimension
Stress 𝝈 𝒐𝒓 𝝉 : Applied force per unit area
- Normal Stress and Shear stress
Elasticity: Property of material to regain its original shape
after deformation when the external force are removed
Plasticity: Property of a material which retains permanent
deformation with the applied load
Toughness: Property of material to resist fracture due to
high impact load
Measurement - Energy absorbed before fracture
Resilience: Amount of energy when deformed elastically
and release upon unloading
 Introduction - Mechanical properties
Creep: Material is subjected to a constant stress at
elevated temperature for long period of time - it creates
slow and permanent deformation
Properties at elevated temperature subjected to constant
load
Tensile specimen elongate continuously until rupture
occurs even the applied stress is below yield strength at
that temperature
Important for: Gas turbine, power plant, high-
temperature pressure vessel

Fatigue: When a material is subjected to cyclic

stresses, it fails below yield point stress
Hardness: Resistance to wear or scratching
 Property evaluation
Physical properties: Standard experimental methodologies

Microstructural measurement:
Average grain size and distribution – line intercept
method
Residual stress - X-ray diffraction (XRD) method,
Neutron diffraction
Chemical composition of a metallic sample – Energy
Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDX)
Various phases in component – XRD method

8
 Introduction - Other properties

 Latent heat of material, Thermal diffusivity

 Viscosity
 Electrical conductivity/resistivity – Resistance spot welding
 Magnetic properties – induction welding

 In machining, welding, casting - thermal properties of

the work is important
 Casting and welding – Fluid property is significant
 Semiconductor manufacturing - electrical properties of
silicon is important
 Mass diffusion coefficient – surface hardening or
diffusion welding
 Physics based modelling approach
The general format to represent a physical system
 Equilibrium system – Form governing equations
 Dynamic system (Analyse the kinematics) – Form
governing equations
 May use constitutive equation
 With essential and natural boundary conditions
 Also need initial condition
 Constitutive equation relates two different physical
quantities
 It does not directly follow physical laws
 It can be combined with other equations such as
equilibrium and kinematical equations which do
represent physical laws 10
 Physics based modelling approach

The constitutive law parameter can be derived from

experimental observation – called phenomenological
modelling
 The methodology is to explicitly include variables from
physics as internal state variables
 The other possibility is to determine the format of the
constitutive equation based on knowledge about the
physical mechanisms causing the deformation (For
example, Failure mechanism)
An alternate to phenomenological modelling is to derive
constitutive equations from low-scale where laws of physics is well
understood
For example: parameters for grain size models for microstructural
11
evolution
 Physics based modelling approach

Example: Determine the material property Young’s modulus

from experiment and use it to develop mathematical
continuum model that predicts material’s response.

 Micromechanics model take into account more fine detail

of the material’s structure at grain scale
 The properties at the micro scale are averaged and passed
to the continuum model is through homogenization theory
 Micromechanical models can provide local variation of
material behavior than the simpler continuum model

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Multi-scale model in length/time scale

13
 Importance of Multiscale Methods?
Limitations of industrial simulations today:
a) Continuum models are good, but not always adequate
• Problems in fracture and failure of solids require improved
constitutive models to describe material behavior
• Macroscopic material properties of new materials and
composites are not readily available, while they are needed in
simulation-based design
• Detailed atomistic information is required in regions of high
deformation or discontinuity
b) Molecular dynamics simulations
• Limited to small domains (~ 106 - 108 atoms) and small time
frames ( ~ nanoseconds)
• Experiments, even on nano-systems, involve much larger systems
over longer times 14
 Hierarchical vs. Concurrent
Hierarchical approach
– Use known information at one scale to generate
model for larger scale
– Information passing typically through some sort of
averaging process
– Example: bonding models/potentials, constitutive laws

Concurrent approach
– Perform simulations at different length scales
simultaneously
– Relationships between length scales are dynamic

15
 Multi-scale model
Continuum methods: Assume that matter is continuous and treat the
properties of the system as field quantities. Numerically solve balance
equations coupled with phenomenological equations to predict the
properties of the systems.
Pros:
– In principle, handle systems of macroscopic size and dynamic
processes on longer timescales.
Cons:
• Require input (elastic tensors, diffusion coefficients, equations of
state, etc.) from experiment or from a lower-scale methods that
can be difficult to obtain.
• Cannot explain results that depend on the electronic or molecular
level of detail.

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 Multi-scale model
Connection between the scales: Upscaling
Using results from a lower-scale calculation to obtain
parameters for a higher-scale method. This is relatively
easy to do; deductive approach. Examples:
• Calculation of phenomenological coefficients (e.g.
elastic tensors, viscosities, diffusivities) from atomistic
simulations for later use in a continuum model.

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 Multi-scale model
Connection between the scales: Downscaling
• Using higher-scale information (often experimental) to build
parameters for lower-scale methods. This is more difficult, due to
the non-uniqueness problem.
• For example, the results from a meso-scale simulation do not
contain atomistic detail, but it would be desirable to be able to use
such results to return to the atomistic simulation level. Inductive
approach.
• Example:
The stress- strain curve for a randomly oriented polycrystal can be
used to predict the 𝜏 − 𝛾 curve for a single crystal

ഥ and 𝜎 = M
𝜀𝑥 = 𝛾/M ഥ 𝜏 are used ഥ - Taylor factor
M
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 Challenges in Multiscale modeling

• Large number of degrees of freedom at the atomic scale

• Interfaces: mismatch of dynamic properties, and other
issues
• Multiple time scales
• Interdisciplinary nature of multiscale methods
- continuum mechanics
- classical particle dynamics (MD), and lattice
mechanics
- quantum mechanics and quantum chemistry
- thermodynamics and statistical physics
• Atomic scale plasticity: lattice dislocations
• Algorithmic issues in large scale coupled simulations 19
Statistical and data driven modelling approach
 Collection of data from sensors
 Analysis of data – stistical model/other techniques

Sensors - to provide the data through data acquisition system

Mainly in the form of current, voltage or directly temperature
Sensor data can be used for online monitoring of the system such that
collected data may be passed to the robotic system
The data can be used for offline properties evaluation
Example: Measuring of temperature
Contact (thermocouples) or non-contact (thermo vision camera or
infrared thermometer) method
Infrared thermometer - uneven surface thermal emission becomes an
issue
However, infrared thermometers have a faster response (than
thermocouples) 20
 Data acquisition

 The sensor data is collected with predefined sample rate

and transfer the data to a data buffer or temporary
memory.
 The sample rate and transfer of data is controlled by a
central processor unit (CPU) or microprocessor.

 Discrete data points are evaluated through different

property evaluation techniques
 For example: Strength properties of weld joint or
hardness and surface roughness of machined surface

How to analyze these types of data?

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 Process modelling and optimization

Weld quality modelling: Few approaches

 Modelling of weld quality using main

spindle motor current signal

 Sensor integration method
 Modelling of weld quality using machine
 Artificial intelligence
vision based system
 Data based techniques
 Modelling of weld quality using sensor
Vision system based method
integration for forces and torque associated

in FSW process.
 Process modelling and optimization

Few research techniques

 Wavelet packet analysis

 Hilbert-Huang Transform with wavelet analysis

 Fractal theory

 Artificial Neural Network

 Support vector Machine

 Process modelling and optimization
Example: Establishment of input-output relationships
for metal active gas (MAG) welding
Regression analysis (RA) was performed on data
collected as per Taguchi design of experiments.
Adequacy of RA model was verified using ANOVA
method.
RA model was then embedded into a optimization
algorithm to determine optimal process parameters
for weld bead geometry specification.
Predicts the process parameters for weld bead
geometry
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 Process modelling and optimization

Important input parameters in MAG:

Welding speed, Welding voltage, Wire feed
rate, nozzle-to-plate distance, torch angle

Output parameters (responses):

Bead height, bead width, bead penetration

Three levels are considered:

Full factorial design – huge experiments
Taguchi DOE – limited experiments 25
 Process modelling and optimization

Combinatorial optimization: Evolutionary algorithms (GA

or DE or SA) can be used
 Sets of mathematical equations: linear, curvilinear or
logarithmic
 developed to model relationships between process
variables and weld bead geometry (WBG) in gas metal
arc welding.
 Optimization algorithm determine optimal values for
process parameters with respect to any given bead
geometry.
 Determine best process variables through minimization of
an error function with respect to any desired weld
bead specifications 26
 Process modelling and optimization

Taguchi DOE matrix –

Adequacies of models were checked by analysis of
variance (ANOVA) within confidence limit (~ 95% )
and correlation factor for these models

Choose the superior model among – linear,

curvilinear model, logarithm

Few experiments are used to test the mathematical

model
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 Process modelling and optimization

Mathematical models furnished to provide one to one

relationships between process variables and weld
dimensions
Can be used in two ways:

1. Predicting bead dimensions based on given welding

variables
2. Determining process parameters for a desired weld bead
specification. In order to determine proper values of
welding parameters, a set of non-linear equations are to
be solved simultaneously

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 Summary

 Properties of the engineering materials

 Multiscale modeling approaches

 Physics based modeling approaches

 Data driven mathematical model

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Thank you
for your kind attention

30
 Module 1
Introduction to welding processes

Introduction
Classification
Fusion welding
Brazing and soldering
Solid state welding processes
Advanced welding processes
Wire additive manufacturing processes
 Welding and joining

Joining: welding, brazing, soldering, bonding etc.

Mechanical joining: fastening, riveting, crimping
etc.
Scale: Macro, micro and nano
Microjoining and nanojoining

 Liquid state welding

 Solid state welding
 Solid/Liquid state welding 32
 Welding and joining

Types of Welding

Fusion Welding Pressure Welding

Friction Welding
Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Gas Welding Brazing Soldering

Generic types:
Electroslag Fusion  arc, gas, power beam, resistance
MIG
Thermomechanical  friction, explosive
Mechanical  fasteners
TIG
High Energy Beam Solid state  adhesive, soldering, brazing

Shielded Metal Arc – “Stick”

Electric Arc

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 Physics of welding
Is that possible to bring together metallic surfaces together?
o Only grain boundary separate them, adherence with large
force is possible

o Ideal case to conduct welding

o Practically metal surfaces contaminated with layer of

oxides
o Deals with the phenomena associated with welding
processes
o The formation of weld bonds (fusion welds and solid-state
weld, commonly differentiated by the physics of the
metallic bonding mechanism) 34
 Physics of welding
Principles of fusion welding
o Fusion welds are created by the coalescence of molten base metals
mixed with molten filler metals
o Metals must be heated to melting point for fusion welds to be
produced
o Phase transitions inherent to these processes, a heat-affected zone is
created
o The cooling of fusion zone is associated distortion, residual stress
and metallurgical changes

Principles of Solid-state welds

 at temperatures below the melting point
 are created by either the macroscopic or microscopic coalescence
of the materials in the solid state
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 Effect of Electrode Polarity
Generation of Heat
2/3rd of heat is generated at the anode (+ ve) and 1/3rd at the cathode (-
ve)
The electron is accelerated at high velocity and more heat is generated
at anode
DC Welding - DCSP/DCEN
• used for non-consumable electrode and for deep penetration
- DCRP/DCEP
• used for consumable electrode welding process and thin
sheets
AC Welding
o Polarity changes in every half cycle of current
Arc Stability
o SMAW provide better arc stability with DCEN than DCEP.
o GTAW commonly uses DCEN 36
o When cleaning action is required, AC is more preferable
 Arc Efficiency
Heat loss due to
conduction to base metal
by convention and radiation to surrounding
Only a part of heat generated by the arc to be used for
melting purpose

Arc efficiency - ratio of the heat generated at anode and

total heat generated in the arc (using non-consumable
materials)
In consumable arc welding process - heat generated both
at cathode and anode for melting of filler and base metal
In general, consumable arc welding processes offer higher
arc efficiency than non-consumable arc welding process
 Enthalpy of Melting
Q = Heat required to melt a given volume of weld
= Heat required to melt the solid + Latent heat of fusion

Q   C p Tm  To   L
FZ
ρ = Density (mass/volume) BM
Cp = Heat capacity
Tm = Melting temperature
To = Initial temperature Fusion zone (FZ)
L = Latent heat of fusion Heat affected zone (HAZ)
Base material (BM)
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 Energy Sources for Welding
Energy to produce bonds: in form of heat to melt the metals

Categorization of energy sources

Electrical sources
Uses the electrical energy available from AC or DC source
Ex. Arc welding, Resistance welding, Electro-slag welding

Chemical sources
Chemical energy stored in a wide variety of forms can be converted
to useful heat.
Ex. Oxyfuel gas welding, Thermite welding

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 Energy Sources for Welding
Optical Sources
Focused beams of electron or Laser is operated according to
the laws of optics, achieve high power densities
Ex. Laser beam welding, Electron beam welding
Mechanical Sources
Involve some type of mechanical movement which produces
the energy
Ex. Friction welding, Ultrasonic welding, Explosion welding
Solid State Sources
Characterized by a lack of motion in contrast of mechanical
sources
Ex. Diffusion welding
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 Arc Welding Power Sources
Requirement of a power source is to deliver
controllable current at a voltage according to the
welding process being used

Power sources can be classified in two categories

Constant current or falling characteristic power

source
Constant voltage or flat characteristic power
source
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 Constant voltage power source
 Downward or negative slope -
sufficient internal electrical
resistance and inductance in the

Open circuit voltage

circuit
 Change in current to melt the
electrode at the required rate
 Speed of electrode control the
average welding current
 Constant electrode wire feed
results in a self regulating or self
Maintain the preset voltage
adjusting arc length system
or Relative arc length
 Any change in welding current
occurs, it will automatically Desirable for semi-
increase or decrease the electrode automatic arc welding
melting rate to regain the desired
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arc length
 Constant current power source
Non-linear negative slope of the
curves (sharply dropping

Open circuit voltage

characteristics)
Desirable for manual arc
welding
Efficient striking of arc - open
circuit voltage should be high

High frequency unit supplies high

voltage (kV) along with high
frequency (kHz) with low current
Ionizes the medium between
electrode and workpiece/nozzle
starting pilot arc which ultimately
leads to the start of main arc
A change in power source (open
circuit voltage adjustment and
output current control) will
change the slope of the volt
ampere curve
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 Role of shielding gas
Protecting the arc and molten weld pool from contamination
by the atmosphere
 Directly use shielding gas
 Slag coverage by chemical reactions in the arc
Common shielding gases:
Argon, helium, carbon dioxide and oxygen

 100 % for certain applications

 Mixed together in different combinations

Properties:
Reactivity, ionization potential and thermal conductivity
44
 Oxy-Acetylene Gas Welding

 Mixing of acetylene gas and oxygen in the welding

nozzle
 Proportional of gases decided the nature of flame

Neutral Flame: Ratio of oxygen to acetylene, in the mixture

leaving the torch, is almost exactly one-to-one.
Ex. Welding of mild steel, stainless steel, copper, aluminum

Inner cone Outer envelope

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 Oxy-Acetylene Gas Welding
Carburizing Flame: Proportion of acetylene in the mixture is
higher than that required to produce the neutral flame.
Lower temperature than neutral flame (excess carbon)
Ex. Welding of iron and steel produces very hard and brittle
iron carbide

Oxidizing Flame: Contains more

oxygen than required for a neutral
flame
Used for Copper base metals and
zinc base metals 46
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

o Consumable electrode
(coated with a shielding flux)
o Flux produces protective gas
around weld pool
o Flux coated rod
o Slag keeps oxygen off weld
bead during cooling

 Issues
o Process is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes
o Weld may contain slag inclusions
o Fumes make difficult the process control 47
 Gas Metal Arc Welding
o Consumable wire electrode
o Shielding provided by gas
(Ar, He, CO2, Ar + O2 or
other gas mixtures)

Advantages
o Continuous weld may be
produced (no interruptions)
o Slag removal is not required
(no slag)

48
 Submerged Arc Welding
o Consumable wire electrode
o Shielding provided by flux
granules
o Low fumes
o Flux acts as thermal insulator
o Suitable for thick plates
Advantages
o Very high material
deposition rate
o The process is suitable for
automation
Disadvantages
o Weld may contain slag inclusions
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o Mostly for welding horizontally located plates
 Electroslag Welding
o Workpiece is filled with a welding
flux
o At start, arc is created to melt the
flux powder and forms molten slag
o Molten flux short circuits the arc
o Heat is generated due to ohmic
heating of the slag
o Slag circulates and melt the
consumable electrode and
workpiece edges
 Disadvantages
 Advantages
o Coarse grain structure of the
o High deposition rate
weld
o Welding of thick plates
o Low toughness of the weld
o Low slag consumption
o Only vertical position is
o Low distortion
possible 50
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

o Non-consumable electrode
o With or without filler metal
o Shielded by inert gas (Ar, He,
N2)
o Used for thin sections of Al,
Mg, Ti

 Advantages:
o Weld composition is close to
that of the parent metal  Disadvantages:
o Relatively high quality o Low welding rate
weld structure o Requires high level of
o No slag formation operators skill
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 Plasma Arc Welding
o Plasma is a gaseous mixture
of positive ions, electrons
and neutral gas molecules
o Non-consumable electrode
 Advantages
o Good tolerance of arc to
misalignments
o High welding rate
o Keyhole effect produces high
penetrating capability

 Disadvantages
o Expensive equipment
o High distortions and wide welds as a result of high heat input
 Modes of Plasma Arc Welding
Transferred arc Non-Transferred arc
 Arc occurs between the
 Workpiece being electrode and the nozzle
welded is part of the  High temperature is carried
electrical circuit to the workpiece by the
plasma gas
 Plasma arc transfers  Thermal energy-transfer
from the electrode to mechanism is similar to that
the workpiece for an oxy-fuel
 It is used for welding of
 May be used for high various metals and for
speed welding plasma spraying (coating)
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 Resistance Spot Welding
 Pressure welding technique using high
current and low voltage

 Localized heating by passing high

current at the contact surfaces causes
melting

 Substrate materials are placed between

two electrodes which serve as
conductor for producing the weld

 It is used for welding thin sheets of

similar/dissimilar metallic materials
It is used mainly for
 Heating: H = I2Rt
joining vehicle body
 Resistance: Contact resistance and bulk parts
resistance 54
 Thermit Welding
o Utilizes heat generated by exothermic chemical reaction between the
components of the thermit (a mixture of a metal oxide
and aluminum powder)
o The molten metal, produced by the reaction, acts as a filler material
joining the work pieces after solidification
8Al + Fe3O4 = 9Fe + 4Al2O3
o Reaction produces Al2O3 , free elemental iron and large amount of
heat
o The exothermic reaction occurs via reduction and oxidation
o Al2O3 is much less dense

Other metal oxides:

2Al + 3Cu2O = 6Cu + Al2O3
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 Autogenous fusion welding process

• Source of heat
Heat
source • Fusion zone
Melt
pool • Heat affected Zone
Solidified  Conduction
zone mode
Heat affected or
zone
 Keyhole mode
 Stability of
• Heat flux from heat source
keyhole
• Localized melting and solidification
• Flow of molten metal
• Differential thermal expansion and contraction leading to
distortion and residual stress 56
Metal transfer in Fusion welding process
Process physics
• Heat transfer
• Momentum transport
• Mass transfer
• Cooling and solidification
• Distortion and residual stress
Weld geometry
W
Thermal analysis, Flow analysis, Mechanical P
analysis, Metallurgical analysis, Surface
profile, Species concentration

High peak temperature Decide final mechanical

properties of weld
Rapid change in thermal cycle
Difficult to measure in-
Continuous change in S-L boundary
process 57
 Mathematical modelling approach

Welding Weld Dimensions

Weld
Parameters Weld Thermal Cycle
Properties
Mechanical Properties
We need this relation

 How do we achieve that?

 Empirical correlation / artificial neural network
– Needs lot of experimental data over wide range of parameters
– Material specific
 Fundamental physical models that can embody physical in-process features
and compute weld dimensions, thermal cycle
– Integration of all the physics of the process is necessary
– General

Physical models are cost-effective design routes

One of the tools is Finite element method (FEM)
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 Summary

 Heat generation in electrode depends on DC polarity

 Welding of aluminum AC is preferred
 Thermal conductivity of material is important
parameter for FZ and HAZ dimensions
 Flat characteristic of V-I curse is suitable for semi-
automatic arc welding
 Sharp dropping characteristic is suitable for manual
arc welding
 Inert gas is most suitable shielding gas
 Non-transferred arc in PAW is suitable for thermal
spraying or coating
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Thank you
for your kind attention
 Welding v/s Brazing or Soldering
Difference: welding and brazing/soldering
Metallic components are joined through fusion
or recrystallization of the base metal by applying heat, pressure or both –
fusion or diffusion welding
In brazing/soldering, where only the filler metal melts during processing

Difference: Soldering and Brazing

Soldering - joining process wherein metals are bonded together using a
non-ferrous filler metal with a melting temperature lower than 450 °C
Brazing - the filler metal melting point is greater than
450 °C - it is considered to be a brazing process rather than a soldering
process
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 Principle of Brazing

Brazing is when a filler metal or alloy is heated to its melting temperature

above 450 °C
It is then distributed in liquid form between two or more close-fitting
parts by capillary action
The filler metal is brought slightly above its melting temperature
 It then interacts with a thin layer of the base metal (known as wetting)
and is then cooled quickly to form a sealed joint

Capillary action pull the melted brazing alloy into the space between the
parts being joined
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 Advantages and Limitations of Brazing
 Join virtually any dissimilar metals
 The bond line can be very neat in appearance
 Brazing does not melt the base metal
 There is almost no distortion
 Possible to join non-metals, i.e. ceramics can be easily brazed to each
other or to metals
Brazed parts may not be put in an environment which exceeds the
melting point of the filler metal
Brazed joints require a high degree of base-metal cleanliness
Creating an aesthetic disadvantage - joint color is often different from
that of the base metal
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 64

Solid State Welding Processes

Introduction: Physical aspects of solid state welding

 Frictional heat generation

 Plasticization of material (stirring action)
 Temperature is limited to below melting point
 Heat conduction and material flow
 Solid state phase transformation
 Distortion and residual stress
 Introduction

Understanding about microstructural and surface conditions of work piece

- Under microscopic scale
- Surfaces are irregular
- Covered with oxide and contaminant films
- May be microstructural/compositional irregularities
- Number of mechanisms to form bond between surfaces
- Asperities of the surfaces must be collapsed

Contaminant layer
Oxidized layer
mechanically and/or chemically affected metal

Base metal

66
 Introduction

 Intimate contact mechanically

o Contaminant films can be broken up by mechanical

action
o Break down the metal oxides by dissolution into the
matrix
o Local yield stress exceeded on the contact surface and
o Surface deformation is used to create contact

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 Solid State Welding
 Bonding Mechanism of Solid State Welding

• Localized Melting

• Diffusion

• Recrystallization

• Adhesion

• Interfacial Reaction

• Interfacial Morphology
68
 Solid State Welding
 Localized Melting
• Explosive Welding
• Friction Welding
• Ultrasonic Welding
 Frictional heating during welding causes localized melting
 Melting may lead to inter-metallic compounds which may lower the
bonding strength
 Diffusion
 It is thermally activated process related to the material properties and
applied temperature-time.
 Recrystallization
 Intimate contact between two mating surfaces can be achieved by means
of recrystallization process through the migration of grain boundaries
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 Solid State Welding

 Adhesion

 Resulting from atomic attraction has been widely accepted as the

bonding mechanism for all kinds of solid state bonding techniques

 Atomic attraction between two atoms reaches a maximum at an inter-

atomic distance of several angstroms (10-10 m) and it is proportional to
the inverse of the square of atomic distance

 Two clean surfaces to be welded must be brought to within a distance

of 10x10-10 m

70
 Solid State Welding
 Interfacial reaction
 Reaction of oxide films with weld metals
Solubility of oxide at interface is important
 Reaction between two weld metals
Formation of intermetallic is harmful to the joint strength
 Phase transformation during welding process

 Interfacial Morphology
 It is a unique characteristic in explosive welding in the form of planner,
wavy or molten layer interface
 It depends upon the velocity of the flyer plate relative to collision point
and angle
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 Ultrasonic welding
 Coalescence is produced at the faying surfaces by the application of high frequency
vibratory energy
- while the workpieces are held together under moderately low static pressure
 Produces a weld by oscillating shear forces at the interface between the two metals being
joined
- while they are held together under pressure
Interfacial Interaction
 Localized temperature rises resulting from interfacial slip and plastic deformation.
 Temperature is also influenced by power, clamping force, and thermal properties of the
material.
 Localized Plastic Deformation
 Metallurgical phenomena such as recrystallizing, phase transformation, etc..... can occur.

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 Ultrasonic welding
Process Parameters

• Ultrasonic power
• Clamping force
• Welding time
• Frequency
• Linear Vibration Amplitude

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 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

 Most Significant development in welding

technology in a decade

 It is a “Green” technology due to its energy

efficiency and environment friendliness

 A specially designed non consumable

rotating tool (Pin & Shoulder) is used.

 The rotating tool is inserted into the abutting

edges of rigidly clamped plates/sheets and
traversed along the line of joint

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 Friction Stir Welding

 The objectives of the FSW tool is to

 Generate heat at the work piece
 Move the material to form weld joint

 Frictional and deformational effects results in plasticizing of the materials

 Advancing Side: The side which has similar sense of tool rotation and
traverse/translation direction is termed as advancing side

 Retreating Side: The side which has opposite sense of tool rotation and
traverse/translation direction is termed as retreating side

75
Friction Stir Welding

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 Friction Stir Welding
Process Parameters
 Tool Rotation Rate (rpm)
 Clockwise or counter clockwise direction
 Tool rotation results in stirring and mixing of material around the pin
 Higher tool rotation rate generates higher temperature due to frictional heating
resulting in intense mixing and stirring

 Tool Traverse Speed (mm/min)

 Effects in flow of stirred material from the front to the back of the pin

 Tool Rotation Rate (degree)

 Suitable tilt angle ensures effective holding of material by the shoulder while
moving the material from the front to the back of the pin.

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 Diffusion bonding
• A solid-state welding process that produces
Work pieces
coalescence of the faying surfaces by the Force
application of pressure at elevated
temperature. A
• The process does not involve macroscopic B
deformation or relative motion of the
workpieces.
• A solid filler metal may or may not be
inserted between the faying surfaces.
• Surface preparation is one of important
aspects of diffusion welding
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 Explosive Welding
 It is a solid state metal joining process that uses explosive force to create
metallurgical bond between two metal components.
 Due to short time duration of impact there is adiabatic heat rise

Explosion
Chemical explosives

Flyer (cladding)
Deformed
zone Substrate Extreme velocity

Common application: Cladding carbon steel plate with a thin layer of

corrosion resistant material
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 Explosive Welding - Jetting
 During explosion on the flyer plate, a high pressure pulse is
generated.
 This pulse propels the flyer plate at very high velocity.
 The jet is the product of the collision of two metals surfaces.
 Jet formation allows two pure metallic surfaces to join under
extremely high pressure.
 Occurrence of welding depends on piece of metal plate collides at
what angle with the parent metal plate
 For welding to occur, a jetting action is required at the collision
interface
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 Electromagnetic Pulse welding
 Ampere’s Law :

 Current carrying conductors when placed nearby, they exert force on each other
(magnetic field created)

 The force between infinitely long parallel conductor is given by

F = (𝜇0 /2πd) 𝐼1 𝐼2 (N/m)
𝜇0 = permeability of free space
d = distance between conductors
𝐼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = current flow

 Lorentz Forces: F = J x B; J = Current density

B = Magnetic flux

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 Electromagnetic Pulse welding
• The energy stored in the capacitor bank, charged through a DC power
supply.

• Energy is discharged through the work coil by triggering the spark gap.

• The damped sinusoidal current set up in the work coil produces a transient
magnetic field.

• In around 50 microseconds welding is completed.

• The work sheets in the vicinity of the work coil cut the transient magnetic
field.
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 Electromagnetic Pulse welding
• Hence, the induced electromotive force and the corresponding eddy currents
in the work sheets oppose their cause.

• The induced eddy currents depend upon the material properties

i.e. conductivity and permeability

• Finally the work sheets are repelled away from the coil (towards each other)
creating an impact, due to Lorentz force lasts for a few microseconds - on
account of the interaction between the induced eddy currents and the
magnetic field.

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 Summary
 Solid state bonding mechanism
Localized Melting, Diffusion, Recrystallization, Adhesion,
Interfacial Reaction, Interfacial Morphology

 Ultrasonic welding

 Friction stir welding

 Diffusion bonding

 Explosive welding and Electromagnetic pulse welding

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Thank you
for your kind attention