Class 11 NCERT History Chapter 8

Confrontation of Cultures
• Cosmography: Science of mapping universe.

• Reconquista: It means reconquest.

• Capitulaciones: Agreement made by the Spanish rulers,

who used to award the right to govern the newly acquired
lands to the leaders of successful expeditions.

• Conquistador’s: It refers to Spanish conquerors and

their soldiers who established their empire in the new
world.

• Quips: A system followed by Inca people which helped

them in remembering things. Instagram
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SNIPPETS FROM THE CHAPTER:
It reflects the encounters between European and the people of the
America between fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. The fifteenth
century was the age of geographical discoveries mainly influenced by
new scientific inventions, travellers’ accounts, political and religious
motives, etc.
Reasons:
• In 1942, a Spanish sailor Christopher Columbus discovered
America. Later on, Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci came to
South America in 1499 and called it a New World.
• Economic motives spurred the European voyages and discoveries.
• The invention of compass in 1380 helped the sailors to sail
independently in different directions.
• Astrolabe was invented which helped the sailors to look beyond the
normal vision and helped them to avoid the marine danger.
• The Americas are home to many native tribes; the world’s largest
river – the Amazon flows here. There were communities of the
natives such as the Arawakian Lucayos and the Caribs.
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1. Native American Culture
(a) Small Subsistence Economies
(i) Arawaks (Bahamas)
(b) Developed Culture
(i) Aztecs (Mexico)
(ii) Mayas (Central America)
(iii) Incas (West Coast & South America)

THE ARAWAKS (BAHAMAS)

The Arawakian Lucayos lived on a cluster of
hundreds of small islands in the Caribbean Sea,
today known as the Bahamas, and the Greater
Antilles. Instagram
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Economic activities of Arawaks (Bahamas)
(a) They produced food collectively to feed everyone in the
community.
(b) They had self-sufficient economy.
(c) They were skilled boat-buildiers, they sailed the o.pen sea in
dugout canoes (canoes made from hollow tree trunks).
(d) They lived by hunting, fishing and agriculture
(e) They grew food products like- corn, sweet potatoes, tubers
and cassava.
Religious & social life of Arawaks (Bahamas)
(a) Polygamy was common in their society.
(b) They were animist (they believe that even objects regarded
by modern science as ‘inanimate’ may have life or a soul).
(c) Shamans played an important role as healers and
intermediaries between this world and that of the supernatural
(d) They were superstitions.
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Cultural & Features of Arawaks (Bahamas)
(a) They preferred negotiations to conflict.
(b)  They were very generous host.
(c) The art of weaving was highly developed – the hammock was
one of their specialties.
** People called the Tupinamba lived on the east coast of South
America, and in villages in the forests (the name ‘Brazil’ is
derived from the brazilwood tree).

Political Features of Arawaks (Bahamas)

(a) They were governed by oligarchy as they were organised
under clan elders.
(b)  They had no army.
(c) There existed no religious institution.

THE AZTECS (of Mexico)

In the twelfth century, the Aztecs had migrated from the north into
the central valley of Mexico (named after their god Mexitli). Instagram
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Social life of Aztecs
(a) They had hierarchical society.
(b) Nobility was dominant as the nobles chose from among them a
supreme leader who ruled until his death.
(c) The king was regarded as the representative of the sun on earth.
(d) Warriors, priests and nobles were the most respected groups, but
traders also enjoyed many privileges and often served the
government as ambassadors and spies.
(e) They engaged in war.
(f) Aztec women were given special status in the society.

 Economic Activities of Aztecs

(a) The Aztecs undertook reclamations. They made chinampas,
artificial islands, in Lake Mexico.
(b) They made canals between fertile lands.
(c) They cultivated food products like – Corns, beans, pumpkin,
potatoes, etc.
(d) They had agrarian economy. Land was owned not by individuals
but by clans. Instagram
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Cultural Activities of Aztecs 
(a) They gave special attention the schooling of their
children.
(b) Children of the nobility attended the calmecac and were
trained to become military and religious leaders.
(c) Others went to the tepochcalli in their neighbourhood,
which was the center of learning.

 Political Activity of Aztecs 

(a) In 1325 the capital city Tenochtitlan was built.
(b) The king was their sole leader.
(c) The made conquests and reclaimed territories as land
was limited.
(d) They conquered people.
(e) In the early sixteenth century, the Aztec empire was
showing signs of strain due to discontent among recently
conquered peoples. Instagram
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THE MAYAS (of Central America)
The Mayan culture of Mexico developed remarkably between the
eleventh and fourteenth centuries, but in the sixteenth century they
had less political power than the Aztecs. The important Mayan
civilisation were Mexico, Honduras, EI-Slavador and Guatemala.

Social life of Mayas 

(a) Their religious ceremonies were based on agriculture.
(b) Their social relation was based on agrarian system.

Economic Activities of Mayas 

(a) They were engaged in corn cultivation.
(b) Efficient agricultural production generated surplus, which
helped the ruling classes, priests and chiefs to invest in
architecture and in the development of astronomy and
mathematics
(c) This surplus helped ruling classes priests and chiefs to invest in
architecture and in the development of astronomy and
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Cultural Activities of Mayas
(a) Made significant development of architecture.
(b) They progressed of astronomy and mathematics.
(c) They devised a pictographic form of writing.
(d) They made Maya Calendar

 Political Activity of Mayas

(a) They had less political power.
(b) Their ruling class was strong.
Inca emperor
The Incas were also known as the Quechuas. The capital
city – Cuzco was established by the first Inca emperor,
Manco Capac in the twelfth century. They spoke Quechan
language. The Aztecs and the Incas shared some common
feature, e.g, hierarchical societies with no private ownership
of resources, and were very different from European culture.
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VOYAGES AND EXPLORATION (by Europeans)
• The voyages of discovery were pioneered by explorers from Spain
and Portugal.
• The magnetic compass was used by Europeans for the voyages.
• The printed version of Ptolemy’s Geography was available in 1477.
• The Vikings of Norway had reached North America in the eleventh
century.
• Portugal gained independence from Spain in 1139.
• Christopher Columbus had reached South America. He also
reached the Guanahani Island in the Bahamas in 1492. The two
continents were named after Amerigo Vespucci, a geographer
from Florence.
• Francisco Pizarro captured the Inca emperor from the ruler,
Atahualpa in 1532.
• Brazil was occupied by the Portuguese under command of Pedro
Alvares Cabral. They exploited Brazilwood. In 1601, King Philip II
of Spain publicly banned forced labour.
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Conquest, Colonies and the Slave-Trade
• The uncertain voyages had a lasting consequences for Europe, the Americas
and Africa. From the fifteenth century, European maritime projects produced
knowledge of continuous sea passages from ocean to ocean. Before this, most
of these passages had been unknown to Europeans. In the late fifteenth and
early sixteenth centuries, all these feats were accomplished.
• For Europe, the ‘discovery’ of the Americas had consequences for others
besides the initial voyagers. Europe became familiar with new crops from
America, notably potatoes and chillies. These were then taken by Europeans
to other countries like India.
• For the native people of the Americas, the immediate consequences were the
physical decimation of local populations, the destruction of their way of life and
their enslavement in mines, plantations and mills.
• The sudden destruction of the two major civilisations – those of the Aztecs and
the Incas – in America highlights the contrasts between the two cultures in
combat. Both with the Aztecs and the Incas, the nature of warfare played a
crucial role in terrorizing local inhabitants psychologically and physically.
• The enslavement of the population was a sharp reminder of the brutality of the
encounter. Slavery was not a new idea, but the South American experience
was new in that it accompanied the emerging capitalist system of production.
Working conditions were horrific, but the Spanish regarded the exploitation as
essential to their economic gain. Instagram
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Conclusion
In the early nineteenth century, European settlers in the
South American colonies were to rebel against Spain
and Portugal and become independent countries, just as
in 1776 the thirteen North American colonies rebelled
against Britain and formed the United States of America.

Latin America:  South America today is also called

‘Latin America’. This is because Spanish and
Portuguese, two of the main languages of the continent,
are part of the Latin family of languages. The inhabitants
are mostly native European (called Creole), European,
and African by origin. Most of them are Catholics. Their
culture has many elements of native traditions mixed
with European ones. Instagram
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 Summary
• During the 15th century, the geographical discoveries made
by Europeans heralded the beginning of a new era.
• These geographical discoveries were mainly influenced by
new scientific inventions, travelers’ accounts, political and
religious motives, etc.
• In 1492, a Spanish sailor Christopher Columbus discovered
America. Later on Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci came to
South America in 1499.
• Economic motives gave a great impetus to European
voyages and discoveries.
• The invention of compass in 1380 helped the sailors to sail
independently in different directions.
• An Italian Amerigo Vespucci came to South America in 1499
and called it a New World.
• The Spanish took only two years to conquer Mexico. Cartes
became the Captain General of New Spain in Mexico. Instagram
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• Astrolab was invented which helped the sailors to look
beyond the normal vision and also helped them to
avoid the marine danger. Ptolemy’s geographical
invention helped in locating places on the basis of
latitudinal and longitudinal extents.
• The Arawaks lived mainly on agriculture, hunting and
fishing. Corn, sweet potatoes, tubers, etc. were mainly
grown by them.
• The Aztecs had migrated from the north into the central
valley of Mexico in the 12th century.
• The Aztecs had established a very vast empire, which
was spread over an area of 2 lakh sq. kilometers.
• Aztec rulers enjoyed supreme powers. Aztec women
were given special status in the society.
• In the twelfth century, the first Inca, Manco Capac
established his capital at Cuzco. Instagram
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• Inca society was divided into many classes. The
upper two classes enjoyed special privileges while
the slave stood at the lowest level and were badly
treated.
• The women were given respect in the Inca society.
• Inca society laid special emphasis on education.
• Men were imparted military and priestly training in
Inca society. The people of Inca were inspired to live
an honest and pious lifestyle.
• The Maya civilization was an important Mexican
civilization which came into existence in 1500 BCE.
• The Mayan civilization reached at its peak during the
period between 300 to 900 CF,.
• The important centers of Mayan civilization were
Mexico, Honduras, El-Salvador and Guatemala.
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1. Compare the civilisation of the Aztecs with that of the
Mesopotamians.

Answer

(i) The people of Aztecs civilization worshiped the gods of

war and sun while Mesopotamian people worshiped many
gods and goddesses.

(ii) In Aztecs civilization canal irrigation was done while in

Mesopotamian civilization is a river valley civilization
hence canals were also there for irrigation.

(iii) Aztecs society was hierarchical. It includes nobles,

priests, warriors and traders while Mesopotamian society
was divided into three classes. It included higher, middle
and lower classes.
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2. What were the new developments helping European navigation in
the fifteenth century?

Answer

(i) The invention of magnetic compass in 1380 CE helped in

searching and identifying four cardinal directions. These directions
were north, south, east and west.

(ii) Development also took places in the manufacturing sailing ships.

(iii) Travel literature and books on geography were also available.

(iv) Ptolemy’s geographical information helped the sailors in about

different cardinal directions.

(v) The Travelogue of MarcoPolo also helped a lot in European

navigation and created wide interest among the people.

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3. Give reasons for Spain and Portugal being the first in the fifteenth century to venture
across the Atlantic.

Answer

(i) The rulers of both Spain and Portugal had passion for acquiring wealth in the form of
gold and treasure for glory titles.

(ii) They also wanted to establish colonies in the regions.

(iii) Many Christians wanted to bring people of other land into the fold of Christianity.

(iv) The Christian missionaries wanted to venture across the Atlantic.

4. What new food items were transmitted from South America to the rest of the world?

Answer

The food items which were transmitted from south America to the rest of the world were
as follows-

(a) Cane sugar

(b) Potatoes

(c) Rubber

(d) Tobacco

(e) Chilies

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5. Write an account of the journey of an African boy of seventeen captured and taken to
Brazil as a slave.

Answer

The journey of African boys was very rigid. He was made slave and departed with other
slaves to a ship. Their journey started from Congo. Their ship sailed in Atlantic Ocean and
reach Brazil in South America via Angola.

6. How did the ‘discovery’ of South America lead to the development of European
colonialism?

Answer

For Europe, the ‘discovery’ of the Americans had consequences for other besides the initial
voyagers. The influx of gold and silver helped further expansion of international trade and
industrialization. Between 1560 and 1600, a hundred ships each year carried silver from
South American mines to Spain. But it was not Spain and Portugal that benefited. They did
not invest their huge income in further trade or in building of merchant navy. Instead, it was
the countries bordering Atlantic, particularly England , France, Belgium and Holland, that
took advantage of the ‘discoveries’.

Europe also became familiar with new crops from Americas, notably potatoes and chilies.

For the native people of the America the immediate consequences were the physical
decimation of local population, the destruction of their way of life and their enslavement in
mines, plantations and miles.
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