A Small Backyard Geenhouse For the Home

Gardener

Home gardening and landscaping are enjoyable hobbies for many people in North Carolina. If
you are among them, you might benefit from a small backyard greenhouse. A greenhouse can be
built easily and inexpensively in several hours using simple hand tools and materials available at
most building supply stores. This publication presents plans and instructions for an easily
constructed greenhouse that costs about $100 and may be used for many purposes. Measuring 12
feet by 14 feet (168 square feet), it is small enough to be unobtrusive but large enough to meets
the needs of the serious grower. The completed structure is shown in Figure 1.

Selecting a Site
Choose a level, well-drained plot for the greenhouse. If it will be used primarily for plant
propagation in the summer, place it in partial shade to minimize heat buildup. A good location is
the north side of a large deciduous tree. If a partially shaded site is not available, you can use a
shade cloth or a white plastic cover to control the amount of sunlight reaching the interior.

If the greenhouse will be used for starting transplants or growing plants to maturity, it will need
maximum exposure to the sun. It should also be located where air drainage is good; avoid low
areas surrounded by woods or buildings. Easy access to running water and electricity is also
important.

Figure 1. A backyard greenhouse constructed from inexpensive materials.

Constructing the Greenhouse

The greenhouse consists of a wooden frame to which are attached bows of polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) pipe. The bows hold up the clear plastic film covering, as shown in Figures 1 through 3.
Figure 2. Bows of PVC pipe are used to hold up the plastic film covering.
All lumber for construction should be treated for ground contact with an environmentally safe
preservative such as CCA. Avoid wood preserved with chemicals such as pentachlorophenol or
creosote. Lumber treated for ground contact has a higher concentration of preservative and
therefore will last much longer than untreated or lightly treated wood. Except for the covering,
the structure should last 10 to 12 years.
Unless the site is very flat, you will need to level the foundation boards. This is best done by
digging a trench on the high side instead of raising the low side, as the foundation boards should
contact the ground at all points to ensure a good seal. To keep rainwater out, however, the top of
the foundation board should not be below ground level, particularly around the door. the purpose
of the 4-inch-by-4-inch post at each corner (Figure 4) is to anchor the greenhouse and prevent it
from moving in high winds.
The PVC pipe bows are attached to the side boards of the foundation with electric metallic
tubing (EMT) clamps (Figure 4). It is best to attach the clamps loosely to the side boards with
wood screws before you secure the side boards to the end boards and corner blocks. They may be
tightened after the PVC pipe has been slipped into place.
PVC pipe may be purchased in 12- or 20-foot lengths in either schedule 40 or schedule 80
weights. Schedule 80 PVC pipe has a thicker wall and is stronger than schedule 40 pipe. It is
therefore recommended for greenhouse construction. The 12-foot width of the greenhouse was
chosen so that each half of the rib section of pipe is 10 feet long. PVC pipe may be easily cut
with a hand say, although a neater cut can be made with a pipe-cutting tool specially designed for
that purpose. Care must be taken during assembly because the cement used to fasten PVC is fast-
acting and permanent. It should not be used when the temperature is below 50 degree
Farenheight. Check the directions on the can.

It is best to lay all parts out on a flat surface for assembly. For the ribs to be 2 feet apart, the mid-
rib pipe must be cut into pieces about 22 1/2 inches long (Figures 3 and 5). After all joints have
been cemented and allowed to harden for a few minutes, position the entire assembly over the
foundation boards, bend the ribs, and secure them in place with the EMT clamps. Assembly is
best done by two or more people to prevent over stressing the cemented joints. Ten feet of
galvanized EMT positioned inside the mid-rib will give added strength to the structure.

After all the PVC ribs have been secured, the end frames and door may be constructed.
Although there is a door on only one end, both frames are essentially the same. The two
diagonals on each end give strength to the structure and make it easy to secure the cover. The top
of the end frame may be fastened to the end ribs with either a wood screw of a small metal strip
bent into a U shape. If wood screw are used, the PVC pipe must be predrilled to prevent splitting.

Select the type of cover material according the intended use of the greenhouse. Clear 4- or 6-mil
plastic greenhouse film is generally best if the house will be used for growing plants. If it will be
used exclusively for propagating or overwintering plants, consider using 4- or 6-mil milky or
white copolymer film. White copolymer film reduces the amount of heat and light within the
house and therefore limits the fluctuations in these factors, keeping conditions more nearly
constant during propagation or over the winter. However, shading clear plastic with a 30 to 50
percent polypropylene shade cloth or greenhouse whitewash available from horticultural supply
companies will produce nearly the same effect.

Figure4. Foundation side and end boards are attached to 4-by-4 posts to anchor the
structure. Note the EMT clamps on the side boards hlod the PVC pipe ribs.
The cover may be attached with small tacks, but staples are much faster and are more secure.
Allow the cover to extend several inches past the bottom of the foundation boards and cover the
extra material with packed soil to prevent the entrance of moles and rainwater. An inch of coarse
sand or fine gravel on the floor will reduce problems with mud and weeds.
Figure 5. The mid-rib pipe is cut into sections about 22 1/2 inches long and rejoined with
PVC crosses to which the ribs are attached. Ten feet of EMT is placed inside the mid-rib
for strength.

Operating the green house

It is essential that the house be as tight as possible so that it retain both heat and humidity.
Problems with overheating can usually be solved by simply opening the door. Supplemental heat
can be provided if needed during very cold weather or at night by one or more heat lamps or a
small electric heater. Any electrical devices used in the damp environment of a greenhouse
should be connected only to a circuit equipped with an approved ground fault current interrupter
(GFCI) outlet or circuit breaker. Other source of heat can be used, but even very small gas or oil
heaters will usually overheat a greenhouse this small and may not burn well if not properly
ventilated.
The greenhouse will satisfactorily support up to 4 inches of dry snow. If the snow is deeper or
unusually wet, one or more temporary supports should be provided along the mid-rib to prevent
collapse. If a larger greenhouse is required, the length may be increased. Do not increase the
width of the house without increasing the size of the ribs. Doing so will seriously reduce the
ability of the house to withstand snow and wind loads.

Uses
A small greenhouse can be quite useful throughout the year for many different purposes. In the
early spring, it can be used germinated and grow bedding and vegetable plants earlier that would
otherwise be possible. In the summer it can be used either with or with out a mist system of
humidifier as a propagation house to root cutting. It can be used in the fall to start winter
vegetable plants. During the winter, it can protect patio plants and other hardy but containerized
woody plants.
Charley's - Hobby Greenhouse Kits & Greenhouse Supplies http://www.charleysgreenhouse.com/index.cfm?page=_climate_guide_fr...

Climate Guide for Vegetables & Fruits

What you can grow successfully depends on the temperature you choose for your gree nhouse.

"Cold Greenhouse" (night temp. 35°-45° F)

This climate is suitable for holding over many plants during the winter,
but plant GROWTH is limited. Some vegetables such as carrots and
ViewCart | Checkout cole crops matured in the warmer fall months can be held over for
winter harvest.
Quick Order
"Cool Greenhouse" (night temp. 45°-50° F)
Browse Products At this temperature range you can actively grow many leafy and root crops; e.g.,
lettuce, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, beets and carrots. Citrus fruits and grapes can be
wintered over at these temperatures.

"Moderate Greenhouse" (night temp. 55°-60° F)

Many options are available, and some plants will propagate.

Possibilities include cucumbers, beans, bibb lettuce, herbs, strawberries,
mushrooms, cool variety tomatoes, dwarf fruit trees, figs and grapes.

"Warm Greenhouse" (night temp.

65°-70° F)

While more expensive to heat (we recommend insulated glazing), there

are many unusual and tropical plants you can grow; e.g., lemons,
bananas, melons, dwarf corn, peppers, eggplant and a wide variety of
tomatoes. (Grow lights may be necessary in winter.)

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17979 State Route 536
Mt. Vernon, WA 98273
1-800-322-4707

Questions? e-mail Charley's or Call 1-800-322-4707 24 hours, 7 Days A Week

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 HS790

Greenhouse Cucumber Production - Florida Greenhouse

Vegetable Production Handbook, Vol 31
R. C. Hochmuth2
Greenhouse cucumber production is very
popular in many areas of the world (Fig. 1). The
cucumber is a warm season crop with required
growing conditions of 80 to 85oF and plenty of
sunlight. The primary type of cucumber grown in
Florida greenhouses is the European seedless type.
The fruits are mild in flavor, seedless, and have a thin
edible skin that requires no peeling. Harvested fruit
generally range from 12 to 14 inches in length and
weigh about 1 pound each. However, smaller fruits
of mini cucumbers have become more popular and
commercial production has increased. European
greenhouse cultivars are parthenocarpic (produce
fruit without pollination). Gynoecious cultivars, i.e.,
those producing only female flowers or
predominately gynoecious cultivars should be grown.
If pollination does occur, the fruit will form seeds, the
shape of the fruit will be distorted and a bitter tasting
fruit will develop. It is therefore essential to prevent
bees and other pollinators from entering the
greenhouse and carrying pollen from outdoor gardens
or field cucumber plantings. Cucumber plants are
indeterminate in growth, continually producing fruit
on new growth, similar to greenhouse tomatoes.
Greenhouse cucumbers are more sensitive to low
temperatures than tomatoes. Minimum temperatures
should be no lower than 65F for sustained production.
Prolonged temperatures above 95F should also be
avoided as fruit production and quality are reduced at
extremely high temperatures.
Establishment
Several different types of production systems
and substrates can be used to grow greenhouse
cucumbers. Possible production systems include:
trough, NFT, bag culture, and rockwool. For further
information, readers are referred to the earlier
discussion in this manual on production systems.
Greenhouse cucumbers are ordinarily established
in the greenhouse as transplants using rockwool or
foam blocks. Seed costs are very high; a typical cost
is 25 to 30 cents per seed. Germination is generally
close to 100%, so one seed per transplant container is
sufficient. Producers may choose to over-plant the
number of containers by 10% to 15% to make up for
those few seeds that do not germinate and those plants

1. This document is HS790 and a part of SP48, a chapter of the Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook- Volume 3, one of a series of the
Horticultural Sciences Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Date first
printed: December, 1990. Date revised: December 2001. Please visit the EDIS Web site at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.
2. R. C. Hochmuth, extension agent IV, North Florida Research and Education Center - Suwannee Valley, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences,
University of Florida. The Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook is edited by George Hochmuth, professor of Horticultural Sciences and
Center Director, North Florida Research and Education Center - Quincy and Robert C. Hochmuth, extension agent IV, North Florida Research and
Education Center - Suwannee Valley, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
32611.

The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer authorized to provide research, educational
information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function without regard to race, color, sex, age, handicap, or national origin.
For information on obtaining other extension publications, contact your county Cooperative Extension Service office. Florida Cooperative
Extension Service/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences/University of Florida/Christine Taylor Waddill, Dean.
Greenhouse Cucumber Production - Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook, Vol 3
Figure 1. Slender Eurpoean greenhouse cucumbers.
lost during or shortly after transplanting. Some
growers have successfully direct seeded cucumber
into perlite bags and at the same time seeded a few
transplants to use as replacement plants. Transplant
production should be confined to a small transplant
production area of the greenhouse or a separate
greenhouse entirely to make efficient use of space
and energy and to assist in sanitation practices for
disease control.
Cucumber seed germinates rapidly (2 to 3 days)
at an optimum germinating temperature of 84F in the
germination room. Once the seed has germinated, the
temperature should be lowered to 77F. During the
seeding and transplant production stage, the plants
must never become stressed for water or nutrients. A
plant with three or four true leaves is ready to be
transplanted. The transplants should maintain an
upright growth habit (no curves in the stem) to aid in
successful transplanting.
2
Selecting Cultivars
There are many cultivars available for
greenhouse cucumber production. The cultivars
available are generally produced by European seed
companies, however, a few of the companies have
sales and technical support representatives in North
America. Cultivars change frequently and, as a result,
growers should consult current recommendations
through local Extension agents and industry
representatives. Several factors should be considered
when selecting a cultivar, including disease
resistance, plant vigor, early and total yields, fruit size
and color, and general fruit quality. Disease
resistance is an especially important factor when
selecting a cultivar. Diseases can be severe in Florida
greenhouses, and fungicide options are limited in the
greenhouse. Diseases that can be problems in
greenhouse cucumbers in Florida include: gummy
stem blight, gray mold, downy mildew, powdery
mildew, cucumber mosaic, watermelon mosaic, and
Pythium root rot in NFT. Growers must determine
the levels of resistance or tolerance in the cultivars
considered for production. Selection of a resistant
cultivar may be the only practical method of control
for some diseases.
Two evaluations of twelve cultivars were
conducted in the fall of 1995 and the spring of 1996
at Live Oak. Several cultivars performed well in that
trial including 'Kalunga', 'Bellissma', 'Millagon',
'Discover', 'Marianna', 'Fitness', 'Aramon', and
'Fidelio'. in the trial that were most susceptible to
mildew were '90-0048', E1828', 'Futurea', and
'B-1157'. 'Fidelio', a long-time popular cultivar
produced well in the trial, and had especially smooth
fruit, however, it had the shortest fruit length of the
twelve cultivars. The longest fruits were consistently
produced by '90-0048'. The darkest fruit color was
found 'Kalunga', 'Bellissima', and 'E1828'. The
lightest green fruit color was found in Futura. The
cultivar 'Tyria' has been especially susceptible to
gummy stem blight lesions inside the fruit in Florida
growers trials and is not recommended in Florida.
'Bologna' has also been very popular among Florida
producers since the late 1990s.
In addition to the standard long European
cucumbers, special markets may also be developed
Greenhouse Cucumber Production - Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook, Vol 3
for shorter miniature or "beit-alpha" types. Some
miniature cucumber cultivars are especially
susceptible to powdery mildew and the tolerance
level of each cultivar should be checked.
Spacing and Training
Greenhouse cucumber plants have very large
leaves, grow vigorously, and require large amounts of
sunlight (Fig. 2). Under good sunlight conditions,
each plant should be provided 5 to 7 square feet of
greenhouse space. More space is often required in the
northern United States, where light conditions are
poor. Exact spacing between rows and between plants
within a row will depend upon the type of training and
production system to be used.
Figure 2. Young cucumber crop.
Several training systems exist for greenhouse
cucumber. The basic principle in developing a
training system is to uniformly maximize the leaf
interception of sunlight throughout the house. The
selection of a system will largely depend on the
greenhouse facility, the production system, and
grower preference.
A vertical cordon system trains plants vertically
to an overhead wire. Once the plants reach the wire
they are topped and then pruned using an umbrella
system (to be described later). Single, evenly spaced
rows can be used, however, double-row production is
very popular. Typical spacings for this double-row
system would be approximately 5 to 6 feet between
the centers of each pair of rows. The distance between
the two rows within a pair is approximately 2 feet.
The spacing of plants in the row for such a
double-row system would be 18 to 24 inches. Single,
3
evenly spaced rows in a vertical cordon system would
be approximately 4 to 5 feet between rows and 12 to
18 inches between plants within the row.
A second popular training system is the
V-cordon. Single rows are evenly spaced
approximately 5 feet apart and plants are distanced
approximately 12 inches apart within each row, and
the 2 wires are spaced approximately 30 inches apart
from each other. The support strings are then tied
alternately to each wire. In this manner the plants are
trained up the string and will grow at an incline away
from the row center. The plants form a
V-arrangement down the row.
Pruning
The most common pruning system for either
vertical cordon or V-cordon trained plants is known
as the umbrella system. In this system, all lateral
branches are pruned out as they appear until the main
stem reaches the overhead wire. The growing point
of the main stem is removed when one or two leaves
have developed above the wire. Two lateral branches
near the top of the plant are allowed to grow and are
trained over the overhead wire resulting in these two
branches growing downward. The growing point of
each lateral is removed when nearly to the ground.
Fruits are developed at the node of each leaf. The
fruits on the base 30 inches of the main stem should
be pruned off as soon as they appear. This allows the
plant to vigorously produce early vegetative growth
which is essential for maximum fruit production.
Fruits above the basal 30 inches of the main stem are
then allowed to develop. The productivity of the
laterals is generally less than the main stem.
A comparison of two pruning systems was made
in 1995 and 1996 at Live Oak. A drape system
allowed the main stem to drape over the trellis cable
and grow down to the floor. In the drape system, the
apical meristem was not removed. The pinch
system required the apical meristem to be removed
once reaching the trellis cable. One side branch was
then allowed to grow over the trellis cable and back
down to the floor. In both systems, all other side
branches were removed. In the two trials, the drape
Greenhouse Cucumber Production - Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook, Vol 3
system produced higher yield and quality in most
instances. The pinch system resulted in a delay in
new growth before the side branch began producing
fruit.
Fruit Development
A fruit may be developed at each node and more
than one fruit may begin to develop at some nodes
(Fig. 3). It is usually best to thin these multiple-fruit
clusters to a single fruit, however, vigorous plants can
sometimes mature more than one cucumber at a node.
Miniature and beit-alpha types will support several
fruit per node. Any distorted fruit should be removed
immediately. The greatest growth of the fruit occurs
between day 6 and 14 after the bloom opens
(anthesis). Maximum fruit length occurs at day 14
followed by diameter increase. The shape of the fruit
is somewhat tapered being largest at the stem end
prior to day 10 after bloom, however, the fruit
becomes uniformly cylindrical by day 14. During the
spring season, commercially acceptable fruit size is
usually reached by the 11th day after the bloom opens.
Figure 3. Parthenocarpic greenhouse cucumber flower
and young fruit.
Nutrient Programs
Greenhouse seedless cucumbers have a high
nutrient requirement and grow very rapidly when
supplied with sufficient nutrients. As a result, growers
must plan for an optimum nutrient program making
adjustments in the program as the crop demands
change. The greatest demand for nutrients is during
the peak fruit production period. Nitrogen and
potassium are required in the greatest amounts,
however, a complete nutrition program including
4
essential minor elements is required. Fertilizer recipes
are presented in the chapter on fertilization in this
volume. Designing a fertility program varies
depending on the production system desired and
extreme caution must be used when interpreting or
comparing research or articles from one production
system to another.
Florida greenhouse producers are using soilless
production systems. In these systems, a complete
nutrient solution is used to supply the needed
nutrients to the crop. Soilless culture increases the
grower's ability to control the growth of the plant, but
it also requires management to achieve success.
Many of the guidelines for soilless culture of tomato,
presented earlier in this handbook, also apply to
cucumber.
One concern of the soilless system grower is the
supply of micronutrients or trace elements (those
needed only in trace amounts). Soilless growers not
only must supply their crop with the six
macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, and sulfur), but also the 7
micronutrients (iron, manganese, copper, zinc,
molybdenum, boron, and chlorine). It is especially
important in a soilless system to test the source of
water prior to developing a nutrient program. The raw
water will have some amounts of many of the
essential plant nutrients. These may need to be
considered when developing a fertility program. The
pH of the water is also critical and may need to be
adjusted. Frequently groundwater in Florida has a
high pH of 7.0 or above. The target pH of the nutrient
solution supplied to the plants should be between 5.5
and 6.0.
Generally, either nitric, sulfuric, or phosphoric
acid is recommended for pH control. If it is necessary
to raise the pH, potassium hydroxide is usually used.
If the source water is alkaline due to high bicarbonate
concentrations, the pH should be adjusted before the
fertilizer salts are added to prevent precipitation.
Plant tissue testing can be a useful tool in
addition to a good soil testing or nutrient solution
program to monitor the fertility. Cucumber
leaf-nutrient ranges are presented in the chapter on
fertilizer management elsewhere in this volume. The
reported ranges should be used as a guide to assist in
Greenhouse Cucumber Production - Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook, Vol 3 5

avoiding major problems, both toxicities and

deficiencies.

Several research articles report a sudden

temporary wilt of greenhouse cucumber plants when
using NFT. Cucumber roots have a greater oxygen
requirement when compared with roots of tomatoes.
Cucumbers develop a large root system in the
growing tubes and as a result may become stressed
for oxygen. Because of this concern, measures may
need to be taken to provide improved oxygen supplies
to the root zone. Continuous aeration of the nutrient
solution and increasing the slope of the tubes to 2 feet
or more in height for every 30 feet in length are
reported to help. High solution temperatures also
reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen in the
solution. Growers must avoid high temperatures in
the solution.

Managing Pests
Several diseases, insects, and nematodes can
potentially be pests of greenhouse cucumbers.
Cultivar selection, greenhouse sanitation, and
well-timed applications of properly selected
pesticides are all important in managing these pests in
the greenhouse. The pest control portion of this Figure 4. Greenhouse cucumbers ready for harvest.
handbook has details for managing pests of
greenhouse cucumbers. to the number of fruits they can support any instance.
Harvest is usually required three or four times per
Harvesting week.

Fruits are harvested when uniform length, shape,
and diameter is reached and before any yellowing
appears on the blossom end (Fig. 4). Typical fruit
length is 12 to 14 inches and current USDA Grade
standards require a minimum of 11 inches in length.
Updated copies of the U.S. Grade standards for
greenhouse cucumbers are available through:
Agricultural Marketing Service, USDA, Room 2056
South Blvd., Washington, D.C. 20250.
Frequent harvests are required because the fruits
quickly become overmature. Fruits are harvested as
soon as they are marketable to avoid retarding the
development of any younger fruit on the plant.
Continued, timely harvest keeps the plants in a
productive mode since cucumber plants have a limit
Total expected yield will depend directly on
length of harvest period. Yields range from 1 to 3
pounds of fruit per plant per week during the peak
harvest period. A normal harvest period of 12 weeks
in a well managed crop can yield a total of 20 to 25
pounds of fruit per plant.
Packing and Storage
European greenhouse cucumbers have a very
thin skin resulting in high susceptibility to water loss
and softening of harvested fruit. Immediately after
harvest, containers should be covered to avoid
exposure to direct sunlight. Each fruit is individually
wrapped in a shrink-wrap film before packaging.
Shrink-wrapping will minimize moisture loss and
extend shelf life by several days. Since each
cucumber has to be shrink wrapped, this crop is very
Greenhouse Cucumber Production - Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook, Vol 3
labor-intensive and time consuming. Growers often
mention they were not aware of the considerable time
needed to properly shrink-wrap greenhouse
cucumbers. Growers should invest in a commercial
shrink-wrapping machine designed for cucumbers so
that the shrink wrapping is done in a professional
manner. There are several types and sizes of shrink
wrapping machines available to meet the needs of all
sizes of growers.
European greenhouse cucumbers are considered
highly susceptible to chilling injury caused by
exposure to low, but nonfreezing temperatures.
Chilling injury can occur at temperatures below 50F
for most vegetables. Chilling injury on cucumber fruit
results in a pitting of the fruit surface and a tendency
for more rapid loss of green color. Fungal decay
often follows chilling injury. Optimum fruit holding
conditions are approximately 55F and 95% relative
humidity.
Cucumbers are also sensitive to ethylene gas.
When cucumber fruits are exposed to ethylene, they
lose cholorophyll and rapidly become yellow.
Exposure to levels of 1 ppm ethylene for 1 day at 59F
will result in a noticeable yellowing of the fruit.
Chilling injury to cucumber fruit, even for a short
duration, will increase the production of ethylene by
the fruit. It is very important that cucumbers not be
held or shipped in the same compartment with
moderate to high ethylene producing fruits or
vegetables such as tomatoes, cantaloupes, apples, and
peaches. Consult IFAS Vegetable Crop Fact Sheet
VC-34 Ethylene in Post harvest Horticulture for
further information on ethylene.
Suggested Reading
Hochmuth, R.C., L.C. Leon, and G.J. Hochmuth.
1996. Evaluation of Twelve Greenhouse Cucumber
Cultivars and Two Training Systems Over Two
Seasons in Florida. Proc. Fla. State. Hort. Soc.
109:174-177.
Jarvis, W. B., and V. W. Nuttall. 1981.
Cucumber diseases. Information Services,
Agriculture Canada. publication #1684.
Johnson, H. Jr., and G. W. Hickman. 1984.
Greenhouse cucumber production. Division of
6
Agriculture University of California, Riverside. Calif.
Cooperative Extension Leaflet 2775.
Johnson, H. Jr., G. J. Hochmuth, and D. N.
Maynard. 1985. Soilless culture of greenhouse
vegetables. Florida Cooperative Extension Bulletin
218.
Johnson, H. Jr. 1980. Greenhouse vegetable
production general information and bibliography.
Division of Agriculture University of California,
Riverside. Calif. Cooperative Extension Leaflet
2667.
Lindquist, R. K., and R. C. Rowe. 1984.
Greenhouse cucumber disease and insect control.
Ohio State University Cooperative Extension Bulletin
718.
Savage, A. J. 1985. Hydroponics Worldwide:
State of the art in soilless crop production
International Center for Special Studies. Honolulu,
Hawaii.
Sherman, M. 1984. Ethylene in postharvest
horticulture. Florida Cooperative Extension
Vegetable Fact Sheet VC-34.
Straver, W. K 1983. Growing seedless
cucumbers. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and
Food. Agdex 292/20.
More Information
For more information on greenhouse crop
production, please visit our website at
http://nfrec-sv.ifas.ufl.edu.
For the other chapters in the Greenhouse
Vegetable Production Handbook, see the documents
listed below:
Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production
Handbook, Vol 1
Introduction, HS 766
Financial Considerations, HS767
Pre-Construction Considerations, HS768
Greenhouse Cucumber Production - Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook, Vol 3 7

Crop Production, HS769 Operational Considerations for Harvest, HS792

Considerations for Managing Greenhouse Enterprise Budget and Cash Flow for
Pests, HS770 Greenhouse Tomato Production, HS793

Harvest and Handling Considerations, HS771 Vegetable Disease Recognition and Control,
HS797
Marketing Considerations, HS772
Vegetable Insect Identification and Control,
Summary, HS773 HS798
Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production
Handbook, Vol 2

General Considerations, HS774

Site Selection, HS775

Physical Greenhouse Design Considerations,

HS776

Production Systems, HS777

Greenhouse Environmental Design

Considerations, HS778

Environmental Controls, HS779

Materials Handling, HS780

Other Design Information Resources, HS781

Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production

Handbook, Vol 3

Preface, HS783

General Aspects of Plant Growth, HS784

Production Systems, HS785

Irrigation of Greenhouse Vegetables, HS786

Fertilizer Management for Greenhouse

Vegetables, HS787

Production of Greenhouse Tomatoes, HS788

Generalized Sequence of Operations for

Tomato Culture, HS789

Greenhouse Cucumber Production, HS790

Alternative Greenhouse Crops, HS791

COMMERCIAL GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION

GREENHOUSE CUCUMBERS

By
Charles W. Marr

European cucumbers are a popular greenhouse
crop, producing fruits that weigh about 1 pound
and grow 12 to 14 inches long. The fruits are uni-
formly dark green in color and mild in flavor and
have a thin, tender skin that does not require peel-
ing. In contrast to American cucumbers, European
varieties set and develop fruit parthenocarpically
(without pollination) resulting in fruits that are
seedless. Standard cucumbers cannot be grown in a
greenhouse because bees are needed for pollination.
Varieties. European varieties vary in flowering
habit (most have only female flowers, but some
have both male and female), plant vigor, fruit shape
and length, and productivity. Gynoecious varieties
(100 percent female blossoms) generally are more
productive and produce fruits with smoother skins
than the monoecious type (having both female and
male flowers). However, the latter are more vigor-
ous and produce fruit of better size and quality.
Both types produce an excessive number of female
flowers, so some flower “pruning” may be needed.
Recommended varieties include Toska 70, Sandra
and Fidelio, which offers excellent powdery mildew
resistance. Check with seed companies for green-
house varieties.
Cultural Practices
Temperature. The cucumber is a warm-season
plant and grows rapidly at 75 to 85°F temperatures.
Minimum temperatures should be no lower than
65°F and daytime temperature should not exceed
85 to 90°F.
Growing Media. Greenhouse cucumbers may
be grown in soil, in bag culture, or in rockwool.
Good soil drainage is essential to avoid a build-up
of soluble salts, which can damage plant roots. Light
sandy loam soils are preferable. Growing in bag
culture or rockwool is generally more costly than
growing in soil, and control of the nutritional pro-
gram is more critical.
Plant Production. Start plants in a commercial
seed-starting mix using 2- to 4-inch pots or contain-
ers. Because of the high cost of European cucumber
seed, plant one seed per pot. Keep the mix moist
but not wet and at 80°F until emergence; after emer-
gence maintain a minimum temperature of 65 to
70°F. Transplant when the plants reach the three
to four true leaf stage, approximately two to three
weeks from seeding.
Plant Spacing. Trellised greenhouse cucumber
plants need 4 to 6 square feet per plant for good
production. Plant double rows 2 feet apart and leave
a walkway about 3 feet wide. Plant spacing within
the row will vary from 18 to 24 inches.
Fertilization. Greenhouse cucumbers grow
very quickly and should never lack water or nutri-
ents. It is recommended that a soil sample be col-
lected and analyzed for soil pH, phosphorous, and
potassium.

KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AND COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
 In a soil system, apply all the potassium and Most growers prune the plants using an
phosphorous needed and a small amount of nitro- umbrella system (Figure 1). It is important to main-
gen before planting. A general recommendation tain a proper balance between vegetative growth
(per acre) is 50 pounds of nitrogen (N), 150 pounds and fruit load to achieve maximum production of
of phosphorous (P205), and 250 pounds of potassium marketable fruit. Maximum production requires
(K20). The acre recommendation can be divided by regular removal of shoots and female flowers.
40 for 1,000 square feet. Any micronutrient deficien-
Excessive fruit set results in poorly shaped,
cies indicated by a soil analysis should be corrected
unmarketable fruit, whereas excess foliage may
by incorporating minor element materials into the
interfere with plant management and pest control
soil before planting. During crop growth, the most
practices and result in undesirable, pale-colored
important element needed is nitrogen. It should be
fruit. Shoot pruning is employed to limit vegetative
injected in the irrigation water during each irriga-
growth and flower development, control the form
tion using soluble fertilizer materials such as
of the plant, and stimulate continued shoot and
potassium nitrate (13 percent N), calcium nitrate
flower initiation. Flower and fruit pruning is used to
(16 percent N), or ammonium nitrate (33 percent N).
control the location and limit the number of fruits
During the first few weeks after transplanting,
on the plant and to remove misshapen and other-
apply 5 to 10 pounds of nitrogen per acre per week,
wise unmarketable fruit. The amount of pruning
gradually increasing to 25 to 30 pounds per acre per
needed will vary with variety and plant vigor.
week during fruit production.
Continued flower initiation depends on
Training. Plants are trained by intertwining the
continued production of vegetative shoots and leaf
main stem with a vertical piece of polyethylene
axils and may occasionally require major pruning
twine suspended from a horizontal, overhead sup-
and fruit removal to stimulate vegetative growth.
port wire 61⁄2 to 7 feet above the plant rows. The
All deformed fruit should be removed as soon as
string is anchored to the base of each plant with a
noticed.
loose, non-slip loop knot.

Steps in training with the umbrella system:

1. Remove flower buds on the main stem up to 30 inches from the
base of the plant (or approximately 8–10 nodes).
2. Remove side shoots from the lower 2 feet of the main stem.
3. Above 2 feet on the main stem, prune lateral shoots to one leaf.
4. Main-stem fruit will develop at the base of each leaf. More than
one fruit may begin to develop at each node. Some growers thin
these to a single fruit, but it may be more practical to leave all
young fruit attached, because more than one may mature.
5. Top (cut) the main stem at one node above the support wire at
61⁄2 to 7 feet above the soil surface. Secure the stem to the wire
with a string or Twistem to prevent it from sliding down the
plastic twine.
6. Train the top 2 or 3 lateral runners over the support wire, and
tip them when they reach 3 feet from the ground.
7. Tip all secondary shoots to 1 leaf.

2
 Diseases. Serious diseases of European cucum-
bers include cucumber and watermelon mosaic,
gray mold, powdery mildew, and rootknot nema-
todes. Mosaic viruses are transmitted by aphids and
can be introduced into the greenhouse from infected
alternate host plants by this insect. Exclusion or
control of aphids is important in controlling virus
diseases.
Gray mold is associated with high humidity.
Adequate ventilation and air circulation in the
greenhouse are important in controlling this disease.
Removal of the lower leaves and use of an appropri-
ate fungicide are helpful in the prevention and con-
trol of gray mold.
cautions are taken. Short-term storage is possible
Powdery mildew is a foliar disease that can by covering fruits and storing them in a cool, moist
cause serious reduction in productivity. Techniques area. Fruits that must be held for more than a few
for controlling gray mold also help in controlling hours should be wrapped in clear plastic film and
powdery mildew. The use of resistant varieties is stored at high humidity (90 to 95 percent) and
recommended. 50 to 55°F. Do not store at temperatures below 45°F.
Insects. In addition to virus diseases trans-
mitted by aphids, other troublesome insect pests
include the white fly, serpentine leaf miner, and References
two-spotted mite. Care should be taken to prevent
“Greenhouse Cucumber Production,” Johnson,
introducing these pests into the greenhouse envi-
H. and G. Hickman, 1984, Publication No. 2775.
ronment. Control of weeds in and around the
Cooperative Extension, Univ. of California, Berke-
greenhouse site is helpful in avoiding these pests.
ley, CA 94720.
Extension personnel can recommend chemical
control measures for these disease problems and “Cucumbers,” Grower Guide No. 15, 1980.
insect pests. Grower Books, 49 Doughty St., London, WCIN 2BR.
Harvesting and Handling. Fruits should be Growing European Seedless Cucumbers, Staver,
harvested when they are well filled out and show W.A., 1978, Publication No. 78-053, Information
only slight ribbing. The most desirable fruits are Branch, Ministry of Agriculture and Food, 801 Bay
11 inches or longer and average 3⁄4 to 1 pound. St., Toronto, Ontario, Canada M7A 1A5.
During peak production, fruits need to be removed
American Greenhouse Vegetable Growers Asso-
three or four times a week. Use a knife or pruner
ciation, P.O. Box 9797, Colorado Springs, CO 80932
to avoid damaging vines and fruit. Handle carefully
(Newsletter).
to minimize damage to the thin skin. A healthy
plant should produce 24 to 30 marketable fruits. Greenhouse Vegetable Newsletter, J.C. Fisher,
Vegetable Crops Advisor, Research Station, Harrow,
Because of their thin skins, European cucumber
Ontario, N0R 1G0.
fruits lose moisture rapidly and soften unless pre-

3
 About the author: Charles W. Marr is an extension specialist, vegetable crops.

Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service
MF-2075 February 1995
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, as amended. Kansas State University, County Extension Councils,
Extension Districts and United States Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Richard D. Wootton, Associate Director. All educational programs and materials
available without discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, or disability.
File Code: Horticulture and Landscaping—11 2-95—500;10-97—500

4
COMMERCIAL GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION

GREENHOUSE CUCUMBERS

By
Charles W. Marr

European cucumbers are a popular greenhouse
crop, producing fruits that weigh about 1 pound
and grow 12 to 14 inches long. The fruits are uni-
formly dark green in color and mild in flavor and
have a thin, tender skin that does not require peel-
ing. In contrast to American cucumbers, European
varieties set and develop fruit parthenocarpically
(without pollination) resulting in fruits that are
seedless. Standard cucumbers cannot be grown in a
greenhouse because bees are needed for pollination.
Varieties. European varieties vary in flowering
habit (most have only female flowers, but some
have both male and female), plant vigor, fruit shape
and length, and productivity. Gynoecious varieties
(100 percent female blossoms) generally are more
productive and produce fruits with smoother skins
than the monoecious type (having both female and
male flowers). However, the latter are more vigor-
ous and produce fruit of better size and quality.
Both types produce an excessive number of female
flowers, so some flower “pruning” may be needed.
Recommended varieties include Toska 70, Sandra
and Fidelio, which offers excellent powdery mildew
resistance. Check with seed companies for green-
house varieties.
Cultural Practices
Temperature. The cucumber is a warm-season
plant and grows rapidly at 75 to 85°F temperatures.
Minimum temperatures should be no lower than
65°F and daytime temperature should not exceed
85 to 90°F.
Growing Media. Greenhouse cucumbers may
be grown in soil, in bag culture, or in rockwool.
Good soil drainage is essential to avoid a build-up
of soluble salts, which can damage plant roots. Light
sandy loam soils are preferable. Growing in bag
culture or rockwool is generally more costly than
growing in soil, and control of the nutritional pro-
gram is more critical.
Plant Production. Start plants in a commercial
seed-starting mix using 2- to 4-inch pots or contain-
ers. Because of the high cost of European cucumber
seed, plant one seed per pot. Keep the mix moist
but not wet and at 80°F until emergence; after emer-
gence maintain a minimum temperature of 65 to
70°F. Transplant when the plants reach the three
to four true leaf stage, approximately two to three
weeks from seeding.
Plant Spacing. Trellised greenhouse cucumber
plants need 4 to 6 square feet per plant for good
production. Plant double rows 2 feet apart and leave
a walkway about 3 feet wide. Plant spacing within
the row will vary from 18 to 24 inches.
Fertilization. Greenhouse cucumbers grow
very quickly and should never lack water or nutri-
ents. It is recommended that a soil sample be col-
lected and analyzed for soil pH, phosphorous, and
potassium.

KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AND COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
 In a soil system, apply all the potassium and Most growers prune the plants using an
phosphorous needed and a small amount of nitro- umbrella system (Figure 1). It is important to main-
gen before planting. A general recommendation tain a proper balance between vegetative growth
(per acre) is 50 pounds of nitrogen (N), 150 pounds and fruit load to achieve maximum production of
of phosphorous (P205), and 250 pounds of potassium marketable fruit. Maximum production requires
(K20). The acre recommendation can be divided by regular removal of shoots and female flowers.
40 for 1,000 square feet. Any micronutrient deficien-
Excessive fruit set results in poorly shaped,
cies indicated by a soil analysis should be corrected
unmarketable fruit, whereas excess foliage may
by incorporating minor element materials into the
interfere with plant management and pest control
soil before planting. During crop growth, the most
practices and result in undesirable, pale-colored
important element needed is nitrogen. It should be
fruit. Shoot pruning is employed to limit vegetative
injected in the irrigation water during each irriga-
growth and flower development, control the form
tion using soluble fertilizer materials such as
of the plant, and stimulate continued shoot and
potassium nitrate (13 percent N), calcium nitrate
flower initiation. Flower and fruit pruning is used to
(16 percent N), or ammonium nitrate (33 percent N).
control the location and limit the number of fruits
During the first few weeks after transplanting,
on the plant and to remove misshapen and other-
apply 5 to 10 pounds of nitrogen per acre per week,
wise unmarketable fruit. The amount of pruning
gradually increasing to 25 to 30 pounds per acre per
needed will vary with variety and plant vigor.
week during fruit production.
Continued flower initiation depends on
Training. Plants are trained by intertwining the
continued production of vegetative shoots and leaf
main stem with a vertical piece of polyethylene
axils and may occasionally require major pruning
twine suspended from a horizontal, overhead sup-
and fruit removal to stimulate vegetative growth.
port wire 61⁄2 to 7 feet above the plant rows. The
All deformed fruit should be removed as soon as
string is anchored to the base of each plant with a
noticed.
loose, non-slip loop knot.

Steps in training with the umbrella system:

1. Remove flower buds on the main stem up to 30 inches from the
base of the plant (or approximately 8–10 nodes).
2. Remove side shoots from the lower 2 feet of the main stem.
3. Above 2 feet on the main stem, prune lateral shoots to one leaf.
4. Main-stem fruit will develop at the base of each leaf. More than
one fruit may begin to develop at each node. Some growers thin
these to a single fruit, but it may be more practical to leave all
young fruit attached, because more than one may mature.
5. Top (cut) the main stem at one node above the support wire at
61⁄2 to 7 feet above the soil surface. Secure the stem to the wire
with a string or Twistem to prevent it from sliding down the
plastic twine.
6. Train the top 2 or 3 lateral runners over the support wire, and
tip them when they reach 3 feet from the ground.
7. Tip all secondary shoots to 1 leaf.

2
 Diseases. Serious diseases of European cucum-
bers include cucumber and watermelon mosaic,
gray mold, powdery mildew, and rootknot nema-
todes. Mosaic viruses are transmitted by aphids and
can be introduced into the greenhouse from infected
alternate host plants by this insect. Exclusion or
control of aphids is important in controlling virus
diseases.
Gray mold is associated with high humidity.
Adequate ventilation and air circulation in the
greenhouse are important in controlling this disease.
Removal of the lower leaves and use of an appropri-
ate fungicide are helpful in the prevention and con-
trol of gray mold.
cautions are taken. Short-term storage is possible
Powdery mildew is a foliar disease that can by covering fruits and storing them in a cool, moist
cause serious reduction in productivity. Techniques area. Fruits that must be held for more than a few
for controlling gray mold also help in controlling hours should be wrapped in clear plastic film and
powdery mildew. The use of resistant varieties is stored at high humidity (90 to 95 percent) and
recommended. 50 to 55°F. Do not store at temperatures below 45°F.
Insects. In addition to virus diseases trans-
mitted by aphids, other troublesome insect pests
include the white fly, serpentine leaf miner, and References
two-spotted mite. Care should be taken to prevent
“Greenhouse Cucumber Production,” Johnson,
introducing these pests into the greenhouse envi-
H. and G. Hickman, 1984, Publication No. 2775.
ronment. Control of weeds in and around the
Cooperative Extension, Univ. of California, Berke-
greenhouse site is helpful in avoiding these pests.
ley, CA 94720.
Extension personnel can recommend chemical
control measures for these disease problems and “Cucumbers,” Grower Guide No. 15, 1980.
insect pests. Grower Books, 49 Doughty St., London, WCIN 2BR.
Harvesting and Handling. Fruits should be Growing European Seedless Cucumbers, Staver,
harvested when they are well filled out and show W.A., 1978, Publication No. 78-053, Information
only slight ribbing. The most desirable fruits are Branch, Ministry of Agriculture and Food, 801 Bay
11 inches or longer and average 3⁄4 to 1 pound. St., Toronto, Ontario, Canada M7A 1A5.
During peak production, fruits need to be removed
American Greenhouse Vegetable Growers Asso-
three or four times a week. Use a knife or pruner
ciation, P.O. Box 9797, Colorado Springs, CO 80932
to avoid damaging vines and fruit. Handle carefully
(Newsletter).
to minimize damage to the thin skin. A healthy
plant should produce 24 to 30 marketable fruits. Greenhouse Vegetable Newsletter, J.C. Fisher,
Vegetable Crops Advisor, Research Station, Harrow,
Because of their thin skins, European cucumber
Ontario, N0R 1G0.
fruits lose moisture rapidly and soften unless pre-

3
 About the author: Charles W. Marr is an extension specialist, vegetable crops.

Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service
MF-2075 February 1995
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, as amended. Kansas State University, County Extension Councils,
Extension Districts and United States Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Richard D. Wootton, Associate Director. All educational programs and materials
available without discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, or disability.
File Code: Horticulture and Landscaping—11 2-95—500;10-97—500

4
 Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
Greenhouse Floors and Benches
Michael A. Schnelle
Assistant Professor
Extension Specialist
Floriculture and Ornamentals
John M. Dole
Assistant Professor
Floriculture
Choosing benching materials and designs can be a difficult
decision, due to the wide choice of products available to the
grower today. Listed below are common designs, materials,
and considerations in choosing floors and benches for com-
mercial greenhouses.
Floors
Standard Concrete
Regular concrete will endure about 2500 pounds per
square inch. This mix is appropriate for heavy loads such
as soil-mixing areas and locations in the greenhouse where
heavy equipment is used. When possible, this formulation
of concrete should be avoided for aisles in growing areas
between benches, since it will not drain properly.
Porous Concrete
Porous concrete allows for drainage, will help prevent
puddling, and still provides a barrier for weed control. Uni-
formly graded aggregate and cement water paste are needed
to mix porous concrete. Although regular concrete is made
with gravel or sand, no sand is included in porous concrete
mix. Rather, mix one cubic yard of 3/8-inch diameter stone,
5 1/2 sacks of Portland cement, and 4 1/4 gallons water per
sack of cement. When pouring this mixture, be careful not to
tamp or compress the concrete, which will destroy the poros-
ity needed for good drainage. Avoid using porous concrete in
propagation/seeding areas, because soil particles will eventu-
ally clog the porous matrix and prevent even drainage.
Properly cured porous concrete will have a capacity to
endure 600 pounds per square inch of surface. A four-inch
floor of this mixture will adequately endure light vehicle traffic
and personnel. Keep in mind that porous cement has one-
fourth the strength of regular concrete, so do not exceed light
traffic.
Gravel/Dirt
Gravel or dirt floors are inexpensive, but often not worth
the initial savings. Gravel or dirt floors cannot be properly
cleaned and disinfected, making it impossible to allow plants
to touch the floors without the risk of transmitting diseases.
Gravel or dirt floors will also harbor more pests. Floors will be
Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources • Oklahoma State University
F-6703
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets
are also available on our website at:
http://www.osuextra.com
chronically muddy with frequent irrigations and will generally
appear unacceptable, particularly in retail operations. In fact,
these muddy, unstable floors will be a liability because of the
risk of customers falling and injuring themselves. Additionally,
wheelchair bound customers will have a more difficult time
maneuvering on gravel or dirt aisles.
A compromise to save money is to use gravel over dirt
floors with concrete aisles. Many of the advantages of concrete
floors discussed earlier can be realized but with a lowered
expense, due to less concrete poured.
Floors as Benches
In some cases, it is advantageous to consider growing
plants directly on the floor in conjunction with ground floor
heating systems. Using the floor for growing plants is gaining
popularity, but the cement must be laid exactly level in order
to achieve an even distribution of water when flooding floors.
Porous concrete floors may be expanded in width to serve as
“benches.” The main advantage is the porosity offered and the
lowered cost from bypassing above ground structures. This
system works well for some species. However, the added
fatigue on employees may not be worth the initial savings
when considering the strain of working at an awkward posi-
tion.
When floors are being installed for specific purposes, it is
wise to consult with qualified concrete contractors. They can
advise and/or install the floor to your specifications. Porous
or standard concrete will be used, depending on the specific
roles the floor will serve.
Raised Benches
Bench Arrangements
Maximum utilization of growing facilities is largely based
on the amount of growing area achieved (Figure 1). Benches
in the peninsular design may result in a greater growing area
than if they were in a longitudinal arrangement. The penin-
sular design also allows many species to be conveniently
segregated, which can be a real advantage for retail growers.
However, many growers have found routine tasks such as
watering much easier on longitudinally placed benches.
Figure 1. Greenhouse bench layouts. Design are intended for comparison only; exact dimension will vary with each
greenhouse.

6703-2
 Lastly, non-stationery benches, which provide even more
growing space, are gaining popularity with growers. Movable
benches, known as rolling benches, can increase efficiency up
to 90 percent of the floor space. Bench platforms are moved
by a crank at the end of the bench from side to side. Some
can be moved by hand by sliding the benches over the top of
long steel poles. Aisles are created where the grower wants
to work at any given time. Rolling benches are easy to move
by practically any laborer, which is an added bonus. Movable
benches, however, are not appropriate in a retail setting or
where plants must be accessed frequently. Retailers are bet-
ter served by staying with conventional benches such as the
longitudinal, peninsular, or other comparable type designs.
Bench Space Efficiency
Benching efficiency is defined as the square feet of bench
space to the entire greenhouse floor area. This number is
expressed as a percentage.
Examples: A grower chooses a longitudinal bench ar-
rangement in a greenhouse 30' x 80' or 2400 square feet of
floor area. He decides to use 3-foot wide benches and 2.5-foot
wide aisles and allows four feet at the end of the benches.
The greenhouse has a benching efficiency of [5 (number of
benches) x 72 (length of each bench) x 3 (width of bench)] \
(30 x 80 greenhouse dimensions) x 100 = (1080/2400) x 100
= 45%.
However, if the benches were widened to four feet and 74
feet long, allowing a three-foot turn around rather than four feet
as before, efficiency could be increased to 49 percent [(4 x 74
x 4) / (30 x 80) x 100 = 49%]. To further increase efficiency, the
benches could be widened and the aisle widths reduced.
If the grower looks at the same greenhouse with 2400
square feet floor space, but this time designs a peninsular
bench arrangement, he will find that the peninsular design will
increase the growing area even more. Still greater efficiency
could be realized with rolling benches.
Benching efficiency could be increased even more by
growing hanging baskets. Use caution in deciding what to
grow underneath the overhead containers. Dripping will oc-
cur which may make some species unsalable under certain
conditions. Overhead shelving, tiered benches and temporarily
widening benches are additional methods to grow more with
less space.
Bench Design
An alternative to conventional benching systems is the
ebb and flow (flood or subirrigation) benches. Metal or wood
benches are replaced with watertight, molded plastic trays.
Trays are periodically flooded with water and desired fertilizer
concentration, which can be taken up throughout the plants via
capillary action. This system has such advantages as reduced
and uniform applications of water and fertilizer. Excess water
and fertilizer are collected after each flood and drain cycle to
be recirculated later. Up to 50 percent reductions in water and
fertilizer savings have been reported. Labor costs will also be
reduced since the entire bench can be watered at the same
time. This may not be feasible if plants with dissimilar water
6703-3
requirements are grouped together on each bench. An added
benefit is that foliage will stay dry and plants can be grouped
closely for greater production efficiency. Ebb and flow bench
manufacturers have also designed trays to be incorporated
into a rolling bench system for even greater versatility. This
bench system should be given serious consideration with ever
increasing restrictions on water and fertilizer runoff.
Materials for Benches
Regardless of the building materials chosen, benches
normally do not exceed 36 inches high or wide when against
a wall. Freestanding benches which are not against the wall
may be up to six feet wide to allow workers to reach from
either side. Freestanding benches should also not exceed 36
inches high to accommodate wheelchair bound clientele.
Allow air circulation for plants by having an open bench
floor. This may be accomplished by a number of materials such
as redwood, lath, 14 gauge welded wire fabric, or expanded
metal. Be certain enough rigidity is offered to prevent sagging
and toppling pots. Regardless of materials chosen for bench
construction, a good rule of thumb is to allow support for at
least 25 pounds per square foot area.
Wooden Benches
Locust, cedar, redwood, and cypress are all woods highly
resistant to decay. Paint benches before use with copper
naphthenate or other preservatives (known to be safe around
plants) to augment the natural decay resistance of the wood
chosen. When redwood is chosen, iron and steel will corrode
from naturally present decay inhibitors. Therefore, choose met-
als such as aluminum, zinc, or brass nails, screws, and bolts.
Benches may be all wood or in combination with a different
material for the base. Often, expanded metal or welded wire
of one inch or smaller mesh are used. While expanded metal
is more expensive, it does not sag like welded wire. Besides
decay, wood may warp and often absorbs soils, chemicals, etc.
which cannot be adequately removed. When wood is chosen,
higher maintenance will be required on a regular basis.
Concrete
Some growers have built concrete forms and poured en-
tire benches, including the legs (supports), all at once. These
benches are permanent and do not allow for change later.
Concrete benches are durable and will not require additional
treatment to prevent decay such as with wood. They may be
reinforced with steel rods, when poured, for additional durabil-
ity. Lastly, consider drilling holes in the base of the bench for
proper drainage.
Metal
Entire metal or steel benches are used alone or in com-
bination with another material. Advantages of galvanized
metals over wood are the longevity and resistance to rot and
decay. Metal benches may be expensive to install initially, but
can be considered a one-time cost. Also consider the lowered
maintenance costs when these types of benches are used.
Temporary/Portable Benches Growing Systems, (M,W)
2950 N. Weil
Plastic Milwaukee, WI 53212
(414) 263-3131
Although plastics are becoming more common for bench
beds, plastic frames are not always desirable. They are often
Metalex, Inc., (M)
not as durable or able to support as much weight as other
1530 Artiaus Pkwy
benching materials. However, in a retail setting, prefabricated
Libertyville, IL 60048
benches can be purchased which are lightweight and, thus,
(312) 362-8300 US: 800-323-0792
portable. These are also available mounted on rollers, making
them particularly convenient in retail settings. Also, mainte-
Nexus Greenhouse Systems Corp., (M)
nance on plastic benches is again considerably less than for
10983 Leroy Dr.
wood.
Northglenn, CO 80233
(303) 457-9199 US: 800-2-BUY-NEX Fax: (303) 457-2801
Pallets
Rough Brothers
Another portable bench system can be inexpensively
P.O. Box 16010
constructed by placing pallets on cement blocks for support.
Cincinnati, OH 45216
Besides the low cost, this portable display can be easily and
(513) 242-0310 OH: 800-543-7602 US: 800-543-7351
quickly disassembled.
Fax: (513) 242-0816
Bench Supports
Sharp & Son, Inc.
Cement blocks are commonly used to support bench tops, 900 Lind Ave. SW
particularly if they are not intended to be permanent. Permanent Renton, WA 98055
benches may also be supported in this fashion. Additionally, steel (206) 235-4510
poles are often used for bench support. Plastic bench supports
are becoming more popular, but again they are often not as Westbrook Greenhouse Systems, Ltd. (M)
strong, and in many cases are most appropriate for temporary P.O. Box 99
retail displays. When wooden supports are used, it is especially Grimsby, ON Canada L3M 4G1
critical to chemically treat them for decay, at least the area (416) 945-4111 US: 800-263-0230 Fax: (416) 945-6564
which will be submerged in the soil. The same preservatives
which may be used on the growing surface of the benches are Structural Plastics Corp.
appropriate. Also, by pouring concrete footings, the structural 2750 Lippincott Blvd.
integrity of the bench supports may be reinforced. Flint, MI 48507
(313) 743-2800 US: 800-523-6899 Fax: (313) 743-2799
Purchasing/Building Benches
Benches may be built to suit ones particular needs, or an Dramex Intl., (M)
array of prefabricated benches may be purchased and installed 20 Fasken Dr.
by the distributor. Besides bench frames, bench fabrics made Rexdale, ON Canada M9W 1K5
from metal, plastic, etc. are readily available from greenhouse (416) 675-6311 Fax: (416) 675-4310
supply companies.
B & C Mortensen Wood Products
Bench System Supply Companies Rt. 4, Box 1000
American Plant Products and Services, Inc. Oldtown, ID 83822
9200 N.W. 10th Street (208) 437-5665
Oklahoma City, OK 73127
(405) 787-4833 Barlow Tyrie, Inc., (M)
1263/230 Glen Ave.
AQUA-HORT SYSTEMS, INC. Moorestown, NJ 08057
P.O. Box 57197 (609) 273-7878 US: 800-451-7467
Oklahoma City, OK 73157
(405) 521-8002 US: 800-446-1694 Southeastern Wood Products Co.
P.O. Box 113
Growers Intl. Inc./Div. of Sharp & Son, Inc. Griffin, GA 30224
P.O. Box 10 (404) 227-7486
Schulenburg, TX 78956
(409) 743-6522

Oklahoma State University, in compliance with Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11246 as amended, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Americans
with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, age, religion, disability, or status as a veteran in
any of its policies, practices, or procedures. This includes but is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid, and educational services.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Robert E. Whitson, Director of Cooperative Ex-
tension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President, Dean, and Director
of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of 20 cents per copy. 0503

6703-4
A Small Backyard Geenhouse For the Home
Gardener

Home gardening and landscaping are enjoyable hobbies for many people in North Carolina. If
you are among them, you might benefit from a small backyard greenhouse. A greenhouse can be
built easily and inexpensively in several hours using simple hand tools and materials available at
most building supply stores. This publication presents plans and instructions for an easily
constructed greenhouse that costs about $100 and may be used for many purposes. Measuring 12
feet by 14 feet (168 square feet), it is small enough to be unobtrusive but large enough to meets
the needs of the serious grower. The completed structure is shown in Figure 1.

Selecting a Site
Choose a level, well-drained plot for the greenhouse. If it will be used primarily for plant
propagation in the summer, place it in partial shade to minimize heat buildup. A good location is
the north side of a large deciduous tree. If a partially shaded site is not available, you can use a
shade cloth or a white plastic cover to control the amount of sunlight reaching the interior.

If the greenhouse will be used for starting transplants or growing plants to maturity, it will need
maximum exposure to the sun. It should also be located where air drainage is good; avoid low
areas surrounded by woods or buildings. Easy access to running water and electricity is also
important.

Figure 1. A backyard greenhouse constructed from inexpensive materials.

Constructing the Greenhouse

The greenhouse consists of a wooden frame to which are attached bows of polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) pipe. The bows hold up the clear plastic film covering, as shown in Figures 1 through 3.
Figure 2. Bows of PVC pipe are used to hold up the plastic film covering.
All lumber for construction should be treated for ground contact with an environmentally safe
preservative such as CCA. Avoid wood preserved with chemicals such as pentachlorophenol or
creosote. Lumber treated for ground contact has a higher concentration of preservative and
therefore will last much longer than untreated or lightly treated wood. Except for the covering,
the structure should last 10 to 12 years.
Unless the site is very flat, you will need to level the foundation boards. This is best done by
digging a trench on the high side instead of raising the low side, as the foundation boards should
contact the ground at all points to ensure a good seal. To keep rainwater out, however, the top of
the foundation board should not be below ground level, particularly around the door. the purpose
of the 4-inch-by-4-inch post at each corner (Figure 4) is to anchor the greenhouse and prevent it
from moving in high winds.
The PVC pipe bows are attached to the side boards of the foundation with electric metallic
tubing (EMT) clamps (Figure 4). It is best to attach the clamps loosely to the side boards with
wood screws before you secure the side boards to the end boards and corner blocks. They may be
tightened after the PVC pipe has been slipped into place.
PVC pipe may be purchased in 12- or 20-foot lengths in either schedule 40 or schedule 80
weights. Schedule 80 PVC pipe has a thicker wall and is stronger than schedule 40 pipe. It is
therefore recommended for greenhouse construction. The 12-foot width of the greenhouse was
chosen so that each half of the rib section of pipe is 10 feet long. PVC pipe may be easily cut
with a hand say, although a neater cut can be made with a pipe-cutting tool specially designed for
that purpose. Care must be taken during assembly because the cement used to fasten PVC is fast-
acting and permanent. It should not be used when the temperature is below 50 degree
Farenheight. Check the directions on the can.

It is best to lay all parts out on a flat surface for assembly. For the ribs to be 2 feet apart, the mid-
rib pipe must be cut into pieces about 22 1/2 inches long (Figures 3 and 5). After all joints have
been cemented and allowed to harden for a few minutes, position the entire assembly over the
foundation boards, bend the ribs, and secure them in place with the EMT clamps. Assembly is
best done by two or more people to prevent over stressing the cemented joints. Ten feet of
galvanized EMT positioned inside the mid-rib will give added strength to the structure.

After all the PVC ribs have been secured, the end frames and door may be constructed.
Although there is a door on only one end, both frames are essentially the same. The two
diagonals on each end give strength to the structure and make it easy to secure the cover. The top
of the end frame may be fastened to the end ribs with either a wood screw of a small metal strip
bent into a U shape. If wood screw are used, the PVC pipe must be predrilled to prevent splitting.

Select the type of cover material according the intended use of the greenhouse. Clear 4- or 6-mil
plastic greenhouse film is generally best if the house will be used for growing plants. If it will be
used exclusively for propagating or overwintering plants, consider using 4- or 6-mil milky or
white copolymer film. White copolymer film reduces the amount of heat and light within the
house and therefore limits the fluctuations in these factors, keeping conditions more nearly
constant during propagation or over the winter. However, shading clear plastic with a 30 to 50
percent polypropylene shade cloth or greenhouse whitewash available from horticultural supply
companies will produce nearly the same effect.

Figure4. Foundation side and end boards are attached to 4-by-4 posts to anchor the
structure. Note the EMT clamps on the side boards hlod the PVC pipe ribs.
The cover may be attached with small tacks, but staples are much faster and are more secure.
Allow the cover to extend several inches past the bottom of the foundation boards and cover the
extra material with packed soil to prevent the entrance of moles and rainwater. An inch of coarse
sand or fine gravel on the floor will reduce problems with mud and weeds.
Figure 5. The mid-rib pipe is cut into sections about 22 1/2 inches long and rejoined with
PVC crosses to which the ribs are attached. Ten feet of EMT is placed inside the mid-rib
for strength.

Operating the green house

It is essential that the house be as tight as possible so that it retain both heat and humidity.
Problems with overheating can usually be solved by simply opening the door. Supplemental heat
can be provided if needed during very cold weather or at night by one or more heat lamps or a
small electric heater. Any electrical devices used in the damp environment of a greenhouse
should be connected only to a circuit equipped with an approved ground fault current interrupter
(GFCI) outlet or circuit breaker. Other source of heat can be used, but even very small gas or oil
heaters will usually overheat a greenhouse this small and may not burn well if not properly
ventilated.
The greenhouse will satisfactorily support up to 4 inches of dry snow. If the snow is deeper or
unusually wet, one or more temporary supports should be provided along the mid-rib to prevent
collapse. If a larger greenhouse is required, the length may be increased. Do not increase the
width of the house without increasing the size of the ribs. Doing so will seriously reduce the
ability of the house to withstand snow and wind loads.

Uses
A small greenhouse can be quite useful throughout the year for many different purposes. In the
early spring, it can be used germinated and grow bedding and vegetable plants earlier that would
otherwise be possible. In the summer it can be used either with or with out a mist system of
humidifier as a propagation house to root cutting. It can be used in the fall to start winter
vegetable plants. During the winter, it can protect patio plants and other hardy but containerized
woody plants.
Greenhouse Structures - CEAC http://cals.arizona.edu/ceac/research/archive/structures_pe.htm

ceac : research : archive : Greenhouse Structures

Greenhouse Structures

Dr. Gene A. Giacomelli

Controlled Environment Agricultural Center
Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering Department
University of Arizona

introduction
basic design requirements
greenhouse orientaition
glazings and coverings
environmental control
management, labor, materials flow, etc.
automation, mechanization, and labor aids
questions

Introduction (top)
Selection of the greenhouse design is determined by the expectations, needs and experience of the grower.
Consider what crop(s) will be grown, how they will be managed, and the grower experiences in the type of
growing system. With this initial information, a workable design can be completed, and then modified by the
financial realities of the required investment.

Basic Design Requirements (top)

Assume a greenhouse layout, that efficiently uses the land space available. Begin with a small, but complete,
free-standing greenhouse unit, which readily fits within a plan for future additions to this initial unit, or with
modular blocks of separate, larger greenhouses. Consider the location and size of a headhouse work area,
storage space and office space. Select a greenhouse design with structural integrity sufficient for the weather
conditions (winds, snow) of the site. The greenhouse structure must not only be of sufficient overall size, but
also be proportioned to fit the modular size (row spacing or bench width) of the crop production system, such
that use of interior space is maximized.

The land should be well-drained and level, with access to roads for transport of materials and products.
Utilities such as fuel, electrical power and telephone should be readily available. Sufficient quantity of good
quality water is a necessity. Consider pH, hardness, salinity, and dissolved minerals when determining water
quality. Have a lab test completed!

An important consideration for future expansion is whether a ground-to-ground (Quonset style), or

gutter-connected structure should be initially selected. The Quonset can initially be less expensive. However,
its maximum width is limited to approximately 9 m (30 ft), and for expansion, additional and separate units
must be built. The gutter-connected design allows for future expansion by moving its sidewall and adding
more bays. The entire module is under one roof, which provides for common access, and the capability of
sharing environmental control systems, and other mechanical systems.

Multiple, separate structures can potentially offer isolation for disease and insect control measures, which
seems less possible within gutter-connected facilities. However, pest control practices are more difficult and
time consuming in the separated, smaller structures.

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Greenhouse Orientation (top)

Orientation is determined by the direction of the greenhouse roof ridge or gutters, relative to the line of
movement of the sun. There is no optimal orientation, but there are costs/benefits to be considered for either
choice. The primary concern is for the maximum quantity, duration and uniform availability of solar radiation
for plant growth. At geographic locations greater than 30o from the equator, the seasonal reduction of solar
radiation is the most limiting plant growth and development factor.

The free-standing, Quonset greenhouse will provide more solar radiation than a gutter-connected greenhouse,
with a similar orientation. The total yearly light received will be greatest for the Quonset or gutter-connected
greenhouses if oriented with a N-S (North to South) roof ridge. Much of this total, however, is received in the
summer season when light is not limiting.

Considering only the winter season, that is, the lowest light intensity and shortest daylength period of the
year, an E-W ridge orientation will gain more total light than a N-S orientation.

For uniformity of light distribution to the plant canopy, the N-S oriented greenhouse is always better than the
E-W. The shadow patterns caused by the overhead greenhouse supporting structures continually move across
the crops (from west to east), as the sun travels from sunrise in the east to sunset in the west. This is
especially important during the light-limiting season.

Glazings and Coverings (top)

The types of greenhouse coverings range from traditional glass to the polymer plastics, such as thin films or
multi-layer rigid plastic panels. Enhancements to covering materials include: ultra-violet radiation (UV)
degradation inhibitors, infrared radiation (IR) absorbency, and anti-condensation drip surfaces, as well as,
other unique radiation transmission properties.

Plastic glazing includes: rigid plastic structured panels, such as fiberglass reinforced polyester (FRP),
polycarbonate (PC), acrylic (PMMA, polymethylmethacrylate), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) panels.

Thin film coverings include low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polyvinylchloride (PVC), and ethylene vinyl
acetate copolymer (EVA). These materials have been used in single, double and even triple layers to cover
the greenhouse.

Glass is quite inert, in contrast to plastic, and it can function for 40 to 50 years without failure. It is
non-combustible, resistant to UV radiation and air pollutant degradation, and it maintains its initial radiation
transmission if regularly cleaned. The greatest drawback of glass is its vulnerability to catastrophic losses
caused by hail.

Polyethylene film covered greenhouses have been developed so that they are reliable, and usually have a
lower initial cost than most other greenhouse glazing systems. All plastic coverings are affected by
weathering and have useful lives of 3-5 years for films, and 10-15 years for rigid panels. Low air infiltration
rates resulting from the continuous film cover have improved energy savings, but contribute to high
greenhouse air humidity conditions. Moisture condensation, especially on flattened arch-shaped roofs,
promotes dripping on the crop below. The open-roof greenhouse structures, where the entire roof can be
mechanically opened and closed, have resolved some of these problems.

Selection of the type of covering material to use on new construction or on renovation projects requires many
practical considerations. The flexible and forming properties of the film simplify the covering process
compared to rigid plastics or glass. The attachment procedures for plastic film range from the simplicity of
wooden nailer strips to the reusable aluminum extrusion inter-locking strips. The need for replacing the film
every three to four years requires that the recovering process be rapid and easy. A means of recycling or
disposing of spent film must also be considered.

Glass or rigid structured plastic panels require the more elaborate aluminum extrusions for their attachment to

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the greenhouse structure. These must be designed for the longer life of these covering materials.

Rigid plastic structured panels made of acrylic, polycarbonate, PVC and FRP, are initially more expensive as
a cover than polyethylene film, but they require less maintenance and provide a longer useful life. Re-glazing
systems for acrylic and polycarbonate panels use fewer, stronger support elements which are spaced wider
apart. This has effectively reduced the amount of structural shading typically associated with glass.

Ultraviolet radiation promotes photochemical degradation processes in all plastics and is generally the major
reason for their replacement. Temperature extremes and their duration can weaken film coverings, and this is
especially a problem where the film contacts the greenhouse metal structure. Air pollutants also reduce the
usable life of plastic coverings. These may be from sources external to the greenhouse which are attracted to
the outer plastic layers and reduce radiation transmission. They may also come from internal sources such as
chemicals used for pest control, which can cause premature failure of the plastic.

Environmental Control (top)

Environmental control for heating and cooling uniformity is a very important design consideration to
maintain desired environmental setpoint conditions. However, the distribution of heat is difficult, and a
uniformly heated environment may not result. Non-uniform environments cause differential plant growth
rates, potential disease problems, unpredictable results with nutrition or hormonal application, and generally
a more difficult plant production system to manage.

For the most effective and uniform cooling and heating, the rows of plants should be arranged in the direction
parallel with the ridge or gutters of the greenhouse structure. For ventilation, this assumes that the ventilation
system (fans and air inlets) would be located on the endwalls (perpendicular to the direction of the gutters).
Should airflow be restricted and non-uniform, then the ventilation system cannot effectively cool the plant,
nor provide for sufficient air exchange for humidity reduction (disease control) and replenishing carbon
dioxide.

Evaporative cooling systems, whether pad and fan, or high-pressure fog, are highly dependent upon effective
and uniform ventilation, as well. Similarly, row orientation can improve air movement and more effective
heating of each plant.

The capability of a hot water heating system for distributing the heat the plants is less affected by plant row
direction within the greenhouse than a hot air system. The heating pipe network is uniformly spaced
throughout the entire greenhouse area, and typically distributes the heat more uniformly. The hot water pipes
may be placed at the perimeter walls, overhead, at the base of the plant, or in a combination of each. Heating
pipes near the base of the plant provide warmed air near the floor which rises through the plant canopy,
providing a desirable plant microclimate.

A taller greenhouse is better for improved climate uniformity. In gutter-connected greenhouses, a minimum
of 3 m (10 ft) from floor surface to gutter, plus an additional 1.2 m (4 ft) from the gutter up to the ridge, is
desirable. Tall greenhouses provide a large internal air volume, which reduces rapid changes of the
greenhouse climate caused by the natural daily fluctuations of the outside environmental conditions.

In addition, a tall greenhouse provides sufficient space required for other greenhouse systems such as: an
energy blanket or shade cloth, supplemental lights, raised benches (reducing usable height to overhead
systems), irrigation boom, overhead misting systems, tall crops such as tomatoes, or hanging basket plants.

The most common energy conservation technique related directly to the design of the structure is the internal
energy blanket. This system could also be used as a shading system with proper selection of blanket material.
In all greenhouse structure designs, a space for the energy blanket should be provided, whether the systems is
initially installed or not. Within a gutter-connected greenhouse, the blanket can be located at the height of the
gutter. When not in use it can be tightly packed beneath the gutter to minimize shading to the plants below.

Management, Labor, Internal Transport, Space Utilization, and Materials Flow (top)

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Greenhouse crop production has work conditions that can be modified and improved as a result of the
mechanization, automation, or environmental control systems. The labor demand is nearly continuous, which
helps to maintain a skilled, dependable workforce. The regularity and repetitiveness of the work tasks allows
for improvement of work conditions, work procedures, and mechanization, which ultimately lead to increased
productivity and safety for the worker.

Management and labor for crop production is a major expense for a greenhouse operation, thus any means to
increase labor productivity or improve labor management is beneficial. Generally, a larger facility under one
roof, such as with gutter-connected greenhouse, can improve the labor management situation. The
preparation and work areas for specific tasks can be centralized for more efficient labor productivity.
Supplies and raw materials can be readily available from central storage. The layout or relative locations of
preparation area, growing area, storage, and shipping (input/output), directly affects the production capacity,
flow of materials, and labor productivity of the greenhouse. The plant production space within the
greenhouse bays, accounts for the largest of these locations.

The type of growing system, its physical layout, and its environment and plant culture systems (water,
nutrients, heat) directly affect labor efficiency and flow of materials. Within the plant production area, the
greenhouse bays consists of crop rows which are typically organized in a repetitive fashion. The bays have
aisles for worker access to the plants. It is desirable to minimize both the number and the size of the aisles, in
order to increase the greenhouse floor space for plant production.

The limitations on these minimum sizes are based on the light availability to the plant canopy, and the need
for sufficient access to the plants to complete the tasks associated with plant care, maintenance, and most
importantly, harvest.

The crop rows within the bay must be inter-connected to each other for easy access by the workers, as well
as, to the input/output location (typically a shed) of the greenhouse. The number and size of pathways which
make this connection need to be minimized, however, they must be of sufficient capacity to prevent labor or
transport bottlenecks. They should be sized for the required machinery that must be transported.

Automation, Mechanization and Labor Aids (top)

The importance of mechanization and automation is directly proportional to the amount of handling and
maintenance operations required for the crop. Handling is determined whether the crop requires regular
(daily) handling/transport to complete an operation (pinch, prune) during its growth period, and whether
these operations can remain within the greenhouse growing area, or must be transported to a work area
outside the growing area. A general rule of internal transport to make the most efficient use of labor is, to
move the largest unit size of materials or crop over the shortest possible distance within each labor transport
cycle.

There are several options for locating the work area (i.e. the area where hands-on maintenance operations
will be performed on the crop) for efficient crop transportation. It could be near by but removed from the
production area, for example, within an adjacent shed building. There is also the option for a mobile work
station, which is moved to the plants in the growing area.

Machinery and hand equipment which can improve the capability of the workers to perform their tasks, or
improve the working conditions should be considered in the design. Automation and mechanization have an
investment cost which must outweigh the costs of a manual operation. Automated machinery or manual labor
aids increase the uniformity and consistency of the product, and the work force. Mechanization of an
operation can provide mechanical power, speed, repetition, safety and a greater potential for consistency and
quality control. Automation includes these attributes but with greater flexibility, and potentially, some
automated decision-making.

Questions? (top)
Contact Dr. Gene A. Giacomelli
Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering

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504 Shantz, University of Arizona

Tucson, AZ 85721
(520) 621- 1412
giacomel@ag.arizona.edu

Paper # E-125933-04-01. (Greenhouse Structures.doc)

Supported by CEAC, the Controlled Environment Agricultural Center
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
University of Arizona.

ceac : research : archive : Greenhouse Structures

Copyright 2002, UA Controlled Environment Agriculture Center

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 Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
Greenhouse Structures
and Coverings
Michael A. Schnelle
Assistant Professor
Extension Ornamentals/Floriculture Specialist
John M. Dole
Assistant Professor
Floriculture
Many advances in greenhouse materials and designs have
occurred in the last few years. Traditionally, greenhouses were
made of glass and all had a similar structure. Today, however,
a great variety exists, and the materials chosen depend on
production goals and financial constraints.
Types of Greenhouses
Freestanding (single) or ridge and furrow (gutter con-
nected) greenhouses are two common styles of commercial
greenhouses. The freestanding style is often a Quonset, which
will accommodate many growing situations but presents height
restrictions near the side walls. Another freestanding style is
the single gable greenhouse and its many variations.
The ridge and furrow or gutter connected greenhouses
are joined at the eave by a common gutter. When several
of these buildings are joined they are often referred to as a
greenhouse range (Figure 1).
Foundations
The foundation must resist overturning and vertical pres-
sure from structural loads and snow, and should extend below
the frost line. Concrete is the most appropriate material for
permanent structures. A 2,500 PSI or greater mix should be
chosen when ready-mix concrete is used.
Figure 1. Commercial greenhouse structures: A) gutter connected, B) Quonset, and C) single gable.
Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources • Oklahoma State University
F-6700
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets
are also available on our website at:
http://www.osuextra.com
Unless the grower is constructing a greenhouse without
the use of a manufacturer, specific recommendations are
usually provided for adequate durability of the foundation.
The foundation stage of construction is critical and consulting
with appropriate personnel, such as experienced builders, is
highly recommended.
Structural Components
The major vertical support of greenhouses is provided
by rafters placed on two to four foot centers, depending on
the strength needed. Depending on the width of the structure,
truss or curved arch type rafters are used.
Purlins are arranged horizontally and connect the rafters.
Four to eight foot spacings are used depending on the size of
the greenhouse. Cross ties are also used in certain houses.
In areas where high winds occur, purlins are important in
maintaining structural integrity of the greenhouse.
Side posts and columns are vertical supports that dictate
the height of the production area. These range from one to
ten feet in height and should be given serious consideration
since they directly influence efficiency (Figure 2). Quonset
style greenhouses are an example of a structure with low side
walls, making it difficult for laborers to work or grow plants in
that reduced area (Figure 1).
Framing Materials
Aluminum is the most economical material for constructing
the greenhouse frame. It can be shaped as needed to form
various structural components of the greenhouse and needs
no maintenance after installation. Aluminium framing also has
the longest life span and allows for light reflectance.
Steel is commonly used but must be painted or galvanized
to resist high moisture conditions within the greenhouse. Steel
needs more maintenance than aluminum and is heavier,
requiring additional support.
Wood was once a common framing material, but it has
steadily lost popularity for a number of reasons. The main
disadvantage of wood is that it deteriorates over time. If wood
is desired, pressure treated lumber should be purchased
and then treated with commercially available coatings. Avoid
PENTA and creosote since they liberate fumes that are harmful
to plants.
Coverings
Glass allows maximum light transmission in greenhouse
production. Despite this, there are several disadvantages to
consider. Glass is expensive and, because it is fragile, has
to be replaced more often than many other materials on the
market today. Also, consider that when using glass, the cost
of structural components will be expensive because of the
added weight which must be supported. When glass is desired,
check with the manufacturer for double and triple strength
ratings available. Also, “hammered” or “frosted” panes will
distribute incoming light better by dispersing the rays, result-
ing in fewer shadows. This type of glass is not transparent
from the outside, which can be an added security benefit in
certain situations.
A double layer of polyethylene, inflated with air, is another
option to consider for covering the greenhouse. One advan-
tage of using this material is that it is relatively inexpensive.
Materials have greatly improved and some manufacturers
Figure 2. Basic structural components of a greenhouse: A) rafter, B) end wall, C) side posts, D) side wall, and E) purlin.
6700-2
guarantee their materials for up to four years. Look for ultra-
violet stabilized products that are slower to yellow and crack.
Single and triple layer polyethylene coverings are used less
commonly. Replacement of a polyethylene covering as a result
of wind, hail, or solar damage will be more frequent than any
other covering, but the low investment and the need for less
structural components make it a material to consider when a
temporary greenhouse is desired. Two additional products,
available commercially, to extend the life of a polyethylene
house are poly patch and anti-drip material. The anti-drip mate-
rial reduces condensation that can harm plants growing below.
Condensation should also be controlled to prevent lowered
light transmission, especially during the winter months when
low light levels may limit plant growth.
Fiberglass is another material that has gained popularity
over glass. It is very durable, rigid, and available in various
light transmission levels. Ultraviolet light will cause fiberglass
to deteriorate in a few years from swelling and fraying of the
fibers. This in turn quickly leads to lowered light transmission
to the plants. However, there are products now available that
will help reduce the fraying. These coatings should be applied
prior to damage to the fiberglass. Although the life span of
fiberglass can be as short as five years, choosing higher grade
products and applying a coating may result in a twenty year
life span.
Polycarbonate is one of the newest materials available
and is still being evaluated. This material is rigid but also
flexible enough to be used in a Quonset style greenhouse.
Although the initial cost of polycarbonate is high, a ten to
15 year life span can be expected. Polycarbonate can be
purchased in double and triple walled forms which are highly
impact resistant.
Acrylic is also new and expensive but it has a minimum
ten year warranty from some manufacturers. Although many
advantages exist such as high light transmittance, high impact
resistance, and great strength, costs have proven prohibitive
in most cases.
 Remember to check with the covering manufacturer for Oklahoma Greenhouse Companies
several factors.
Aqua-Hort Systems, Inc.
1. Combustibility - Some materials may result in lower insur-
P.O. Box 57197
ance premiums if they are fire retardant. Other materials
Oklahoma City, OK 73157
are highly flammable, such as fiberglass reinforced panels
(FRP), and that must be considered. Fire retardant FRP
Acme Engineering & Mfg. Co
panels can be purchased.
P.O. Box 978
2. Durability - Not only will this differ among materials, but
Muskogee, OK 74402
also will be determined by whether they are one, two, or
three ply.
3. Insulation - Note insulation “R” factor and compare for Out of State Greenhouse Companies
fuel savings. Heat retention from highest to lowest: B.F.G. Supply Company
• Acrylic (double layer) 1455 Kinsman Road
• Polycarbonate (double layer) Burton, Ohio 44123
• Glass (double layer)
• Polyethylene (double layer) Stupp GH Mfg. Inc.
• Fiberglass P.O. Box 12456
N. Kansas City, MO 64116
Keep in mind that this is relative to the number and thick-
ness of layers used. Poly-Tex, Inc.
4. Life span P.O. Box 458
5. Care - Maintenance may be required to realize life span Castle Rock, MN 55010
claims from manufacturer.
6. Guarantee - Read warranties carefully as most will be Jaderloon
limited. P.O. Box 685
Irmo, SC 29063
Shading Compounds
Keeler-Glasgow Company, Inc.
During the summer months the solar radiation in Oklahoma
80444 C.R. 687
is too intense for many crops to be grown to acceptable qual-
P.O. Box 158
ity. Shading is necessary to make greenhouses usable and
Hartford, MI 49057
to prevent overtaxing the cooling and ventilation systems.
Many commercial shading compounds can be applied in
National Greenhouse Co.
the spring and removed as fall approaches. Instructions are
P.O. Box 100
provided to reach the desired percentage of radiation blockage.
Pana, IL 62557
Liquid formulas are commonly used for glass and sometimes
fiberglass. However, frayed fiberglass may absorb the liquid,
V & V Noordland
making it impossible to remove when maximum solar radiation
P.O. Box 739
is again needed.
16 Commercial Boulevard
Another alternative is to use shade cloth. It can be pur-
Medford, NY 11763
chased for the percent of solar radiation reduction desired,
depending on the crops grown.
Atlas Greenhouses
Dixie Mfg. Company
Rt. 1, Box 339
Alapaha, GA 31622

6700-3
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Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Robert E. Whitson, Director of Cooperative Ex-
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6700-4
 E N H OU
E
GR

SE
TOMATO HANDBOOK
 Contents

Page

Plan for Success ....................................................................................................................................1

Plant Population ....................................................................................................................................2

Varieties..................................................................................................................................................2

Growing in Aggregate Media ................................................................................................................3

Planting Schedule ..................................................................................................................................3

Pruning and Training ............................................................................................................................4

Pollination ..............................................................................................................................................5

Temperature ..........................................................................................................................................6

Relative Humidity..................................................................................................................................6

Greenhouse Cooling ..............................................................................................................................6

Irrigation ................................................................................................................................................9

pH ..........................................................................................................................................................9

Fertility ................................................................................................................................................10

Methods of Mixing Fertilizers ............................................................................................................11

Plant Response ....................................................................................................................................12

Modified Steiner Solution....................................................................................................................12

Commercial Fertilizers ........................................................................................................................13

How To Calculate Element Level in a Fertilizer ................................................................................14

Leaf Tissue Analysis ............................................................................................................................16

Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms ..........................................................................................................16

Physiological Disorders ......................................................................................................................17

Appendix I. Additional Information ....................................................................................................20

Appendix II. Commercial Greenhouse Manufacturers (G) and Suppliers (S)....................................20

Appendix III. Associations and Short Courses....................................................................................27

1
Greenhouse Tomato Handbook
Greenhouse tomato production has attracted much atten-
tion in recent years, partly because of a new wave of inter-
est in “alternative crops.” The attraction is based on the per-
ception that greenhouse tomatoes may be more profitable
than the more conventional agronomic or horticultural
crops. The popularity may also be due to misconceptions
about how easily this crop can be grown.
While the value of greenhouse tomatoes is high on a per
unit basis, the costs are also high. The following points are
outlined to clear up misconceptions you might have. Keep
these in mind before pursuing greenhouse tomatoes, either
as a livelihood or as a crop for supplemental income:
• Greenhouse tomatoes have unique cultural require-
ments, unlike crops such as soybeans and cotton, and not
even similar to other field vegetable crops. In fact, a
grower of field tomatoes would have difficulty in growing
greenhouse tomatoes without a significant amount of learn-
ing time. Greenhouse tomatoes should be thought of as alto-
gether different from field-grown crops.
• Because of specific production requirements, green-
house tomatoes cannot be termed an “easy” crop to
grow. They are one of the more difficult horticultural crops
to produce with many procedures that must be followed to
insure a healthy, productive crop.
• The time necessary to grow greenhouse tomatoes is
much greater on a per unit basis than any field vegetable
crop. The many weekly cultural practices (pruning, wrap-
ping, pollinating, spraying, etc.) add up to a significant
amount of time. The estimated average labor requirement
per greenhouse (or bay) is 20 person-hours per week (for an
average 24- by 96-foot greenhouse). As a grower gains
experience, this time requirement can be reduced. This fig-
ure estimates the amount of time per week averaged over the
entire crop. More time is needed during transplanting and
harvest, and less time is needed while the plants are grow-
ing from transplant to the time of first harvest. Adequate
labor provisions should be made before help is actually
required.
• Greenhouse tomatoes need regular attention. Unlike
many field crops that can be planted, sprayed on a fixed
1
schedule, and then harvested after so many days have
elapsed, tomatoes must be examined daily. Because the
growth system is complex, many things can go wrong.
Raising a greenhouse tomato crop may be more similar to
maintaining a herd of dairy cows than to growing a field
crop of vegetables.
• The greenhouse environment is not a sterile one.
There is a common misconception that crops grown in
greenhouses do not have insects and diseases. Just the
opposite is true. While a greenhouse environment is excel-
lent for growing tomatoes (and other vegetables), it is even
better for propagating insect pests and disease organisms.
Due to the higher temperature, higher relative humidity, and
lush, green foliage, insects and diseases are constant threats
once introduced into a greenhouse. Therefore, weekly
sprays with both insecticides and fungicides are standard
practice.
These comments are not meant to discourage prospective
growers. If you are preparing to invest time and money into
growing greenhouse tomatoes, however, you should be fully
aware of the pitfalls as well as the benefits before
proceeding any further. If you are willing to spend the
necessary time to learn how to grow this crop, you can be
successful if you follow the basic guidelines in this and
other publications.
Plan for Success
The best way to learn is not by your own mistakes, but by
other people’s mistakes. Visit as many other greenhouse
tomato growers as possible and ask questions. Most grow-
ers are happy to share information.
• Collect as much information as you can and read it.
If you don’t know where to start, call your county agent or
Extension specialist and request a packet of material on
greenhouse tomato production.
• Sell your tomatoes before you plant them. Line up
buyers ahead of time to be sure you have a market for your product.
• Buy a pH meter and an electroconductivity (EC)
meter. These are relatively inexpensive instruments that
will help you make sure that you are putting on the appro-
priate level of nutrient solution. Check the pH and EC of
every tank you mix to avoid mistakes.
• Pollinate every other day with an electric buzzer pol-
linator or another method.
• Be sure your plants have plenty of water. Any time
your plants wilt, they are not growing, and blossoms may
drop; increase the water level as needed.
• Water enough so that there is always some drainage
from the bags. This ensures that fertilizer salts will not
accumulate in your growing medium.
• Don’t let diseases or insects (especially whitefly) get
out of control. Start weekly sprays or biological controls as
soon as your plants are in the greenhouse. Increase the fre-
quency of sprays if a problem arises.
• Keep good records. Record the date and chemical pes-
ticide used each time, the fertilizer ppm (concentration) used
and the date it is increased, the amount of water you are
feeding per day, and any time you make a change in your
cultural program.
• If a problem comes up, get help quickly. Call your
county agent or Extension specialist for assistance.
Plant Population
When growing greenhouse tomatoes, it is important to
use the proper planting density. Greenhouse tomatoes need
at least four square feet per plant or 10,000 plants per acre.
In fact, recent research at the Truck Crops Branch
Experiment Station shows that using a planting density of 5
sq. ft/plant produced the same per unit area, while reducing
the plant population. To determine how many plants can be
grown in your greenhouse, multiply the length by the width
and then divide by four or five. For a 24- by 96-foot green-
house, about 460 to 576 plants can be grown; for a 30- by
96-foot greenhouse, 576 to 720 plants will fit, depending on
planting density. Note: If you will use some of the floor
space for other purposes (for example, storage, packing,
grading), subtract this area from the total before dividing by
four or five.
Using a higher planting density will cause the yield per
plant to decrease, while the yield per greenhouse will stay
about the same. This is due primarily to plants shading each
other. The costs and the amount of labor required, however,
increase with more plants. Also, crowding plants tends to
promote disease development, since foliage does not dry as
readily, and sprays cannot easily penetrate the thick foliage.
Arrange plants in double rows, about 4 feet apart on cen-
ter. Within a row, plants will average 14 to 16 inches
between stems.
Varieties
The first step in raising any crop is to choose the best
variety. Growing a variety that is not the best choice, or
using seed that are not of the best quality, reduces your
potential for success at the outset. It is smart to start off with
the greatest potential rather than limiting yourself by using
inferior seed, even if it saves a few dollars.
Hybrid tomato seed is expensive. It now costs 10 to 30
cents per seed, depending on the variety and quantity that
2
you buy. This cost reflects the laborious process of hand
pollination required to produce the hybrid seed. Although
this seems rather expensive, it is still one of the lowest costs
of production. After the heating, labor, and fertilizer costs
are incurred, the extra expense of using the finest seed is rel-
atively small.
There are thousands of tomato varieties available on the
market, but only a few are acceptable for greenhouse pro-
duction. If you plan to grow tomatoes in a greenhouse, you
need to use a greenhouse variety. These are almost exclu-
sively Dutch hybrid indeterminate varieties, bred in Holland
specifically for greenhouse production. Field varieties are
typically adapted to higher light and lower humidity condi-
tions and probably would not yield well in the greenhouse.
A glass or plastic greenhouse has about 20 percent less light
than outdoors, and many field types do not tolerate this
reduction.
There are many companies in Holland and other
European countries that deal in greenhouse varieties; how-
ever, only a few have distributors in the United States. You
can buy seed from a greenhouse supply catalog, or directly
from the seed companies, which are shown in the list of sup-
pliers at the end of this publication.
Base variety selection on these criteria:
• size of fruit desired
• disease resistance
• lack of physiological problems, i.e., cracking,
catfacing, blossom-end rot
• yield uniformity of fruit size
• market demand
In Mississippi, as in most of the United States, the mar-
ket preference is for a red tomato. In Ohio and southern
Canada (Leamington, Ontario), the preference is for pink
tomatoes. The only physical difference is in the skin color.
There are no flavor or biochemical differences.
The varieties most worth considering at the time of this
printing are Trust, Match, Switch, and Blitz.
Tropic cannot be recommended to commercial growers
because of its lack of size uniformity, intolerance to high
nitrogen fertilizer, and lack of resistance to Tobacco Mosaic
Virus (TMV) and other diseases; however, Tropic is fine for
a hobby greenhouse.
Jumbo may be the largest fruited variety available, but it
lacks resistance to TMV and most other diseases, is not tol-
erant to higher levels of nitrogen fertilizer, and is not as uni-
form in size as some of the other varieties.
Serious growers should not use outdoor varieties such as
Celebrity, Better Boy, Travellers, etc., in the greenhouse,
although these are fine for the garden.
You can buy seed by the piece with lower costs per unit
for larger quantities and higher costs for smaller quantities.
Tomato seeds are very small; one-fifth of an ounce contains
about 1,200 seeds. If you have a two-bay greenhouse (4,500
square feet) with about 550 plants per bay, this is enough
seed. Always plant a few extra seeds (10 - 20 percent) since
germination will not be 100 percent. This also gives you the
opportunity to discard any seedlings that do not meet your
high quality standards. Store extra seed in unopened con-
tainers or in zip-locked bags in the freezer.
Table 1. Varieties of greenhouse tomatoes and their characteristics
Variety Source* Fruit size (ounces)** Greenback*** Disease resistance****
Caruso DR 6-8 SG TMV,C5,V,F2
Laura DR 6-8 SG TMV,C2,V,F2
Capello DR 6-8 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,Wi
Perfecto DR 5-7 NG TMV,C5,F2,Wi
Trust DR 6-8 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR
Match DR 7-9 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR
Switch DR 7-9 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR
Blitz DR 7-9 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR
Baronie RZ 7-9 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR,Wi
Mariachi (74-56RZ) RZ 8-9 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR,Wi
Mississippi RZ 6-8 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR,Wi
Zoltano RZ 6-7 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR,Wi
Electra HZ 7-8 G TMV,V,F2
Gabriela HZ 5-7 G TMV,V,F2,N
Dombito B 6-8 G TMV,C2,F2
Dombello B 7-9 G TMV,C5,V,F2,N,Wi
Jumbo B 7-10 G C2,V,F2
Belmondo B 6-8 NG TMV,C5,V,F2
Medallion B 7-9 NG TMV,C2,V,F2,FR
Tropic 5-11 SG tmv,V,F1,ASC
Vendor S 6-8 NG tmv,C2,F1
Vendor VFT S 6-8 NG TMV,V,F2

* DR = De Ruiter; B = Seminis (Bruinsma/Asgrow); S = Stokes; RZ = Rijk Zwaan; HZ = Hazera.

** Actual fruit size is variable, depending on pollination, cultural practices, and environmental conditions.
*** G = greenback; SG = semigreenback; NG = non-greenback type.
**** TMV = resistant to Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV); tmv = tolerant to TMV; C2 = Cladosporium races A and B; C5 = Cladosporium
races A, B, C, D, and E; V = Verticillium Wilt; F1 = tolerance to Fusarium Wilt race 1; F2 = Fusarium Wilt races 1 and 2;
Wi = tolerance to Silvering; N = most Nematodes; ASC = resistant to Alternaria Stem Canker; FR = resistant to Fusarium Crown
and Root Rot.

Table 1 lists some of the common greenhouse tomato
varieties and some of their characteristics. Note that only
some of the varieties have resistance to Fusarium Crown
and Root Rot (FR). This disease has been in Mississippi
greenhouses since 1990. The variety Trend is not recom-
mended for Mississippi greenhouses.
Growing in Aggregate Media
Many types of growing systems for greenhouse tomatoes
are available. These systems include NFT (nutrient film
technique), PVC pipes, sand, ground culture (in the soil),
troughs, rock wool slabs, and various types of aggregate
media. This latter group includes peat moss and peat-lite
mixes, perlite, rock wool aggregate, glass wool, pine bark,
and many others. Most of the multi-acre greenhouse ranges
in the U.S. use rock wool. This inert, highly porous materi-
al is made by melting volcanic rock, limestone, and coke at
292°F and spinning it into fibers. In Mississippi, pine bark
is the leading growing medium due to its suitable properties,
availability, and low cost.
For growers using pine bark, it is recommended that the
bark be composted fines. Fines are particles less than 3/8 of
an inch in diameter. Initial composting is necessary so the
bark does not damage roots of tomato transplants from high
temperature, and so that there is no nitrogen depletion
caused by the decomposition process. If you cannot deter-
mine the age of bark, purchase the bark at least 3 months
before it is to be used; this allows time for composting at
your site.
The recommended volume of aggregate medium is 1/2
cubic foot per plant. With pine bark, this is easily achieved
by using 2 cubic-foot bags and transplanting three or four
plants per bag. You can buy these pine-bark filled, perforat-
ed, polyethylene bags from Mississippi suppliers (see list at
end of this publication). Alternatively, two plants can be
grown in a 7 1/2-gallon bag or bucket, or you can grow one
plant in a 3- or 4-gallon container (1 cubic foot equals 7 1/2
gallons).
Planting Schedule
There are two principal cropping systems for growing
greenhouse tomatoes: two crops per year and one crop per
year. With the one-crop system, set plants in mid-
September or later and grow until mid- to late June. For
Mississippi, the two-crop system, with a spring crop and a
fall crop, is preferred. This is because plants held over the
winter are more likely to be infected with diseases such as
Botrytis (gray mold) and Cladosporium (leaf mold) that

3
thrive in damp greenhouse conditions during December,
January, and February. Plants that have been growing for
several months have dense growth by winter, reducing air-
flow and aggravating humidity problems. These conditions
are favorable to disease development. Also, plants that have
been growing since September do not have the same vigor
as young plants transplanted in January.
Alternatively, one, shorter crop can be grown just in the
spring, or through the late winter and spring. Marketing con-
ditions should determine the cropping season.
July and August are too hot to have producing tomato
plants in greenhouses in the Midsouth. Summer fruits are
plagued with splitting, cracking, blotchy ripening, and gen-
erally poor quality and yield. In addition, the market price
is down because field tomatoes are available.
For the two-crop system, seed the fall crop after the mid-
dle of July in trays, with one seed per cell. If you plant ear-
lier, young plants will be subject to high summer tempera-
tures and will be off to a poor start. Allow plants to grow for
4 1/2 to 5 weeks. Transplant during mid-August into bags,
buckets, or rock wool. The first harvest will be late October
or early November.
Seed the spring crop in late November, transplanting this
crop soon after the first of January, when transplants are
about 6 weeks old. This means you will have young
seedlings at the same time you have mature plants. It is
preferable to have a separate propagation house for new
seedlings. If seedlings are grown in the same greenhouse
with mature plants, it is likely that insects (whiteflies,
leafminers, etc.) and diseases will contaminate the new crop.
The first harvest should occur in March. The spring crop
can be grown until late June, or until the temperature
becomes too extreme for quality production (see section on
Greenhouse Cooling).
Top the plants 6 weeks before the intended termination
date. Termination should be close to the end of December
for a fall crop and mid- to late June for a spring crop. When
topping, remove the tops of plants from marble-sized fruit
and higher. Such small fruit will not have time to mature
before termination of the crop. Leave one or two leaves
above the highest cluster of fruit that remains. This helps
shade the fruit and prevents sun scald.
Rig a support system of wires above the crop. Use 9-
gauge or 3/32-inch galvanized wire or stronger (a 100-
pound box contains about 1,700 linear feet). These wires
should run parallel to the direction of the rows and 7 feet off
the ground. Cut strings 14 feet long, so there is enough
slack to allow the plant to be leaned and dropped when it
reaches the height of the wire. Tie one string loosely (not a
slipknot) or clip it to the bottom of each plant, throw it over
the wire, and then tie it to the wire with a slip knot. Plastic
clips are commercially available (see Appendix 1 for list of
suppliers). Note: Be certain the greenhouse frame can sup-
port the weight of fruit-laden plants, or that a sturdy frame
is constructed at the ends of rows to support the wires. Plan
on the wire bearing a load of 15 pounds per linear foot, or 3
tons for 600 plants.
When the plant reaches the wire height, it should be
leaned and dropped. Hold the string securely with your left
hand just above the plant; loosen the knot with your right
hand. Simultaneously let the plant down about 2 feet below
the wire and slide the string to the right. The plant must be
leaned over while it is dropped; otherwise the stem will
probably break. Always lean in the same direction. Do not
lean some to the right and some to left or they will shade
each other. Lower all plants to the same height so they don’t
shade each other. Repeat this operation each time plants
grow higher than the wire. This is another reason the two-
crop-per-year system is preferable–there is less labor need-
ed for leaning and dropping the plants.
As you prune the plant to one main stem, wrap it around
the support string. You can prune and wrap in one opera-
tion, doing both to a plant before moving on to the next
plant. Always wrap in the same direction—if you start

Pruning and Training

For best production, prune tomato plants to a single stem
by removing all lateral shoots, commonly referred to as
“suckers.” One sucker will form at the point where each leaf
originates from the main stem, just above the leaf petiole
(stem). Allowing all suckers to grow and bear fruit would
increase the total number of fruit, but they would be small
and of poor quality. It is better to have one main stem that
bears fruit, as this will produce larger, more uniform, and
higher quality fruit.
Removing suckers once per week will keep them under
control. It is advisable to leave one or two of the smallest
suckers at the top of the plant. Then, if the plant becomes
damaged and the terminal breaks off, one of these suckers
can be allowed to grow and become the new terminal. Pollination is best accomplished with an electric pollinator.
Generally, remove any sucker longer than one inch.
4

A simple slipknot is used to tie string to the plant support wire.
clockwise, continue clockwise; otherwise, when the plant
gets heavy with fruit, it may slip down the string and break.
Some growers prefer to use plastic clips to secure the plant
to the string, either in combination with wrapping or to
replace wrapping.
Cluster pruning will also improve size and uniformity.
This involves removing small fruit from some clusters, leav-
ing three, four, or five of the best ones. Remove misshaped
or deformed fruit first. Otherwise, remove the smallest fruit,
which is usually the last one formed on each cluster.
Pollination
Pollination of the female flower part must occur before
fruit will set. Any activity or inactivity that prevents thor-
Touch the pollinator wand to the upper side of each pedicel (flower stem). Do not touch individual flowers.
5
ough pollination reduces the number of fruit set per plant.
Several problems can result from poor pollination: off-
shaped fruit if seeds do not develop uniformly throughout
the fruit, smaller fruit, and fruit that are rough (ridged) along
the tops. Pollination can be prevented by various stresses
such as cold or hot temperatures, drought, high humidity,
nutrient deficiencies, nutrient toxicities, etc., as well as lack
of pollen transfer.
Tomato flowers have both male and female parts within
every flower. Botanically, these are termed “perfect” flow-
ers. Field tomatoes are pollinated primarily by wind rather
than by bees, which pollinate many other types of vegeta-
bles. Most of a flower’s pollen fertilizes the ovary within
the same flower, although some of the pollen reaches sur-
rounding flowers. Wind shakes the flower so that pollen
leaves the anther and travels to the stigma. In the green-
house, wind is not strong enough to shake the flowers suffi-
ciently to transfer the pollen. Even though the greenhouse
is ventilated with fans, on cooler days when the fans are not
operating, the air is relatively motionless.
The optimum temperature for pollination is within the
range 70 to 82 °F. Optimum relative humidity is 70 percent.
Above 80 percent relative humidity, pollen grains stick
together and are not dispersed well. With relative humidity
less than 60 percent for extended periods, the stigma may
dry out so that pollen grains will not stick to it. With ideal
conditions, fertilization occurs 48 hours after pollination.
Serious greenhouse tomato growers should use an electric
pollinator to ensure good fruit set. (What is a “serious”
grower? — one who grows tomatoes for a profit.)
In a hobby greenhouse, the expense of a pollinator is
probably not necessary. You can purchase an electric polli-
nator from most greenhouse supply distributors. These can
be powered with a disposable alkaline battery or with a
rechargeable 6-volt battery. Purchasing a rechargeable bat-
tery with a charger may be less expensive than continually
buying alkaline batteries. Also, you should never be with-
out power. The rechargeable battery can be plugged in after
use to be sure it is ready for the next pollination. How much
time does it take to pollinate? Vibrate each cluster (not each
blossom) for about half a second. Touch the wand to the top
side of the pedicel (flower stem). Do not touch individual
blossoms, as this will damage them, causing damaged fruit.
One acre (10,000 plants) is estimated to take 5 to 6 hours to
pollinate. For a 24- by 96-foot greenhouse, this would be
about 20 minutes. New growers may take an hour or more
until they gain experience.
If you have 10,000 square feet or more under one roof,
seriously consider using bumblebees for pollination.
Purchase your bumblebee hives from commercial suppliers
(see list at end of this publication). Use an electric pollina-
tor if you have one or two gutter-connected bays, or more
bays that are not under one roof. For ranges between 5,000
and 10,000 square feet under one roof, you need to compare
the cost of the bee hives to the cost of labor to achieve pol-
lination. Generally, a hive will last for about 8 weeks before
you need to replace it with a new hive. It is a good idea to
allow for some overlapped time between the old and new
hives. Note: Even if bumble-bees are used, an electric polli-
nator will still be needed to pollinate the first few flowers
that open. Hives should be introduced when 50 percent of
plants have open blooms.
Questions About Pollination
How often should I pollinate?
Pollinate every other day or three times per week.
Pollinating less often is taking a chance on reducing fruit
set; but more often is very likely a waste of time.
Does the time of day matter?
Yes. The best time for pollinating is when the relative
humidity is between 60 and 70 percent. If you live in an
area with high humidity, find when the relative humidity is
at its daily low point. If the amount of moisture in the air
stays constant, the relative humidity decreases as the tem-
perature increases because warm air can hold more moisture
than cool air. The warmest time of day is usually mid-day.
This is why the best time (in humid areas) to pollinate is
generally between 11 a.m. and 2 p.m.
How do I know if pollination is actually taking place?
You can see it happen. If the air is relatively dry and the
light is good, you can see a small cloud of yellow powder
around the flower when the cluster is vibrated. These are
the pollen grains. This is your insurance that conditions are
excellent for pollination.
How does cloudy weather affect pollination?
In cloudy weather, the relative humidity is high. In such
conditions, pollination is not as effective because pollen
tends to stick together in clumps rather than dispersing as
6
individual grains. It is important to stay with the schedule
of every other day because if the cloudy days turn into a
cloudy week without pollinating, fruit set and quality will
certainly be decreased.
What if it is cloudy for a long period of time?
As mentioned, pollination in very wet conditions is not as
effective as in dry weather. One technique you can try is to
dry the air before pollinating. Turn on the heating system
for 30 to 60 minutes before pollinating. Ventilate to main-
tain the temperature requirements. This will dry the flowers
and the air, improving pollen transfer.
Is the expense of an electric pollinator really necessary?
If you want to get maximum yield, the answer is certain-
ly “yes.” If you would be happy with a lower yield, then it
is not so important. In an experiment at the University of
Southwestern Louisiana Center for Greenhouse Research,
pollinating with an electric air blower resulted in a 7 percent
decrease in yield, while not pollinating resulted in a 21 per-
cent decrease in yield, compared to using an electric polli-
nator. You can purchase a pollinator from most greenhouse
suppliers.
Temperature
A day temperature of 70 to 82 °F is optimum, while night
temperature of 62 to 64 °F is optimum for greenhouse toma-
toes. During cloudy weather, a temperature closer to the
lower end of these ranges is preferred, while in sunny
weather, temperatures closer to the higher end are better.
Below 60 °F, nutrient deficiencies may occur because plants
cannot absorb some elements at cool temperatures. The first
sign of cool temperature stress is purpling of the leaves,
indicating lack of phosphorus uptake (even though there
may be adequate phosphorus in the nutrient solution). One
or two nights of 56 or 58 °F temperature can cause a con-
siderable number of rough fruit several weeks later when
fruit exposed to the cold temperature reach full size. You
should maintain a minimum temperature of 64 °F.
Ideally, the thermostat should be located at blossom height
rather than above the tops of plants.
Avoid temperatures over 90 °F if at all possible. At 86 °F,
lycopene (the pigment that makes tomatoes red) no longer
develops. See the section Greenhouse Cooling for help in
managing high temperatures.
Locate thermostats near the center of the greenhouse for
good temperature control. Also, enclose the thermostat in
an aspirated box, or shade it so that it indicates the air tem-
perature correctly. If the sun is allowed to shine directly on
the thermostat, it will read a higher temperature than the air
surrounding it.
Relative Humidity
The optimum relative humidity for greenhouse tomatoes
is 60-70 percent. This is very difficult to obtain in
Mississippi greenhouses and is given for your information
only.
 Locating thermostats in a box will avoid direct sun on them. An aspirated box is best.
Greenhouse Cooling
Greenhouse tomato growers in Mississippi have to deal
with high temperatures. When greenhouse temperatures go
into the high nineties or even higher, poor-quality fruit,
especially fruit splitting, is the usual result. The splitting in
the skin is caused by the surface of the fruit reaching a high-
er temperature than the layer just beneath the surface. This
causes a rupturing between adjacent cells, showing up as a
split or burst skin. The mechanism is similar to that of the
bimetallic coil in a thermostat, except that the thermostat
coil can tighten or loosen as the temperature changes, while
the tomato skin cannot; therefore, the skin tears.
When the sun shines through the plastic greenhouse cov-
ering onto the plants, it is common for leaf temperature to be
30 degrees higher than the air temperature in the green-
house. As leaf temperature increases, leaves lose more
water to the atmosphere and make up for this loss by taking
up more water through the roots. This is how the plants
keep from overheating. As long as there is ample water sur-
rounding the roots, this system works fine, up to a point. If
there is ever a water shortage, plants wilt at the tops, reduc-
ing the water loss. If the water loss is very severe, plants
wilt completely from top to bottom. Plants revive from a
mild wilt condition when water becomes available or the
stress situation is removed (as it is at night). But, if plants
reach the “permanent wilting point,” tissue is permanently
damaged and they will not recover, even with plenty of
water.
Also, if the temperature climbs into the upper nineties,
plants may not be able to retrieve enough water through
their roots to make up for the rapid loss from their leaves,
even if there is plenty available in the growing medium. At
this point, leaves become burned or scorched. They look as
if they have been touched with the flame of a propane torch.
7
Remember —so long as the sun shines, the leaf temperature
is considerably higher than the air temperature.
There are several ways to lower the air and plant temper-
ature in the greenhouse. None are 100 percent successful by
themselves in this climate because of the extreme heat in
Mississippi. However, any one of these methods will lower
the temperature to some extent.
All of the following methods are used as additional cool-
ing after exhaust fans have already been installed:
• Evaporative cooling is probably the best way to reduce
greenhouse temperature. The principle is simple. As the
exhaust fans blow air out of one end of the greenhouse, they
draw in moist air from the other end. As the moist air moves
through the greenhouse, some of the water vaporizes,
absorbing heat in the process. Moisture is supplied at the
end opposite the fans with a system that drips water through
an absorbent material such as cellulose or a synthetic fiber
(commonly called “cool pads” or “wet pads”). All incoming
air passes through this wet fiber. Any water that drips
through the fiber is collected in a gutter at the bottom, and
drains into a small holding tank. Water is recirculated from
the holding tank back to the top of the cool pads. There
needs to be a provision for replacing water that is absorbed
by the air passing through the cool pads. This is usually
done with a “toilet tank-type” float valve controller.
Evaporative cooling is more effective when the air out-
side the greenhouse has a low relative humidity. As the rel-
ative humidity of the outside air increases, this technique
becomes less effective. But so long as the relative humidity
is less than 100 percent, this method will have some cooling
effect on the air.
• A shade cloth can be used over the top of the green-
house (outside) or suspended inside the greenhouse above
the crop. The most common materials are polypropylene,
polyethylene, polyester, and saran, although cheesecloth and
tobacco netting can also be used.
If used internally, the cloth can be suspended on wires or
some other type of framework. The advantage of an inter-
nal shade curtain is that it can be pulled back on cloudy days
and spread out on sunny days as needed, either manually or
with small motors. The internal curtain usually has a reflec-
tive silver upper surface, with the lower surface dark or
white. Do not use a curtain that is black on top because it
will accumulate heat.
The disadvantage of using an internal shade cloth is that
light is converted to heat inside the greenhouse; although
plants receive less light, they don’t get the same reduction in
heat. If the shade cloth is used outside the greenhouse, sun-
light is converted to heat before entering the greenhouse.
Shade cloths must be custom ordered to fit a greenhouse.
Provide the supplier with the greenhouse dimensions so the
company can sew together pieces to fit the structure.
Grommets are sewn into the edges to provide a secure way
of fastening the material down.
Shade cloth is available in a number of different “percent
shade” formulations. The appropriate amount depends on
the season it is applied and how many cloudy days are
expected during the time period it is on. It is not convenient
to remove the external shade cloth on cloudy days. For
tomatoes, 50 percent shade during May and June for the
spring crop, and August and September for the fall crop, is
recommended in Mississippi.
Be aware that the percent shade is not the same as the
percent reduction in temperature. Research by Dr. Dan
Willets at North Carolina State University shows that poly-
propylene shade cloth labelled at less than 30 percent shade
did not decrease greenhouse temperatures at all. With high-
er percent shade ratings, the decrease in heat gain was about
half of the shade rating. The covers were also more effec-
tive on windy days because heat was dispersed more effi-
ciently from the cover outside the house.
Shade cloth costs 10 to 20 cents per square foot, with
additional charges for grommets, sewing panels together,
sewing reinforcement tape to edges, etc. For a standard-
sized, free-standing greenhouse (24 by 96 feet), this may
amount to $300 to $400.
• Shade compounds have the same effect as shade cloths
except they come in liquid form and are usually sprayed
onto the outside surface of the greenhouse after being dilut-
ed with water. They can also be brushed or rolled like paint.
The most common product is Kool-Ray, from
Continental Products Co. This material is diluted with
water; use 2 to 20 parts water for 1 part Kool-Ray, depend-
ing on the amount of shading desired. It is better to apply a
thin coat early in the season (using more water) and then
darken it later if needed. It is much easier to darken the
shade than to lighten it once it has been applied. The ratio
of 1 part Kool-Ray to 7 or 8 parts water has worked well in
Mississippi. About 10 gallons of dilute solution covers a
standard greenhouse (24 by 96 feet). It is best to apply it as
small droplets and try to avoid streaking. Apply it during
Use a thermometer that records the high and low tempera-
tures.
warm, dry weather so it sticks well. Another product from
this company, E-Z Off Kool-Ray, is easier to remove from
plastic and fiberglass greenhouses. These products cost
about $20 per gallon.
Rain during summer and fall wears most of the com-
pound away. Wash off any remaining compound with water
and rubbing. One technique is to tie rags or burlap bags to
a rope, toss the rope over the top of the greenhouse, and rub
it back and forth over the top (with a partner on the other
side). It works even better if a hose is tied to the midpoint,
so that it sprays water on the roof as you rub. If necessary,
commercial cleaners are available. If you use commercial
cleaners, be sure to rinse the greenhouse off with water
afterwards since the acid in these cleaners can be corrosive
to metal.
Varishade, from Sunstill, Inc., is a product that turns
darker in bright light and lighter in bad weather. When it
gets wet or moist, it is almost transparent, allowing 80 per-
cent of the light to enter. In sunny, dry weather it transmits
only 35 percent of the light. It can be applied on glass or
plastic.
Inexpensive white latex paint will shade just as well as
shade compound. However, you may not be able to remove
it from plastic at the end of the hot season. Use paint only
if you will be replacing the plastic before the fall crop of
tomatoes. Then you won’t have to worry about trying to
clean off the paint. Mix 1 part white latex paint with 10
parts water. Apply with sprayer or long-handled roller.
Other cooling techniques:
• Use as much white in the house as possible. White floor
covering, bags, even strings, reflect light rather than absorb
it and convert it to heat. Insulated north walls can be paint-
ed white or silver. An additional benefit from using white is

8
that the light level is increased during the darker winter
months.
• While “low profile” houses, those with a low roof,
require less heat during the cold season, they tend to be hot-
ter in warmer months than those with a high roof. With
more head room, the heat has space along the peak where it
collects before being exhausted. Without this extra head
room, the heat remains at plant height; therefore, green-
houses with vertical side walls of at least 9 feet are recom-
mended.
• You can alleviate some of the fruit splitting during hot
weather by adding copper to the fertilizer solution. See
Splitting section under Physiological Disorders.
Irrigation
Except in small hobby greenhouses, irrigation should be
controlled automatically, with the use of time clocks or elec-
tronic controllers. The volume of water will vary depending
on the season and the size of plants. New transplants need
only about 2 ounces (50 ml) per plant per day. At maturity
on sunny days, however, plants may need up to 3 quarts (2.7
liters or 2,700 ml) of water per plant per day. Generally, 2
quarts per plant per day are adequate for fully grown or
almost fully grown plants. Monitor plants closely, especial-
ly for the first couple of weeks following transplanting, so
that the volume of water can be increased as needed. Water
should be delivered to each plant. This is usually done with
“spaghetti tubing” and emitters that carry water from main
lines to the base of each plant.
Each watering should include fertilizer (see section on
Fertility); therefore, the process is more appropriately
referred to as “fertigation.” Most growers use from 6 to 12
waterings per day once plants are established. In a medium
that drains extremely well, such as rice hulls, 12 or more
waterings per day may be needed to keep plants from drying
out between waterings. In pine bark, 6 to 12 waterings per
day are usually adequate. The important point is that plants
should receive enough water so they do not wilt. A wilting
plant is not growing. If the permanent wilting point is
reached because of a prolonged period without water, the
Shown are 10 greenhouse bays in a gutter-connected range (1/2 acre).
9
growing point may be killed. To be certain that plants
receive enough water, allow enough so some drainage from
the bags (10-20 percent) is apparent after each watering.
Be aware that a prolonged cloudy period followed by
bright sun may cause severe wilting. Be ready to increase
the amount of water in this situation.
pH
It is a good idea to check the nutrient solution pH daily
with a pH meter. At a minimum, check pH every time you
prepare fertilizer solution. A “pocket” pH meter is a tool
every grower should have.
The optimum pH range for the nutrient solution is 5.6
to 5.8. If the pH of the solution is too high, caused by alka-
line water, add an acid in small quantities to lower the pH to
within this range. The choices of materials to use are sulfu-
ric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), or phosphoric acid
(H3PO4). Sulfuric acid, the least expensive, can be pur-
chased from an auto supply store as battery acid. However,
there is an advantage to using phosphoric or nitric acid,
since they supply nutrients in addition to lowering the pH.
(Phosphoric acid supplies phosphorus and nitric acid sup-
plies nitrogen.) Although they are more expensive than sul-
furic acid, they may be preferred for this reason. Phosphoric
acid and nitric acid are inexpensive sources of these ele-
ments when compared to other fertilizers.
Handle all acids very carefully because they can cause
injury. Nitric acid can be very hazardous. Phosphoric acid
lowers pH more than the other two for a given volume. It is
advisable to use these acids directly from the drum or con-
tainer in which they are purchased so there is no risk
involved while pouring them. Never use vinegar (acetic
acid) or swimming pool acid (sodium bisulfate) to lower the
pH.
To determine how much acid to add to a bulk or concen-
trate tank of nutrient solution, take 1 gallon of solution and
add 1 ml of acid at a time until the pH of the nutrient solu-
tion is within the range stated. Then, multiply the amount
added to 1 gallon times the number of gallons in the tank. If
 you are using a bulk tank, this is the amount of acid to add.
However, if you are using an injector system, multiply this
amount by (times) the ratio.
Be aware that the pH scale is not linear; it is logarithmic.
For example, if 10 drops lower the pH from 8.0 to 7.5, there
is no reason to believe that 20 drops will lower the pH to 7.0.
You may reach the point where one more drop lowers the
pH to 5.0 or lower. So, be careful! A pH that is too low can
be very damaging to the crop. Check and double check the
pH after adjusting it with acid.
If the pH is too low (below 5.5), you can bring it up by
using materials such as sodium carbonate, caustic soda,
potassium bicarbonate, potassium hydroxide, or caustic
potash. The recommended material is potassium carbonate,
which has a pH of 8.2. This will also supply potassium.
Avoid the sodium sources since plants do not need sodium.
If the irrigation system, or emitters, become clogged dur-
ing the production of a crop, they can be cleaned out after
the cropping season is over. Use an acid mixed with water
to adjust to a pH of 4.5. While this acidic mixture is running
through the system, tap emitters to break up any crust that
has formed. Do not do this while tomato plants are grow-
ing in the greenhouse—a pH this low may kill plants!
Fertility
The subject of fertility is probably among the most con-
fusing for growers of greenhouse tomatoes; however, it is
important to production. The keys to a successful nutrition
program include the following:
• Use fertilizer designed specifically for greenhouse
tomatoes.
• Know how much of each fertilizer element is needed.
• Know how much is being applied.
• Check the electrical conductivity (EC) and pH levels.
• Be observant for signs that plants may be deficient or
have an excess of a nutrient.
• Monitor plant nutrient status by periodically taking
samples for tissue analysis (see section on this topic).
Table 2. General guidelines for amount of fertilizer to use
Nitrogen
Stage of growth (ppm)
Germination to first true leaf fully expanded 50
First true leaf to third true leaf fully expanded 50-75
Third leaf to transplant 75-100
Transplant to second cluster set 100-125
Second cluster to topping 125- 200
10
Fertilizer Measurement and Vocabulary
Several units are used to express the fertility level of
nutrient solutions (fertilizer dissolved in water). This caus-
es confusion among growers since the use of different units
makes it difficult to understand different readings among
growers. This section explains the different units.
Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of the ability of
a solution to conduct electricity—the more concentrated the
fertilizer solution, the more electricity it will conduct and
the higher the reading will be. The general unit is mho (pro-
nounced MO) with the plural being mhos (pronounced
MOZE). You will notice that mho spelled backwards is ohm
(pronounced OM), the unit of resistance in electrical jargon.
Mhos, the reverse of ohms, is a measure of conductivity
rather than resistance.
There are two units of mhos commonly used: micro-
mhos (µmhos) (pronounced micro-MOZE) and millimhos
(mmhos) (pronounced milli-MOZE). A micromho is one
millionth of a mho and a millimho is one thousandth of a
mho. Therefore, there are 1,000 micromhos in a millimho.
Another way of looking at it is that a millimho is 1,000
times bigger than a micromho. Either scale can be used.
Convert from micromhos to millimhos by sliding the deci-
mal point 3 places to the left, and vice versa. Typical read-
ings of millimhos are 0.30 to 2.50, while typical readings of
micromhos are 300 to 2,500. Millimhos are more common-
ly used than micromhos on most meters today.
Some portable EC meters measure in microsemens (µs).
These are equivalent to micromhos (µmhos), and are more
commonly used in European countries.
The best way to understand the nutrient status of a fertil-
izer solution and to communicate with other people is to
know how many parts per million of each element you are
applying. Parts per million (ppm) is the unit used to meas-
ure nitrogen concentration, or any other specific nutrient in
solution. These units are usually within the range of 50 to
300 ppm for nitrogen. For mature, producing plants, 125 to
200 ppm nitrogen (N) is needed, depending on the particu-
lar circumstances. This is not directly related to or convert-
ible to an exact measure of EC or total dissolved solids
(TDS) in a nutrient solution (see below). This is because
both EC and total dissolved solids are measurements of
everything dissolved in the solution, not just nitrogen.
Total dissolved solids Electroconductivity
(TDS) (EC)
(ppm) (mmhos)
450-550 0.6-0.7
550-600 0.6-0.7
600-800 0.7-0.9
800-1,100 0.9-1.8
1,100-1,600 1.8-2.2
 Another way of measuring the amount of fertilizer in
solution is by measuring dissolved solids. This is also
referred to as total dissolved solids or TDS. The units com-
monly used for TDS are also parts per million (ppm). If you
knew the ppm of each element dissolved in the solution, and
added them up, along with the ppm of the water, you would
get the ppm TDS. This is a measure of all salts in solution,
not just nitrogen, so it is not the same as measuring ppm of
nitrogen. Some of these salts may have been in the water
supply before any fertilizer was added. For this reason, this
form of measurement is not recommended. If a reading is
1,500 ppm TDS, how do you know if this is due to nitrogen
or some other nutrient? You don’t. You even may have water
very high in sodium (salt) with no nitrogen. TDS is not a
reliable measurement for this reason.
The readings of ppm dissolved solids are not directly
convertible to millimhos or micromhos for a fertilizer; how-
ever, the conversions can be calculated for specific fertiliz-
ers. A rule of thumb (very crude conversion) is if your mil-
limho reading is in the range 0.9 to 1.9, then mmhos x 680
= ppm total dissolved solids. If your millimho reading is in
the range 2.0 to 2.8, then mmhos x 700 = ppm total dis-
solved solids. Remember–this is only a rule of thumb and
does not give an exact conversion.
An important point: Any time dissolved solids or EC
are measured in a solution, it is very important to know the
dissolved solids or EC of the water source used to make the
solution (it cannot be assumed to be 0). There may be sodi-
um or some other dissolved element in your tap water that
can lead to false readings when you measure your nutrient
solution. Subtract the water source EC or dissolved solids
measurement from that of the nutrient solution to find the
true value caused by fertilizer. This is the number to com-
pare to charts to decide if the correct amount of fertilizer is
in solution.
Exhaust fans are essential to remove heat even in the winter.
11
Methods of Mixing Fertilizers
There are two principal systems for mixing fertilizers:
the bulk tank system and the injector or proportioner system.
Both methods are acceptable and can produce high yields
and excellent quality tomatoes.
Bulk Tanks
The bulk tank system consists of a tank (plastic, concrete,
steel, PVC, etc.) of appropriate size depending on the square
footage of the greenhouse(s). A 100-gallon tank is fine for
one greenhouse, whereas a 1,000 to 2,000 gallon tank may
be preferable for several greenhouses. The larger the tank,
the less frequently it will have to be filled. But if the tank is
too large, you will have to wait too long until it is empty to
mix up a new batch of fertilizer of a stronger concentration
or with some other change in the formula. For a new grow-
er, or a grower with only one or two bays, the bulk tank sys-
tem is easier to understand and probably causes fewer mis-
takes, providing that the directions that come with the fertil-
izer are followed.
Mixing fertilizer is a matter of adding so many ounces (or
pounds) of dry fertilizer per 100 gallons of water. The fertil-
izer must be completely dissolved in the water. Any precip-
itate (settled out fertilizer) will not reach the plants.
Therefore, it may be necessary to stir the solution, by hand
with a “paddle” or with an electric mixer, or use a circula-
tion pump. Be sure to check the pH and EC of the solution
each time you mix a new batch.
Injectors
With the injector system, a concentrated mixture of fer-
tilizer solution is diluted with the injector (proportioner) to
the final concentration required by the plants. The simplest
and least expensive type of injector is a hozon proportioner,
often used for fertilizing lawns and garden plants, but it is
not appropriate for commercial production. The most com-
plicated and expensive is the Anderson Injector; there are
many intermediate models in cost and complexity.
Generally, the more you spend, the more accurate the injec-
tor is. Inexpensive models will vary their injection ratio
depending on water pressure, which is often variable. This is
because the injection is timed rather than depending on volume
of water. Better models are dose specific, meaning that the
concentrate injected depends on a given volume of water pass-
ing through the device. Equally important, the higher priced
injectors are adjustable. A knob or dial on the head can be
turned to increase or decrease the dose of fertilizer concentrate
injected into the water. The fertilizer solution goes from the
concentrate tank to the injector, where it is diluted by being
injected into the irrigation system. A water meter monitors the
flow of water and then sends out a signal when enough water
has passed through. The meter can be mechanical or electrical.
This signal from the meter is a pulse of water, which is sent to
the pilot valve (skinner valve). This small volume of water is
discarded after it passes through the pilot valve.
Concentrate is held in small containers (e.g., 10 to 50 gal-
lons). Two heads and two concentrate tanks (at a minimum) are
needed: one for the calcium nitrate (tank B) and the other for
all other nutrients (tank A). This is necessary so calcium does er deficiency symptoms are discussed in the section Nutrient
not combine chemically with phosphates or sulfates when the Deficiency Symptoms.
elements are in high concentration, especially under a high pH.
The resulting compounds, calcium hydrogen phosphate or cal- Modified Steiner Solution
cium sulfate, are hard precipitates and can clog the injector and One of the most recognized nutrient solutions is the
irrigation system. However, once these elements are diluted, Modified Steiner Solution. The original Steiner Solution
there is no problem. If the pH is higher than 5.8, it is advisable was published by Dr. Abram A. Steiner in an article called
to use a third head to inject acid. This is needed to keep the pH “Soilless Culture,” in the Proceedings of the 6th Colloquium
in the 5.6 - 5.8 range (see pH section above). of the International Potash Institute at Florence, Italy, in
With an injector system, there is no cost involved for the 1968. Dr. John Larsen (Professor Emeritus, retired, of Texas
large tank needed for the bulk tank system. However, a high A&M University) modified this formula according to his
quality injector can be expensive. research involving plant requirements and tissue analysis.
You can control the fertility level with an injector system According to Dr. Larsen, there is no need to exceed a level
better than with a bulk tank system since you can adjust the of 200 ppm nitrogen.
dose by simply turning a knob or dial. Furthermore, as better The Modified Steiner Solution will supply nutrients as
precision in the fertility program is desired (as money permits), follows:
you can add more injector heads. Ultimately, a head can be ppm in solution at 100% strength
used for each fertilizer element. Individual adjustments can be
171 N (nitrogen)
made based on regular tissue analyses.
48 P (phosphorus)
Injector Calibration 304 K (potassium)
It is important to know the injection ratio so you can cal-
180 Ca (calcium)
culate how much fertilizer to mix in the concentrate tanks.
Some come with tables that designate this ratio, i.e., 1:9, 48 Mg (magnesium)
1:16, 1:100, 1:200. On certain brands, the ratio is designat- 3 Fe (iron)
ed as a percent, i.e., 1 percent rather than 1:100. Some injec-
1-2 Mn (manganese)
tors let you adjust this ratio by turning a knob or a dial, or
by adding rings, while others are fixed at one setting. 1 B (boron)
If you do not know the ratio, it is necessary to calibrate 0.4 Zn (zinc)
the injector to learn this important number. Using a beaker
0.2 Cu (copper)
or graduated cylinder, measure how much water is sucked
up by the injector in one minute. Then, using several 0.1 Mo (molybdenum)
beakers, one at each of several emitters (that is, ten loca-
tions), measure how much water is distributed to plants in The suggested use of the Modified Steiner Solution is as
one minute. Take an average of the number of beakers in follows:
which water is collected in the greenhouse. Multiply this Fall Crop
average amount emitted per plant in one minute by the num-
1) transplant to first bloom
ber of emitters in the greenhouse. The injection ratio is the
on fourth cluster 40 - 50% concentrate
ratio of the output to the input. Divide the total amount emit-
2) above to end of crop 85 - 90% concentrate
ted in the greenhouse in one minute by the total amount
sucked up in one minute. State the ratio as 1:X, where X is Spring Crop
the number you get after dividing. Your concentrated solu- 1) transplant to first bloom
tion is diluted X times with water. (There are X parts water on fourth cluster 40 - 50% concentrate
for each one part of concentrated fertilizer solution.) 2) above to first bloom on
fifth cluster 85 - 90% concentrate
Plant Response 3) above until May 1 100% concentrate
How do you know what is the right amount of fertilizer? 4) above to June 1 75% concentrate
In addition to following the directions on the bag and taking 5) above to end of crop 60% concentrate
regular foliar analyses, the plant also gives an indication. If
tops of plants “ball up” with dense, curling-under growth, As you can see, the Modified Steiner Solution never calls
the nutrient solution is a little high in nitrogen. Another sign for more than 171 ppm nitrogen during the life of the crop.
of having nitrogen too high is when the clusters of flowers Most of the time, the fertility level is much lower. There are
end in leaves or shoot growth (these should be pruned off). many disagreements about the proper level of fertilizer solu-
This condition will not necessarily decrease yield unless tion to use. Some people feel that the levels in the Modified
nitrogen is excessively high. Steiner Solution are too low for optimum production; how-
If stem diameter is extremely small and plants are ever, the majority of researchers agree that these levels and
spindly, fertilizer concentration is too low. Other signs ratios are appropriate to grow greenhouse tomatoes, and,
include faded or yellowed foliage, decreased vigor, blos- therefore, they are the basis of many of the commercial fer-
soms that don’t set fruit, and yield reduction. Other fertiliz- tilizers on the market today.
12
Commercial Fertilizers Table 4. Concentration of nutrients supplied from
Various commercial fertilizer mixes are available for use TotalGro 3-13-29 plus calcium nitrate at rates in Table 3
in bulk tank systems or with injectors. Some mixes are Nutrient PPM
“complete,” while others require the purchase of additional Nitrate Nitrogen (N) 110
calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate, magnesium sulfate (same
Phosphorus (P) 49
as epsom salts), sequestered iron (Fe 330), or some other
fertilizer. Follow the recommendations on the bag exactly as Potassium (K) 240
stated if you use these commercial blends. Adjust as needed Calcium (Ca) 100
after gaining experience. The most common mistake new Magnesium (Mg) 54
growers make is not following the directions concerning
Sulfur (S) 110
amount of fertilizer.
The choice of a commercial fertilizer is up to the grower. Iron (Fe) 3.4
However, be certain that the mix has been formulated Manganese (Mn) 1
specifically for greenhouse tomatoes. An all-purpose fertil- Copper (Cu) 1
izer such as 20-20-20 is not appropriate for this crop, Zinc (Zn) 0.46
although it is fine for bedding plants and other general use
in the greenhouse. Boron (B) 1
For educational purposes, three examples showing how Molybdenum (Mo) 0.1
to use some of the commercial mixes are provided. The
mention of a brand name is not an endorsement and is not Hydro-Gardens Chem-Gro Tomato Formula (4-18-38)
meant to exclude other brands on the market.
Source: Hydro-Gardens, Inc., P.O. Box 25845, Colorado
Springs, CO 80936-5845 (1-800-634-6362).
TotalGro Bag Culture Tomato Special (3-13-29) This is a low nitrogen-type fertilizer, supplying 4 percent
Source: TotalGro, P.O. Box 805, Winnsboro, LA 71295 nitrogen (N), 18 percent phosphate (P2O5), and 38 percent
(1- 800-433-3055). potash (K2O). In addition, it provides Mg, B, Cu, Fe, Mn,
For the southern part of the United States, this is a low Mo, and Zn. This fertilizer does not supply calcium, so cal-
nitrogen-type fertilizer designed especially for growing cium nitrate must be used in conjunction with the 4-18-38.
greenhouse tomatoes using pine bark. It contains 3 percent The recommendations for mixing Chem-Gro are shown
nitrogen (N), 13 percent phosphate (P2O5), and 29 percent in Table 5. In addition, if the source water has less than 50
potash (K2O). In addition, it provides all of the magnesium ppm calcium, then add calcium chloride in an amount equal
(Mg) required, as well as S, B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, and Zn. to 25 percent of the calcium nitrate used per 100 gallons
This fertilizer does not contain calcium, so use in conjunc- water. This can be added to the calcium nitrate concentrate
tion with calcium nitrate. tank, if an injector system is being used.
When used at the recommended rates (Table 3) and com-
bined with calcium nitrate as shown, it will supply 100 ppm Table 5. Amount of Chem-Gro (4-18-38) and other fertiliz-
nitrogen and all of the calcium and magnesium needed, in ers to use per 100 gallons of water for each stage of plant
addition to the other nutrients (Table 4). growth
Submit tissue samples for laboratory analysis to deter- Plant Chem-Gro Calcium Magnesium Potassium
mine when fertilizer rates need to be adjusted. age (4-18-38) nitrate sulfate nitrate
(ounces) (ounces) (ounces) (ounces)
Table 3. Amount of TotalGro (3-13-29) plus calcium Seedlings 8 4 4 0
nitrate to use per 100 gallons of water for 110 ppm N Second to
Ounces of fertilizer fourth flower
per 100 gallons water ppm Nitrogen EC (mmhos/cm) clusters 8 8 4 0
Fourth and
13.3 ounces 3-13-29 30 1.26 higher flower
clusters 8 8 5 1.6
7 ounces calcium nitrate 80 0.60

Table 3 shows how much will be applied at the rates indi-
cated. With this table, you can check the concentration with
an EC meter. The EC of the solution with both fertilizers
should be 1.86 when mixed as shown. Be sure to subtract the
ppm or TDS of the source water from the reading of the
nutrient solution before comparing the reading to the table.
The relationship between TDS, EC, and ppm N is unique for
each fertilizer. Therefore, Table 3 does not apply to other
fertilizers. Make it a practice to check the EC of the solution
each time that you mix a new batch.
13
Peters Peat-Lite Special (15-11-29)
Source: Peters Fertilizer Products, The Scotts Company,
14111 Scotts Lawn Rd., Marysville, OH 43041 (1-800-492-
8255).
This supplies 15 percent, 11 percent, and 29 percent of
nitrogen (N), phosphate (P2O5), and potash (K2O), respec-
tively, in addition to small amounts of Mg, Fe, Mn, B, Zn,
Cu, and Mo.
According to the directions, 9 ounces of fertilizer per
gallon of concentrate will provide 100 ppm N if a 1:100
injector is used. For 50 ppm N with a 1:100 injector, use half
this amount. Likewise, for 200 ppm N with a 1:100 injector,
use 18 ounces per gallon of concentrate. Adjust the amount
of fertilizer up or down, depending on the maturity stage of
the crop. The same amount would be used for a bulk tank
system per 100 gallons of water (since 1 gallon of
concentrate used with a 1:100 injector is the same as using
100 gallons of mixed nutrient solution in bulk).
Table 6 coordinates the EC reading with the ppm of nitro-
gen for this fertilizer. Be sure to subtract the EC of the water
from the reading of the nutrient solution before comparing the
reading to Table 6. This fertilizer does not contain adequate
calcium or magnesium, so these must be added from other
sources. To accomplish this, use only half 15-11-29 with the
other half of the nitrogen source coming from calcium
nitrate. This way, you are able to supply calcium as well. To
supply 100 ppm nitrogen, use 4.5 ounces 15-11-29 (instead
of 9 ounces) and 4.5 ounces calcium nitrate (calcium nitrate
is 15.5% N; about the same N content as 15-11-29) per gal-
lon. In addition, add 1.8 ounces magnesium sulfate (epsom
salt) and 0.07 ounces (2 grams) iron chelate per gallon to
supply magnesium and iron. As you need to go up or down
in feed, maintain the same ratios of these fertilizers. For
example, for 150 ppm N, use 6.75 ounces 15-11-29, 6.75
ounces calcium nitrate, 2.7 ounces magnesium sulfate, and
0.105 ounces (3 grams) iron chelate per gallon.
For source water with a high alkalinity (total carbonates),
the manufacturer suggests using Peters Excel K-Cell 14-5-38.
Table 6. Nitrogen concentration supplied at various
EC readings using Peters Peat-Lite Special (15-11-29)
EC Nitrogen
mmhos/cm (ppm)
0.34 50
0.52 75
0.69 100
0.86 125
1.03 150
1.21 175
1.38 200
1.55 225
1.72 250
1.90 275
2.07 300
14
How To Calculate Element
Concentration in a Fertilizer
There are many times when you need to know how much
of a fertilizer element (such as nitrogen) is contained in the
fertilizer solution. The concentration is usually measured in
units of parts per million (ppm). This simply means the
number of parts of a fertilizer element per million parts of
water, on a weight basis. For example, 1 part nitrogen per 1
million parts of water is 1 ppm; or, 1 pound of nitrogen per
1 million pounds of water is 1 ppm.
The following formulas are ways to calculate the con-
centration of any fertilizer element in water. They are easy
to use, and a couple of examples are shown. By using these
equations, you will be able to know exactly how much of
each fertilizer element you are feeding your plants.
You can use the following formulas to calculate the
amount of any fertilizer element, not just nitrogen.
There is essentially only one formula; however, if you are
using an injector system, there is another factor to use,
namely the injection ratio. With a bulk tank system, there is
no injector, and, therefore, no injection ratio, so this number
is left out.
#1. Injector System
ppm = (% fertilizer) x (lb added to tank) x (16 oz per lb) x
(.75) x (100 / gal of concentrate) x (1 / ratio of injector)
#2. Bulk Tank System
ppm = (% fertilizer) x (lb added to tank) x (16 oz per lb) x
(.75) x (100 / gal of bulk tank)
Examples
Example 1. You use 25 pounds of a 15-11-29 fertilizer
mix in a 30-gallon concentrate tank, then use a 1:100
Anderson injector. How much nitrogen are your plants get-
ting?
Since you have an injector system, use formula #1.
ppm = (15) x (25) x (16) x (.75) x (100/30) x (1/100) ppm = 150
ppm nitrogen
Example 2. You use a bulk tank system with 15 pounds
of 8-5-16 fertilizer mix. Your bulk tank holds 600 gallons of
fertilizer. You also add 10 pounds of potassium nitrate
(13.75% N) to be sure the plants get plenty of nitrogen.
How much nitrogen are the plants getting?
Since you have a bulk tank system, use formula #2.
ppm from 8-5-16 = (8) x (15) x (16) x (.75) x (100/600)
= 240 ppm N
ppm from KNO3 = (13.75) x (10) x (16) x (.75) x
(100/600) = 275 ppm N
Total ppm N = 240 + 275 = 515
This is much too high for greenhouse tomatoes.
Nutrient Composition of Fertilizers P and K Conversions
For your handy reference, the list shows the amount of If you need to calculate phosphate or potash content of
each element in the following fertilizers: your fertilizer solution, be aware that the middle number in
the fertilizer grade is in the form of phosphate or P2O5 (not
Fertilizer Percent elemental composition phosphorus) and the third number is in the form of potash or
K2O (not potassium). To convert between units, use the fol-
Calcium nitrate 15.5% N, 19% Ca
lowing formulas:
Potassium nitrate 13.75% N, 44.5% K2O
Ammonium nitrate 34% N K x 1.205 = K2O
Urea 46% N
K2O x 0.83 = K
Phosphoric acid 75% P2O5 (% can vary) P x 2.291 = P2O5
Magnesium sulphate 9.7% Mg (same as epsom salt),
P2O5 x 0.437 = P
13% S
Potassium sulphate 50% K2O, 14.4% S Derivation of Fertilizer Calculation Formulas
Ammonium sulphate 21% N, 24% S and Further Explanation
Potassium chloride 60% K2O, 47% chloride If you would like to know where the above formulas
(same as muriate of potash) come from, read on. If you do not want to know the deriva-
Monoammonium tion, skip this section and just use the formulas, being
phosphate (MAP) 12% N, 61% P2O5 assured they are accurate.
Diammonium The formulas are based on the following law of physics:
phosphate (DAP) 16% N, 48% P2O5 1 ounce of any 100 percent soluble fertilizer in 100 gallons
Monopotassium of water always equals 75 ppm. This is always true, regard-
phosphate (MKP) 52% P2O5, 34% K2O less of what is being dissolved in the water; however, it does
Calcium chloride 36% Ca assume the fertilizer is completely dissolved.
Why is this true? First of all, accept the fact that 1 gallon
Solubility Limits of Fertilizers of water weighs 8.34 pounds. Then, if you take 1 ounce of any
There are limits on how much of a fertilizer will dissolve fertilizer (or anything else soluble) and put it in 100 gallons of
in water. These are the solubility limits. It is important that water, you are putting that 1 ounce in 834 pounds of water (100
you dissolve the fertilizer completely. Otherwise, it will set- gallons x 8.34 pounds/gallon) or 13,344 ounces (834 pounds x
tle out in your tank, and the plants will not get their full 16 ounces in a pound). One part in 13,344 equals 0.0000749
dose. The following are the solubility limits of some fertil- (divide 1 by 13,344). To find out how many parts per million
izers in 100 gallons of cold water. If you put more than these this is, multiply it by 1,000,000. For example, we have
amounts of fertilizer in 100 gallons of cold water, some fer- 0.0000749 parts per 1. Multiply by 1 million to find how many
tilizer will not dissolve. If there is a problem with dissolving parts this is per million. So, 0.0000749 x 1,000,000 equals
the fertilizer, it may be necessary to mix the fertilizer with a 74.94 ppm. We can round this off to 75 parts per million
circulating pump or a mechanical mixer or use hot water (ppm).
(180 °F). Now, to find out the concentration of a fertilizer element in
water, you need to know the weight of the fertilizer and the
Pounds soluble in Kg in percent strength of the fertilizer, since they are never 100 per-
Fertilizer 100 gallons cold water 100 Liters cent in strength. A 15-11-20 fertilizer is 15 percent nitrogen.
Ammonium nitrate 984 118 Assume you are using 1.5 pounds of a 15 percent nitrogen fer-
Ammonium sulfate 592 71 tilizer in a 100-gallon water tank, and you want to know how
many ppm N this is. You would set up the equation as follows:
Calcium nitrate 851 102
Calcium chloride 500 60 ppm N = (15% N) x (1.5 lb) x (16 oz per lb) x (.75).
Diammonium phosphate 358 43 If you multiply this out, you will get 270 ppm, a very
(DAP) high amount for tomatoes. You are using 0.75 rather than 75
Monoammonium phosphate 192 23 because this lets you use the percent nitrogen (15 percent)
(MAP) rather than the decimal form (0.15). The above formula will
Potassium nitrate 108 13 work fine as long as you are mixing with 100 gallons of
Urea 651 78 water.
Borax 8 1
What if you have a larger or smaller tank? You simply set
up a multiplier to adjust the equation. If you have a 500-gal-
Magnesium sulfate (epsom salt) 592 71
lon tank, multiply by 100/500, which will adjust the amount
Potassium chloride 290 35 in 500 gallons down to what it would be in 100 gallons
Potassium sulfate 83 10 (since this is how the first rule discussed is set up). If you are

15
using 5 pounds of the 15 percent fertilizer in 500 gallons,
this is the equation:
ppm N = (15% N) x (5 lb) x (16 oz per lb) x (.75) x
(100/500).
This multiplies out to be 180 ppm N, a reasonable
amount for a mature crop of tomatoes. If you had a smaller
tank, about 25 gallons, and used 1/4 pound of the 15 percent
fertilizer, the equation to adjust the amount in 25 gallons up
to 100 gallons would be as follows:
ppm N = (15% N) x (0.25 lb) x (16 oz per lb) x (.75) x
(100/25).
Multiplying through, you should get 180 ppm N. This is
all you need to know to calculate ppm N in any bulk tank
system.
If you have an injector (proportioner), you also need to
know the injection ratio. For example, is it injecting 1:9 or
1:20 or 1:100? Whatever the ratio is, multiply it by the rest
of the equation. If you have determined that you have a
1:100 injector, and are using 50 pounds of a 15 percent
nitrogen fertilizer in a 50-gallon stock solution (concen-
trate), set up the equation as follows:
ppm N = (15% N) x (50 lb) x (16 oz per lb)
x (.75) x (100/50) x (1/100).
Multiplying this out, you will get 180 ppm N. Set up the
injector ratio as 1/100 since the injector is diluting the con-
centrate with water 100 times.
This system will work with any injector ratio and any
size concentrate tank. Simply plug in the numbers to cus-
tomize the formula to your own system.
Leachate
After each feeding, some fertilizer solution (referred to as
leachate) should drain from the bottoms of bags. If there is
no leachate, the plants are probably not getting enough
water.
Check the EC of the leachate to determine how much fer-
tility the plants are using. The EC of the leachate should be
fairly close to the EC of the nutrient solution (less than 0.5
mmhos different). If it approaches 2.5 to 3.0 mmhos, too
much fertilizer is accumulating in the bags and the roots
may burn from this high concentration.
Leaf Tissue Analysis
It is a good idea to have tomato leaf tissue analyzed peri-
odically to determine if the plants are receiving the best lev-
els of nutrients. This technique can be used to “trou-
bleshoot” problems with unhealthy looking plants, or as a
monthly check on nutrient levels. Save these monthly
checks so you can refer to them in diagnosing problems that
might occur.
It is very important to take leaf samples from the correct
location on the plants to get reliable results. Take the sample
according to the directions of the lab to which you will send
the sample. For Mississippi growers, remove one leaf from
each plant, collecting six to eight leaves for one sample.
16
Select the leaf for this sample that is just above a fruit about
2 inches in diameter (about the size of a golf ball). Taking
leaves higher or lower on the plant will have serious effects
on the level of nutrients shown in the test report, especially
for nitrogen and other highly mobile elements.
Send leaf samples to the laboratory at Mississippi State
University (Soil Testing and Plant Analysis, Box 9610,
Mississippi State, MS 39762) or any private lab. Wrap the
leaves in dry paper towels and mail in a large envelope.
At Mississippi State University, the fee is $10 for
Mississippi residents, and $15 for samples from outside of
the state. Most greenhouse fertilizer manufacturers also
have a testing service available.
When sending a sample to Mississippi State University,
include a “Plant Analysis Information Sheet” (Extension
Form 700) with the sample, filled out as completely as pos-
sible. These are available from your county Extension
office.
Test results list the macronutrients as a percent, while the
micronutrients are listed as parts per million (ppm). The
optimum levels of nutrients for tissue of mature (producing)
tomato plants are as shown in Table 7. Adjust the fertilizer
solution so the appropriate corrections can be made.
Keep in mind that what is in the fertilizer solution is not
always what the plants get. If there is any kind of stress sit-
uation, plants may not take up all of the nutrients that you
are putting into the bags (or other containers). For example,
if the root temperature is below 58 °F, you may see purpling
in the leaves, a sign of phosphorus deficiency, since phos-
phorus is not taken up well when roots are cool. If salts have
accumulated to high levels around the roots (indicated by
high EC readings of the leachate), certain nutrients will not
be taken up well. If plants do not receive adequate water,
they wilt and will not take up enough fertilizer. These situa-
tions support tissue analysis as the best indicator of the
nutrient status of plants.
Table 7. Recommended levels of elements in tomato leaf tissue
N 4.0-5.5% Fe 100-250 ppm
P 0.3-1.0% Zn 30-150 ppm
K 4.0-7.0% Mn 40-300 ppm
Ca 1.0-5.0% Cu 5- 25 ppm
Mg 0.4-1.5% B 35-100 ppm
Mo 0.15-5.0 ppm
Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
In addition to having tissue analysis done periodically to
check the nutrient status of plants, growers should be on the
lookout for symptoms which occur when plants are deficient
in a nutrient. The following will help identify these nutrient
deficiencies:
Nitrogen (N) — Restricted growth of tops, roots, and
especially lateral shoots. Plants become spindly, with gen-
eral chlorosis of entire plant to a light green, and then a yel-
lowing of older leaves that proceeds upwards toward
younger leaves. Older leaves defoliate early. Generally,
veins of younger leaves show purpling on undersides when
deficiency is severe in tomatoes.
Phosphorus (P) — Restricted and spindly growth sim-
ilar to that of nitrogen deficiency. Leaf color is usually
dull, dark green to bluish green with purpling of petioles and
the veins on undersides of younger leaves. Young leaves are
yellowish green with purple veins with N deficiency and
dark green with P deficiency. Otherwise N and P deficien-
cies are very much alike.
Potassium (K) — Mature, lower leaves show inter-
veinal chlorosis and marginal necrotic spots or scorching
that progresses inward and also upward toward younger
leaves as deficiency becomes more severe. The fruit often
ripens unevenly or shows blotchy green to yellow patches
on red ripe fruit. Fruit sometimes falls off the plants just
before ripening. Deficiency may also cause soft or spongy
fruit. If this is the case, increase the K level up to 400-450
ppm.
Calcium (Ca) — From slight chlorosis to brown or
black scorching of new leaf tips and die-back of growing
points. The scorched and die-back portion of tissue is very
slow to dry so that it does not crumble easily. The first
symptom is usually blossom-end rot of the fruit (see section
on Physiological Disorders). Boron deficiency also causes
scorching of new leaf tips and die-back of growing points,
but calcium deficiency does not promote the growth of lat-
eral shoots and short internodes as does boron deficiency,
and boron deficiency does not cause blossom-end rot.
Magnesium (Mg) — Interveinal chlorotic mottling or
marbling of the older leaves, which proceeds toward the
younger leaves as the deficiency becomes more severe.
The chlorotic interveinal yellow patches usually occur
toward the center of leaves with the margins being the last
to turn yellow. In some crops, the interveinal yellow patch-
es are followed by colorful orange to red coloring. As the
deficiency increases in severity, the interveinal chlorosis is
followed by necrotic spots or patches and marginal scorch-
ing of the leaves. On plants with mature fruit, the interveinal
chlorotic yellow patches usually do not start on the oldest
leaves but on those toward the middle of the plant.
Magnesium can be applied as a foliar spray; use 2 table-
spoons of magnesium sulfate per gallon of water.
Sulfur (S) — Resembles nitrogen deficiency in that
older leaves become yellowish green; stems become thin,
hard, and woody. Some plants show colorful orange and
red tints rather than yellowing. The stems, although hard and
woody, increase in length but not in diameter.
Iron (Fe) — Starts with interveinal chlorotic mottling
or a general yellowing of immature leaves. In severe
cases, the new leaves become almost white (completely
lacking in chlorophyll) but with little or no necrotic spots.
The chlorotic mottling of immature leaves starts first near
the base of the leaflet so that the middle of the leaf appears
to have a yellow streak. If additional iron is needed, 1/4
ounce of Fe 330 iron chelate (9.7 percent iron) in 100 gal-
lons of water provides 1.9 ppm iron. Achieve this by using
17
1 1/2 teaspoons in 100 gallons. Alternatively, iron can be
applied as a foliar spray, using 1/4 teaspoon per gallon.
Manganese (Mn) — Starts with interveinal chlorotic
mottling of immature leaves, and in many plants it is
indistinguishable from iron deficiency. On fruiting plants,
the blossom buds often do not fully develop but turn yellow
and abort. As the deficiency becomes more severe, the new
growth becomes completely yellow, but in contrast to iron
deficiency, necrotic spots usually appear in the interveinal
tissue. In tomatoes that show some interveinal chlorotic
mottling caused by a manganese deficiency, some of the
bloom buds on the flowering clusters show incomplete
development and do not develop into blooms. During the
short days of December and January, the plants often show
no blooms at all.
Zinc (Zn) — In some plants, interveinal chlorotic
mottling first appears on the older leaves, and in others
it appears on the immature leaves. It eventually affects the
growing points and causes smaller than normal leaves. This
is sometimes referred to as “mouse ear.” The interveinal
chlorotic mottling is the same as that for iron and man-
ganese deficiency, except for the little leaf. When the onset
of zinc deficiency is sudden, such as when zinc is left out of
the nutrient solution, the chlorosis can appear identical to
that of iron and manganese deficiency without the little leaf.
Boron (B) — Symptoms include slight chlorosis to
brown or black scorching of new leaf tips and die-back
of the growing points similar to calcium deficiency. The
brown and black die-back tissue is dry, brittle, and easily
crumbled. The pith of affected stems may be hollow, and the
epidermis roughened and cracked. In addition to scorching
of new leaf tips, die-back of growing points, and cracked
stems, plants have short internodes with prolific lateral
shoot development that may develop on midribs of the
leaves and on the flower clusters. The mildest symptom
shown on mature fruit is minute cracking to heavier con-
centric cracking in the skin on the shoulders. With severe
deficiency, fruit may show a distinct cracked, brown, corky
area under the calyx.
Copper (Cu) — Leaves at the top of the plant wilt easi-
ly. This is followed by chlorotic and necrotic areas in the
leaves. Leaves on top half of plant show unusual puckering
with veinal chlorosis. There may be an absence of a knot on the
leaf where the petiole joins the main stem of plant beginning
about 10 or more leaves below growing point. Splitting of ripe
fruit, especially under warm temperatures, is an indication of
low copper. Increase copper in the nutrient solution up to 0.5
to 1.0 ppm if it is lower, or up to a maximum of 2 ppm.
Molybdenum (Mo) — Older leaves show interveinal
chlorotic blotches, become cupped and thickened. Chlorosis
continues upward to younger leaves as deficiency progresses.
This deficiency is seldom seen in greenhouse tomatoes.
Physiological Disorders
Many problems that occur with tomatoes are not caused
by insects or diseases. These problems are due to environ-
ment (temperature, humidity, light, water, etc.) or nutrition
and are termed “physiological disorders.” Listed are
descriptions of the most common disorders:
Radial Cracking
These are cracks that radiate out from the calyx (stem
end) of the fruit and proceed downwards. If one crack is less
than one-half inch long and not deep, the fruit is still mar-
ketable. If cracks are deeper, longer, or more numerous, the
fruit is not marketable. These cracks are caused by too much
water following too little water; very fast growth with high
temperature and moisture; or a large difference between day
and night temperatures. Also, be sure that the fertilizer level
is adequate (check your EC).
Concentric Cracking
These cracks are in the formation of concentric circles,
one inside another, around the calyx (stem end) of the fruit.
Depending on severity, fruit may or may not be marketable.
This cracking is also caused by a water problem. Be sure
that fertilizer supply is adequate (check your EC). These
cracks are caused by too much water following too little
water; very fast growth with high temperature and moisture;
or a large difference between day and night temperatures.
Splitting
Splitting is not the same as cracking (see above). When
fruit are exposed to very high temperatures, such as those
found in many greenhouses in May and June in Mississippi,
the fruit have a tendency to split the skin, a result of tem-
perature stress. Solutions include these:
• Lower the air temperature by using shading or evapora-
tive cooling (see section on Greenhouse Cooling).
• Increase the supply of copper in the nutrient solution
up to 2 ppm. One tablespoon of copper sulfate in 1,000 gal-
lons of water will supply 1 ppm copper.
Do not try to grow greenhouse tomatoes through the
summer in Mississippi; the resulting fruit will usually show
this disorder.
Splitting can also ocur when the night temperature is too
low, followed by a sunny day, such as in late fall or winter.
Be sure the night temperature is not lower than 64 ºF.
Catfacing
This is a malformation, scarring, or cracking of fruit at
the blossom end, sometimes leaving “holes” in the fruit
exposing the locules. This defect is caused by very high or
low temperatures during fruit set, or any disturbance to the
flower parts. It may also be a result of 2,4-D herbicide
injury. Some varieties are less susceptible than others.
Minute Cracking (Russetting)
Russetting is a condition in which the fruit skin appears
roughened, especially along the shoulder. Close examina-
tion reveals thousands of minute cracks on the fruit surface.
This is very different from the more common concentric
cracking (rings) or radial cracking (splits coming out from
the stem end) on the top of the fruit. These cracks are so
small they might be mistaken for a roughened skin. The
same situation occurs with bell peppers, pears, and potatoes.
18
Russetted fruit are not marketable because appearance is
below standard, and even more important, the shelf life of
russetted tomatoes is greatly diminished. This is because
water escapes via the minute cracks, causing loss of weight,
shriveling, and breakdown. When fruit lose 5 percent of
their weight (due to water loss), they soon become soft, and
their shelf life is reduced. Do not ship tomatoes with this
condition.
Research conducted at an agricultural research station in
Naaldwijk, Holland, has identified two sets of conditions
that promote russetting (called “crazing” in some publica-
tions).
Condition 1. As the crop approaches the end of its pro-
ductive season, plants are often topped (terminal cut off) to
remove any new flowers and fruit that will not have time to
mature. This often promotes a growth of side shoots and
results in russetting. The reasoning is that regrowth of the
side shoots stimulates activity with the roots, forcing more
water and nutrients into the limited number of fruit remain-
ing. Plants that were topped but had all side shoots removed
had much less russetting. Plants that were not topped at all
had the least russetting. Apparently, allowing small fruit to
develop at the tops of plants provides a more balanced
growth and better distribution of nutrients and water.
Regular, uninterrupted growth is important in limiting this
problem. If you have had a problem with russetting, do not
top plants as they approach the end of the season. If you
have already topped, remove new side shoots.
Condition 2. Low greenhouse air temperature, especially
in combination with high day temperature, has been shown to
cause russetting. The difference between air and fruit temper-
atures may be the real culprit. In research at the same station,
a temperature of 62 °F caused 46 percent of a crop to be rus-
setted, while three warmer temperatures averaged consider-
ably less russetted fruit. If russetting has been a problem, raise
the minimum temperature to 64 °F or above.
Here are some ways to reduce the likelihood of problems
with russetting:
• Avoid sudden changes in growing conditions, including
climate and electrical conductivity (EC) of the nutrient
solution.
• Keep the EC high enough for continuous growth.
• Be sure the potassium level is high enough.
• Avoid situations that cause condensation on fruit. This
includes poorly ventilated greenhouses and refrigera-
tion of harvested fruit.
• There are some varietal differences in susceptibility.
Capello is more prone to this problem than Trend,
which in turn is more prone than Caruso.
Zipper Scar (also called “Anther Scar”)
This is a vertical scar along the side of the fruit that
resembles a zipper, or perhaps the type of scar left by stitch-
es. It is caused by the anther sticking to the edge of the ovary
(immature fruit). As the fruit increases in size, the anther
tears away from the fruit, leaving a scar. This is a genetic
problem and probably not caused by any environmental
conditions.
Blotchy Ripening (also called “Gray Wall”)
This problem appears as flattened, blotchy, brownish-
gray areas on green fruit. As the fruit turns red, these areas
may remain gray or turn yellow, causing uneven ripening.
Dark brown vascular tissue can be seen in fruit walls when
fruit is cut. Identifying the specific cause for this defect is
probably more difficult than for any other defect. It can be
caused by low temperature, temperature fluctuations, high
humidity, low light intensity, high moisture, high nitrogen,
low potassium, compaction of the growing medium, etc.
High temperatures (above 86 °F) prevent formation of
lycopene, the pigment that gives tomatoes red color. Also,
certain fungi, bacteria, or tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) may
be involved. Since some varieties are more susceptible than
others, it is advisable to switch varieties if blotchy ripening
is a serious problem.
Green Shoulder
This appears as a dark-green area at the top (calyx end)
of ripening fruit, which never turns red. Often, the area may
turn yellow as the remainder of the fruit ripens. The disorder
is genetic, but is brought out especially in conditions of high
light and temperature. Recommended procedures include
increasing ventilation during warm periods, being sure that
plants are not defoliated above developing clusters, using
some type of shading system (see section on Greenhouse
Cooling), and adequate phosphorus and potassium fertility.
Also, some varieties are immune (non-greenback) or par-
tially immune (semi-greenback) to this defect (see section
on Varieties).
Blossom-End Rot (BER)
Although referred to as a rot, this problem is not caused
by an organism. It appears as a light tan, brown, or black
sunken area at or near the base (blossom end) of the fruit. It
is not soft, but is firm and somewhat leathery and may be
accompanied by a dry rot. Sometimes it appears only inside
the fruit as a blackened area, with no symptoms on the out-
side. Occasionally, a secondary organism invades the tissue
causing a soft rot. Remove and discard any immature fruit
that show symptoms; once a fruit has blossom-end rot, it
will not go away.
BER is caused by insufficient calcium in the fruit. Even
though adequate calcium may be applied in the nutrient
solution, it may not be reaching the fruit because of insuffi-
cient water. If plants wilt, it is difficult for nutrients to reach
the fruit. Although BER is a calcium problem, it can result
from water stress. Rapidly growing plants suddenly exposed
to drought are especially susceptible. Any stress condition
interferes with the uptake of calcium, and may cause BER.
Some stressors are excessive salinity of the growing medi-
um, high nitrogen, rapid plant growth, high temperature,
high humidity, and root damage.
To prevent BER, maintain steady plant growth, and avoid
wide fluctuations in water and temperature. The calcium
level in the nutrient solution should be at least 125 ppm.
Once BER occurs, it can be prevented in nonaffected fruit
with a foliar spray of calcium chloride (36 percent calcium)
19
at the rate of 14 to 64 ounces per 100 gallons (or 4 table-
spoons/gallon) of water. Or, use calcium nitrate (20 percent
calcium) at the rate of 17.5 pounds per 100 gallons (or 9
tablespoons/gallon) of water. For a small-scaled operation, a
commercial product called “Stop Rot” is available. Use 1
pint per 7 1/2 gallons, and spray twice per week until the
problem is corrected.
Avoid excess nitrogen fertilizer, especially the ammoni-
um forms. Ammonium increases the demand for calcium,
limiting the amount available. Some varieties may be more
resistant to BER than others.
Puffiness
Fruit that are “puffy” have an angular appearance, with
one or more sides flatter than the rest. They also weigh less,
and the locules are not well filled; i.e., there is not much gel
and seed inside. Some of the locules may be empty.
Puffiness is a product of poor pollination caused by any
of the following environmental problems that affect good
pollination:
• high temperature, especially above 90 °F
• low temperature, especially below 55 °F
• wide differences between day and night temperature
• drought
• excessive water
• excessive nitrogen
• use of fruit hormones, or
• lack of adequate carbon dioxide (CO2)
If puffiness is a problem, try to change any of the above
conditions that may apply, especially too high a nitrogen
level. Also, be sure that you use an electric pollinator every
other day and that pollination is done at the proper time of
day, or use bumblebees (see section on Pollination).
Increase air movement within the greenhouse to cool the air
and to bring CO2 closer to the leaf surfaces where it is need-
ed. There are no varieties resistant to this problem.
Sunscald
This appears as a whitish or yellowish patch on the side
of the fruit facing the sun. This area may shrink and form a
large white spot with a papery surface, or a white, blistered
area on a green fruit. This is a “sun burn” caused by sudden
exposure of a formerly shaded fruit to direct sunlight, espe-
cially during hot, dry weather. The area may be secondarily
invaded by a fungus, although this is not the real problem.
Uncovering fruit by shifting foliage during harvest is the
most likely cause, although death of leaves (which had shad-
ed fruit) due to disease can lead to sunscald as well.
Appendix I. Additional Information
Note: All of the MSU-ES publications listed below are available on the Greenhouse Tomato FAQ website (see below).
Killebrew, Frank, Pat Harris, and Herbert Willcutt.
1999. Greenhouse Tomatoes – Pest Management in
Mississippi. Mississippi State University Extension
Service. Publication 1861.
Snyder, Richard G., and Jim Thomas. 1996.
Fertigation – The Basics of Injecting Fertilizer for Field-
Grown Tomatoes. Mississippi State University Extension
Service. Publication 2037.
Snyder, Richard G. 1995. Starting Vegetable
Transplants. Mississippi State University Extension
Service. Publication 1995.
Snyder, Richard G. 1993. Injector Planner – A
Spreadsheet Approach to Fertilization Management for
Greenhouse Tomatoes. Mississippi Agricultural and
Forestry Experiment Station. Research Bulletin 1003.
Snyder, Richard G. 1993. Environmental Control for
Greenhouse Tomatoes. Mississippi State University
Extension Service. Publication 1879.
Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the 26th
National Agricultural Plastics Congress and the American
Greenhouse Vegetable Growers Association Conference,
Atlantic City, NJ, June14-18, 1996. (source: Pat Heuser,
Executive Secretary, American Society for Plasticulture,
526 Brittany Drive, State College, PA 16803).
Proceedings for the Greenhouse Tomato Seminar,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada, August 3-4, 1995. Dr. Richard
G. Snyder, Coordinator. (source: American Society for
Appendix II. Commercial Greenhouse Manufacturers (G) and Suppliers (S)
AgBio Development, Inc.
9915 Raleigh Street
Westminster, CO 80030
303-469-9221
http://www.agrobiologicals.com
(Mycostop biofungicide)
A&L Southern Agricultural Labs
1301 W. Copans Road, Bldg. D#8
Pompano Beach, FL 33064
305-972-3255
http://www.al-labs.com
20
Horticultural Science Press, 600 Cameron Street,
Alexandria, VA 22314-2562).
Hood, Ken, Richard G. Snyder, and Charles Walden,
2000. A Budget for Greenhouse Tomatoes, Mississippi
State University Extension Service. Publication 2257.
Greenhouse Tomato FAQ (Frequently Asked
Questions) On the web at
http://www.msucares.com/crops/comhort/greenhouse.html.
Listing of Greenhouse Vegetable Production Resources
on the web at http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/green-
house_veg/webresources.html.
Listing of Greenhouse Vegetable Production Resources
Print at http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-32-
a.html.
Greenhouse Tomato Short Course – In March of each
year, the Greenhouse Tomato Short Course is held in
Jackson, Mississippi. This is a two-day intensive training
for growers and potential growers of greenhouse tomatoes
and other vegetables. Attend this program if you are seri-
ously considering going into the greenhouse vegetable
business. Expert speakers are brought in from all over the
United States and other countries to address their topics of
expertise. To have your name added to the mailing list,
call (601) 892-3731 or send an email message to
RickS@ext.msstate.edu. For more information concerning
the short course, visit
http://www.msstate.edu/dept/cmrec/GHSC.htm.
Agra Tech, Inc. (G)
2131 Piedmont Way
Pittsburg, CA 94565
925-432-3399
http://www.agra-tech.com
(greenhouses)
Agrisales, Inc.
P.O.Box 2060
Plant City, FL 33564-2060
813-754-8885
http://www.agrisales.com
Agro Dynamics Bobby’s Eastside Market
4300 L. B. McLeod Road, Suite C Route 1, Box 113
Orlando, FL 32811 Philadelphia, MS 39350
407-872-2250 Buckman Laboratories, Inc.
http://www.agrodynamics.com 1256 N. McLean Blvd.
(rockwool) Memphis, TN 38108
Albert J. Lauer, Inc. 901-274-8316
16700 Highway 3 http://www.buckman.com
Chippendale Ave. West The Buffalo Co., Inc.
Rosemont, MN 55068 503 E. Lakeshore Drive
612-423-1651 Ocoee, FL 34761
(greenhouses) 407-656-3118
American Plant Products & Services, Inc. (G, S) BWI, Inc. (G, S)
9200 NW 10th Street, 6013 McRaven Road
Oklahoma City, OK 73127 P.O. Box 20407
1-800-522-3376 Jackson, MS 39209
http://www.americanplant.com 1-800-395-2580
Anderson Injectors http://www.bwicompanies.com
2100 Anderson Drive Carolina Greenhouses (G)
P.O. Box 1006 P.O. Box 1140
Muskogee, OK 74401 Kinston, NC 28503
918-687-4426 919-523-9300
http://www.heanderson.com http://www.carolinagreenhouses.com
(fertilizer injectors) (greenhouses)
Atlas Greenhouse Systems, Inc. CASSCO (G, S)
Hwy. 82 East U.S. Highway 231, North
P.O. Box 558 P.O. Box 3508
Alapaha, GA 31622 Montgomery, AL 36193
1-800-346-9902 1-800-933-5888
http://www.atlasgreenhouse.com
(greenhouses) Cathedral Greenhouses
252 West Leavell Woods Drive
Barnes Brothers Nursery & Garden Center Jackson, MS 39212
3359 Medgar Evers Blvd. 601-372-1904
P.O. Box 12947 (hobby greenhouses)
Jackson, MS 39236-2947
601-362-2448 Caves Enterprises, Inc. (G)
(plastic nursery buckets) 40529 Pumpkin Center Road
BASF Corporation Hammond, LA 70403
102 Rowley Court 1-800-535-0800
Apex, NC 27502-5932 (greenhouses)
813-960-2644 Century Tube Corp.
http://www.basf.com P.O. Box 7612
BFG, Inc. (G, S) Pine Bluff, AR 71611
14500 Kinsman Road 1-800-643-1523
Burton, OH 44021 www.century-tube.com
216-834-1883 (greenhouses)
1-800-883-0234
http://www.bfgsupply.com Chapin Watermatics, Inc.
2192 Meadow Lark Road
BIO-COMP Spring Hill, FL 34608
2116-B Bio-Comp Drive 904-686-5007
Edenton, NC 27932 http://www.chapindrip.com
919-482-8528 (irrigation)

21
Chilean Nitrate Corporation De Ruiter Seeds, Inc.
9212 County Line Road 3001 Bethel Road, Suite 207
Lithia, FL 33547 P.O. Box 20228
941-425-9538 Columbus, OH 43220
http://www.cncusa.com 614-459-1498
(fertilizer) http://www.deruiterusa.com
Compu-Heat (seeds for greenhouse vegetables)
7589 Race Road Dosatron International, Inc.
North Ridgeville, OH 44039 2090 Sunnydale Boulevard
1-800-776-6829 Holcomb, KS 67851
(waste oil burners/heaters) 813-443-5404
Conley Manufacturing & Sales (G) http://www.dosatron.com
4344 E. Mission Boulevard (fertilizer injectors)
Montclair, CA 91763 Eakes Nursery Materials, Inc.
1-800-377-8441 249 Bethel Church Road
http://www.conleys.com Sanford, MS 39479
(greenhouses) 601-722-4797
Continental Products Company (ground pine bark)
1150 East 222 Street Energy Management Systems
Euclid, OH 44117 12560 West River Road
216-531-0710 Clearwater, FL 34625-1201
http://www.continentalprod.com 1-800-999-3781
(shade compound) Florida Seed Co., Inc.
CO-EX Corporation 4950 Frontage Road South
5 Alexander Drive Lakeland, FL 33801-3193
Wallingford, CT 06492 1-800-342-7333
1-800-888-5364 (seeds)
http://www.co-excorp.com Forestry Suppliers, Inc. (S)
(greenhouses) 205 W. Rankin Street
Coor Farm Supply P.O. Box 8397
3 Malta Street Jackson, MS 39284-8397
P.O. Box 525 1-800-682-5397
Smithfield, NC 27577 http://www.forestry-suppliers.com
1-800-999-4573 (instruments, wide range of supplies)
http://www.scnla.com/coor_farm.htm GB Systems, Inc.
CropKing, Inc. (G, S) P.O. Box 19497
5050 Greenwich Road Boulder, CO 80308
Seville, OH 44273-9413 303-473-9144 (CO office)
330-769-2002 216-353-9437 (OH office)
http://www.cropking.com (biologicals, bumblebees)
(greenhouses) General Supply Corporation (S)
Daniel Label Printing, Inc. 303 Commerce Park Drive
3021 Lincoln Avenue P.O. Box 9347
North Little Rock, AR 72114 Jackson, MS 39286-9347
501-945-1349 1-800-647-6540
http://www.dlpforlabels.com http://www.generalsupplycorp.com
(labels) George Dodd’s Nursery Supply
Dave Butler Rice Hull Compost, Inc. 9100 Church Street
6021 SR 221 P.O. Box 86
Georgetown, OH 45121-9401 Semmes, AL 36575
1-800-622-4936 1-800-821-0243
(rice hulls) (ground pine bark)

22
 Hydrogardens, Inc. (G, S)
Glasteel Tennessee
P.O.Box 25845
830 Highway 57
Colorado Springs, CO 80936
Collierville, TN 38017-5202
1-800-634-6362
1-800-238-5546
http://www.hydro-gardens.com
http://www.glasteel.com
(general supplies, seeds, fertilizers)
Gothic Arch Greenhouses
Imperial Builders & Supply Inc.
P.O. Box 1564
P.O.Box 670
Mobile, AL 36633
Apopka, FL 32704-0670
1-800-531-4769
1-800-442-4147
1-334-432-7529
407-889-4147
http://www.gothicarchgreenhouses.com
http://www.imperialbuilders.com
(hobby greenhouses)
(greenhouses)
Grainger’s (S)
IPM Laboratories
3551 I-55 South, West Frontage Road
Main Street
Jackson, MS 39201-4963
Locke, NY 13092
601-352-0891
315-497-3129
http://www.grainger.com
http://www.ipmlabs.com
(motors)
Irrigation Mart, Inc.
Grayson Research
3303 McDonald Avenue
1040 Grayson Farm Road
Ruston, LA 71270-7412
Creedmore, NC 27522
1-800-729-7246
919-528-4925
http://www.irrigation-mart.com
Green Thumb Group, Inc. (irrigation)
3380 Vengard, Suite Two
Janco Greenhouses
Downers Grove, IL 60515
9390 Davis Ave.
(greenhouse screening)
Laurel, MD 20723
Gromax Plasticulture, Inc. 1-800-323-6933
2250 Gulf Gate Drive, Suite A http://www.jancoinc.com
Sarasota, FL 34231-4838 (greenhouses)
904-432-0962
J. A. Nearing Co., Inc.
http://www.gromax-int.com/homeframe.htm
9390 David Avenue
(vertical towers)
Laurel, MD 20810
Grower’s Supply Center (S) 301-498-5700
3000 South Highway 77, Unit 214
J-F Equipment Co.
Lynn Haven, FL 32444
1230 Crowley Drive
850-785-8974
Carrollton, TX 75006-1315
Guelph Twines LTD. 1-800-344-6767
50 Crimea Street (Dosmatic injectors)
P.O. Box 125
J. M. McConkey & Co. (G, S)
Guelph, Ontario, N1H 6J6
12321 Western Avenue
519-821-9140
Garden Grove, CA 92641
(plastic twine)
714-894-0581
Hardy Mfg. Co., Inc. http://www.mcconkeyco.com
Route 4, Box 156
J&M Industries, Inc. (S)
Philadelphia, MS 39350
300 Ponchatoula Parkway
1-800-431-3239
Ponchatoula, LA 70454
(wood heaters, waste oil burners)
504-386-6000
Hummert International (S) http://www.jmindustries.com
4500 Earth City Expressway (produce packaging supplies)
Earth City, MO 63045
1-800-325-3055
http://www.hummert.com

23
Jaderloon Co., Inc. (G, S) Nexus Greenhouse Corporation (G)
P.O. Box 685 10983 Leroy Drive
Irmo, SC 29063 Northglenn, CO 80233
803-798-4000 1-800-228-9639
1-800-258-7171 http://www.nexuscorp.com
http://www.jaderloon.com (greenhouses)
(greenhouses) Paramount Seeds, Inc.
Keeler-Glasgow Co., Inc. P.O. Box 1866
P.O. Box 158 Palm City, FL 34991
Hartford, MI 49407 561-221-0653
1-800-526-7327 http://paramount-seeds.com
http://www.keeler-glasgow.com (seeds)
(greenhouses) Penick’s Forest Products
Klink Bros., Inc. (G) P.O. Box 479
4369 Circle Avenue Macon, MS 39341
Castro Valley, CA 94546 601-726-5340
415-581-7905 (bark, topsoil, pine posts/poles)
Koppert USA Peter Lederer
P.O. Box 19497 P.O. Box 271
Boulder, CO 80308-2497 Big Flats, NY 14814
216-353-9437 607-562-8267
http://www.koppert.com Peters Fertilizer Products
(biological control, bumblebees) The Scotts Company
L & L Greenhouses (G) 14111 Scotts Lawn Road
P.O. Box 90 Marysville, OH 43041
Poyen, AR 72128 1-800-492-8255
1-800-843-9686 http://www.scottsco.com/
Ludy Greenhouse Manufacturing Corp. (G) (greenhouse tomato fertilizers)
P.O. Box 141 Phillips Brothers Pine Bark Processing
New Madison, OH 45346 County Farm Road
1-800-255-LUDY Brookhaven, MS 39601
http://www.ludy.com 601-833-7858
(greenhouses) (pine bark - in bags or bulk)
Micro-Macro International, Inc. Plant Products Co., Ltd.
183 Paradise Blvd. Suite 108 6100 Maryhurst Drive
Athens, GA 30607 Dublin, Ohio 43017
706-548-4557 614-717-0330
(laboratory analysis) (rockwool, fertilizers, beneficials)
Mid-South E, Inc. Plantel Nurseries, Inc.
2015 Jackson Street P.O. Box 66553
Monroe, LA 71202 Los Angeles, CA 90066
318-322-7239 310-390-4711
http://www.midsouthextrusion.com http://www.plantelnurseries.com
Mycogen Corporation (seedling trays)
5701 SE 22nd Place Poly Drip Irrigation Supply
Ocala, FL 34471 13799 Airline Highway
904-624-1224 Baton Rouge, LA 70817
http://www.mycogen.com/Index_NoCookie.asp 1-800-676-0979
(biologicals) http://www.polydrip.com
Neogen Corporation (irrigation)
620 Lesher Place
Lansing, MI 48912
1-800-234-5333
http://www.neogen.com
(disease test kits) 24
Poly Growers Greenhouse Co. Solar Components Corporation (G)
P.O. Box 359 121 Valley Street
Muncy, PA 17756 Manchester, NH 03103
(greenhouses) 603-668-8186
Poly-Tex, Inc. (G) http://www.solar-components.com/default.htm
P.O. Box 458 Solar Prism Greenhouses (G)
Castle Rock, MN 55010 P.O. Box 40-PC4
1-800-852-3443 Amity, OR 97101
http://www.poly-tex.com 1-800-711-7336
(greenhouses and accessories) http://www.countryfamily.com
Pro-Gro Products (hobby greenhouses)
841 Pro-Gro Drive Southern Agricultural Insecticides
Elizabeth City, NC 27909 P.O. Box 429
1-800-334-3311 Hendersonville, NC 28793
Radiant Equipment Co. 704-229-2233
P.O. Box 949 http://www.southernag.com
San Andreas, CA 95249 Southern Time and Alarm
209-754-1801 1057 South Jackson Drive
Roberts Irrigation Products, Inc. Terry, MS 39170
700 Rancheros Drive 601-878-5066
San Marcos, CA 92069-3007 http://www.fugitt.com/index2.htm
619-744-4511 (alarms, computer controls)
http://www.robertsirrigation.com Spectrum Technologies, Inc. (S)
(irrigation) 12010 South Aero Drive
Rough Brothers (G) Plainfield, IL 60544
5513 Vine Street 1-800-436-4440
Cincinnati, OH 45217 http://www.specmeters.com
1-800-543-7351 (EC, pH meters, instrumentation)
http://www.roughbros.com Steuber Distributing Co.
(greenhouses) P.O. Box 100
Rounhouse Mfg. Co. (G) Snohomish, WA 98290
P.O. Box 1744 1-800-426-8815
Cleveland, TX 77327 http://www.steuberdistributing.com
713-593-1118 (greenhouses)
(shade cloth, ground covers, etc.) Structures, Unlimited (G)
S & M Farm Supply, Inc. (S) 2122 Whitfield Park Avenue
13690 SW 248th Street Sarasota, FL 34243-4048
Homestead, FL 33032 813-756-8129
1-800-432-3411 1-800-541-8129
352-620-5581 http://www.structuresunlimitedinc.com
(greenhouses)
San Joaquin Sulfur Co.
P.O. Box 700 Stuppy Greenhouse Manufacturing, Inc. (G, S)
Lodi, CA 95241 1212 Clay Street
209-368-6676 P.O. Box 12456
(sulfur) North Kansas City, MO 64116
1-800-733-5025
Soil Mender Products http://www.stuppy.com
3071 HWY 86 (greenhouses)
Tulia, TX 79088
806-627-4276 Sunderman Mfg Co.
www.soilmender.com 47143 250th Street
(compost) Baltic, SD 57003-5200
1-800-843-3312
http://www.sundermanmfg.com
(heating systems)

25
Taylor Manufacturing, Inc. Vicksburg Chemical Company
P.O. Box 518 5100 Poplar Avenue, Suite 2408
Elizabethtown, NC 28337 Memphis, TN 38137
1-800-545-2293 http://www.kpower.com
http://www.taylormfg.com (fertilizers)
(wood heaters) Wager Company of Florida, Inc.
Terra International P.O. Box 520296
P.O. Box 157 Longwood, FL 32752-0296
Flora, MS 39071 407-834-4667
601-879-3802 http://www.wagerco.com
http://www.terraindustries.com (irrigation and parts)
(fertilizers, chemicals) The Warehouse
Texas Greenhouse Company (G) 601 Chestnut Street
2524 White Settlement Road P.O. Box 699
Fort Worth, TX 76107 Summit, MS 39666
817-335-5447 601-276-7318
1-800-227-5447 (irrigation)
http://www.texasgreenhouse.com Westmark Co. (G, S)
(greenhouses and accessories) 3529 Touriga Drive
TotalGro Pleasanton, CA 94566
P.O. Box 805 415-846-8505
Winnsboro, LA 71295 Winandy Greenhouse Co., Inc.
318-435-7587 2211 Peacock Road
1-800-433-3055 Richmond, IN 47374
http://www.grannyshouse.com/page.cfm/1035 765-935-2111
(fertilizers) (greenhouses)
Tubular Structures (G) X. S. Smith, Inc. (G)
129 Radcliff Drive Drawer X
Lucedale, MS 39452 Red Bank, NJ 07701
601-947-9558 1-800-631-2226
United Greenhouse Systems http://www.xssmith.com
708 Washington Street Z-Top Greenhouse Co., Inc. (G)
Edgerton, WI 53534 64575 Gisclard Road
1-800-433-6834 Plaquemine, LA 70764
http://www.unitedgreenhouse.com 504-687-2161
(greenhouses) (self-ventilating greenhouses)
United Irrigation Supply, Inc. Zarn, Inc. (S)
Highway 84 West P.O. Box 1350
P.O. Box 854 Reidsville, NC 27320
Quitman, GA 31643 1-800-367-7687
912-263-9393 (plastic containers)
(irrigation)
United States Plastic Corp.
1390 Neubrecht Road
Lima, OH 45801-3196
1-800-821-0349
http://www.usplastic.com
(polyethylene tanks)
Van Wingerden Greenhouse Co. (G)
4078 Haywood Road
Horseshoe, NC 28742
704-891-7389
http://www.van-wingerden.com
(greenhouses)

26
Appendix III. Associations and Short Courses

American Society for Plasticulture Ohio State University Extension Service

Pat Heuser, Executive Secretary Agricultural Business Enhancement Center
526 Brittany Drive 440 E. Poe Rd., Suite 201
State College, PA 16803 Bowling Green, OH 43402-1351
814-238-7045 419-354-6916
Fax: 814-238-7051 Fax: 419-354-6416
Annual Meetings Annual Greenhouse Food Production Short Course
Proceedings (February)
Newsletter Proceedings
Ohio Hydroponic Vegetable Program
Hydroponic Society of America Hydroponic Study Group
P.O. Box 1183 Greenhouse Tours
El Cerrito, CA 94530
510-232-2323 Rutgers University
Fax: 510-232-2384 Dr. A. J. Both, Assistant Extension Specialist
http://hsa.hydroponics.org/ The State University Of New Jersey
Annual Meetings Bioresource Engineering
Proceedings Department of Plant Science
Newsletter 20 Ag Extension Way
Book Supply Service New Brunswick, NJ 08901-8500
732-932-9534
Mississippi Fruit and Vegetable Growers Association Fax: 732-932-7931
Dr. John Braswell, Secretary Annual Short Course – “Design of Greenhouse Systems”
South Mississippi Branch Experiment Station (January)
Box 193 http://aesop.rutgers.edu/~horteng
Poplarville, MS 39470
Annual Tri-State Fruit and Vegetable Conference Southern Greenhouse Vegetable Growers Association
http://www.msstate.edu/dept/cmrec/mfvga.htm Terri Buckler, Secretary
P.O. Box 654
Mississippi State University Extension Service Winnsboro, TX 75494
Truck Crops Branch Experiment Station 903-365-2457
P.O. Box 231 http://www.sgvga.org
Crystal Springs, MS 39059 Annual Meetings in Texas (Third weekend in July)
601-892-3731 Proceedings
Annual Greenhouse Tomato Short Course (March) Members receive Vegetable Press Newletter
http://www.msstate.edu/dept/cmrec/GHSC.htm
Vegetable Press Newsletter
http://www.msucares.com/newsletters/vegpress/index.html

North Carolina Greenhouse Vegetable Growers Association

C/o Dr. Mary Peet
Room 220, Box 7609
Kilgore Hall
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC 27695-7609
Annual Short Course
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/greenhouse_veg/ncgv-
ga.html

The mailing address for the author is Truck Crops Branch Experiment Station, P.O. Box 231, Crystal Springs, MS
39059; telephone (601) 892-3731, fax (601) 892-2056. For those with access to the internet or e-mail, you can reach
Dr. Richard Snyder at Ricks@ext.msstate.edu.

27
The author gratefully acknowledges the faculty and staff at the Truck Crops Branch Experiment Station
and expresses appreciation for their hard work in assisting with the greenhouse research in Crystal
Springs. This research is the basis for much of the information in this publication.

This publication is also available on the web at http://www.msucares.com/pubs/pub1828.htm.

By Dr. Richard G. Snyder, Extension Vegetable Specialist

Mississippi State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, disability, or
veteran status.

Publication 1828
Extension Service of Mississippi State University, cooperating with U.S. Department of Agriculture. Published in furtherance
of Acts of Congress, May 8 and June 30, 1914. JOE H. McGILBERRY, Interim Director (rev-500-10-01)
Greenhouse Tomato
Growers’ Glossary
Producing greenhouse tomatoes, like
many endeavors, has its own world of ter-
minology. But because of the integration of
many different fields—horticulture,
botany, plant physiology, plant pathology,
entomology, and others—are so closely
related, there are more terms in this field
than perhaps any other agricultural pur-
suit. Also, greenhouse tomato production
is rooted in European and Asian countries
and was well established in Holland,
England, and Japan, before being trans-
ported to Canada and eventually to the
United States. So, some words have a
more international base.
For of all of these reasons, this
Greenhouse Tomato Growers’ Glossary
was assembled to help growers with
learning the language of hydroponics and
greenhouse tomato production. For more
specific information, refer to other publi-
cations of the Mississippi State University
Extension Service. All of these publica-
tions are online at http://msucares.com,
or you may get copies from your county
Mississippi State University Extension
Service office:
Greenhouse Tomato Handbook, MSU
Extension Publication 1828
Budget for Greenhouse Tomatoes, MSU
Extension Publication 2257
Environmental Control for Greenhouse
Tomatoes, MSU Extension Publication
1879
Greenhouse Tomatoes: Pest Management
in Mississippi, MSU Extension Publication
1861
Starting Vegetable Transplants, MSU
Extension Publication 1995
Fertigation: The Basics of Injecting
Fertilizer for Field-Grown Tomatoes, MSU
Extension Publication 2037
A Spreadsheet Approach to Fertilization
Management For Greenhouse Tomatoes,
MAFES Bulletin 1003
Helpful Terms To Know
bacterium: microscopic, one-celled organ-
isms reproducing by fission, lacking
chlorophyll, and causing disease in toma-
to, such as bacterial canker, bacterial wilt,
bacterial stem rot, pith necrosis, and bacte-
rial soft rot.
biological control: using one or more liv-
ing organisms to help control a pest or
limit its population.
blade: the extended flat part of a leaf, not
including the petiole.
blossom-end rot: a sunken, leathery
brown or black spot on the bottom or near
the bottom of a tomato fruit; not from a
disease; usually from lack of water or not
enough calcium in the fruit.
bullish: a plant with thick, leathery, dark-
green leaves, little or no fruit, and very
vegetative; may be caused by overfertiliza-
tion with nitrogen or genetic off-type.
calyx: the green pointed structures
beneath flower petals and at the top of the
fruit; composed of individual sepals.
canker: a sunken, discolored area of diseased plant tis-
sue that is usually dry and corky in texture.
chlorosis: yellowing of normally green tissue caused
by the lack of chlorophyll; can be caused by disease,
lack of nutrients, shading, age, or other factors.
cluster: a group of flowers or fruits that set at the same
point on the plant.
compound: a type of leaf composed of many parts or
leaflets; non-compound leaves are called simple.
condensation: accumulation of water droplets on the
inside of plastic covering the greenhouse that can then
drip onto plants, resulting in artificial rain on the crop;
can also form on leaf and fruit surfaces, promoting
disease.
cool pad: see wet wall.
corolla: all of the flower petals considered together
make up the corolla.
disinfectant: an agent that kills or inactivates
pathogens on greenhouse or plant
surfaces.
dissemination: transfer of inoculum from diseased to
healthy plants.
drench: a pesticide treatment that is applied to the
soil, or medium, in which a plant is growing.
EC: abbreviation for electroconductivity; a measure-
ment of how much electrical current a solution can
conduct; corresponds to amount of fertilizer dissolved
in solution.
electroconductivity: see EC.
emitter: device that puts water/fertilizer mixture
directly into the growing medium.
epidemic: widespread, severe outbreak of disease.
fertigation: mixing or putting fertilizer into the irriga-
tion water so fertilizer is delivered with irrigation
water.
foliar spray: a pesticide that is sprayed on the leaves
of plants.
fruit: the tomato that is eaten.
fruiting bodies: complex fungal structures containing
spores.
fungicide: a chemical or biological product applied to
plants to prevent infection by disease-causing organ-
isms.
fungus: a microscopic organism lacking chlorophyll
and the ability to manufacture its own food, with a
body of spider web-like filaments.
glazing: the covering over a greenhouse; this can be
polyethylene, polycarbonate, glass, or other transpar-
ent materials.
hand: see cluster.
head: the top of a plant.
host: plant that is attacked by a pathogen.
hydroponic: using water to grow plants without soil;
soil-less culture.
hyphae: threadlike filaments forming the mycelium of
a fungus.
infection: when a pathogen is established in a host.
inoculum: any part of a pathogen that can cause dis-
ease.
insecticide: a chemical or product used to control
insect pests.
internode: the part of the stem between leaves.
IPM: abbreviation for integrated pest management;
using various methods of insect and disease control
rather than only chemicals.
leaflet: the subdivisions of a leaf; the tomato leaf is
compound, so it is made up of many leaflets.
lean & lower: leaning plants over and dropping them
when they are taller than the support wire; it is impor-
tant to lean when lowering to avoid stem breakage;
this needs to be repeated every 2 weeks or so in
mature plants.
lesion: a localized area of diseased plant tissue (a leaf
spot).
liquid concentrate: a formulation of pesticide sold in
concentrated liquid form; it must be diluted with
water before being applied.
media: (plural) material in which plants are grown,
such as perlite, pine bark, and peat moss.
medium: singular form of media.
mho, millimho, micromho: units of electrical conduc-
tance used to estimate fertilizer concentration to deter-
mine how strong a fertilizer solution has been mixed;
there are 1,000 millimhos in a mho, and 1,000,000
micromhos in a mho.
mycelium: a mass of fungal growth consisting of
branching, threadlike hyphae.
necrosis: a dead or dying area of plant tissue.
node: the point on the stem where a leaf is attached.
NFT: nutrient film technique; using plastic sheeting
and water to grow plants hydroponically.
parasite: an insect or other organism that searches for
a pest species and deposits its eggs into that species.
The immature parasites develop within the pest, even-
tually killing it.
parts per million: see ppm.
pathogen: a living organism that can infect a plant; in
the context of biological control, a disease organism
that attacks a pest species and helps control the pest.
pedicel: the “flower stalk” that holds a single flower.
peduncle: the “fruit stalk” that holds a cluster of fruit.
petiole: the “stem” of a leaf; attaches the plant stem to
the leaf blade.
pH: measurement of how acidic or basic (alkaline) a
solution is; less than 7 is acidic; more than 7 is basic.
plant disease: a malfunctioning plant; includes leaf
spots, cankers, wilts, rots, nutrient deficiency and toxi-
city, and various fruit and environmental disorders.
pollinate (pollination): transfer of pollen from anther
(male flower part) to stigma (female flower part); with
greenhouse tomatoes, this is done with an electric pol-
linator or with bumblebees.
ppm: abbreviation for parts per million; the concentra-
tion of a fertilizer or any other material in water.
Note: 10,000 parts per million = 1%.
predator: an insect or other organism that actively
searches for and eats a pest species, thus helping to
control or limit its population.
relative humidity: the amount of water in the air
divided by the amount of water the air could hold if
saturated, at a particular temperature; expressed as a
percentage.
root or root ball: the below ground portion of a plant;
a mass of roots at the base of the plant that can fill the
container (bag, bucket) in which plants grow.
sclerotia: compact masses of hyphae, usually in the
form of a hard, round, or irregularly shaped structure,
which can survive adverse conditions.
scouting: regularly checking a crop for insect and dis-
ease infestations to determine pest population levels.
seedling: a very young plant.
sepal: the individual parts of a calyx; green pointed
structure beneath flower petal and at top of fruit.
solubility limit: the most fertilizer that can be dis-
solved in water at a given temperature; the solubility
limit increases as water warms.
spindly: a plant with thin stems, small leaves, and
long internodes; leggy; opposite of stocky.
spore: a reproductive structure of a fungus (like a
seed).
stem: the main trunk of the plant; has roots attached
at the base and leaves, flowers, and fruit attached to
above-ground portion; tomatoes are usually pruned to
one main stem.
systemic: a pesticide that is absorbed by the plant,
either through the roots or leaves, and translocated to
other plant parts, where it controls insect or disease
pests; also refers to a pathogen, such as a virus, that
spreads inside the plant.
toxicity: a compound’s ability to injure a plant, such as
too much of a nutrient or chemical.
transpiration: the flow of water from the plant to the
atmosphere, such as evaporation of moisture from the
plant through the leaf surfaces.
transplant: a young plant past the seedling stage;
replanting a small plant to a larger container.
turgid: the stiffness of a plant because of internal
water pressure; opposite of wilted; it is best to remove
shoots (suckers) or leaves when plants are turgid so
you can easily snap off shoots or leaves.
vapor pressure deficit (VPD): the difference between
the actual water vapor pressure and the saturation of
water vapor pressure at a particular temperature; at a
low VPD, transpiration may be too low; at a high
VPD, transpiration may be too high; you can manipu-
late VPD to make plants more vegetative or more gen-
erative.
virus: microscopic organisms having a strand of nucle-
ic acid surrounded by a protein coat and capable of
causing disease in tomato, such as tomato spotted wilt
virus, tomato yellow leaf curl virus, and tomato mosa-
ic virus.
wet wall: an evaporative cooling system, also called
cool pad system; cools by pulling water-saturated air
into the greenhouse that vaporizes, absorbing heat in
the process; the exhaust fans then remove the warmed
vapor.
wettable granule: a formulation of pesticide sold as a
dry granule that must be dissolved in water before
being applied.
wettable powder: a formulation of pesticide sold as a
dry powder that must be dissolved in water before
being applied.

water soluble package: a formulation of pesticide sold wilt: loss of turgidity in plant tissue associated with
in water soluble packages that have a premeasured the lack of water.
amount of dry, water soluble insecticide. The package
dissolves when you put it in water, thus releasing the
pesticide it contains.

Copyright 2005 by Mississippi State University. All rights reserved. This publication may be copied and distributed
without alteration for nonprofit educational purposes provided that credit is given to the Mississippi State University
Extension Service.

By Dr. Richard G. Snyder, professor and vegetable specialist, Central Mississippi Research & Extension
Center; Dr. David M. Ingram, associate Extension/Research professor, Central Mississippi Research &
Extension Center, and Dr. Blake Layton, Extension professor, Entomology & Plant Pathology

Mississippi State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex,
sexual orientation, group affiliation, age, disability, or veteran status.

Publication 2364
Extension Service of Mississippi State University, cooperating with U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Published in furtherance of Acts of Congress, May 8 and June 30, 1914. JOE H. MCGILBERRY, Director
(POD-02-05)
 http://king.wsu.edu
KING COUNTY 700 Fifth Ave, Suite 3700
Seattle, WA 98104-5037
206-296-3900 /TTY-TDD 296-5242

Greenhouse Growing
Agriculture and Natural Resources Fact Sheet # 528

The Basic Idea

Greenhouse production offers a cost-efficient way to
extend the growing season at both ends and to even grow
some crops year-round. A lot of information is available
on greenhouse growing, equipment, and supplies. This
house is three zones warmer than where you live.” (See
fact sheet presents a few basic considerations and is meant
Growing for Market Vol. No. 1). USDA climate zones are
as a starting point. Follow-up on some of the ideas and
based on a 10° F spread so this means the temperature
resources provided here with your own research and
inside a greenhouse could be 15-30° F warmer, a signifi-
experiments.
cant difference in the cool months of spring, autumn, and
Most people think of greenhouses as solar, or heated
winter in this area. Ventilation is as important as heat.
and lighted by the sun. Solar greenhouses are insulated to
Lack of proper ventilation can result in too much heat or
collect and store energy from the sun for use at night and
conditions that favor mildew and disease.
during cloudy weather. Here in the Pacific Northwest,
Winter plants have to be planted before winter to
however, most of the light in winter is diffuse and little
overcome the limitation on growth caused by the cooler
direct light from the sun reaches the earth because of our
temperatures of winter lower levels of light (see Frost
cloudy climate. As a result, greenhouse production in this
Dates/Climatic Data, Community Horticulture Fact Sheet
area will likely require the use of supplementary light or
#40). During the period of winter when there are less than
heat. This type of greenhouse system is often referred to as
10 hours of daylight (see figure), newly sown seeds grow
an active system. Those that rely only on energy from the
very slowly. Count on these crops for early spring harvest.
sun are passive systems.

Types and Location 25

Greenhouses generally are attached to a building (house,

shed, barn) or are freestanding. Most commercial green- 20

houses are freestanding. Whichever type you choose, the

15
best placement is such that light is captured from all
Hours

directions. For an attached greenhouse, the south side of a 10

building will be the sunniest all year. The north side is
not recommended. Wind is another factor to consider in 5

deciding where to locate a greenhouse, especially one that

is freestanding. 0
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Temperature & Light
In the Pacific Northwest the long period of short gray days
during winter make solar heating difficult. Electric lights
and alternative heating sources (e.g., electric or fossil fuel)
can be used during fall, winter, and spring months to
overcome this limitation. You may also want to install a
backup heating system in case of power failure.
However, Eliot Coleman, author of the book Four-
Season Harvest: How to Harvest Fresh Organic Vegetables
from Your Home Garden All Year Long, suggests any
greenhouse from simple hoop structures to glass conserva-
tories which grow plants in the soil can produce veg-
etables without artificial heat. “All you need is to add a
second protective layer of translucent material inside the
greenhouse...This twice tempered climate in your green-
Month
Hours of Daylight Over a Year in the Pacific Northwest (Seattle)
What to Grow
Greenhouse production offers a wide variety of plant
choices, including those that may be grown year round
and those that can be transplanted outside. Cold tolerant
vegetables such as brassicas, lettuce, spinach, scallions,
parsnips, beets, chard, radishes, and turnips are easily
grown in a greenhouse throughout the off seasons (see Fall
and Winter Vegetable Gardening, Community Horticulture
Fact Sheet #41). Warm weather crops like melons,
peppers, eggplants, and tomatoes can be started early in
the greenhouse for later transplanting outside or can be
grown inside the greenhouse all the way to harvest. Such
crops will not yield as well in winter but it is possible to
get tomatoes in winter with added light and heat. For
winter growth in the greenhouse look for varieties of
plants grown in the South which are varieties adapted to
short-day culture. Whether you plant cold tolerant or heat
loving plants, timing is key in greenhouse growing. Once
you understand your greenhouse climate and light condi-
tions you will be able to schedule plantings to maximize
growth and harvest.
Other possibilities for greenhouse growing include
herbs, specialty or delicate plants such as orchids, some
types of mushrooms, bedding plants, bulbs, potted
flowers and, of course, cut flowers. Cut flowers that can
be grown successfully include bachelor’s button, calen-
dula, carnation, chrysanthemum, gardenia, lupine,
marigold, pincushion flower, poppy, snapdragon, stock,
zinnia.
Pest and Disease Management
Disease is often best handled by practicing proper hy-
giene, cultivating strong, healthy plants which will be
more resistant to disease and pests, and weeding out weak
and sick ones. Diseases and pests can enter the greenhouse
via insects, in soil, on plants, and on seeds so careful
handling and monitoring can go a long way to prevent
disease and pest infestation.
Prevention is very important in the greenhouse
environment but diseases and pests will inevitably be a
problem at one time or another. Pest management rather
than eradication is a more realistic goal and is the basis of
Integrated Pest Management (IPM). IPM in greenhouses
involves monitoring, pest identification, record keeping,
understanding pest life cycles, exclusion techniques,
cultural practices such as sanitation, biological controls
including the use of beneficial organisms, insect growth
regulators, and, as a last resort, chemical controls (see
ATTRA publication Integrated Pest Management for
Greenhouse Crops). Perhaps the most important aspect of
IPM is monitoring and understanding the life cycle and
behavior of pests. This information will help you develop
the most effective control strategy.
Resources
Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA)
PO Box 3657, Fayetteville, AR 72702 (800) 346-9140;
web: http://www.attra.org.
Related publications:
Greenhouse IPM: Sustainable Aphid Control
Greenhouse IPM: Sustainable Thrips Control
Greenhouse IPM: Sustainable Whitefly Control
Integrated Pest Management for Greenhouse Crops
Solar Greenhouses: Horticulture Resource List
Coleman, Elliot. 1999. Four-Season Harvest: How to
Harvest Fresh Organic Vegetables from Your Home
Garden All Year Long. Chelsea Green Publishing, White
River Junction, VT.
Growing for Market Newsletter. Fariplain Publications,
Lawrence, KS (800) 307-8949.
WSU Cooperative Extension King County. Frost Dates/
Climatic Data. Community Horticulture Fact Sheet #40.
Seattle, WA. Call (206) 296-3900.
WSU Cooperative Extension King County. Fall and Winter
Vegetable Gardening. Community Horticulture Fact
Sheet #41. Seattle, WA. Call (206) 296-3900.
Greenhouse Equipment & Supplies
BioTherm Hydronic, Inc. (heating specialists for the
greenhouse industry) 800-GET-HEAT or 707-794-9660;
P.O. Box 750967, Petaluma, CA 94975;
e-mail: biotherm@getheat.com;
http://www.getheat.com/.
Cascade Greenhouse Supply
(253) 833-5664; 214 21st SE Auburn, WA 98002.
Charley’s Greenhouse Supply
(800) 233-2611 1599 Memorial Hwy, Mount Vernon,
WA 98273-9721.
Future Gardening & Hydroponics
(253) 531-9641 11522 Canyon Rd E, Puyallup, WA
98373-4360.
Garden Specialties Inc
(253) 941-6767 30821 Pacific Hwy S, Federal Way,
WA 98003-4901.
Green Air Products
(800) 669-2113.
Green Gardens Distributing
(425) 454-5731 12738 Bellevue Redmond Rd, WA
98005-2601.
Indoor Garden & Lighting
(253) 373-9060 730-A S Central, Kent ,WA 98032-
6109; (253) 761-7478 3843 6th Ave, Tacoma, WA
98406-4903.
Indoor Sun Shoppe
(206) 634-3727 911 NE 45th, Seattle, WA 98105-4714.
Linda’s Gardening & Hydroponics Inc
(253) 531-9641 11522 Canyon Rd E, Puyallup, WA
98373-4360.
M & R Lighting
(206) 729-7751 1301 N 97th, Seattle, WA 98103-3319
(253) 891-4190 22914 State Route 410 E, Buckley, WA
98103-3319.
McCalif Growers Supplies Inc
(360) 435-0741, Arlington, WA 98223.
McConkey J M & Co Inc (206) 328-1500 or (253) 863-
8111.
Oregon Valley Greenhouse (800) 347-2701; 20367 Hwy
99E, Aurora, OR 97002; email: ivans@ovg.com.
OBC Northwest, (800) 477-4744 or (503) 266-2021;
PO Box 759; Canby, OR 97013; email: obcnw@web-
ster.com.

Steuber Distributing Co
(360) 568-2626; (800) 426-8815 308; 3rd, Snohomish,
WA 98291.
Sunglo Solar Greenhouses
(253) 833-4529; 214 21st SE, Auburn, WA 98002.
US Global Resources
(425) 391-5646; 20808 SE 20th, Issaquah, WA 98029-
7406.

Sources
Coleman, E. 1999. “Start Your Season Now!” in Growing
for Market Vol. 8, No. 1. Fariplain Publications,
Lawrence, KS.
Freeman, M. 1998. Greenhouse Basics: Gardening in
Your Greenhouse. Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, PA
Greenhouses. Washington State University Cooperative
Extension Spokane County, http://www.spokane-
county.wsu.edu/GARDEN/c055.htm.
Greer, L. and Diver, S. 1999. Integrated Pest Management
for Greenhouse Crops. ATTRA, Fayetteville, AR.
Greer, L. 1999. Solar Greenhouses: Horticulture Resource
List. ATTRA, Fayetteville, AR.
Miller, E. and C. 1999. “Fundamentals of Solar
Greenhousing” in Acres USA March 1999.
Miller, E. and C. 1999. “Greenhouse Management Tips”
in Acres USA July 1999.

No endorsement is intended of any businesses listed in this fact sheet, nor is criticism of unnamed businesses implied.

Written by Sylvia Kantor, WSU Cooperative Extension King County, 1999.

Cooperating agencies: Washington State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and King County. Cooperative Extension programs and
employment are available to all without discrimination. Evidence of noncompliance may be reported through your local Cooperative Extension office.
ACF Greenhouse Buying Guide http://www.littlegreenhouse.com/guide.shtml

Greenhouse Guide | Supplies Guide | Grow Light Guide | Cold Frame Guide
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4 Questions to Ask Yourself | Selecting a Site for Your Greenhouse
GREENHOUSE KITS Greenhouse Coverings | Greenhouse Frames (structures)
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Eventually every gardener considers the purchase of a greenhouse. A greenhouse offers the
SUPPLIES opportunity to enjoy gardening every month of the year. It also represents a considerable
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• Meters pocketbook. This guide can help you decide what type of greenhouse best fits these
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requirements, whether it is one from us or a different greenhouse.
• PVC Fittings
• Season Extenders 1. What size greenhouse?
• Ventilation
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Greenhouse size is usually dictated by factors like available space and construction costs
• Other Supplies versus need or desire. When choosing a size, consider if the greenhouse will be used
year-round, seasonally, or mainly as a sunspace. If you want a greenhouse to house an
RESOURCE CENTER
• Greenhouse Guide extensive collection of houseplants, then it is best to plan on building or purchasing a
• Supplies Guide structure that is larger than your current space requirements. Most hobby greenhouse owners
• Grow Light Guide
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find they need a larger greenhouse than they originally thought. Upgrading later on may be
• Foundation Guide more costly than ordering a larger unit from the beginning. Another important size
• Heater Calculator consideration often neglected is height. You want to make sure your greenhouse has adequate
• Fan Calculator
• Area Calculator head room. You need to consider both peak and eave (sidewall) height. Taller houses are also
• Ordering Policies easier to heat and ventilate because the air has a greater buffer area.
• Shipping Details
• Order Tracking
• About Us 2. What will the greenhouse be used for?
• Contact Us Are you using it for year-round vegetables and flowers, foliage houseplants, or seasonal see
starting for the outdoor garden? A tightly sealed and insulated greenhouse with high light
transmission is desirable for year-round vegetables and flowers (especially in northern
climates) but not necessary for foliage plants and seed starting. Remember, greenhouses are
designed to store heat from the sun and create a warmer environment inside of them, so use
in the summer in most areas would be limited at best.

3. How elaborate do you want the greenhouse to be?

If you are just starting seedlings or wintering over a few plants too tender for your area's
winters, then a simple plastic greenhouse with few accessories other than ventilation and
possibly a heater (depends on location) are needed. You should consider upgrading to

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ACF Greenhouse Buying Guide http://www.littlegreenhouse.com/guide.shtml

twinwall polycarbonate or an inflated double layer of polyethylene if you plan to grow plants
in the winter because of their heating efficiency. If you are interested in an attractive
greenhouse, a painted frame and glass covering are popular options. The Cape Cod series of
the Cross Country greenhouse line are even available with a combination of glass and
polycarbonate providing both beauty and function.

4. Is a building permit required?

Check local ordinances for required setbacks from property lines, design requirements, and
other requirements. Call your local building department. Some hobby greenhouses may not
need a permit, but it is a good idea to check anyway.

Selecting a Site for Your Greenhouse

Choosing the right site for your greenhouse will not only determine how well it works as a
greenhouse, but how much you will enjoy it. There are several factors to consider in choosing
your site.

1. Sunlight
If the greenhouse is going to be used primarily for starting seeds and transplants or plant
propagation in the summer, place it in partial shade to minimize heat buildup. You can use a
shade cloth to control the amount of sunlight reaching the interior if a partially shaded site is
not available. If the greenhouse will be used for growing in late fall and winter, or growing
plants to maturity, it will need maximum exposure to the sun. It should receive a minimum
of 6 hours of direct sunlight everyday. It is best to position the greenhouse with the ends
facing east and west. This will provide more heat gain from the sun during the winter and
create less shadowing in the greenhouse. If the southern exposure is restricted, but open to
the east, southeast, southwest, or west, turn the greenhouse to the winter sun. Remember the
difference in sun angles from summer to winter (the sun is much lower in the winter).

Sometimes a shade tree can be an advantage, providing some shade for the greenhouse
during the hot summer and letting the sun in after losing its leaves in the fall. The problem

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with overhanging trees is one of falling branches that can damage your greenhouse.

2. Accessibility
You want your greenhouse to be easily used. A good site should be sheltered from high
winds and easily accessible from your home and garden. Remember the need to move soil,
plants, fertilizer, and yourself to and from the greenhouse. Access to utilities such as
electricity and water are important requirements to remember also when selecting your site.

3. Weather
Many regions have chronic weather problems such as heavy rain, snow, and/or strong winds.
Heavy rains may cause drainage problems in and around the greenhouse. To avoid standing
water, choose a spot on high well-drained ground or install a drainage system before the
greenhouse is erected. Snow is usually not a problem as long as you provide adequate
insulation and heating. Strong winds can be a real problem. In cold weather, winds blowing
over a greenhouse can drain it of its interior heat escalating energy costs. Windbreaks are
your most effective weapon. A windbreak is an obstacle that "breaks" up the force of the
wind. Trees, shrubs, fences, and other structures can all be effective windbreaks. Remember
that a windbreak can also obstruct light. Try to locate one where it will block the least
amount of light.

4. Ease of construction and maintenance

A level, well drained site will obviously be easier to work with and maintain than a low,
swampy, or sloped area. It is also a good idea to locate your greenhouse away from children's
play areas.

What's the Best Material for Greenhouses?

There really is no best material for a greenhouse. It is hard to know what's best when there
are so many different materials used to make greenhouses. Aluminum, galvanized steel,
wood, PVC, glass, fiberglass, polycarbonate, polyethylene, etc. They all have their place in
greenhouse construction. Your needs and budget will determine which is best for you.

Greenhouse Coverings
Most important is the covering. It will determine the amount and type of light reaching your
plants, the overall appearance of your greenhouse, its safety, ease of maintenance, and
longevity.

Greenhouse Covering Insulation (R) Values

4 mil polyethylene 0.83 4 mm twinwall polycarbonate 1.43
6 mil polyethylene 0.87 6 mm twinwall polycarbonate 1.54
6 mil poly double layer (inflated) 1.43 8 mm twinwall polycarbonate 1.61
11 mil woven polyethylene 0.95 10mm twinwall polycarbonate 1.89
3 mm glass (single layer) 0.95 16 mm triplewall polycarbonate 2.50
Fiberglass / polycarbonate (single
Two layers of glass (insulated) 2.00 0.83
layer)

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R value is a commercial unit used to measure the effectiveness of thermal insulation. A larger number
represents a higher insulation value and therefore greater heating and cooling efficiency.
Specific, brand-name, product R values may vary slightly from these figures.

- Glass -
The traditional greenhouse covering, preferred for its permanence and beauty. Glass is one of
the least efficient materials for retaining heat, because it transmits heat and cold quickly and
has very little insulating value (that's why it is used in cooking utensils and thermometers).
Greenhouse glass should be double or triple strength to increase heating efficiency and
decrease breakage which can be dangerous when installing as well as a problem in the
completed greenhouse.

Glass is much heavier than other coverings, requiring more substantial framing. Other
disadvantages include: it doesn't diffuse light, so there's a risk of burning plants; glass breaks
more easily than the plastic glazings (important if you have hailstorms, trees nearby, kids that
play baseball, etc.); and finally, slight deviations from horizontal and vertical frame
alignment or settling of the foundation can crack it. Most glass greenhouses use either
engineered aluminum, steel, or laminated wood frames with full foundations. Never install
glass on breezy days. Because of the need for many smaller, overlapping, glass segments in
these greenhouses, site selection should take wind into consideration. Air (heat) leakage is
greater in glass greenhouses because of the many panes needed.

If you are unsure about your building talents, you might do well to avoid glass as the frame
must be absolutely square and rigid. If you must have glass, consider hiring a contractor for
your installation.

- Plastics -
These coverings include fiberglass, polycarbonate, acrylic sheets, and polyethylene film. All
plastics resist hailstone damage and are shatterproof, a distinct advantage over glass. Rigid
plastics are stiff, but not brittle. They can be flexed to fit over a curved surface and are
available in large sheets. This reduces the number of potential air leaks by reducing the
number of joints in the covering.

Fiberglass
The first of the practical replacements for glass, fiberglass usually comes in rolls or
corrugated sheets and is translucent rather than transparent. You can't see through it but light
transmission is roughly equal to glass. Fiberglass diffuses light that passes through it creating
a virtually shadowless greenhouse. Fiberglass retains heat more efficiently than glass (but not
as well as insulated plastics like multiwall polycarbonate or two layers of inflated
polyethylene film) while transmitting less heat into the greenhouse, a benefit in both winter
and summer.

Its corrugated form allows overlapping sides to seal well but its undulating ends can make for
difficult joints. Aesthetically, the corrugations tend to detract from the structure and grime
can collect in valleys. Greenhouse fiberglass is UV protected by a gel coat that will
eventually be baked off by the sun lasting only about 6 years before turning yellow. When
this happens, dirt accumulates among the glass fibers and becomes very unsightly.

Polycarbonate
One of the newest covering options, UV treated polycarbonate provides much of the clarity
of glass and is stronger and more resistant to impact than other coverings. It is also more

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resistant to fire than other plastics. View picture of polycarbonate

Polycarbonate is available in several different thicknesses and normally comes in single,

double, and triple walled sheets with many structural walls separating its two flat sides.
Single wall polycarbonate is the least expensive and is generally used for its attractive
appearance, but it lacks the strength, heat retention, and light diffusing properties of double
and triple wall polycarbonate. The multiwall structure gives it greater strength and superior
insulating values with the air space built into the product. Multiwall polycarbonate also
provides your greenhouse with an even diffused light that minimizes shadow and is optimal
for growing plants. Another advantage of polycarbonate is its +15 year lifespan in most
areas. Triple wall is rather expensive compared to other covering options, but it will pay for
itself in reduced heating costs in cold climates that require frequent heating. The Hobby
Gardener greenhouses are covered with a unique single wall polycarbonate. Double walled
polycarbonate is used to cover the Sundog greenhouses, Sunshine greenhouses, and Juliana
greenhouses. Cross Country greenhouses are available with double or triple walled
polycarbonate options.

Polyethylene Film
A favorite of commercial growers (about 90 % of all greenhouse sq. footage in the USA)
because of its simplicity of maintenance. Use it for 2 to 5 years (life depends on poly
thickness and UV treatment used) then recover with new poly. Used in single thickness,
polyethylene film is good for simple cold frames and greenhouses used for starting seeds and
other seasonal needs. When two layers are used, and the space between is inflated by a fan
creating insulated air space, the polyethylene film retains heat more efficiently than glass
houses, saving roughly 40% in heating costs.

Drawbacks to polyethylene film include a relatively short lifespan vs. other coverings,
possibilities of rips and tears, and a translucent appearance much like fiberglass.
Polyethylene's low cost, ease of replacement, high light transmission, and good heat
retention have made it a favorite of nurserymen and commercial growers.

There are differences in polyethylene film. Cheap, thin films sold at many hardware stores
and home centers are unsuitable for greenhouse use. Those films are designed as vapor
barriers in home construction and other "interior" uses. Greenhouse polyethylene films are
specially coated for protection from UV (ultraviolet) rays which shorten the lifespan of
unprotected film. There's a minimal cost difference and a considerable difference in
performance on your greenhouse. Polyethylene film is used to cover the Little
Greenhouses. The Portable and FlowerHouse greenhouses use a new woven polyethylene
which is more durable.

Greenhouse Frames
Most greenhouse frames are made from wood, aluminum, galvanized steel, and PVC. Which
material is right for you depends a great deal upon where and how you will be using your
greenhouse.

Galvanized Steel
Most commercial greenhouses have galvanized steel frames because they are long-lasting,
low cost, and require less framework (thus less shadowing) than any other framing material
thanks to steel's natural strength. Steel's greatest value in greenhouse construction is its
strength. You want as much light to enter your greenhouse as possible and steel frames can

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be thinner than others, creating less shadow. Its other big advantage is its low cost. Steel
greenhouses are normally covered with polyethylene film because most frames are not
designed to accommodate rigid panels without additional hardware. Be sure that any steel
tube greenhouse you purchase is made with heavy-duty galvanized or stainless tubing which
is made for outdoor construction purposes to protect it from a greenhouse's normal humid and
corrosive (fertilizer salts) atmosphere.

Galvanized metals will eventually wear off their protective finish and rust from high
humidity levels present in a greenhouse. Steel is much heavier than aluminum and generally
requires additional hardware to mount a rigid covering to it.

Aluminum
Aluminum is used primarily in conjunction with glass or polycarbonate in architectural
sunspaces and hobby greenhouses. It can be anodized in a variety of colors and has low
maintenance requirements. Because of its higher initial cost, aluminum is most often used
with glass and rigid plastic coverings in structures like the Sundog greenhouses, Juliana
greenhouses, and Cross Country greenhouses. Aluminum is the longest lasting of all of the
framing materials mentioned because it will never rust, rot, or break down from UV rays.

Aluminum does not have the strength of steel so frame members either must be larger or
more numerous. Look for engineered shapes in aluminum that are designed to increase frame
strength, because you want as little frame shadowing as possible while not sacrificing the
integrity of your greenhouse's frame.

Wood
Wood is most commonly used either for sunrooms or in homemade greenhouses. They are
popular because of their attractive look, the ease in which accessories can be added to them,
and the low amount of heat loss they produce compared to similar size metal frames. Wood
frame structures are most often covered with a rigid plastic or glass. Though very attractive in
sunspaces, wood has a limited lifetime in a greenhouse's damp atmosphere before it starts to
deteriorate. Redwood (used in the Sunshine greenhouse frames) or cedar is recommended
because of their natural resistance to the elements and insects. Applying a chemical sealant or
stain to the wood periodically can also greatly increase the life of the material.

Wood frames are generally larger and heavier than equivalent metal frames which increases
the amount of shadow in the greenhouse. Wood hobby houses are generally small scale with
a limited ability to expand once construction is complete.

Plastic
Over the last 10 to 15 years plastic hobby greenhouses have become increasingly popular.
The main advantages of these greenhouses is their low cost, portability, and ease of
installation. Plastic is generally used to construct smaller structures because it is not as rigid
as metal or wood, but the introduction of options like metal wire supports (included in Little
Greenhouses) compensates for what plastic lacks in strength. Plastic frames have become
increasingly popular because of the low amount of heat loss they produce compared to
similar size metal frames. This is because plastic is a poor heat conductor like wood.

The main drawback to a plastic frame is that ultraviolet rays from the sun will eventually
cause the plastic to deteriorate even if it is a UV protected material. UV protected PVC
materials generally have a 20 year or better life. Plastic frames are also normally larger than
equivalent metal frames which increases the amount of shadow in the greenhouse.

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Rule of Thumb
If you buy a greenhouse based solely on your current gardening
expectations, it will probably be too small within a year!

Greenhouse Supplies Guide >

Cross Country | FlowerHouse | Hobby Gardener | Juliana | Portable | Sundog |

Sunshine
Greenhouse Buying Guide | Ordering and Shipping Information

ACF Greenhouses
380 Greenhouse Drive
Buffalo Junction, VA 24529
888-888-9050 - Toll Free
434-374-2055 - Fax

Copyright 1998-2007 Aarons Creek Farms, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Greenhouse Guide | Supplies Guide | Grow Light Guide | Cold Frame Guide
Categories

Greenhouse Supplies Guide

Search
Ventilation | Heating | Misting and Watering
GREENHOUSE KITS
• Compare Kits Shading | Flooring | Benches | Lighting
• Cross Country
• FlowerHouse
• Hobby Gardener The Most Important Greenhouse Supply
• Juliana
• Little Greenhouse
• Portable What you may ask is the most important accessory you need to have for your greenhouse. A
• Sundog heater? Proper ventilation? While these may be necessary to provide the temperatures you
• Sunshine
want to maintain in the greenhouse, you are operating in the blind if you do not have a
SUPPLIES min/max thermometer to show you what temperatures your plants are experiencing in the
• Benches greenhouse when you are not there. A min/max thermometer records daily high and low
• Books
• Controls temperatures in the greenhouse. This is vital information that can tell you if your heating
• Deer Repellent and/or cooling equipment is sized correctly and working properly in your greenhouse. Some
• Grow Lights
• Heaters
thermometers also record highs and lows for humidity as well. This is a helpful feature for
• Meters plants that require specific humidity levels like orchids. View greenhouse thermometers
• Misting Systems
• Plastic Coverings
• PVC Fittings Ventilation / Cooling
• Season Extenders
• Ventilation
• Watering
• Other Supplies
Ventilation is the single most important requirement for a greenhouse. It has two important
purposes: providing fresh air, mainly carbon dioxide, to plants and cooling for the
RESOURCE CENTER greenhouse. Without good ventilation, a greenhouse is nothing more than a solar
• Greenhouse Guide
• Supplies Guide furnace. Greenhouses are really designed to store heat from the sun during the day creating a
• Grow Light Guide warmer temperature in the greenhouse versus outside of it. This makes cooling a greenhouse
• Cold Frame Guide
• Foundation Guide
on a hot day a difficult task that can not be accomplished without a good ventilation system.
• Heater Calculator Cooling in the summer can be accomplished most easily with a combination of shade, proper
• Fan Calculator ventilation, and an evaporative cooling system like a misting system, fogger, or evaporative
• Area Calculator
• Ordering Policies cooler. Shading and evaporative cooling are discussed below. Even using all of the items
• Shipping Details mentioned above you can expect a greenhouse to still not be much cooler if any than the
• Order Tracking
• About Us
outside temperature in hot humid areas.
• Contact Us
An exhaust fan ventilation system usually consists of a fan setup to blow hot stale air out of
the greenhouse and bring fresh cooler air inside the greenhouse via intake shutters mounted
on the opposite end of the structure. An exhaust fan system should be able to make a
complete change of air in 1 to 3 minutes (about 1 minute or less for small greenhouses, 2 to 3
minutes is acceptable for large commercial size greenhouses) in summer to keep temperatures
in the greenhouse at a reasonable level.

Many people use roof and/or side vents to supply fresh air to plants and cool their
greenhouse. This is ideal for venting during cold months because fresh air is supplied to
plants more gradually than an exhaust fan system reducing any "temperature shock" to plants.

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Circulation fans are highly recommended for use with side and/or roof mounted vent
systems. These fans move air throughout the greenhouse eliminating hot and cold spots
which is useful when venting or heating your greenhouse. The increased air movement helps
to expel hot air out of the window vents and provide fresh air for plants.

Unless you plan on staying in your greenhouse 24 hours a day 7 days a week, you should
consider automating your ventilation system. Forgetting to vent your greenhouse one hot day
could fry every plant in it. Thermostatic controls and solar powered autovents will also
maintain a more consistent temperature in your greenhouse which promotes healthier plant
growth. In hot climates shading and misting equipment may be necessary to hold the
greenhouse's temperature in check. Winter ventilation needs are lower. View ventilation
supplies

Heating
The heating requirements of a greenhouse depend on the desired temperature for the plants
grown, the location and construction of the greenhouse, and the total outside exposed area of
the structure. Much of the daily heat requirement may come from the sun, but if you want
your greenhouse to be more than a few degrees above the outside temperature at night, you
will need to provide it with a heat source. The heating system must be adequate to maintain
the desired day or night temperature. Heating systems can be fueled by electricity, gas, oil, or
wood. The choice of a heating system and fuel depends on what is locally available, the
production requirements of the plants, cost, and individual choice. Heating requirements for
your greenhouse can be determined with our Heater BTU Calculator.

If you're using your greenhouse to start seedlings and root cuttings in the spring,
supplemental heating probably will not be necessary. In mild climates, 12' x 12' and smaller
model hobby greenhouses can be adequately heated with electric heaters (make sure electric
heaters are not exposed to water to avoid a dangerous shock). An electric heater is clean,
efficient, and easy to install and maintain. Small gas or oil heaters will also work well in
hobby greenhouses. With larger size greenhouses and cold climates where temperatures
regularly fall below freezing, larger gas greenhouse heaters are most commonly used because
it is cheaper to heat with gas than electric in most areas.

For safety purposes, and to prevent harmful gases from contacting plants, all gas, oil, and
wood burning systems must be properly vented to the outside. Use fresh-air vents to supply
oxygen for burners for complete combustion. If you use an unvented gas heater in your
greenhouse, it is recommended that natural "indicator" plants like tomatoes, impatiens, and
salvia be placed near the heater. These plants are very sensitive to gases produced from
combustion in gas heaters and will have malformed leaves and stems and/or prematurely lose
flowers before other plants if the gases are not being vented properly. Also, look for safety
features like automatic overheat controls when purchasing a heater. Portable kerosene heaters
used in homes are risky because some plants are sensitive to gases formed when the fuel is
burned. View heaters

Misting and Watering

Misting and fog systems have a variety of uses in a greenhouse. It is important to determine
what you want to accomplish with a misting system before purchasing one. Humidity: It is
important to maintain a healthy humidity level (50% to 70%) in a greenhouse. This is healthy
for the plants and higher humidity levels also helps reduce the watering frequency of plants

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in the greenhouse. When the greenhouse is vented, essential moisture is lost, and plants are
more likely to dry out and wilt. Fog and Misting systems with fine nozzles are very effective
at providing additional humidity because their smaller water particles evaporate more
quickly. Evaporative Cooling: Misting systems help cool greenhouses with a fine mist that
lowers air temperatures when it evaporates. Smaller nozzles work best for cooling also.
Watering: Cuttings and seedlings are commonly watered with small overhead sprinkler or
misting systems or mist nozzles for hoses because watering with a regular wand or watering
can may disturb the surrounding soil causing plants to take longer to root. If a misting system
is used, larger misting nozzles are needed for cuttings and seedlings to make sure the soil is
properly saturated. Overhead sprinkler systems are useful for watering most types of
established plants in a greenhouse as well. Drip systems are an effective way to water larger
plants without wetting the foliage. Another advantage to drip systems is that they use very
little water when compared to overhead watering systems. View misting, sprinkler, and drip
systems

Shading
Shade covers are the way professional growers keep their greenhouses cool during those long
hot summers. They block a percentage of the sun's rays from entering the greenhouse which
can reduce temperatures over 20% alone. Shade covers are relatively inexpensive and also
provide shade for plants that don't grow well in full sun. The amount of shading necessary
varies depending on greenhouse location, your local climate, and the light requirements of
the plants in the greenhouse. Most greenhouse shade cloths fall in the 45% to 65% shade
range. When buying a shade cover remember, more is not always better. Excessive shading
can slow plant growth and cause plants to stretch. View shade covers

Flooring
The floor of your greenhouse is both functional and aesthetic. It forms the surface you walk
on and helps complete the image of the greenhouse. The walkway and the area under the
benches are usually two different materials. The walkway should form a firm nonskid surface
for walking, be easy to clean, and be durable enough to withstand constant moisture and dirt.
Common materials used for a walkway include concrete, brick, stone, gravel, wood slats, and
ground bark. The area under the benches is usually covered by a porous material that can be
dampened to help provide humidity and should allow easy drainage of water. For under
bench areas, consider gravel, sawdust, ground bark, or any other porous material. You will
want to lay a sheet of woven weed barrier (ground cover) under the floor covering to prevent
weed growth, because weeds harbor many pests and diseases. For more information, take a
look at our guide on building a foundation and floor.

Benches
You will want benches in your greenhouse. They make a world of difference in the ease of
gardening and add a lot of extra working space to your greenhouse. Benches also provide the
area under them with plenty of shade which is an ideal environment for many plants.
Greenhouse bench tops should have an open design which allows water to drain and fresh air
to flow through them. View benches

Lighting

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If your growing area or the season does not provide your plants with enough light, you may
need to provide artificial lighting. For detailed information about artificial lights and options
available, you can visit our Grow Light Guide. View lighting systems

Greenhouse Buying Guide >

Greenhouses | Greenhouse Accessories | Resource Center

Ordering and Shipping Information

ACF Greenhouses
380 Greenhouse Drive
Buffalo Junction, VA 24529
888-888-9050 - Toll Free
434-374-2055 - Fax

Copyright 1998-2007 Aarons Creek Farms, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Top100webshops.com

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A Good Look at Greenhouses

Matt Weber

A greenhouse means the gardening season

doesn't have to end with the onset of
winter. It provides a light-friendly location
for growing flowers, vegetables or other
plants. Enjoy plump, juicy tomatoes in
winter and decorate your home with
tropical flowers throughout the year. A
greenhouse can be built big or small, and
designed to suit the casual hobbyist or
serious gardener. Thanks to technological
advances in building materials and
available features, constructing a
high-quality greenhouse doesn't necessarily
require a lot of money or time. But careful
planning is key before starting the project.

Location, Location, Location

First and foremost, decide on a proper location for the greenhouse. The whole point of a greenhouse is
exposure to sunlight, so locate the building to maximize light exposure. Exposure to sunlight all day is
ideal, but morning sunlight is usually sufficient for plants. Morning sunlight is most desirable because it
initiates the plants' food-production process early in the day, maximizing growth. Also, consider what type
of plants you intend to grow. Reproductive fruiting plants, such as tomatoes and cucumbers, require more
heat, light and control than vegetative plants like herbs and lettuce.

If positioning the greenhouse near trees is unavoidable, try to locate the building so the greenhouse is
shaded from the intense summer sun in late afternoon, but not shaded by the trees in the morning. Also,
deciduous trees such as oak or maple will shed their leaves, allowing more exposure to the sun in winter.
Evergreen trees, however, should be avoided because they will block the less intense winter sun.

If possible, locate the greenhouse where it will be exposed to at least 6 hours of direct sunlight during the
winter months. The best orientation is to position the greenhouse with its length running east and west.
This will provide more heat gain from the sun during the winter, when the sun is lower in the sky.

Proper drainage is another requirement for a good greenhouse site. When possible, construct the
foundation above the surrounding ground so water will drain away.

Also consider the location's accessibility to sources of heat, water and electricity, as well as shelter from
strong winds. Access to the greenhouse should be convenient for both people and utilities.

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Size, Shape and Style

The design possibilities for a greenhouse are endless. When it comes to size, plan the interior layout on
graph paper, accounting for the width, number and spacing of plant benches, as well as the walkways
between them. Allow for storage space, and consider room for a small table and chair. First decide how
much room you need to create your greenhouse, and then add more square footage to the plan. It is much
easier and cheaper to account for future expansion at the beginning than to add the needed space later.

Cost is another factor in determining greenhouse size. A 24-by-48-foot structure might be nice, but
heating and cooling a structure that size can significantly impact the pocketbook. Heating will likely be
the biggest cost of operating a greenhouse. A smaller greenhouse or a lean-to style structure attached to
the home might be a more cost-efficient move.

Greenhouses also vary greatly in type or style. A lean-to greenhouse is half a greenhouse, split along the
peak of the roof and attached to the side of a house or other freestanding structure. Lean-to's are useful
where space is limited to a width of about 7 to 12 feet, and they're the least expensive type to build.

An even-span greenhouse is a full-size structure, but has one gable end attached to another building.
These are often large and costly, but generally offer more room and can be lengthened for future
expansion.

Freestanding greenhouses are separate from other buildings and can be positioned for better exposure to
sunlight. They can be as large or as small as the builder wants. However, separate heating, water and
electrical systems may be required for a freestanding greenhouse.

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Building Materials
A wide selection of frame kits and raw framing materials are available for greenhouses. They're
commonly made of wood, aluminum or galvanized steel. Plastic frames are generally considered too weak
to meet wind and snow-load requirements.

“I've seen some very nice home-built greenhouses,” says Charley Yaw of Charley's Greenhouse and
Garden. “But they were a labor of love and took considerably longer to build than a kit. A home-built
greenhouse can be a beautiful wooden structure that suits the nature of the site and its builder.”
Charley's Greenhouse and Garden is a leading distributor of greenhouse kits, supplies and equipment.
Charley notes that although wood is classically attractive, some of the ready-to-assemble kits on the
market are considerably easier to maintain.

“Kits may be made of aluminum, which is maintenance-free, allowing the greenthumb artist to focus on
growing plants rather than endless maintenance,” says Charley. “Remember, a greenhouse by design
should create a humid atmosphere for plants. A greenhouse is a very difficult climate for wood, and needs
to be maintained as much as you would a wooden boat. The greenhouse kit is quicker to build, and easier
for a fast-paced lifestyle.”

Greenhouse frames can be covered, or “glazed,” with glass, fiberglass panels, plastic film or rigid
multi-wall plastics:

Glass – A traditional glass covering is attractive, inexpensive to maintain and can potentially last
for years. Glass panels can create a weather-tight structure that minimizes heating and cooling costs.
Tempered glass is often used because of its additional strength. The down side is that glass can
break, is initially expensive to install and requires an extremely sturdy frame.
Corrugated – Lightweight and durable, corrugated fiberglass is available in various translucent
grades for greenhouse construction. The resin-coated fibers can last 10 to 15 years before needing a
new coat. But once the resin begins to wear off, the exposed fibers can trap unsightly dirt.
Corrugated polycarbonate panels are available in clear or translucent grades.
Plastic Film – Flexible film made from a number of different materials are available in several
different grades. These present the most inexpensive choice for a greenhouse covering. Building
costs can also be lowered because the structural framing can be lighter. However, plastic film
generally has to be replaced much more often than other covering materials. And, while light
transmission is comparable to glass, plastic film tends to attract dust and will need periodic
washing. Use only UV-stabilized film.
Multi-wall Plastic – “The biggest change in greenhouse design has been the introduction of

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insulated, lightweight, polycarbonate glazing panels to replace heavier tempered safety glass,” says
Charley. Companies such as Suntuf manufacture rigid multi-layer polycarbonate panels that offer a
durable, moneysaving option for a greenhouse covering. The multiple walls of plastic, separated by
webbing, significantly minimize heat transfer, which in turn saves on energy costs. Both acrylic and
polycarbonate materials are typically available with 10-year warranties on their light transmission
properties.

“Kits often come with 4.5-millimeter polycarbonate,” notes Charley, “but I would recommend 6- or
8-millimeter, as it is stiffer and quieter on windy days. Triple-wall panels provide the best insulation.”

Companies such as Suntuf manufacture multi-layer polycarbonate panels for greenhouse walls.

Floors and Foundations

Smaller greenhouses (100 square feet) can be supported by a single or double layer of treated 4-by-4
lumber. Most large greenhouses require poured concrete as a foundation. A permanent foundation must be
constructed for any greenhouse over 200 square feet.

For a concrete foundation, remove plants and sod, then square and level the site. Cover the pour area with
2 inches of gravel. Place rebar in a grid pattern to strengthen the footing. Pour the concrete and let it cure.
On top of the concrete foundation, use a treated 2-by-4 wood sill on which to anchor the greenhouse.
Place 1⁄2-by-9-inch anchor bolts into the fresh concrete to fasten the sill, leaving only 11⁄2 inch above the
concrete surface. Counter-sink nuts into the wood sill so the greenhouse base will not rest on the nuts. Set
bolts within 1 foot of each corner, spacing additional anchor bolts about 4 feet apart.

A concrete foundation is recommended, but a concrete floor may not be a good idea. Water and soil can
make a greenhouse floor a slippery, soupy mess. Instead, many greenhouse floors are covered by several
inches of gravel to easily drain water from the structure. A 2- to 3-foot stone or paver walkway can be
installed between benches for easy access to plants.

Environmental Control
The purpose of a greenhouse is to maintain an environment suitable for optimum plant growth. Although
solar energy can provide some light and heat, a fully functioning environmental system requires regulating
temperatures with heaters, fans and other equipment.

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Heating – The heating requirements for a greenhouse depend greatly on the temperature required for the
plants grown, which can vary among plant varieties. While the sun may provide a partial heat source,
plant health depends on exposure to proper temperatures day or night, summer or winter. Size and
insulation of the greenhouse will also impact what type of heating system will work best. In some cases, a
220-volt electric heater may suffice. Small gas or oil-burning heaters may also do the trick. Make sure
your heating system offers adequate capacity for your greenhouse. Heating systems can be fueled by gas,
oil, wood or electricity, and the heat can be distributed by forced air, radiant heat, steam or hot water.
Unvented propane- or kerosene-fueled heaters are not recommended.
Circulation – Circulating fans can mix the air of a greenhouse so that warm air doesn't rise to the top,
while cool air settles to the floor. Installing these fans ensures the heat is evenly distributed.
Ventilation – The exchange of interior air for exterior air helps to control temperature, remove moisture
and replenish carbon dioxide levels. Natural ventilation uses roof vents with louvered side inlets. The
rising heat escapes from the roof vents, which in turn pulls cooler air into the side inlets. Mechanical
ventilation uses a motorized fan to exhaust air through one end of the greenhouse, while taking in air from
an inlet on the other end. If relying on an exhaust fan, make sure it offers the capacity to exchange the
total volume of air in the greenhouse every 1 1⁄2 minutes.
Cooling – In some cases, ventilation alone may not sufficiently reduce temperatures in a greenhouse.
Temperatures may need to be lowered using shade materials, such as vinyl netting. “Place woven shade
screen on the outside, as it is 40 percent less effective when placed inside the greenhouse,” suggests
Charley, who recommends using a UV-stabilized shade material. “Polyethylene and polypropylene knitted
screens are inexpensive. And a fiberglass screen makes a great material for a roll-up shade.”

Hanging bubble wrap on the greenhouse walls can help to insulate plants from the outside elements.

SIDE NOTE
Greenhouse Heat Requirements
The following formula can be used to determine the approximate heating requirements of your
greenhouse:

A x D x 1.1 = Btu's. “A” is the total wall and roof surface area of your greenhouse. “D” is the difference
between the coldest outdoor winter temperature and the night temperature desired in your greenhouse.
“Btu's” is the heat requirement. Subtract 30 percent if the greenhouse is insulated using double glazing or
a polyethylene liner. Subtract another 30 percent if it is a lean-to greenhouse on a heated wall.

– Source: Charley's Greenhouse & Garden

Watering Systems
When it comes to plant health, watering is essential. Hand watering may suffice if you're available during
the day. But if you work away from home, a separate, automatic drip water supply will help maintain the

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plants' water regimen. Systems that spray a fine mist can create humidity and provide water to plant
seedlings. Time clocks or mechanical sensors can be used to automatically control many watering
systems.

In fact, automated control devices can be used to control not only the water system, but cooling, heating
and ventilation systems as well.

Greenhouse Automation
Many greenhouse hobbyists work day jobs and aren't always available to tend to their plants when needed.
An automated system to control heating, water, ventilation and more would be ideal. Many of these
systems are very expensive and more appropriate for the commercial grower. However, there are some
affordable products on the market to help your operation, such as solar-powered vent controls.

Solar-powered vent openers are thermal pistons. A temperature-sensitive wax expands with heat, which
drives a leveraged arm to lift the vent. As the temperature is lowered, the wax cools and shrinks. Gravity
and “helper” springs close the vent and reset the piston. Opening and closing are gradual adjustments that
allow just the right amount of airflow for cooling. Vent controls can lift up to 35 pounds each; combine
two for a 70-pound lift.

Greenhouse automation can also be facilitated by a home computer. “There is computer hardware and
software under $1,000 that allows monitoring your greenhouse from inside your home,” says Charley.
“The Sensaphone will even call you on your cell phone and explain in a synthesized voice when the
greenhouse climate is exceeding preset limits.”

Solar-powered vent controls help automate the vetilation system.

A Lot to Consider
The options abound with greenhouse construction, which is why careful planning is absolutely crucial.
“Almost everyone wishes they had built the greenhouse bigger by about 50 percent,” says Charley,
“including me.” He points out a few other common errors people make when building their first
greenhouse:

• Inadequate ventilation
• No shading
• Poorly built foundation

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• Failure to read the kit instructions before

beginning to build
• Cutting or altering kit parts due to not correctly
reading the instructions.

So plan ahead to avoid these mistakes. And research the many features and designs available for
greenhouse construction. Whether building from a kit or starting from scratch, there is a lot to contend
with. But with a little work and ingenuity, you can create the ideal greenhouse for many years of growing
and gardening.

Doing It Yourself? Are you interested in FREE detailed plans on how to build your own greenhouse?
Just visit the SUNTUF website at www.suntuf.com and click on the "Do It Yourself" link at the top of the
page to access the plans in PDF format.

Editor's Note: Special thanks to Charley Yaw of Charley's Greenhouse and Garden for help with this
article. Additional information is from West Virginia University (www.wvu.edu). To learn more about
building and using greenhouses, call Charley's help line open 7 days a week at 800-322-4707. Or visit
Charley's online at www.charleysgreenhouse.com.

Close Window

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Welcome To Our "Survival Foods

& Their Preparation" Section

The Solar Greenhouse That's Right for You

(Text & illustrations for this web page came from the This Site's Pages
August, 1978 issue of Organic Farming & Gardening) Updated Every
Friday Evening
Here is a new gardening tool that produces Between 7 & 9
Site Table
fresh food when the snow flies. PM CST
of Contents

BULLETINS JACK RUTTLE

CATALOG
NEW STUFF ALMOST ANY STRUCTURE that is built to look like a solar
PHILOSOPHY...
SURVIVAL FOODS greenhouse will work. That is to say, the solar greenhouse concept is so
FORWARD! right that you can ignore (or not know) the fine points of solar design
THE OUTRIDER and still build a house with much less need for supplemental heat than a
SELF-DEFENSE traditional greenhouse. But once you understand a few basic A TEST
solar-greenhouse design ideas, you can easily put together a greenhouse
that truly lives up to the label solar, and provides remarkable
efficiency.

Dave MacKinnon, Ph.D., ORGANIC GARDENING greenhouse

designer, has put it all together after three years of experimenting and
has created a design formula that gardeners in any climate can follow.
His newest solar greenhouse, which he has built and tested in Flagstaff,
Arizona, epitomizes a good solar shape. It has produced food through
two winters without requiring any outside heat source. Almost all the
floor space is usable for growing beds because the energy storage is on
the walls. And it uses a minimum of materials because the design,
insulation and heat storage are in balance and arranged to complement
each other.

The best measure of a solar green house is the plant-growing

environment it creates. When the building is skillfully made, you will
get midspring soil and air temperatures in the depths of winter on sun
power alone.
Our experiences suggest that solar greenhouses can maintain that kind
of environment in most parts of the country. ORGANIC GARDENING
researchers have built two different greenhouses that have worked well
despite unusual winter weather. The Flagstaff greenhouse performed
well with much less sun than is considered normal, and the one at our
Maxa-tawny, Pennsylvania, research center worked through the coldest
winters in recorded meteorological history.
In December and January we harvested enough salad greens every day
for three or four people. Cold-hardy plants, all very rich in vitamins A
and C, produce best. Escarole, lettuce, parsley, corn salad, chervil,
chives and other salad herbs are dependable. So are kale, chard and
chicory, which grow so thin and tender in the weak winter sun that they
are best in salads too. In spring and fall the harvests are bigger.
Succession plantings make heat-loving plants like tomatoes and

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cucumbers possible far beyond their normal seasons.

Dave MacKinnon's solar greenhouse
greatly expands
his crops of homegrown food. He picks
salads every
day through winter. Frost nips his outside
garden early,
so greenhouse protection has meant the
first
heavy-producing tomato plants he's ever
grown.

SOLAR
GREENHOUSE
BASICS
At the least, a solar greenhouse
should have three features. One
of the long walls should face due
south rather than east or west.
The south wall should have two
layers of glazing. All the surfaces
that don't face south are
insulated. But there's a little more
to it than that if the greenhouse is to live up to its solar potential. The
new Flagstaff greenhouse is a perfect model.

Dave MacKinnon says the greenhouse should be about twice as long

(east to west) as it is wide. Accordingly, his Flagstaff greenhouse is 20
feet by 12 feet. The two-to-one relationship offsets the effect of the
shade that the opaque east and west end walls create. The building thus
captures more solar energy for each square foot of growing space. If the
building is made much deeper than two to one — that is, closer to a
square floor plan — the heat-storage material in back is shaded too
much. These proportions are recommended for greenhouses
everywhere.

MacKinnon has learned another rule of thumb for sizing the

energy-collecting south face properly, and has built it into the Flagstaff
greenhouse. The peak should be made about as high as the building is
wide (north to south). Heat-storing materials in the back of the
greenhouse will then get the direct exposure to the sun they must have
if the storage is to work efficiently.
The slope of the north roof is an important feature of MacKinnon's
greenhouse, though the precise angle of slope is not critical. Sunlight
which enters the greenhouse and strikes the aluminum-foil-covered roof
(white paint works well too) is aimed back down to the growing beds.
From the outside, the interior of the greenhouse looks almost black
because very little light is bouncing back out to the viewer. If designed
well, solar greenhouses with reflective walls can actually deliver up to a
third more light to the plants in winter. In the traditional all-glass
design, much of the light passes right on out the clear north roof and
wall. Angles between 60 and 75 degrees for the north roof will work
well in the United States and southern Canada.

The slope of the sun-collecting south face might appear to be trickier to

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decide upon. The angle does affect how well the translucent face
collects sunlight, but for greenhouses it's not as critical as when setting
up a compact solar-heating unit. Actually, a wide range of angles will
work equally well at any given latitude. The simplest thing to do is to
add 20 degrees to your latitude. A south face with that angle will give
optimum performance in January. But if that particular angle proves
hard to work with, go to a slightly shallower one, and you will be
favoring solar collection in spring and fall. If you use 50 degrees rather
than 60, which, for example, you may figure is your ideal, you still
have sacrificed very little midwinter light.
Given this leeway, other factors like convenient construction can help
determine the south slope. The south face of the Flagstaff greenhouse
was made steep all the way to the ground to shed snow quickly. That
feature lets sunlight in sooner after storms. The Maxatawny greenhouse
has a vertical glazed knee wall from which a shallow, clear roof slopes
up to the peak. There is much less snow to worry about there, and this
shape makes working in the front of the growing beds easier.
When it comes to putting in insulation and heat storage, however, solar
greenhouses can get needlessly expensive. The key is to have sensible
amounts of both. Great thicknesses of insulation can't do away with the
need for heat storage, and are wasteful. And obviously, adequate
heat-storage material without a certain amount of insulation in the walls
is equally wasteful. Even if you build a greenhouse that is not
completely solar-reliant, using a balance of these component parts
guarantees an economical building that will work well. (The
information on the map indicates the proper proportion of materials, as
well as recommending minimum amounts for a fully solar structure.)

HOW HEAT STORAGE AND INSULATION

TEAM UP
The connection between heat-storing materials and insulation works
like this. Without heat storage, solar greenhouses are something like a
thermos bottle — all the energy is in the sun-warmed air. Drafts will

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quickly drain off the heat, because even the most tightly made building
will have a fair amount of tiny cracks. Energy held within storing
materials is not lost along with escaping air. The energy is released
slowly as the greenhouse cools, and the building stays warm much
longer.
A no-less-important effect is that heat-storage materials keep the
greenhouse from overheating during the day. We quickly learned that
without storage the inside temperature can soar into the 80's or 90's on
cold, bright days. That is quite hard on a winter greenhouse crop.

With storage absorbing some of the incoming energy, the result is a

milder daytime environment.
The amount of heat storage for full solar heating seems enormous at
first, but is manageable in practice. Both of MacKinnon's greenhouses
use about 1,000 gallons of water stacked vertically on the rear walls.
That amounts to four gallons of water for each square foot of floor
space. The best method we've found is to use rectangular five-gallon
honey cans with a rust inhibitor added to the water.
"Five-gallon honey cans make
efficient
heat-storage containers" says
MacKinnon.
They pack the maximum amount
of
water into a given space.

Why do we rely so
heavily on water? It is
admittedly hard to work
with because it tends to
corrode containers and to
leak. But water is about
the best heat-storing
material known and is
cheap. The best alternative is rock (in any form from sand through
concrete), but water holds about five times more heat. So water
reservoirs on walls make compact heat storage that gets a good share of
direct incoming sunlight.
MacKinnon favors smaller containers over 55-gallon drums for two
reasons. Drums leave empty about a third of the space they occupy,
because they are big and round. They also permit warmed water to
gather into a few large areas, which causes both greater heat losses and
poorer collection in those areas. Smaller containers keep the energy
more evenly distributed. On the other hand, the large barrels are
certainly worth using if they can be had cheaply. We've also used
translucent plastic cider jugs filled with water dyed black, and have
heard reports of success with beverage cans sealed with tape and
stacked right-side-up.

The amount of insulation that MacKinnon judges to be practical in

various regions is roughly the same as local, energy-efficient
recommendations for homes. If that seems lavish for a greenhouse,
remember that homes get a lot of extra heat; the greenhouse is designed
to get along with none. To me, the need for plenty of insulation is a

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reminder that people aren't much different from plants in their

requirement for warmth, among other things. To use less insulation,
however, is to need more heat storage, which demands more space and
money.
Two other simple things are crucial to the success of our greenhouses.
The earth below them is insulated to a little below frostline with plastic
foam. And at night an insulating curtain is drawn over the clear south
wall to reduce the high heat losses there.

Regional recommendations for minimum amounts of

insulation in walls and roof, below ground
and of water for heat storage.
wall and roof, R-40 below ground, R-15 to 3 feet deep heat storage,
Zone 1
4 gallons per square foot of floor
wall and roof, R-22 below ground, R-15 to 3 feet deep heat storage,
Zone 2
3 gallons per square foot
walls and roof, R-12 below ground, R-10 to 2 feet deep heat storage,
Zone 3
3 gallons per square foot
walls and roof. R-8.5 below ground, R-10 to 2 feet deep heat storage,
Zone 4
2 gallons per square foot
walls and roof, R-6.5 below ground, R-5 to 1 foot deep heat storage,
Zone 5
2 gallons per square foot
walls and roof, R-6 below ground, R-5 to 1 foot deep heat storage,
Zone 6
1 gallon per square foot

Zone 7, 8, 9 These regions need insulation and night curtains,

but to much lower insulating values. Greenhouses in these
regions do not require double glazing, but it will help. No
heat storage or below-ground insulation is needed for
minimum performance. About half the north slope of
the roof should be glazed.

It pays to insulate the earth below the greenhouse because earth is a

relatively poor insulator, contrary to a lot of lore.
A few inches of most common insulators match the R-value of ten to 15
feet of earth. But earth is a good heat-storing material, lying somewhere
between rock and water. So insulating around the perimeter builds heat
storage into the structure while stopping steady heat losses to the
ground outside. We checked the advantage of doing this at the

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Maxa-tawny site. Six inches below the surface, the insulated soil was in
the 40's in January and in the 50's in February, while the ground outside
was frozen solid several feet deep.

The day comes when shuttering the glass or plastic face becomes
practical despite the inconvenience of twice daily attention. Past a
certain point, there's no easier way to gain a few degrees inside. The
south-facing glass loses a tremendous amount of heat compared to the
other three-fourths of the building's surface that is insulated. To add
enough storage material to make up for what shutters can save would
take too much room away from the plants.

We've found that a good nighttime heat barrier for the window doesn't
have to be a great insulator, but it must be durable and easy to
maneuver, since it will get heavy use. More important, the material
should be reflective on the inside and fitted tightly at the edges to stop
air flow. A reflective material (aluminum paint or foil) will block all
escaping radiant energy. Combined with an airtight seal, that seems to
do plenty for me greenhouse. Beyond that, any insulating value you can
build into the curtain is so much the better.
The muscle power it takes to
raise
and lower the heat-trapping
curtain
is the only non-solar energy a
well-
designed greenhouse needs.

Without a doubt, a thin,

aluminized fabric which
is operated by ropes or a
pulley is the cheapest
system to make and
work with. The best one
Dave MacKinnon tried
was made of aluminum foil glued to one side of parachute fabric. That
curtain lasted two years before needing repairs.
The third winter at Maxatawny we used a shutter system that could
hardly be bettered for stopping heat. Panels of one-inch urethane foam,
aluminized on one side, were held in place with wooden battens. We
kept them in an air-lock entrance room that doubled for storing tools
and gardening supplies. The only drawback to the foam is that it is
expensive. Any exposed foam surfaces should be painted to waterproof
the material against condensation that accumulates on the glazing.
Those are the basics of a solar greenhouse: the sun-catching design,
strategically placed insulation, and heat storage. Together they make a
cool-weather garden possible even in Northern states. In ours the air
inside has averaged 42 degrees higher than outside and between 45 and
55 degrees F. in the soil throughout the winter. Many vegetables will
thrive in that temperature range.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN THE SOLAR

GREENHOUSE
There's a lot to be learned about cool greenhouse vegetable culture. The

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most important trick we've discovered is using the right growing

container. Traditional greenhouse wisdom recommends pots on
waist-high benches — easy to reach and easy to isolate diseases and
pests. But continuous temperature recordings in the soil pots showed
that the temperature in the root zone changed right along with the air
temperature, because the exposed surface of a pot is so large. There
were large swings every day, extremes that plant roots aren't used to. So
we switched to two large beds 18 inches deep that cover the greenhouse
floor. They held the root zone to a 10-degree daily change which is
natural, and also made a greater heat-storing mass.
Beds have many other advantages. Roots have more room to forage for
water and nutrients. The environment becomes a better one for natural
predators like spiders. Because the soil in beds holds a large amount of
organic matter, they also become an important source of carbon
dioxide. Plants in a sunny, airtight greenhouse can use up all the
available carbon dioxide in a few hours.

Nothing like these greenhouses is available for sale yet, but several
years from now you will start to see them. The big greenhouse
manufacturers are redesigning their products exactly along these lines.
They will probably be expensive. But a home-built, sun-heated
greenhouse like ours

can be constructed now for less than the finest energy-wasting glass
house, and will be tailored to match your local climate.

In the far North, where solar greenhouses will be the most expensive to
build, they will yield the greatest expansion of the gardening season.
Even in southerly Flagstaff, Dave MacKin-non reports that his solar
greenhouse has made possible his first really good tomato crops, so dry
and short is the growing season there.
Properly made and maintained, a solar greenhouse should outlast its
builder. The materials are all durable or renewable.

House-attached greenhouses are even cheaper to build. As you plan

your solar greenhouse, you should think first of this kind for many
reasons. Attached greenhouses have about a third less surface area for
the same floor space as a freestanding one. Thus construction costs are
lower, and less heat is lost at night. Attached solar greenhouses are the
most efficient hot-air solar collectors known. High and low vents that
open into the home through the common wall exchange solar-heated
greenhouse air for cool air at floor level from the house. At night, the
house can return some of the heat to the greenhouse. All the design
principles for solar greenhouses apply to the attached greenhouse,
except they may need less heat storage. The only requirement is a
suitable spot facing south that is unshaded in winter.

Looking only at the money, it's obvious that a durable solar greenhouse,
attached or freestanding, will repay its cost. Compared to conventional
all-glass models the fuel savings alone will pay for its construction in
three to four years in the North. And they make you independent of an
unhealthy agriculture and the transportation system it depends upon for
fresh vegetables to tide you through winter. That's why we recommend
so strongly that you build one if you can.

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Web Site Contents ©2006 By Atlan Formularies, Post Office Box 95, Alpena, Arkansas 72611-0095
Phone: 870-437-2999 - Fax: Out of Order - Email: cary@survivalplus.com

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Categories
Building a Foundation

Search
There are several different options available when building a greenhouse foundation (Juliana
GREENHOUSE KITS greenhouses even have a foundation already built for them. Information on them is listed
• Compare Kits below the prices for each greenhouse). There are a few things every foundation should
• Cross Country
• FlowerHouse provide:
• Hobby Gardener
• Juliana 1. It must be anchored to the ground (Wind gusts can move or turn over a
• Little Greenhouse
• Portable greenhouse because of its low weight to surface area ratio).
• Sundog 2. There must be a way for water to drain out of the greenhouse (If water doesn't
• Sunshine
drain, it will collect on the floor and become stagnant promoting algae, disease,
SUPPLIES and insect growth).
• Benches 3. Measures should be taken to prevent weeds and grass from growing in the
• Books
• Controls greenhouse floor (Greenhouses will provide optimum conditions for weeds to
• Deer Repellent grow along with other the plants you have. Weeds can harbor harmful insects
• Grow Lights
• Heaters
and diseases and should be
• Meters kept out of the greenhouse).
• Misting Systems 4. Foundations for glass covered greenhouses 12' x 16' or larger should have
• Plastic Coverings
• PVC Fittings cement footers that extend below the frostline.
• Season Extenders
• Ventilation Before you start any foundation, you should know the greenhouse's outside base dimensions:
• Watering
• Other Supplies ( Juliana greenhouse dimensions, Cross Country Greenhouses: Standard twinwall
dimensions, Triplewall dimensions, Lean-to dimensions, Cape Cod dimensions, Cottage
RESOURCE CENTER
• Greenhouse Guide dimensions).
• Supplies Guide
• Grow Light Guide
• Cold Frame Guide
Below are two of the most commonly built foundations that provide all of the features
• Foundation Guide mentioned above, wood and concrete.
• Heater Calculator
• Fan Calculator
• Area Calculator
• Ordering Policies
• Shipping Details Wood Foundation
• Order Tracking
• About Us
• Contact Us Building a foundation out of wood is simple and inexpensive making it an excellent option
for most home greenhouses. We recommend using naturally resistant woods, such as cedar,
redwood, or cypress. These woods contain substances that inhibit decay. Pressure-treated
wood is also available in most areas but contains copper and is corrosive to aluminum. When
using pressure-treated wood, a minimum 10 mil thick barrier should be placed between the
wood and aluminum frame. Common barrier materials include polyethylene, vinyl, and
plastic composite lumber.

The first step to building a greenhouse is constructing a foundation, but before you begin you
should have a level site prepared for your greenhouse. We recommend using 4" x 6" (4" x 4"
are acceptable for the smaller sizes) timbers for the foundation of a Sundog, Juliana, or Cross

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Country greenhouse. The wood can be cut to size with a standard hand or power saw once it
has been purchased.

Once you have cut the wood to fit the

greenhouse, lay the boards together on the
ground like you are going to set the greenhouse
on them (make sure you remove any rocks,
sticks or dirt clogs that keep the board from
laying flush on the ground). Set a level on top
of one of the boards (shown in picture at left).
The horizontal bubble should be in-between the
2 lines marked on the level. This should be
done for each board to ensure that the greenhouse base is level.

When the foundation has been leveled, it is time to secure the

timbers together with lag screws (shown in picture to the right).
The lag screw should be three or more inches longer than the
first board it is screwed through to insure a proper hold. Once
this has been done for each corner, we chose to lay our ground
cover (shown in the picture below) under the base and cut any
excess fabric around the edges. You can lay the ground cover
after completing the base, but we have found that this way does a
better job of keeping weeds out of the corners of the greenhouse.
Make sure you use a ground cover (also called weed barrier) that
is made for landscaping and not black plastic or a tarp. Ground
cover will allow water to drain through the fabric while keeping weeds from growing in your
greenhouse.

Now that the greenhouse

foundation has been built, it is
important to make sure your base is
square. To do this, use your tape
measure, and take two diagonal
measurements of the base (One
from the front left corner to the
back right corner and the other
from the front right corner to the
back left corner). The base needs to
be adjusted until the two measurements are the same. You are now ready to anchor your
foundation to the ground (If you are using earth anchors Click Here for directions).

Now that you have finished building a foundation for your new greenhouse, it is time to put
in the floor and secure the greenhouse structure to the base.

We used gravel to complete our

greenhouse floor. There are many
options to choose from for your
greenhouse floor, but we recommend
sand or small gravel because they have
good drainage. In the picture to the left,
there is about 2 to 3 inches of gravel in
the base (you should use enough to completely cover the ground cover under it).

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Now it is time to secure your greenhouse to the foundation

base. We recommend using 2" galvanized lag screws and
washers for this job. Drill a small hole in the aluminum ridge at
the bottom of the greenhouse frame to start the lag screw in (it
is recommended that you insert one screw for each panel in
your greenhouse). After you have drilled all of the necessary
holes, place a washer over each hole and secure the screws into
the greenhouse base as shown in the picture to the right (view
is from outside of greenhouse). For added insulation, you can
caulk the bottom of the aluminum ridge where it meets the the
base with sealant. This will help seal the greenhouse to the
base keeping cold air from entering and warm air from escaping in the winter. That's it! Your
greenhouse is now ready to provide you with many years of enjoyment.

Concrete Foundation

- Concrete Slab Foundation -

A concrete slab makes a convenient base for a greenhouse. For an attached structure, the
finish floor is generally placed level with or one or two steps below the house floor. For a
freestanding greenhouse, the floor should be several inches above the finish outside grade. It
is recommended when preparing the concrete foundation that the size be made 1" longer and
wider than the greenhouse outside dimensions. A 3 inch thick floor is adequate for home
greenhouses. The outside edges should be thicker to give support and resist cracking from
frost. A drain should be placed in the center of the greenhouse slab that drains into a gravel
pit or into a pipe leading to a drainage area outside the perimeter of the greenhouse. At least 4
inches of compacted gravel or stone should be placed on top of the subsoil to provide
drainage. Also, placing a 6 mil polyethylene moisture barrier on top of the gravel or stone
will keep the slab dry.

Build a form out of lumber around the perimeter. The top of the form should be at the finish
floor height. Reinforcing wire or fiber should be added to increase the strength of the slab.
Once the concrete has set (usually about 24 hours), the forms can be removed. Insulation
board 1 to 1 1/2 inches thick can be installed vertically around the outside of the foundation

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to a depth of 1 to 2 feet. This insulates the floor and helps keep it warmer in the winter. One
recommended option whether you use a slab or wall is to fasten a 2" x 4" sill on the top of the
foundation. The sill acts as a insulated buffer between the concrete and the greenhouse frame
reducing heat loss. Recommended materials for sills include naturally resistant woods, such
as cedar, redwood, or cypress and plastic composite lumber. The greenhouse base can be
attached using concrete anchor bolts which are available at most home centers and hardware
stores. Set bolts within 1 ft. of each corner, then space additional anchor bolts about 4 ft.
apart.

- Concrete Wall Foundation -

With this foundation, the concrete wall is set on a footing below the frost line. This type of
foundation gives good support for heavier structures like greenhouses glazed with glass. To
build the wall, first dig a trench in the soil to below the frost line and place forms for the
footing. Check with the local building inspector to determine what this depth is and to see if
an inspection is required before the footing is poured. The footing is usually twice as wide as
the wall and equally as thick.

After the footing hardens, place the wall forms on top to pour the walls. The wall height
should be a minimum of 6 inches above grade. At this point, you should install drains around
the perimeter to drain water away from the site. You can finish the outside wall several ways.
You can leave it plain, paint it, or face it with brick or stone. To reduce heat loss, attach an
inch or two of insulation board to the inside or outside surface. Now you are ready to backfill
soil against the foundation and grade. One recommended option whether you use a slab or
wall is to fasten a 2" x 4" sill on the top of the foundation. The sill acts as a insulated buffer
between the concrete and the greenhouse frame reducing heat loss. Recommended materials
for sills include naturally resistant woods, such as cedar, redwood, or cypress and plastic
composite lumber. The greenhouse base can be attached using concrete anchor bolts which
are available at most home centers and hardware stores. Set bolts within 1 ft. of each corner,
then space additional anchor bolts about 4 ft. apart.

Juliana Greenhouses | Sundog Greenhouses | Cross Country Greenhouses

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Copyright 1998-2007 Aarons Creek Farms, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Agdex#: 290/27 Publication Date: 12/02

Order#: 00-077 Last Reviewed: 05/03

Title: Carbon Dioxide In Greenhouses

Division: Agriculture and Rural
History: replaces OMAF Factsheet Carbon Dioxide in Greenhouses, Order No. 94-055
Written by: T.J Blom; W.A. Straver; F.J. Ingratta; Shalin Khosla - OMAF; Wayne Brown - OMAF

Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Sources Of Carbon Dioxide
3. Supplementation Levels For Carbon Dioxide
3a. Natural air exchange
3b. Photosynthesis
4. Burner Capacity Required
5. When To Supplement With Carbon Dioxide
6. The Costs Of Adding Carbon Dioxide
7. Distribution Of Carbon Dioxide In The Greenhouse
8. Plant Damage As A Result Of Co2 Supplementation
9. Cultural Practices To Improve Productivity
10. Notes

Introduction

The benefits of carbon dioxide supplementation on plant growth and production wi thin the greenhouse environment
have been well understood for many years.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an essential component of photosynthesis (also called carbon assimilation). Photosynthesis
is a chemical process that uses light energy to convert CO2 and water into sugars in green plants. These sugars are
then used for growth within the plant, through respiration. The difference between the rate of photosynthesis and the
rate of respiration is the basis for dry-matter accumulation (growth) in the plant. In greenhouse production the aim of
all growers is to increase dry-matter content and economically optimize crop yield. CO2 increases productivity
through improved plant growth and vigour. Some ways in which productivity is increased by CO2 include earlier
flowering, higher fruit yields, reduced bud abortion in roses, improved stem strength and flower size. Growers
should regard CO2 as a nutrient.

For the majority of greenhouse crops, net photosynthesis increases as CO2 levels increase from 340–1,000 ppm
(parts per million). Most crops show that for any given level of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), increasing
the CO2 level to 1,000 ppm will increase the photosynthesis by about 50% over ambient CO2 levels. For some crops
the economics may not warrant supplementing to 1,000 ppm CO2 at low light levels. For others such as tulips, and
Easter lilies, no response has been observed.

Carbon dioxide enters into the plant through the stomatal openings by the process of diffusion. Stomata are
specialized cells located mainly on the underside of the leaves in the epidermal layer. The cells open and close
allowing gas exchange to occur. The concentration of CO2 outside the leaf strongly influences the rate of CO2
uptake by the plant. The higher the CO2 concentration outside the leaf, the greater the uptake of CO2 by the plant.
Light levels, leaf and ambient air temperatures, relative humidity, water stress and the CO2 and oxygen (O2)
concentration in the air and the leaf, are many of the key factors that determine the opening and closing of the
stomata.

Ambient CO2 level in outside air is about 340 ppm by volume. All plants grow well at this level but as CO2 levels

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are raised by 1,000 ppm photosynthesis increases proportionately resulting in more sugars and carbohydrates
available for plant growth. Any actively growing crop in a tightly clad greenhouse with little or no ventilation can
readily reduce the CO2 level during the day to as low as 200 ppm. The decrease in photosynthesis when CO2 level
drops from 340 ppm to 200 ppm is similar to the increase when the CO2 levels are raised from 340 to about 1,300
ppm (Figure 1). As a rule of thumb, a drop in carbon dioxide levels below ambient has a stronger effect than
supplementation above ambient.

Figure 1. The effect of carbon dioxide on net photosynthesis.

During particular times of the year in new greenhouses, and especially in double-glazed structures that have reduced
air exchange rates, the carbon dioxide levels can easily drop below 340 ppm which has a significant negative effect
on the crop. Ventilation during the day can raise the CO2 levels closer to ambient but never back to ambient levels of
340 ppm. Supplementation of CO2 is seen as the only method to overcome this deficiency and increasing the level
above 340 ppm is beneficial for most crops. The level to which the CO2 concentration should be raised depends on
the crop, light intensity, temperature, ventilation, stage of the crop growth and the economics of the crop. For most
crops the saturation point will be reached at about 1,000–1,300 ppm under ideal circumstances. A lower level
(800–1,000 ppm) is recommended for raising seedlings (tomatoes, cucumbers and peppers) as well as for lettuce
production. Even lower levels (500–800 ppm) are recommended for African violets and some Gerbera varieties.
Increased CO2 levels will shorten the growing period (5%–10%), improve crop quality and yield, as well as, increase
leaf size and leaf thickness. The increase in yield of tomato, cucumber and pepper crops is a result of increased
numbers and faster flowering per plant.

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Sources Of Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide can be obtained by burning carbon-based fuels such as natural gas, propane, and kerosene, or
directly from tanks of pure CO2. Each source has potential advantages and disadvantages. When natural gas, propane
or kerosene is burned, not only CO2 is produced, but also heat is generated that can supplement the normal heating
system. However, incomplete combustion or contaminated fuels may cause plant damage. Most sources of natural
gas and propane have sufficiently low levels of impurities, but notify your supplier of your intention to use the fuel
for CO2 supplementation. Sulphur levels in the fuel should not exceed 0.02% by weight. Combustion of fuels also
generates moisture. For natural gas it is estimated that about 1.4 kg of water vapour is generated for each m3 of gas
burned. For propane the amount of moisture generated per kg of CO2 is slightly less than it is for natural gas.

Natural gas, propane and liquid fuels are burned in specialized CO2 generators located throughout the greenhouse.
(Plate 1). The size of the unit (BTU’s produced) and the degree of horizontal airflow in the greenhouse determine the
number and the location of these units. The most important feature of a burner should be that it burns the fuel
completely. Some manufacturers make burners in which either natural gas or propane can be used, as well as units
with adjustable outputs. A potential disadvantage of this system is that the heat generated by these units may have a
localized effect on temperature and disease incidence (i.e. powdery mildew and Botrytis), particularly in tall growing
crops.

Alternatively, a portion of the flue gas from natural gas boilers connected to hot water heating systems can be
directed into the greenhouse as a means of supplementing CO2 to the crop. The boiler must be equipped with a flue
gas condenser specifically designed for this purpose. (Plate 2)

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Plate 1. Carbon dioxide generator. Plate 2. Hot water boiler with flue gas condenser.

Note: not all boilers, particularly older boilers, are designed for this task. Natural gas boilers must burn cleanly,
generating low or no nitrogen oxides (NOx) or ethylene. Contact your boiler manufacturer before proceeding. All
equipment must be CSA approved or equivalent.

This allows for safe flue gas introduction into the greenhouse. The flue gases are extracted where the boiler connects
to the stack. These units are designed to reduce the temperature and moisture impact on the greenhouse environment,
and have monitoring systems that safe guard against flue gas introduction when the carbon monoxide (CO) level is
higher than a set level (usually 6–10 ppm). The system is designed with a small capacity ventilator with low suction
resulting in a fixed volume of the flue gases. A second ventilator is used to mix the flue gases with the greenhouse
air and then the mixture is introduced throughout the greenhouse. This system provides the flexibility to introduce
the CO2 low within the crop and allowing it to rise through the crop before exiting the vents. The delivery system
must be designed to ensure even distribution throughout the greenhouse (Plates 3 & 4). In order to increase
efficiency and to provide CO2 during the day when there is no requirement for heat, a hot water heating system
equipped with an insulated hot water storage tank is used. The size of the tank may vary from 30–130 m3/ha of
greenhouse. The heat generated by the boiler during the day is stored in the tank and is used at night as required
(Plate 5). Summer CO2 supplementation using flue gas can be achieved as long as the stored heat is used during the
night. In some cases during the summer months the stored heat is not required as the outside night temperature
remains higher than 22°C. In this situation CO2 application is limited.

Plate 3a. CO2 condenser and blower. Plates 3b. Flue gas CO2 distribution pipes.

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Plates 3c. Flue gas CO2 distribution pipes.

Plates 3d. Flue gas distribution in greenhouse.

Plates 3e. Flue gas distribution in greenhouse. Plate 4. Flue gas CO2 distribution in greenhouse through
clear polyethylene tubes.

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Plate 5. Hot water tank to store heat when Plates 6a. Liquid CO2 tanks.
supplementing with flue gas CO 2.

Plates 6b. Liquid CO2 tanks.

Plate 7. Liquid CO2 vaporizer.

Plate 8. Liquid CO2 distribution pipes located below raised trough system.

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Liquid carbon dioxide has become popular for many growers even though it is usually more expensive. The main
advantages of using liquid CO2 include purity of product, no concerns about crop damage, nor heat or moisture
production, better control of CO2 levels and the flexibility to introduce the CO2 within the plant canopy at any time.
Pure CO2 is delivered in bulk by truck to the greenhouse. Special storage tanks rented from the supplier are required
at every site (Plate 6). The compressed CO2 is in a liquid state and must be vaporised through vaporiser units (Plate
7). The distribution system for liquid CO2 in the greenhouse is simpler to design and install. Most growers use 18
mm black flexible polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tubing with holes punched at an appropriate spacing (Plate 8). For a
small operation the CO2 may be supplied in cylinders.

When growers still growing in soil incorporate or surface apply animal manure or other organic materials, such as
straw, levels of CO2 in the greenhouse will be increased during the breakdown process. The amount of CO2
produced depends on the stability of the mulch and the activity of the microorganisms, which convert the organic
material into CO2. Production of CO2 from rotting manure will only be significant for about one month following
incorporation. In some cases organic growing media such as coconut coir will increase the CO2 level in the
greenhouse to 1,200 ppm during the night. This is usually not a problem, as the levels will drop quite rapidly at
daylight.

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Supplementation Levels For Carbon Dioxide

Today, most growers monitor and control the greenhouse environment with sensors linked to a central computer to
allow integration of the different environmental factors. A carbon dioxide controller, usually an infrared gas analyser
(IRGA) is used to monitor and maintain the minimum and maximum CO2 level in the greenhouse. Usually a single
IRGA is used per operation. Multiple readings within individual compartments or from different zones can be
obtained by using a scanner or a multiplexer. The IRGA unit can be stand-alone or, as in most cases, connected to
the environment control computer. In the latter case the environment control computer is used to control the CO2
level, through integration with light levels, stage of ventilation, and wind speed. Infra red gas analysers require
routine calibration to insure accurate measurement of the CO2 levels.

Rates of carbon dioxide supplementation are dependent on the crop response and economics. Flower and vegetable
growers may take somewhat different approaches. In general, carbon dioxide supplementation of 1,000 ppm during
the day when vents are closed is recommended. At 10% vent opening the CO2 supplementation can be shut off or
reduced to 400–600 ppm. In order to improve economic efficiency, CO2 levels can be set depending on light levels.
The following is a recommended strategy for vegetable growers. On sunny days when the vents are closed,
supplement with 1,000 ppm CO2 while on cloudy days when the light level is below 40 watts/m2 supplement with
only 400 ppm CO2. However most flower growers will supplement with 1,000 ppm regardless of light levels. The
environment computer can be set to adjust the CO2 level depending on the light measured but once the vents open
beyond 10% or the second stage of exhaust fans becomes operational, the focus is to maintain a CO2 level in the
crop canopy at 400 ppm.

To provide a guideline for CO2 addition, a theoretical calculation is given below for a glass house of 100 m2, with a
growing crop, on a day with average light intensity. In this calculation, a level of 1,000 ppm CO2 will be
supplemented to maintain 1,300 ppm during the day. Normally CO2 supplementation is not required at night as no
photosynthesis occurs. Actually, the CO2 concentration will tend to build up naturally as a result of plant respiration.
Therefore, it is not uncommon to find elevated levels (500–600 ppm) early in the morning. Growers using

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high-pressure sodium lighting during the night should maintain at least 400 ppm of CO2.

A typical greenhouse with a 2.4 m gutter has an approximate air volume of 400 m3/100 m2 floor area. To increase
the level from 300–1,300 ppm requires the addition of 1,000 ppm or 0.1% CO2. This requires 0.40 m3 or 0.75 kg of
CO2 per 100 m2 of greenhouse floor space. Add this amount before sunrise because photosynthetic activity is usually
the greatest early in the day. After a level of 1,300 ppm is achieved, it must be maintained.

Carbon dioxide levels are reduced in a greenhouse by natural air exchange and photosynthesis.

(a) Natural air exchange

Leaks in the greenhouse allow a continuous infiltration of outside air, which contains only 340 ppm CO2. An
average value for infiltration in a glass house would be one air change per hour. To compensate for this dilution,
approximately 0.37 kg CO2/100 m2 must be added to maintain the desired level of 1,300 ppm CO2.

Note that a correction should be made for gutter height and/or width of greenhouse. A wide span greenhouse has
more air volume than a narrow span given the same gutter height. For houses with double glazing (double
polyethylene or acrylic) an air exchange of ¼–1/3 of 1 greenhouse air volume is expected. For greenhouses with
forced ventilation, a lower CO2 level is usually maintained if fans are in operation, and as a result the rate of
supplementation will be different.

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(b) Photosynthesis

Plants during photosynthesis use carbon dioxide. Rate of consumption varies with crop, light intensity, temperature,
stage of crop development and nutrient level. An average consumption level is estimated to be between
0.12–0.24 kg/hr/100 m2. The higher rate reflects the typical usage for sunny days and a fully-grown crop.

When the 2 factors are combined, it is estimated that about 0.50–0.60 kg of CO2/hr/100 m2 must be added in a
‘standard’ glass greenhouse to maintain 1,300 ppm. For double-polyethylene houses supplementation is 0.25–0.35
kg of CO2/hr/100 m2. For glass houses, supplementation is primarily used to offset the dilution due to air infiltration,
while for double-poly houses the amount of CO2 required is about equal for the natural air exchange and
photosynthesis. Make adjustments in supplementation if lower levels are to be maintained.

Table 1, Potential Yearly CO2 Use on a Monthly Basis, shows the theoretical amount of CO2 used for a vegetable
crop being supplemented at 3 different rates based on sunshine hours.

Table 1. Potential Yearly CO2 Use on a Monthly Basis (based on sunshine hours at Harrow, Ontario)

Number Rate Applied (kg/ha/hr)

Hours
Month Applied 45 65 90
Jan 82 3690 5330 7380
Feb 100 4500 6500 9000
Mar 127 5715 8255 11430
Apr 168 7560 10920 15120
May 234 10530 15210 21060
Jun 253 11385 16445 22770
Jul 283 12735 18395 25470
Aug 252 11340 16380 22680
Sep 187 8415 12155 16830
Oct 157 7065 10205 14130
Nov 89 4005 5785 8010
Dec 67.1 3019.5 4361.5 6039

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Total (kg) 89959.5 129941.5 179919

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Burner Capacity Required

For calculating the capacity of the burners, only natural gas and propane are considered as these fuels are most
commonly used in the industry. Growers who do not have a CO2 gas analyser or environmental computer need to
properly size their burners. This is especially true of bedding plant growers with freestanding hoop houses. Table 2,
Capacity of burner to maintain 1,300 ppm of CO2 under assumed conditions, lists the burner capacity based on the
compensation rates stated above.

At the recommended levels (Table 2) it can be calculated that the relative humidity will increase by about 3%–6%
when using natural gas provided the greenhouse temperature is not affected from the heat generated by the CO2
burners. Typically, when the temperature is raised by 1°C there is no effect on the relative humidity.

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When To Supplement With Carbon Dioxide

Since photosynthesis normally occurs only during daylight hours, CO2 addition is not required at night. However,
supplementation is recommended during cloudy, dull days to compensate for the lower rate of photosynthesis.
Because photosynthesis increases with high light levels, the optimal CO2 concentration becomes higher. Start
supplementation approximately 1 hr before sunrise and shut the system off 1 hr before sunset. However, CO2
supplementation is highly recommended when supplemental high-pressure sodium (HPS) lighting is used at night to
insure adequate levels.

Although the optimal CO2 level increases with increasing light levels, it is often wasteful, depending on wind speed,
to attempt to maintain a rate of 1,000 ppm supplementation when vents are more than 10%–15% open or the full
complement of exhaust fans are operational. Growers should however, aim to maintain ambient levels within the
crop canopy. The increased air circulation enhances the rate of diffusion by reducing the boundary layer around the
leaf surface.

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The Costs Of Adding Carbon Dioxide

The cost of generation and distribution as well as the cost of the fuel are the key factors that must be considered.
Table 3, Cost comparison of various sources of CO2 (kg/ha), indicates the cost of supplying CO2 from the various
sources for a 12-hour day. Most large operations, especially those using flue gas CO2 may use double the amount
indicated per day. Equipment cost must also be added to the equation (Table 4, Equipment Costs for 4 Hectare (10
acre) Operation).

Table 2. Capacity of burner1 to maintain 1,300 ppm of CO2 under assumed conditions.

Natural Gas Propane

kW/1,000 m2 m3/1,000 m2/hr kW/1,000 m2 L/1,000 m2/hr

Glass house 30–36 2.8–3.4 20–24 2.8–3.4

Plastic house 15–18 1.4–1.7 10–12 1.4–1.7

1
kW kilowatt = 3420 BTU/hr
The foregoing calculations are based on continuous operation of the burner.

Table 3. Cost comparison of various sources of CO2 (Kg/Ha)*

# hrs CO2 rate Amount of $Cost/unit CO2 Cost/hr Total cost/day

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kg/ha/hr Product Req

Liquid CO2 12 50 50.0 kg 0.11 kg $5.50 $66.00
12 50 50.0 kg 0.15 kg $7.50 $90.00
12 50 50.0 kg 0.2 kg $10.00 $120.00
Natural 12 50 27.8 m3 0.1 m3 $2.78 $33.33
Gas
12 50 27.8 m3 0.15 m3 $4.17 $50.00

12 50 27.8 m3 0.3 m3 $8.33 $100.00

Propane 12 50 27.8 L 0.2 L $5.56 $66.67

12 50 27.8 L 0.25 L $6.94 $83.33
12 50 27.8 L 0.3 L $8.33 $100.00

* Does not include equipment costs

Table 4 : Equipment Costs for 4 Hectare (10 acre) Operation

Liquid CO2

Tank Rental $6,000

CO2 Distribution
1,000 ft 90 50 $4,500
Total $10,500*
Flue Gas CO2
Condenser $30,000
Blower $20,000
Distribution $15,000
plastic tube 65 mm
1,000 ft 150 100 $15,000
Total $80,000
Burner CO2
Units Required
20 2,500 $50,000
Total $50,000

*this is an annual cost

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Distribution Of Carbon Dioxide In The Greenhouse

It is important to have an adequate distribution system. The distribution of CO2 depends mainly on air movement
within the greenhouse(s), as CO2 does not travel very far through diffusion. For instance, when a single source of
CO2 is used for a large surface area or several connecting greenhouses, a distribution system must be installed. This
system must be designed to evenly distribute the CO2 in the greenhouse especially when flue gas CO2 or liquid CO2
is used. Air circulation using horizontal airflow fans or fan-jet system provides uniform distribution by moving large
volumes of air within the greenhouse when top vents are closed or exhaust fans are not operational. Today, growers
supplementing with liquid CO2 or flue gas CO2 have a central header with small individual tubes (with evenly
spaced holes) placed low in the crop canopy or in the case of bench crops, under the bench. The potential for low
CO2 levels inside a dense crop canopy (chrysanthemums) makes it beneficial to supplement within the canopy. Air
movement around the plants will also improve the CO2 uptake because the boundary layer around the individual leaf

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is lessened bringing the CO2 molecules closer to the leaf.

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Plant Damage As A Result Of Co2 Supplementation

Do not allow excessive CO2 levels in greenhouses. Levels of 5,000 ppm can cause dizziness or lack of co-ordination
to humans. Higher than recommended levels can cause necrosis of old tomato and cucumber leaves. African violet
leaves become very hard and brittle, show a very dark greenish-grey colour and often malformed flower petals,
which do not fully expand. A similar symptom with freesia flowers has been observed where the CO2 burner was
used to provide the majority of the heat requirements of the greenhouse, and thereby generating excessive amounts
of CO2. Except in emergencies, do not use CO2 burners as the prime heating system.

Since sulphur dioxide can cause acute necrosis (0.2 ppm in the air), the sulphur content of the fuels should be less
than 0.02%. Heating fuels such as No. 2 oil and bunker C (# 6 Oil) are not suitable for CO2 supplementation.

Ethylene at 0.05 ppm and propylene at higher levels can cause premature senescence on tomato and cucumber
plants, induce sleepiness in carnations, create flower shatter of geraniums, promote excessive side shoot
development, prevent normal flower initiation, and flower bud abortion in chrysanthemums and poinsettia. Ethylene
is often produced as a result of incomplete combustion, while propylene is usually associated with the use of
propane. Leaky propane supply lines have created serious financial damage to growers in the past. Carbon monoxide
(CO), which usually does not create any problems by itself, is often used as the indicator for incomplete combustion.
Levels exceeding 50 ppm CO in the flue gases are an indication of the presence of ethylene at levels capable of
causing crop damage.

Burners with a high flame temperature can cause the formation of nitrous oxides (NOx and NO2). Excessive amounts
of nitrous oxide can cause diminished growth or even necrosis. Boilers equipped with low NOx burners must be used
for flue gas utilisation as a CO2 source.

A low level of both SO2 and NOx in combination can cause greater phytotoxicity damage or be more detrimental to
the plants than a high level of either. Excessive and prolonged use of CO2 (especially in tomatoes) results in the
plants not responding well to the supplemental CO2. Interruption of the CO2 application for a few days results in an
improved response.

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Cultural Practices To Improve Productivity

Depending on the crop, the increased growth rate related to CO2 application may require the nutrient solution to be
applied at a higher electrical conductivity (EC). As well, the increased CO2 levels can result in partial closure of the
stomata reducing transpiration and increasing leaf conductance in some crops. This decrease in transpiration reduces
calcium (Ca) and boron (B) uptake, which may affect tomato fruit quality. Increased applications of these nutrients,
within reason, will adequately compensate the decreased uptake.

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Notes:

1 kg of CO2 is equivalent to 570 L of CO 2

1 m3 of natural gas provides about (1.8 Kg) 1,000 L of CO 2 when combusted and 1.4 L of water

1 m3 of natural gas = 0.75 L of kerosene = 1.0 L of propane for an equivalent amount of CO2 produced

| Top of Page

For more information:

Toll Free: 1-877-424-1300
Local: (519) 826-4047
Email: ag.info@omaf.gov.on.ca

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Last Updated: November 30, 2005

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 The objective of growing greenhouse tomatoes is to set four or five perfect fruit on every cluster of each plant.
Proper environmental control will help meet this goal.
Environmental Control for Greenhouse Tomatoes
The only reason for growing plants in a greenhouse
rather than outside is to be able to control the environ-
ment. A greenhouse allows the grower to produce plants
in a location where they would normally not grow and at
a time of year when it would otherwise be impossible
because of the weather.
A greenhouse protects plants from extreme tempera-
tures, rain, sleet, snow, winds, hail, insects and diseases,
etc. In addition, heat can be added, ventilation can be
provided, air can be cooled, humidity can be controlled,
carbon dioxide can be added, light level can be altered,
and water and fertilizer can be provided at optimum lev-
els.
The purpose of altering the environment is to provide a
constantly controlled environment where plants can be
grown at their optimum, not just to avoid extremes in the
weather.
In summary, the function of a greenhouse is to modify
the environment for better plant production.
Site Selection
Select a site that has access to both electricity and fresh
water. The water source should be clean – either commu-
nity water or a well would be best.
Choose an area with no shading from trees or tall build-
ings. Be sure there are no shadows during the early morn-
ing or late afternoon hours. Greenhouse vegetables need
full sun. At times when full sun is not needed, plants can
be shaded with shade cloth or shade compound.
Choose a site that has room for possible future expan-
sion. You may want to start with only one greenhouse, but
locate it so there is ample room to add gutter-connected
houses if you need to.
Drainage
Drainage should be one of your first considerations. If
the soil is mostly sand, water will percolate directly
through the soil under the greenhouse. However, many
soils in Mississippi have a large component of clay. In
poorly drained soils, water drainage must be designed into
the system.
First, level the site. Then put at least a 1 to 2 percent
slope from one end of the site to the other. If you plan to
plant tomatoes, dig ditches under where the rows will go.
These ditches will bring all water to one end of the green-
house.
Next, cover the floor with heavy black plastic. This will
prevent contact between soil-borne organisms and plants
within the greenhouse. Fill the ditches with pea gravel 6
inches deep to make the floor level. Finally, cover the pea
gravel with a woven plastic, which will allow water to
drain through and into the gravel and then travel to ditch-
es to be removed from the greenhouses. The woven floor
covering is readily available in black; white floor covering
can be found with more effort. sume oxygen and deplete it so that incomplete combus-
Type of Greenhouse tion may result, producing harmful by-products. Or the
lack of oxygen may cause the flame to go out and the
Greenhouses can be either free standing, single green- burner to shut off. In either case, the use of unvented
houses, or gutter-connected bays. If you plan to build heaters is too risky for the greenhouse grower.
more than one greenhouse, the gutter-connected forma- The exhaust flue should extend at least 2 feet, prefer-
tion is more economical. Each side-by-side pair of houses ably 4 feet, above the ridge (highest point) of the green-
will share a common gutter, reducing the number of side- house. The high temperature of the exhaust gasses helps to
walls by two, thereby decreasing construction costs. In draw pollutants out of the greenhouse. In a tight plastic
addition, there will be less surface area for heat loss, so greenhouse, it may be necessary to bring fresh outside air
there is an energy savings as well. to the burner via a duct to ensure complete combustion.
Typical lengths of greenhouses for tomatoes are 96 feet See section "Providing an Air Intake" for information on
and 130 feet. The 96-foot greenhouse is a convenient size
because plastic covering is easily found in 100-foot
lengths. This is the longest practicable run from intake vent
to exhaust fan that will provide adequate cooling. A green-
house longer than 150 feet will have too much of a tem-
perature gradient from the intake end to the exhaust end.
For greenhouses longer than 150 feet, consider ventillating
across the width of the greenhouse.
Side walls need to be vertical for greenhouse tomatoes,
rather than the ground-to-ground or quonset styles, which
have curved side walls. The vertical side wall should be a
minimum of 8 feet high (10 feet preferred), at which point
the gutter would be placed in a gutter-connected green-
house. Above the side wall, an arch-shaped top, with or
without trusses, is most common.

Orientation
Face greenhouses north-south rather than east-west.
This siting becomes even more important as bays are
added in a gutter-connected formation. The shadow
caused by the gutter will leave an immobile shadow in an
east-west range, whereas in a north-south range, the gut-
ter shadow will move across the crop (from west to east)
during the day as the sun moves from east to west.
Locate exhaust fans on the downwind end of the green-
Maintaining a temperature of at least 62 ºF is important for
house so they are not blowing against the wind. Also,
greenhouse tomatoes. Lower temperatures can result in cat-
place the intake vents on the prevailing wind end (the facing and other quality defects.
direction the wind blows from).

the correct size.

Heating
There are several choices for the type of heating system
used to heat greenhouses: natural gas (methane), LP gas
(propane), number 2 diesel oil, wood, electricity, or even
a heat pump. Other than when using a heat pump or an
electric heaert, vent all burners to the outside.
Never allow gasses to remain inside the greenhouse, as
tomato plants are very sensitive to certain pollutants found
in fossil fuel exhaust. Especially with kerosene and
propane space heaters, the potential exists to poison
plants with toxic pollutants. Also, space heaters may con-
How To Size the Heating Units
There are four steps needed to calculate the size of the
heating system to keep tomato plants at the required tem-
perature (over 62 °F).
1. Figure the greatest difference between inside
and outside temperature.
Size your heating systems for the most extreme condi-
tions expected. For example, do not base the BTU rating
of the heaters on 40 °F winters because the temperature
often drops below this in Mississippi winters. The 99 per-

2
cent and 97.5 percent Design Temperatures for various 4. Next, use the following equation:
cities in Mississippi are shown below. This means for Heat Required = U x A x (TINSIDE - TOUTSIDE)
Jackson, for example, 99 percent of recorded hourly tem- U = Heat Flow Efficient
peratures in December, January, and February were 21 °F, A = Surface Area of Greenhouse
and 97.5 percent of recorded temperatures during these (TINSIDE - TOUTSIDE) = maximum difference
months were above 25 °F. Therefore, to be safe, size the between inside and outside temperatures
heating system to provide adequate heat even when the
temperature outside falls as low as 21 °F in Jackson. In Example:
northern Mississippi, from Greenville to Tupelo and farther As an example, assume that a single 24- x 96-foot
north, the heating system should be designed for 14 °F. greenhouse in Jackson, with a double layer of plastic,
needs to be sized for a heating system.
99% Design 97.5% Design If the gutter height is 8 feet, the end walls are each 24 x
City Temperature Temperature 8 = 192 square feet. The side walls are each 96 x 8 = 768
square feet. The roof area is the same as the width of plas-
Biloxi 28 31 tic over the roof times the length. So, if the top is 30 feet
Clarksdale 14 19 over the curved roof, the roof area is 30 x 96 = 2,880
Columbus 15 20 square feet. The total greenhouse surface area is (2 x 192)
Greenville 15 20 + (2 x 768) + 2,880 = 4,800 square feet.
Greenwood 15 20 Using the formula above,
Hattiesburg 24 27 Heat Required = U x A x (TINSIDE - TOUTSIDE)
Jackson 21 25 = 0.8 x 4,800 x (62 - 21)
Laurel 24 27 = 0.8 x 4,800 x 41
McComb 21 26 = 157,440 BTUs
Meridian 19 23 A heating system able to supply a total of 158,000
Natchez 23 27 BTUs would be appropriate for a greenhouse of this size
Tupelo 14 19 located in Jackson, Mississippi.
Vicksburg 22 26 It is better to use two small heaters (for example, two
80,000 BTU heaters) than one large heater in a single,
free-standing greenhouse. Then, if one heater fails, there
The inside temperature for greenhouse tomatoes should will be a backup to prevent the crop from freezing.
not go below 62 °F. Therefore, the maximum expected The best way to distribute the heat is to use 8- or 10-
temperature difference = 62 - 21 = 41 °F for Jackson, inch poly tubes along the floor. These can run on the floor
Mississippi. along side walls and below gutters. By putting the heat dis-
2. Know the entire surface area of the greenhouse, tribution tubes on the floor, you deliver heat where it is
including the total area of the side walls, end walls, and most needed – at plant level – rather than close to the roof
roof, expressed in square feet. as with traditional fan jet systems. Cut holes in the tubes
3. Use the appropriate U-value (heat flow coefficient). along the side walls either at "3 o'clock" or "9 o'clock"; cut
For a single layer of plastic, use U = 1.2; for a double layer, holes in tubes between gutter-connected bays in both
use U = 0.8. If a thermal screen is used, U would be 0.5. locations to deliver heat in both directions.
The lower the U-value, the better the insulation effect.

Traditional fan jet systems are commonly used to distribute heat produced by heaters and to recirculate inside
air when the heating system is not in use.

3
Providing an Air Intake
Now that you know the size of the heating system, you
can size the air intake for the heating unit. Calculate this
by using this formula: Use 50 square inches of intake for
each 100,000 BTUs of the heating system.
If 160,000 BTUs are needed, as in the example above,
use 1.6 x 50 = 80 square inches (or about half a square
foot) of air intake for the burners.
Thermostat
Each environmental control device needs a thermostat
to control when it is activated. This includes any or all of
the following: heater, exhaust fan, fan jet louver, poly vent,
evaporative cool pads, and/or mist system. The location of
these thermostats is very important.
Do not put thermostats on an outside wall; put them
somewhere in the interior of the greenhouse where the
temperature they monitor will be representative of most of
the plant space.
Locate thermostats near the center of the house or
range to get good temperature control. Also, enclose the
thermostat in an aspirated box, or shade it so that it indi-
cates the air temperature correctly. If the sun is allowed to
shine directly on the thermostat, it will read a higher tem-
perature than the air surrounding it.
Do not put thermostats where hot air from the heater or
cool air from the fans will blow directly on them.
Never trust a thermostat to be 100 percent accurate. It
is wise to install a high/low thermometer in the green-
Proper sizing of the exhaust fams is important to ensure adequate temperature control during warm
periods. Refer to the text for the simple calculations.
4
house near the thermostat. It will record the highest and
lowest temperature that occurred since the last reset of
these values. The important point is to maintain the actual
temperature that is desired. This temperature can be veri-
fied with use of the thermometer, regardless of what the
thermostat setting reads.
Ventilation
Ventilation is important not only during the warm-
season months, but also during the cool season on sunny
days. Fresh air is primarily needed to lower the humidity
and air temperature, but it also replenishes carbon dioxide
(CO2) that plants consume during the daylight hours in the
process of photosynthesis.
Design the ventilation system to provide one air
exchange per minute, 8 cubic feet per minute (CFM) per
square foot. For a 24- x 96-foot greenhouse, two 36-inch
or 48-inch fans are usually required. Even with proper
ventilation in the warm season, the inside temperature will
always be higher than the outside temperature.
How To Size the Exhaust Fans
Exhaust Fan CFM = 8 x (Length of Greenhouse) x (Width of Greenhouse)
Example: In a 24- x 96-foot greenhouse, the square
footage of the floor is 2,304 square feet. Therefore, calcu-
late the CFM of the fans by multiplying 8 x 2,304, or
18,432 CFM. This will give one air exchange per minute
for the volume of air in the greenhouse up to a height of 8
feet.
 If you use variable speed fans or two-speed fans, you
can have better temperature control. Be sure to keep any
doors and windows at the fan end of the greenhouse
closed while the fan is operating. Otherwise, air currents
will short circuit the greenhouse interior. Fit plastic cover-
ings and poly vents tightly to prevent air leaks.
Be sure not to exhaust hot air from one greenhouse into
the intake vent of another. This only compounds the cool-
ing problem. Have shutters on fans that close automatical-
ly when they stop blowing.
How To Size the Intake Vent
Vent (sq ft) = 8 x (Length of Greenhouse) x (Width of Greenhouse) / 700
Example: With a 24- x 96-foot greenhouse, the square
footage of the floor is 2,304 square feet. To know the vol-
ume of air that must be moved, multiply this number by a
height of 8 feet. Therefore, 2,304 x 8 = 18,432 cubic feet.
Have adequate ventilation to achieve approximately one
air exchange per minute, or, in this case, 18,432 cubic feet
per minute (CFM). Wind velocity needed at the intake vent
is 700 feet per minute. Divide the cubic feet per minute by
700 feet per minute to get the square feet of the intake
vent. To find the answer, divide 18,432 by 700. This equals
26.3. So, a minimum of 27 square feet of intake vent is
required. For greenhouses with an insect barrier over the
intake vent, increase the vent size to compensate for
reduced air flow. Contact the manufacturer for informa-
tion.
Evaporative Cooling
In addition to cooling by using exhaust fans, often you
will need to take additional measures. One of the most
common measures is to add evaporative cooling, also
referred to as "wet pads" or "cooling pads." The principle is
simple. As the exhaust fans blow air out of one end of the
greenhouse, they draw in moist air from the other end. As
the moist air moves through the
greenhouse, some of the water
vaporizes, absorbing heat in
the process.
Moisture is supplied at the
end opposite the fans with a
system that drips water
through an absorbent
material, such as cellulose
(typically 4 or 6 inches thick)
or aspen pads. These are
commonly called cool
pads. Because aspen
pads last a maximum of only 1 to
2 years in the Southern climate, they are not rec-
ommended. All incoming air passes through this wet fiber.
5
Any water that drips through the fiber is collected in a gut-
ter at the bottom and drains into a small holding tank.
Water is recirculated from the holding tank back to the top
of the cool pads.
Take care to replace water that is absorbed by the air's
passing through the cool pads. This is usually done with a
toilet tank type float-valve controller.
Evaporative cooling is more effective when the air out-
side the greenhouse has a low relative humidity. As the rel-
ative humidity of the outside air increases, this technique
becomes less effective. For example, if the outside air is
95 °F and the relative humidity is 50 percent, there would
be about 13 degrees of effective cooling. But if the relative
humidity is 70 percent, there would be only an 8-degree
drop. With 90 percent relative humidity, only a 2-degree
drop can be expected. So long as the relative humidity is
less than 100 percent, this method will have some cooling
effect on the air.
Choosing the correct pad size is important so that ade-
quate cooling will be achieved. The length of pad is limit-
ed by the greenhouse width, so it is the height that must
be calculated.
How To Size the Cool Pads
Pad Height (feet) = (Air Flow Rate) / (Pad Length) / (Design Velocity)
The air flow rate is the same as the cubic footage of
the greenhouse. With a 24- x 96-foot greenhouse, use
24 x 96 x 8, because the useable height for cooling is 8
feet. This equals 18,432 cubic feet. Because you need one
air exchange per minute, 18,432 CFM is the air flow rate.
The pad length is probably about 2 feet less than the
greenhouse width, or 22 feet, in this example.
The design velocity is the speed with which air can pass
through the cool pad, in feet per minute. For 4-inch cellu-
lose, use 250; for 6-inch cellulose, use 380; and for aspen
pads, use 165. If you are using 4-inch cellulose, as in this
example, divide by 250.
So, the equation above becomes as follows:
Pad Height = (18,432) / (22) / (250) or 3.35
This means that a pad 22 feet long needs to be 3.35 feet
high, or a minimum of 3 feet 4 inches in height. For ease
of construction, extend the vent height to 4 feet.

Horizontal Air Flow
Horizontal air flow refers to movement of air within the
greenhouse, as opposed to drawing fresh air in from out-
side. This inside air movement is important to the health
and productivity of greenhouse crops.
It is necessary to have air movement within the green-
house at all times, whether the exhaust fans are on or not.
When exhaust fans are not in use, make some other pro-
vision to create air movement within the greenhouse.
Constant air movement is important for the following
reasons:
• A more uniform environment is maintained throughout
the greenhouse, avoiding "pockets" of high or low tem-
perature or humidity.
• Air movement helps to keep leaf surfaces dry so that
diseases are not so likely to develop.
• The air will also help to dry the inside surface of the
plastic covering. Any condensation on the plastic film
will reflect some light rather than transmitting it to
plants; in effect, it causes shading.
• Carbon dioxide is brought to the leaf surfaces. In the
absence of air movement, carbon dioxide, essential for
photosynthesis, can actually be depleted adjacent to
leaves even though it is more available in other parts of
the greenhouse. Air movement keeps carbon dioxide
mixed throughout the greenhouse.
One way to provide continuous air flow is to set the fan
on the heater so that it remains on constantly. Or, a sepa-
6
rate thermostat can be wired to the heater fan so that it can
be set to turn on when exhaust fans are off and heat is not
needed. The heater thermostat will still control when the
burner comes on, but the fan will stay on more of the time.
When exhaust fans are on, they will provide all the air
mixing needed.
Another technique is to install low-volume fans above
the crop to push air through the greenhouse. These are left
on all the time, or they are wired so they turn off when the
exhaust fans come on.
The reason for horizontal air flow is to keep air moving
among the plants at all times. You must be able to see the
slight movement of the leaves and any loosely hanging
strings in all parts of the greenhouse.
Plastic Film
The plastic film used to cover greenhouses comes in
various formulations that affect its longevity. Generally, it
is sold as 2-year, 3-year, 4-year, or unspecified length
films. Film rated 2-year or higher has UV (ultraviolet)
inhibitor in it to prevent rapid breakdown from the sun. A
film with an unspecified life span will probably last less
than a year with the strong Mississippi light, so it would
not be worth the cost. The longer the life of a film, the
more expensive it is. But, although costlier, the longer life
films require less frequent replacement.
The recommended film to use for the greenhouse is a
3-year film, the best compromise between longevity and
price. Be certain that it says "UV-resistant" and is the cor-
rect size to cover the greenhouse with a little left over to
 Small squirre-cage blowers (1⁄4 or 1⁄2 HP) can be used to inflate between the two layers of plastic covering the green-
house. It is important to use outside air for this purpose so that condensation does not collect between the layers.
fasten around the edges.
Energy Conservation
Double Plastic Cover
One technique used to reduce heat loss is to apply two
layers of film to the surface of the greenhouse rather than
one layer of film or glass. This double layer is often referred
to as "double poly." A single layer has a U-value (heat flow)
of about 1.2, while two layers bring the U-value down to
0.8 (remember: the lower the U-value, the better the insu-
lation). Also, the air space between the two layers serves
as an excellent insulation to heat flow. An energy savings
of 30 percent is attainable by using this simple method.
However, there are two important points:
• Do not allow the two layers of plastic to touch each
other except where fastened. Any point where the two
layers come in contact is reduced to an insulating value of
one layer. To avoid this, a small blower is used to inflate
the space between the two layers of plastic. A 1/3 or 1/4
horsepower squirrel-cage fan (100 to 200 watts) is usually
adequate for this purpose. This blower should run con-
stantly to maintain inflation.
• It is important to use outside air for this purpose.
7 ting, or any other means. The wall can be finished with
Although inside air is warmer and will use less energy to
heat, it holds more moisture than the cooler outside air.
Often, greenhouses that use inside air will have water
collect between the layers, making small pools of water. If
this happens, puncture the lower layer to let the water
drain; then patch the hole. Otherwise, the weight of the
water can tear the plastic.
Water collects because the warm, humid air blown
between the layers from inside the greenhouse comes in
contact with the outside layer of plastic. This outside layer
is cooler. If the temperature of the outside layer is below
the dew point, as it usually is in the winter, it causes water
to condense from the air onto the cool surface. This water
collects between the layers into pools that grow with time.
Insulation of North Wall
The primary form of insulation for a greenhouse is the
double layer of plastic on the top, side walls, and end
walls. However, the north wall can be insulated more thor-
oughly than with double poly (on a north-south oriented
greenhouse). Not enough light enters the greenhouse
through the north end wall to supplement light from the
other walls and top. Therefore, construct a solid wall. This
can be insulated with polystyrene boards, fiberglass bat-
plywood or with any other suitable material.

More Information
For additional information on greenhouse tomatoes, refer to the following publications:

Pat Harris, Frank Killebrew, and Herbert Willcutt, 1993. Greenhouse Tomatoes – Pest Management in Mississippi. Mississippi
State University Extension Service. Publication No. 1861. 11 pp.

William Roberts and David Mears, 1984. Heating and Ventilating Greenhouses. Rutgers University Cooperative Extension
Service, New Brunswick, NJ 08903. Publication E-046. 19 pp.
By Dr. Richard G. Snyder, Professor and Extension Vegetable Specialist

Mississippi State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, disability, or veteran status.

Publication 1879
Extension Service of Mississippi State University, cooperating with U.S. Department of Agriculture. Published in furtherance
of Acts of Congress, May 8 and June 30, 1914. JOE H. MCGILBERRY, Director. (rev-1M-7-03)
 Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
Locating the Greenhouse
Michael A. Schnelle
Assistant Professor
Extension Ornamentals/Floriculture Specialist
John M. Dole
Assistant Professor
Floriculture
Determining the site of a greenhouse operation involves
numerous considerations before actual construction of the
facility. Although this fact sheet is intended to guide the
entrepreneur in selecting the site, it also can be used as a
checklist when buying an existing operation. Before starting,
it is important to have an idea of the type of plants you want
to raise and sell and a decision as to whether you wish to be
retail or wholesale. The following are major factors that should
be investigated before greenhouse plans go beyond paper.
Light
Availability of sunlight is a major factor in deciding where
to build the greenhouse. Do not base your decision on the
present season, but rather on the short days of winter. Plan
to choose the area with maximum light availability. This will
allow the grower to minimize or eliminate the use of artificial
or supplemental light, depending upon the crops grown. Of
course, shading may be necessary during a portion of the
growing season for heat and light reduction.
Search for an area that is free of any potential shading
from nearby structures or trees. A rule of thumb to follow is
to avoid construction any nearer than 2.5 times the height of
the nearby object. Removal of the shading object may be a
more feasible alternative. This will apply to eastern, western,
and southern exposures.
Place the greenhouse with the ridge in a north to south
orientation to reduce interior shading from the structure itself
on the plants.
Land
The site should be naturally level. This will decrease initial
grading costs. If possible, the land should also be large enough
to accommodate expansion without excessive grading.
The ideal tract of land has a slight slope, up to five percent,
which provides for proper air circulation and excess water run-
off. If the soil has a high clay content, a greater slope may be
needed. Otherwise, considerable expenses may be incurred
to provide an elaborate drainage system. Determine if frost
pockets exist in low lying areas and if flooding has occurred
on the site. Low lying areas or valleys can sometimes exag-
gerate the effects of cold and hot air flow.
Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources • Oklahoma State University
F-6701
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets
are also available on our website at:
http://www.osuextra.com
Soil is an important factor to consider. Ideally, a sandy or
silt loam soil with high fertility and good drainage is recom-
mended for container production. Soil is seldom used alone
as a container media, but rather in a mix with soil-less amend-
ments. In fact, many businesses grow plants with entirely
soil-less mixes.
Proper soil drainage is vital for growing plants in ground
beds. Without proper drainage a number of problems will
develop that may be insurmountable to the beginning grower.
High salts and insufficient soil aeration are a couple of the
obstacles that may be encountered.
A media pH ranging from 5.5 to 6.5 is acceptable for the
production of most greenhouse stock. The pH can be lowered
by adding elemental sulfur or aluminum sulfate. However,
raising the pH is more feasible and can be accomplished by
adding dolomitic limestone. This is commonly used to correct
soil-less mixes that are excessively acidic. Correct soil pH
provides for maximum plant utilization of the soil’s nutrients.
The Department of Agronomy at Oklahoma State University
will test soil pH and nutrient status at a reasonable cost.
Water
Sufficient clean water is critical regardless of the crops
to be grown. All water sources to be used in production must
be tested with a solubridge to determine soluble salt content.
Research indicates that container grown plants may be watered
with nearly 1400 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved salts.
However, seedlings and transplants normally tolerate water
with salt concentrations of 200 ppm or less. When electrical
conductivity is checked in micromhos per cubic centimeter
(mho/cm), up to 200 mho/cm is tolerable by many species.
Water pH must be known prior to irrigation of crops.
Injection of phosphoric acid into the irrigation lines will help
lower excessively high water pH. Acid type fertilizers can be
used to help lower the pH in alkaline soils.
Total soluble salts, pH, calcium, carbonate, magnesium,
and sodium levels should be determined prior to growing
greenhouse stock. The Department of Agronomy at Oklahoma
State University tests suitability of irrigation water at a nominal
cost. Contact your local OSU County Extension Office for help
in submitting a sample for testing.
 Municipal water is generally acceptable but expensive in
large production areas. Although chlorinated water is rarely
harmful to plants, short of certain hydroponic systems, even
0.5 ppm fluorine may reduce salability of sensitive crops.
Softened water is not appropriate for irrigation purposes.
Determine the pressure, pipe size, and flow rate of the
water source. When city water cannot be used or is not de-
sirable, determine if a suitable well can be drilled. Also, look
elsewhere for water sources such as streams, lakes, etc.
Be certain that this water is a reliable source and will not be
diverted any time in the future from your usage. Securing a
water source can be accomplished by contacting the organi-
zation below:
Oklahoma Water Resource Board
Stream/Ground Water Division
1000 N.E. 10th Street
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73152
(405) 271-2555
An abundant source of water becomes particularly criti-
cal during the summer. A major time commitment in frequent
watering will be necessary, often more than once a day in
Oklahoma's hot weather. Up to 1/3 gallon of water per square
foot per day may be needed in potted plant production. Auto-
mated irrigation systems will be necessary in larger ranges to
reduce excessive labor costs. During hot weather, greenhouse
plants may perish or be severely injured if even one irrigation
is missed. Ideally, a backup system for irrigation should be
planned. The water supply needed to cool the greenhouse
in the summer must also be considered.
Air
Air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, fluorides, and ozone
have been shown to be detrimental to plant growth. Site selec-
tion around industrial areas and areas of high vehicle passage
could be a problem. However, in most areas of Oklahoma,
air quality is not a limiting factor in plant growth.
Utilities
Electricity
It is wise to anticipate electrical needs for the future and
provide sufficient capacity for full electric utilization. Currently,
electricity is not competitive with natural gas in Oklahoma and
is therefore not feasible as a heating source. However, check
with the local electric company to get a commercial rate and
determine if there are declining block rates for exceeding a
particular energy amount in a given time period. Electricity
will be needed at the very least for ventilation purposes at 4
to 6 kilowatts for a 1/4 acre range.
Natural Gas
Natural gas is clean and relatively inexpensive. Also, gas
heating systems are generally less expensive to purchase. The
cost of the energy source will be a major factor in determining
the location and size of these structures. New growers can
6701-2
reduce heating costs by choosing crops which can be grown
during warm times of the year and by avoiding crops with high
temperature requirements.
Auxiliary Power/Alarm System
An emergency energy source is important to consider
for a commercial operation for electrical support of heating
and ventilation equipment. In addition, an alarm system is
imperative to warn the operator/caretaker of impending freeze
damage. Many tender plants grown in Oklahoma greenhouses
are damaged by temperatures well above freezing.
Transportation and Parking
Locating the greenhouse near a major road will help
facilitate the movement of plants to and from the site. In plan-
ning a retail operation, include ample parking for customers
and employees. Provide 18 feet for head-in parking spaces
and 30 feet clearance for back-out and turning. Any curves
or turns should have an 18 to 20 foot inside radius. Check for
local ordinances which dictate regulations on exits, entrances,
and minimum car stall space. Plan for the greatest exposure
possible when retailing to the public.
Wholesale greenhouses must consider access for their
buyers. Major roadways are desirable for truck and postal
arrangements and close proximity to a major airport may be
desirable.
Labor
Be certain that an adequate labor pool is available for
your operation. Operating a greenhouse range in a remote
area, even for a wholesale operation, may not be the ideal
situation. Consider times of peak labor needs such as during
the spring and before holidays.
Greenhouse Expansion
A common oversight in greenhouse construction plans
is the possibility of future expansion. By planning for a larger
operation in years to come, the need for relocation may be
avoided. Most greenhouse ranges will double in size within
a few years and even greater expansion should be antici-
pated.
Greenhouse Layout and Design
Below is one example for designing the greenhouse and
associated areas (Figure 1).
Additional Reading
Mastalerz, John W. The Greenhouse Environment. John
Wiley and Sons, 1977.
Nelson, Kennard S. Greenhouse Management for Flower and
Plant Production. The Interstate Printers and Publishers,
Inc., Danville, Illinois, 1980.
Nelson, Paul V. Greenhouse Operation and Management.
Reston Publishing Company, Inc., 3rd ed., 1985.
Figure 1. An example for designing the greenhouse and associated areas. Typically, greenhouses are on a level, but well
drained, southerly exposed site.

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6701-3
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Bringing the University to You!
The Cooperative Extension Service is the largest, • It provides practical, problem-oriented education
most successful informal educational organization for people of all ages. It is designated to take the
in the world. It is a nationwide system funded and knowledge of the university to those persons
guided by a partnership of federal, state, and local who do not or cannot participate in the formal
governments that delivers information to help people classroom instruction of the university.
help themselves through the land-grant university
• It utilizes research from university, government,
system.
and other sources to help people make their own
Extension carries out programs in the broad catego- decisions.
ries of agriculture, natural resources and environment;
• More than a million volunteers help multiply the
family and consumer sciences; 4-H and other youth;
impact of the Extension professional staff.
and community resource development. Extension
staff members live and work among the people they • It dispenses no funds to the public.
serve to help stimulate and educate Americans to
• It is not a regulatory agency, but it does inform
plan ahead and cope with their problems.
people of regulations and of their options in meet-
Some characteristics of the Cooperative Extension ing them.
system are:
• Local programs are developed and carried out in
• The federal, state, and local governments co- full recognition of national problems and goals.
operatively share in its financial support and
• The Extension staff educates people through
program direction.
personal contacts, meetings, demonstrations,
• It is administered by the land-grant university as and the mass media.
designated by the state legislature through an
• Extension has the built-in flexibility to adjust its
Extension director.
programs and subject matter to meet new needs.
• Extension programs are nonpolitical, objective, Activities shift from year to year as citizen groups
and research-based information. and Extension workers close to the problems
advise changes.

Oklahoma State University, in compliance with Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11246 as amended, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Americans
with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, age, religion, disability, or status as a veteran in
any of its policies, practices, or procedures. This includes but is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid, and educational services.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Robert E. Whitson, Director of Cooperative Ex-
tension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President, Dean, and Director
of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of 20 cents per copy. 0503

6701-4
 Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
Mist Propagation Systems
and Humidity Chambers
for the Nursery and Greenhouse
Michael A. Schnelle
Associate Professor Extension
Ornamentals/Floriculture Specialist
Janet C. Cole
Associate Professor
Omamental Horticulture
John M. Dole
Associate Professor
Floriculture
Misting is a technique for minimizing plant moisture loss by
controlled periodic wetting of the foliage of cuttings which are
being rooted. This technique is helpful for rooting leafy cuttings;
however, succulent plants are usually not placed under mist.
Constant misting has been successful with a few plants, but
results are generally better with intermittent misting. Constant
misting wastes water, leaches nutrients from the leaves, and
reduces soil temperatures which, consequently, restricts root
development. Mist beds can be used in greenhouses year
round or during the growing season for nursery stock. such as gravel or crushed stone. The size of the aggregate
The on-off interval for misting depends upon how quickly
water dries from the leaves. Ideally, the mist should be turned
on just after the leaves become dry and should remain on long
enough to wet all leaf surfaces. Cuttings quickly die if they
become dry and are exposed to bright sunlight for even a short
period; therefore, it is important that the leaves be kept wet
at all times when the sun is shining on them. Over-misting is
generally considered less detrimental than over-watering.
Before mist propagation became widely accepted, rooting
was attempted by maintaining high relative humidities in the
rooting area and restricting sunlight by partial shading when
sunlight became intense. The use of partial shading, however,
reduces the rate of photosynthesis which indirectly restricts
the rate of root development. This, obviously, is undesirable.
However, various degrees of shading may be appropriate
depending upon the species, location, and time of year.
Misting reduces leaf transpiration in two ways. First, it
causes a reduction in leaf temperature due to evaporative cool-
ing as the water on the leaf evaporates. Second, it maintains
high humidity conditions at the leaf surface. The cooling is
reported to be as much as 1°F to 1.5°F as compared to leaves
not misted. These cooling effects are effective, however, it is
recommended that mist propagation beds be shaded when
necessary.
The development of disease under mist may be a serious
problem. Botrytis and bacterial soft rots can be major problems
with leafy cuttings, particularly if sanitary conditions are not
maintained.
Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources
F-6708
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets
are also available on our website at:
http://www.osuextra.com
Algae can become a problem in areas which remain wet
most of the time. If algae does cause a problem, chemicals
injected through the water system can be used for control.
Mist Propagation Bench
Mist propagation is most commonly achieved by adapt-
ing a bench for the propagation area (Figure 1) or by using
a ground bed. Since the area will be kept wet constantly, the
bottom and sides should be of a material that is highly resistant
to water. Construct the bench of stainless steel wire and metal
frames to provide proper air circulation. The bottom can be
covered to a depth of 1-inch with a freely draining material
should be about 1/4-inch. The gravel should then be covered
with 2 to 3 inches of sand.
If flats are used for holding the rooted cuttings, the flats
can be placed directly on the bench top or on sand. If the
cuttings are to be rooted directly in the bench, the rooting
medium (for example, a mixture of 3 parts sand and 1 part
peat) should be placed to a depth of about 2 inches on top of
the sand. Since the mist tends to lower soil temperature, which
restricts root development, best results are obtained when the
soil medium is warmed. For most plants, a temperature of
75°F is considered optimum. To achieve such temperatures,
electric heating cable can be placed on the bench or slightly
above the gravel layer in the sand. Standard soil electric
heating cable units are available in lengths of 30, 60, and
120 feet. Thermostat controls are also available that permit
raising the soil temperature to whatever level is desired for
the specific plant species being rooted. Many growers place
flats of cuttings or seeds directly on the bench. This practice
allows for greater sanitation since flats can be easily moved
and the benches cleaned.
When the greenhouse is heated with steam or hot water,
some soil warming can also be provided by placing one or
more heating pipes below the bench. If this arrangement
is used, the piping below the bench should be separately
controlled so that heat can be added even when greenhouse
space heating is not required.
Other features of benches such as required supporting
framework, bench dimensions, and construction features are
• Oklahoma State University
Figure 1. Layout for typical mist bench
Setup appropriate for direct use on the ground as well
discussed in detail in Extension fact sheet F-6703, “Green-
house Floors and Benches.” Mist benches are often placed
in inexpensive polyethylene Quonsets in nurseries for added
protection to the propagation area. Refer to Extension fact
sheet F-6700 “Greenhouse Structures and Coverings” for
additional information.
Piping Arrangement
The mist nozzles are normally placed on the end of a
vertical riser from a distribution pipe placed on or below the
propagating bed. Such an arrangement avoids dripping from
the nozzles when the water is turned off, and the riser does not
interfere with the uniformity of the mist pattern. If the nozzles
are placed on a pipe running above the bed, the nozzles
should preferably be placed on the bottom of the pipe so that
droplet collection on the distribution pipe is minimal. Dripping
from the nozzles is still a problem with this arrangement due
to water draining from the pipe when the water is turned off.
The distribution pipe size depends upon the water dis-
charged by the nozzles and the number of nozzles installed
along the length of the pipe. Most mist nozzles discharge
from 4 to 15 gallons of water per hour (gph). A 1-inch line will
distribute water to 50 of the higher 15 gph capacity nozzles
without significant pressure loss, a 3/4-inch line to 25 nozzles,
and a 1/2-inch line to 8 nozzles. Approximately four times as
many of the 4 gallon-per-minute nozzles could be placed on
each of these lines. To minimize dripping, be certain that the
mist lines are straight and level.
6708-2
The risers should normally be made of 1/2-inch diameter
pipe. Depending upon nozzle type, the nozzles require a
minimum water pressure of 20 to 40 pounds per square inch
(psi) for effective distribution over the bed. Pressures as high
as 120 psi can be used with some mist nozzles. If the water
main pressure in the greenhouse is below the required pres-
sure, a booster pump should be placed in the water line to
obtain the required pressure.
Since all of the nozzles have rather small orifices and
openings, a filter or strainer should be placed in the line to
remove solids that could plug the nozzles.
The control valve is generally an electrically operated
solenoid valve that turns the water on and off in response to
a control signal.
Whirling nozzles use small slots within the internal body
of the nozzle to break up the water and to generate small
droplets which then pass through an orifice and outward away
from the nozzle. Since the slots are small, these nozzles are
particularly susceptible to plugging. The whirling nozzles are
specifically made for mist-propagation discharge of the water
from an angle of 160 degrees. They are recommended for
use at pressures from 35 to 100 psi.
The deflection-type nozzles have larger orifices than
the whirling nozzles and, therefore, have less of a tendency
to be plugged by solid particles in the water. Since they are
simpler in construction, they are also generally a little less
expensive than the whirling nozzles. The uniformity of water
distribution over the bed area with deflection nozzles is quite

Types of Mist Propagation Nozzles
Two basic types of nozzles are used in mist propagation
systems:
1. Oil-burner nozzles, which have a whirling action.
2. Deflection nozzles, which employ a small stream of water
impacting against a small, flat plate.
6708-3
variable and for a given nozzle could either improve or be-
come worse as the pressure increases. You can check the
uniformity of distribution by placing water cups over the bed
area and observing the water collected after a given period of
operation. The gap between the face of the orifice and deflec-
tion plate, and the centering of the plate over the orifice can
be adjusted for most deflection-type nozzles. Adjustment is
recommended whenever uniformity of distribution differs by
more than 50 percent. The output of the deflection nozzles is
generally higher than the whirling nozzles, varying between
4 and 15 gallons per hour for the nozzles tested.
Nozzle Position
The nozzle should be spaced so that there are no dry
areas on the bed and so the overlap is minimal. If excessive
overlap occurs, excessive wetting may result. Most nozzle
manufacturers recommend the nozzle spacing which they
feel provides the best results. The most common recom-
mended spacing is 3 to 4 feet. Be sure to follow the particular
manufacturer’s advice.
Nozzles are normally placed about 18 inches above
the plant-bed surface. Some manufacturers may, however,
recommend lower heights.
Controls for Misting Systems
Most mist propagation systems are controlled with two
time clocks. The first is a 24-hour clock which turns the system
on during the daylight hours and off at night. The second is a
cycle timer which controls the duration of the “on” cycle and
the interval between mist cycles. The clock should allow both
of these intervals to be adjusted to correspond to the growing
and environmental requirements. During bright, warm, summer
days in Oklahoma, the optimum number of mist cycles can be
as many as 20 per hour. Each “on” period should be as short
as possible but long enough to fully wet all leaf surfaces.
A number of greenhouse equipment suppliers provide
time clocks with the capability to provide such adjustments
(see suppliers listed on back page).
The disadvantage of clock-type controls is that they must
be set for bright sunlight conditions so that the plants do not
become dry during periods of maximum stress. When set in
such a manner, they over-water whenever the sun is less
intense, when clouds reduce the solar radiation entering the
house, or when the drying rate is reduced due to a reduction
in air temperature. For this reason, several different types of
automatic controls have been developed. One is a pivoting
beam (Mist-a-matic) that has a piece of screen on one end of
the beam and a movable counterweight on the other. The unit
is placed under the misted area where water collects on the
screen. The additional weight overcomes the counterbalance
causing the beam to move down. A switch connected to the
beam then shuts the water off. When the misting stops, the
water on the screen dries which reduces the weight on that
end of the beam. When adequate water has evaporated, the
beam rotates in the opposite direction activating the switch
and turning the mist back on. By adjusting the position of the
counterbalance weight, the drying interval and mist time can
be controlled within reasonable limits.
In a second type of control system (electronic leaf) the
water completes an electric circuit between two electrodes,
activating a control circuit. This system does not involve any
moving parts and is not as subject to variation due to wind,
insects, or dirt accumulation and pivot friction. Salt accumula-
tion is a problem with the electronic leaf as well as the Mist-
a-matic. Both require periodic cleaning with the frequency
contingent upon the water source.
Regardless of the type of control used, it should permit
a gradual reduction in the frequency of misting as plants
become rooted. Such control enables the grower to harden
the plants to the water stresses involved with normal watering
practices before cuttings are removed from the mist propaga-
tion area.
Since even short periods of dryness with new cuttings can
be fatal, over-wetting is not considered to be as detrimental as
under-wetting. For this reason, the solenoid valve used in the
water distribution line should be one which is normally open
(that is, open when no current is provided to the control). If
an electric power failure occurs, the mist will operate continu-
ously, keeping the plants wet throughout the electric power
failure. This is, of course, dependent upon having a water
supply system which maintains line pressure during periods
of electrical power failure.
Humidity Chambers
Humidity chambers provide an alternative to automated
mist systems. These systems have proven successful in
major United States’ greenhouse operations as well as being
popular abroad. A humidity chamber wilI aid in rooting and/or
germination of many species. The success rate is comparable
or possibly superior to mist systems under certain conditions
(Figures 2a and 2b).
Summary
Mist propagation of plant cuttings is a widely accepted
practice. For best results, the mist should be operated intermit-
tently. The on-off interval for misting should keep all cuttings
constantly wet. The propagation area is generally placed on
a bench for convenience. It may, however, be placed directly
on the ground in a nursery setting for example.
Ideally, the total propagating area should be uniformly
moistened. In practice, this is difficult to achieve due to various
nozzle characteristics. However, extreme variations in water
distribution should be avoided. Both whirling and deflection-
type nozzles can give good results when operated at water
pressures between 25 and 60 psi on 4-foot wide benches.
For deflection-type nozzles, obtaining the best uniformity of
water distribution may require adjustments of the gap between
the deflection plate and nozzle orifice, and the position of the
plate over the orifice. Periodically check nozzles for plugged
orifices.
Some form of automatic control is essential to prevent
excessive use of water and detrimental growth effects due to
6708-4
over-watering which occurs with continuous misting. Since as
many as 20 on-off cycles may be necessary per hour, manual
control is impractical. The most common control is the electric
time clock; however, devices which sense and actuate as a
result of the drying rate would be preferable. Two such devices
are available: a counterbalanced rotating beam with a switch
and an electronic artificial leaf where wetting completes an
electronic circuit. Lastly, despite the ideal environment a mist
bench system provides, rooting powder or quick dip hormone
solutions may be necessary for species that are difficult to
root.
Hardening-off Cuttings
Tender cuttings will be shocked if not carefully removed from a
moist, humid environment to a dryer setting. Below are steps
considered to ease this transition:
1. Gradually decrease misting periods.
2. Some nurseries allow cuttings to root into the soil be-
neath the rooting medium. The mist frame is removed
altogether.
3. Root cuttings in small containers arranged in flats under
mist. Plants can then be transplanted with little stress.
Block-type rooting mediums are routinely used such as
oasis cubes and rockwool cubes.
4. Pot up cuttings and move them to a shaded, humid
location, gradually increasing sunlight and decreasing
watering intervals.
WARNING: Consult a competent electrician for the electri-
cal installation of the mist system. Due to the presence of
water, the potential for electrocution from an improperly
installed system is high.
Hardware Suppliers
American Plant Products and Services, Inc.
9200 Northwest 10th Street
Oklahoma City, OK 73127
(405) 787-4833
Aqua-Hort Systems, Inc.
P.O. Box 57197
Oklahoma City, OK 73157
(405) 521 -8002
Figure 2a.

Figure 2b.

6708-5
 The Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
Bringing the University to You!
The Cooperative Extension Service is the largest, • It provides practical, problem-oriented education
most successful informal educational organization for people of all ages. It is designated to take
in the world. It is a nationwide system funded and the knowledge of the university to those persons
guided by a partnership of federal, state, and local who do not or cannot participate in the formal
governments that delivers information to help people classroom instruction of the university.
help themselves through the land-grant university
• It utilizes research from university, government,
system.
and other sources to help people make their own
Extension carries out programs in the broad catego- decisions.
ries of agriculture, natural resources and environment;
• More than a million volunteers help multiply the
family and consumer sciences; 4-H and other youth;
impact of the Extension professional staff.
and community resource development. Extension
staff members live and work among the people they • It dispenses no funds to the public.
serve to help stimulate and educate Americans to
• It is not a regulatory agency, but it does inform
plan ahead and cope with their problems.
people of regulations and of their options in meet-
Some characteristics of the Cooperative Extension ing them.
system are:
• Local programs are developed and carried out in
• The federal, state, and local governments full recognition of national problems and goals.
cooperatively share in its financial support and
• The Extension staff educates people through
program direction.
personal contacts, meetings, demonstrations,
• It is administered by the land-grant university as and the mass media.
designated by the state legislature through an
• Extension has the built-in flexibility to adjust its
Extension director.
programs and subject matter to meet new needs.
• Extension programs are nonpolitical, objective, Activities shift from year to year as citizen groups
and research-based information. and Extension workers close to the problems
advise changes.

The Cooperative Extension Service does not endorse any of the companies or products referred to herein. Names given merely
represent commonly available sources for these type products.
Oklahoma State University, in compliance with Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11246 as amended, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Americans
with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, age, religion, disability, or status as a veteran in
any of its policies, practices, or procedures. This includes but is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid, and educational services.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Robert E. Whitson, Director of Cooperative Ex-
tension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President, Dean, and Director
of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of 42 cents per copy. 0803

6708-6
 UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND AT COLLEGE PARK
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND EASTERN SHORE
small greenhouse is likely to have a variety of plant
materials, containers, and soil mixes that need different SIT
Y OF MA
R SIT
Y OF MA
R

ER

ER
YL

YL
amounts of water.
Planning a Home Greenhouse

UNIV

UNIV
AND

AND
Time clocks or mechanical evaporation sensors can A

E
O R

K
LL R ST
E G E PA ER N S H O
be used to control automatic watering systems. Mist
sprays can be used to create humidity or to moisten
seedlings. Watering kits can be obtained to water plants
in flats, benches, or pots. Fact Sheet 645

CO2 and Light

Figure 5. Thermostats in the middle of the greenhouse
in a shaded, white, and aspirated box
perature can fluctuate greatly; close supervision would
be required if a manual ventilation system were in use.
Therefore, unless close monitoring is possible, both
hobbyists and commercial operators should have auto-
mated systems with thermostats or other sensors.
Thermostats can be used to control individual units,
or a central controller with one temperature sensor can
be used. In either case, the sensor or sensors should be
shaded from the sun, located about plant height away
from the sidewalls, and have constant airflow over
them. An aspirated box is suggested; the box houses
each sensor and has a small fan that moves greenhouse
air through the box and over the sensor (Figure 5). The
box should be painted white so it will reflect solar heat
and allow accurate readings of the air temperature.
Watering Systems
A water supply is essential. Hand watering is accept-
able for most greenhouse crops if someone is available
when the task needs to be done; however, many hobby-
ists work away from home during the day. A variety of
automatic watering systems is available to help to do
the task over short periods of time. Bear in mind, the
Carbon dioxide (CO2) and light are essential for
plant growth. As the sun rises in the morning to pro-
vide light, the plants begin to produce food energy
(photosynthesis). The level of CO2 drops in the green-
house as it is used by the plants. Ventilation replenishes
the CO2 in the greenhouse. Because CO2 and light
complement each other, electric lighting combined with
CO2 injection are used to increase yields of vegetable
and flowering crops. Bottled CO2, dry ice, and com-
bustion of sulfur-free fuels can be used as CO2 sources.
Commercial greenhouses use such methods.
Alternative Growing Structures
A greenhouse is not always needed for growing
plants. Plants can be germinated in one’s home in a
warm place under fluorescent lamps. The lamps must
be close together and not far above the plants.
A cold frame or hotbed can be used outdoors to
continue the growth of young seedlings until the weath-
er allows planting in a garden. A hotbed is similar to the
cold frame, but it has a source of heat to maintain prop-
er temperatures.
For More Information
For more information on environmental control sys-
tems, refer to Extension Bulletin 351 Greenhouse
Heating, Circulation, and Ventilation Systems. For
further discussion of hotbeds and cold frames, see Fact
Sheet 633 Hotbeds and Cold Frames for Starting Annual
Plants, also available from your county Cooperative
Extension Service office.
P94/R96
David S. Ross
Extension agricultural engineer
Department of Agricultural Engineering
What should a gardener consider when planning to
build a small hobby greenhouse? What materials should
be used to build it? Does it need heating and cooling?
Where can it be placed on the property? There are
many considerations, and careful planning is important
before a project is started.
Building a home greenhouse does not need to be
expensive or timeconsuming. It can be small and sim-
ple, with a minimum investment in materials and
equipment, or it can be a fully equipped, fancy, auto-
mated conservatory. The final choice of the type of
greenhouse will depend on the growing space desired,
home architecture, available sites, and costs. The green-
house must, however, provide the proper environment
for growing plants.
Regardless of the size and type of greenhouse you
choose, consider how much time you have to manage
the system. Do not be too ambitious; some new green-
house owners find they do not have as much time as
they thought. On the other hand, it is a misconception
that greenhouses require constant attention. The envi-
ronment can be maintained with minimal upkeep using
automatic controls, which operate the heating, ventila-
tion, watering, humidity, and artificial lighting systems
when no one is home. A hobbyist should invest in
automatic controls and start with easy-to-care-for plants.
Sometimes the hobby grows into a business, so give
some thought to the possibility of expanding your
greenhouse in the future.
Constructing the greenhouse yourself can make the
project more enjoyable and less expensive if you are
handy with tools. Prefabricated greenhouses can be pur-
chased, or they can be built of simple frames. However,
only qualified electricians and plumbers should install
the automatic systems.
Location
The greenhouse should be located where it gets max-
imum sunlight. The first choice of location is the south
or southeast side of a building or shade trees. Sunlight
all day is best, but morning sunlight on the east side is
sufficient for plants. An east side location captures the
most November to February sunlight. The next best
sites are southwest and west of major structures, where
plants receive sunlight later in the day. North of major
structures is the least desirable location and is good only
for plants that require little light. Morning sunlight is
most desirable because it allows the plant’s food produc-
tion process to begin early; thus, growth is maximized.
Deciduous trees, such as maple and oak, can effec-
tively shade the greenhouse from the intense late after-
noon summer sun; however, they should not shade the
greenhouse in the morning. Deciduous trees also allow
maximum exposure to the winter sun because they shed
their leaves in the fall. Evergreen trees that have foliage
year round should not be located where they will shade
the greenhouse because they will block the less intense
winter sun. You should aim to maximize winter sun
exposure, particularly if the greenhouse is used all year.
Remember that the sun is lower in the southern sky in
winter causing long shadows to be cast by buildings and
evergreen trees (Figure 1).
Good drainage is another requirement for the site.
When necessary, build the greenhouse above the sur-

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30,1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, University of Maryland at College Park,
and local governments. Thomas A. Fretz, Director of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Maryland at College Park.

8 The University of Maryland is equal opportunity. The University’s policies, programs, and activities are in conformance with pertinent Federal and State laws and regulations on nondis-
crimination regarding race, color, religion, age, national origin, sex, and disability. Inquiries regarding compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended; Title IX of the
Educational Amendments; Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973; and the Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990; or related legal requirements should be directed to the Director
of Personnel/Human Relations, Office of the Dean, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Symons Hall, College Park, MD 20742.

Summer sun
Winter sun
Figure 1. Select location carefully. Note where the shade line occurs in both the winter and summer.
rounding ground so rainwater and irrigation water will
drain away. Other site considerations include the light
requirements of the plants to be grown; locations of
sources of heat, water, and electricity; and shelter from
winter wind. Access to the greenhouse should be conve-
nient for both people and utilities. A workplace for pot-
ting plants and a storage area for supplies should be
nearby.
Types of Greenhouses
A home greenhouse can be attached to a house or
garage, or it can be a freestanding structure. The chosen
site and personal preference can dictate the choices to
be considered. An attached greenhouse can be a half
greenhouse, a full-size structure, or an extended win-
dow structure. There are advantages and disadvantages
to each type.
Attached Greenhouses
Lean-to. A lean-to greenhouse is a half greenhouse,
split along the peak of the roof, or ridge line (Figure 2).
Lean-to’s are useful where space is limited to a width of
approximately 7 to 12 feet, and they are the least expen-
sive structures. The ridge of the lean-to is attached to a
building using one side and an existing doorway, if
available. Lean-to’s are close to available electricity,
water, and heat. The disadvantages include some limita-
tions on space, sunlight, ventilation, and temperature
control. The height of the supporting wall limits the
potential size of the lean-to. The wider the lean-to, the
higher the supporting wall must be. Temperature con-
trol is more difficult because the wall that the green-
house is built on may collect the sun’s heat while the
translucent cover of the greenhouse may lose heat
2 7
rapidly. The lean-to should face the best direction for
adequate sun exposure. Finally, consider the location of
windows and doors on the supporting structure and
that snow, ice, or heavy rain might slide off the roof of
the house onto the structure.
Even-span. An even-span is a full-size structure that
has one gable end attached to another building (Fig-
ure 2). It is usually the largest and most costly option,
but it provides more usable space and can be length-
ened. The even-span has a better shape than a lean-to
for air circulation to maintain uniform temperatures
during the winter heating season. An even-span can
accommodate two to three benches for growing crops.
Window-mounted. A window-mounted green-
house can be attached on the south or east side of a
house. This glass enclosure gives space for conveniently
growing a few plants at relatively low cost (Figure 2).
The special window extends outward from the house a
foot or so and can contain two or three shelves.
Freestanding Structures
Freestanding greenhouses are separate structures;
they can be set apart from other buildings to get more
sun and can be made as large or small as desired
(Figure 2). A separate heating system is needed, and
electricity and water must be installed.
The lowest cost per square foot of growing space is
generally available in a freestanding or even-span green-
house that is 17 to 18 feet wide. It can house a central
bench, two side benches, and two walkways. The ratio
of cost to the usable growing space is good.
When deciding on the type of structure, be sure to
plan for adequate bench space, storage space, and room
for future expansion. Large greenhouses are easier to
Small fans with a cubic-foot-per-minute (ft3/min)
air-moving capacity equal to one quarter of the air vol-
ume of the greenhouse are sufficient. For small green-
houses (less than 60 feet long), place the fans in diago-
nally opposite corners but out from the ends and sides.
The goal is to develop a circular (oval) pattern of air
movement. Operate the fans continuously during the
winter. Turn these fans off during the summer when the
greenhouse will need to be ventilated.
The fan in a forced-air heating system can some-
times be used to provide continuous air circulation.
The fan must be wired to an on/off switch so it can run
continuously, separate from the thermostatically con-
trolled burner.
Ventilation
Ventilation is the exchange of inside air for outside
air to control temperature, remove moisture, or replen-
ish carbon dioxide (CO2). Several ventilation systems
can be used. Be careful when mixing parts of two
systems.
Natural ventilation uses roof vents on the ridge line
with side inlet vents (louvers). Warm air rises on con-
vective currents to escape through the top, drawing cool
air in through the sides.
Mechanical ventilation uses an exhaust fan to move
air out one end of the greenhouse while outside air
enters the other end through motorized inlet louvers.
Exhaust fans should be sized to exchange the total vol-
ume of air in the greenhouse each minute.
The total volume of air in a medium to large green-
house can be estimated by multiplying the floor area
times 8.0 (the average height of a greenhouse). A small
greenhouse (less than 5,000 ft3 in air volume) should
have an exhaust-fan capacity estimated by multiplying
the floor area by 12.
The capacity of the exhaust fan should be selected at
one-eighth of an inch static water pressure.The static
pressure rating accounts for air resistance through the
louvers, fans, and greenhouse and is usually shown in
the fan selection chart.
Ventilation requirements vary with the weather and
season. One must decide how much the greenhouse will
be used. In summer, 1 to 1 1/2 air volume changes per
minute are needed. Small greenhouses need the larger
amount. In winter, 20 to 30 percent of one air volume
exchange per minute is sufficient for mixing in cool air
without chilling the plants.
One single-speed fan cannot meet this criteria. Two
single-speed fans are better. A combination of a single-
speed fan and a two-speed fan allows three ventilation
rates that best satisfy year round needs. A single-stage
and a two-stage thermostat are needed to control the
operation.
A two-speed motor on low speed delivers about 70
percent of its full capacity. If the two fans have the same
capacity rating, then the low-speed fan supplies about
35 percent of the combined total. This rate of ventila-
tion is reasonable for the winter. In spring, the fan oper-
ates on high speed. In summer, both fans operate on
high speed.
Refer to the earlier example of a small greenhouse. A
16-foot wide by 24-foot long house would need an esti-
mated ft3 per minute (cubic feet per minute; CFM)
total capacity; that is, 16 × 24 × 12 ft3 per minute. For
use all year, select two fans to deliver 2,300 ft3 per
minute each, one fan to have two speeds so that the
low-speed rating is about 1,600 ft3 per minute and the
high speed is 2,300 ft3 per minute. Adding the second
fan, the third ventilation rate is the sum of both fans on
high speed, or 4,600 ft3 per minute.
Some glass greenhouses are sold with a manual ridge
vent, even when a mechanical system is specified. The
manual system can be a backup system, but it does not
take the place of a motorized louver. Do not take short-
cuts in developing an automatic control system.
Cooling
Air movement by ventilation alone may not be ade-
quate in the middle of the summer; the air temperature
may need to be lowered with evaporative cooling. Also,
the light intensity may be too great for the plants.
During the summer, evaporative cooling, shade cloth,
or paint may be necessary. Shade materials include roll-
up screens of wood or aluminum, vinyl netting, and paint.
Small package evaporative coolers have a fan and
evaporative pad in one box to evaporate water, which
cools air and increases humidity. Heat is removed from
the air to change water from liquid to a vapor. Moist,
cooler air enters the greenhouse while heated air passes
out through roof vents or exhaust louvers. The evapora-
tive cooler works best when the humidity of the outside
air is low. The system can be used without water evapo-
ration to provide the ventilation of the greenhouse. Size
the evaporative cooler capacity at 1.0 to 1.5 times the
volume of the greenhouse. An alternative system, used
in commercial greenhouses, places the pads on the air
inlets at one end of the greenhouse and uses the exhaust
fans at the other end of the greenhouse to pull the air
through the house.
Controllers/Automation
Automatic control is essential to maintain a reason-
able environment in the greenhouse. On a winter day
with varying amounts of sunlight and clouds, the tem-
 1. A is the total exposed (outside) area of the green-
house sides, ends, and roof in square feet (ft2). On a
quonset, the sides and roof are one unit; measure the
length of the curved rafter (ground to ground) and
multiply by the length of the house. The curved end
area is 2 (ends) × 2/3 × height × width. Add the sum of
the first calculation with that of the second.
2. u is the heat loss factor that quantifies the rate at
which heat energy flows out of the greenhouse. For
example, a single cover of plastic or glass has a value of
1.2 Btu/h × ft2 × °F (heat loss in Btu’s per hour per
each square foot of area per degree in Fahrenheit); a
double-layer cover has a value of 0.8 Btu/h × ft2 × °F.
A table of u values is provided in Extension Bulletin
351 Greenhouse Heating, Circulation, and Ventilation
Systems. The values allow for some air infiltration but
are based on the assumption that the greenhouse is fair-
ly airtight.
3. (Ti – To) is the maximum temperature difference
between the lowest outside temperature (To) in your
region and the temperature to be maintained in the
greenhouse (Ti). For example, the maximum difference
will usually occur in the early morning with the occur-
rence of a 0 °F to –5 °F outside temperature while a
60 °F inside temperature is maintained. Plan for a tem-
perature differential of 60 to 65 °F. The following equa-
tion summarizes this description: Q = A × u × (Ti – To).
Example. If a rigid-frame or post and rafter
freestanding greenhouse 16 feet wide by 24 feet
long, 12 feet high at the ridge, with 6 feet side-
walls, is covered with single-layer glass from the
ground to the ridge, what size gas heater would
be needed to maintain 60 °F on the coldest
winter night (0 °F)? Calculate the total outside
area (Figure 4):
two long sides 2 × 6 ft × 24 ft = 288 ft2
two ends 2 × 6 ft × 16 ft = 192 ft2
roof 2 × 10 ft × 24 ft = 480 ft2
gable ends 2 × 6 ft × 8 ft = 96 ft2
A = 1,056 ft2
Select the proper heat loss factor, u = 1.2 Btu/h
× ft2 × °F. The temperature differential is 60 °F
– 0 ºF = 60 °F.
Q = 1,056 × 1.2 × 60 = 76,032 Btu/h (furnace
output).
Although this is a relatively small greenhouse, the
furnace output is equivalent to that in a small residence
such as a townhouse. The actual furnace rated capacity
takes into account the efficiency of the furnace and is
called the furnace input fuel rating.
6 3
A straight-eave lean-to greenhouse can fit This is an example of a curved-eave lean-to
24'
under the roof of a single-story house. built on a two-story house.
6'
D
8'
6'
16'
Figure 4. Use the greenhouse’s dimensions to determine
the necessary heating system capacity.
An even-span attached to a garage allows a larger greenhouse in a limited space.
This discussion is a bit technical, but these factors
must be considered when choosing a greenhouse. Note
the effect of each value on the outcome. When different
materials are used in the construction of the walls or
roof, heat loss must be calculated for each. For electrical
heating, convert Btu/h to kilowatts by dividing Btu/h
by 3,413. If a wood, gas, or oil burner is located in the
greenhouse, a fresh-air inlet is recommended to main-
tain an oxygen supply to the burner. Place a piece of
plastic pipe through the outside cover to ensure that
oxygen gets to the burner combustion air intake. The
inlet pipe should be the diameter of the flue pipe. A
Free-standing greenhouses allow more location choices
piece of plastic pipe about the size of the flue pipe and can be larger than attached greenhouses.
through the outside cover to a point near the burner
combustion air intake would be adequate. This ensures
adequate air for combustion in an airtight greenhouse.
Unvented heaters (no chimney) using propane gas or
kerosene are not recommended.
Air Circulation
Installing circulating fans in your greenhouse is a
good investment. During the winter when the green-
house is heated, you need to maintain air circulation so
that temperatures remain uniform throughout the
greenhouse. Without air-mixing fans, the warm air rises
A window-mounted unit extends a house’s growing space.
to the top and cool air settles around the plants on the
floor. Figure 2. Different types of greenhouses allow many options.
manage because temperatures in small greenhouses fluc-
tuate more rapidly. Small greenhouses have a large
exposed area through which heat is lost or gained, and
the air volume inside is relatively small; therefore, the
air temperature changes quickly in a small greenhouse.
Suggested minimum sizes are 6 feet wide by 10 feet
long for a lean-to and 8 or 10 feet wide by 12 feet long
for an even-span or freestanding greenhouse.
Structural Materials
A good selection of commercial greenhouse frames
and framing materials is available. The frames are made
of wood, galvanized steel, or aluminum. Build-it-your-
self greenhouse plans are usually for structures with
wood or metal pipe frames. Plastic pipe materials gener-
ally are inadequate to meet snow and wind load require-
ments. Frames can be covered with glass, rigid fiber-
glass, rigid double-wall plastics, or plastic film. All have
advantages and disadvantages. Each of these materials
should be considered––it pays to shop around for ideas.
Frames
Greenhouse frames range from simple to complex,
depending on the imagination of the designer and engi-
neering requirements. The following are several com-
mon frames (Figure 3).
Quonset. The quonset is a simple and efficient con-
struction with an electrical conduit or galvanized steel
pipe frame. The frame is circular and usually covered
with plastic sheeting. Quonset sidewall height is low,
which restricts storage space and headroom
Gothic. The gothic frame construction is similar to
that of the quonset but it has a gothic shape (Figure 3).
Wooden arches may be used and joined at the ridge.
The gothic shape allows more headroom at the sidewall
than does the quonset.
Rigid-frame Quonset
A-frame
Gothic Post and rafter
Figure 3. Greenhouses can have a variety of
different structural frames.
4 5
Rigid-frame. The rigid-frame structure has vertical
sidewalls and rafters for a clear-span construction:
There are no columns or trusses to support the roof.
Glued or nailed plywood gussets connect the sidewall
supports to the rafters to make one rigid frame. The
conventional gable roof and sidewalls allow maximum
interior space and air circulation. A good foundation is
required to support the lateral load on the sidewalls.
Post and rafter and A-frame. The post and rafter is
a simple construction of an embedded post and rafter,
but it requires more wood or metal than some other
designs. Strong sidewall posts and deep post embed-
ment are required to withstand outward rafter forces
and wind pressures. Like the rigid frame, the post and
rafter design allows more space along the sidewalls and
efficient air circulation. The A-frame is similar to the
post and rafter construction except that a collar beam
ties the upper parts of the rafters together.
Coverings
Greenhouse coverings include long-life glass, fiber-
glass, rigid double-wall plastics, and film plastics with
1- to 3-year lifespans. The type of frame and cover must
be matched correctly.
Glass. Glass is the traditional covering. It has a
pleasing appearance, is inexpensive to maintain, and has
a high degree of permanency. An aluminum frame with
a glass covering provides a maintenance-free, weather-
tight structure that minimizes heat costs and retains
humidity. Glass is available in many forms that would
be suitable with almost any style or architecture.
Tempered glass is frequently used because it is two or
three times stronger than regular glass. Small prefabri-
cated glass greenhouses are available for do-it-yourself
installation, but most should be built by the manufac-
turer because they can be difficult to construct.
The disadvantages of glass are that it is easily broken,
is initially expensive to build, and requires much better
frame construction than fiberglass or plastic. A good
foundation is required, and the frames must be strong
and must fit well together to support heavy, rigid glass.
Fiberglass. Fiberglass is lightweight, strong, and
practically hailproof. A good grade of fiberglass should
be used because poor grades discolor and reduce light
penetration. Use only clear, transparent, or translucent
grades for greenhouse construction. Tedlar-coated fiber-
glass lasts 15 to 20 years. The resin covering the glass
fibers will eventually wear off, allowing dirt to be
retained by exposed fibers. A new coat of resin is need-
ed after 10 to 15 years. Light penetration is initially as
good as glass but can drop off considerably over time
with poor grades of fiberglass.
Double-wall plastic. Rigid double-layer plastic
sheets of acrylic or polycarbonate are available to give
long-life, heat-saving covers. These covers have two lay-
ers of rigid plastic separated by webs. The double-layer
material retains more heat, so energy savings of 30 per-
cent are common. The acrylic is a long-life, nonyellow-
ing material; the polycarbonate normally yellows faster,
but usually is protected by a UV-inhibitor coating on
the exposed surface. Both materials carry warranties for
10 years on their light transmission qualities. Both can
be used on curved surfaces; the polycarbonate material
can be curved the most. As a general rule, each layer
reduces light by about 10 percent. About 80 percent of
the light filters through double-layer plastic, compared
with 90 percent for glass.
Film plastic. Film-plastic coverings are available in
several grades of quality and several different materials.
Generally, these are replaced more frequently than other
covers. Structural costs are very low because the frame
can be lighter and plastic film is inexpensive. Light
transmission of these film-plastic coverings is compara-
ble to glass. The films are made of polyethylene (PE),
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), copolymers, and other mate-
rials. A utility grade of PE that will last about a year is
available at local hardware stores. Commercial green-
house grade PE has ultraviolet inhibitors in it to protect
against ultraviolet rays; it lasts 12 to 18 months.
Copolymers last 2 to 3 years. New additives have
allowed the manufacture of film plastics that block and
reflect radiated heat back into the greenhouse, as does
glass, which helps reduce heating costs. PVC or vinyl
film costs two to five times as much as PE but lasts as
long as 5 years. However, it is available only in sheets 4
to 6 feet wide. It attracts dust from the air, so it must be
washed occasionally.
Foundations and Floors
Permanent foundations should be provided for glass,
fiberglass, or the double-layer rigid-plastic sheet materi-
als. The manufacturer should provide plans for the
foundation construction. Most home greenhouses
require a poured concrete foundation similar to those in
residential houses. Quonset greenhouses with pipe
frames and a plastic cover use posts driven into the
ground.
Permanent flooring is not recommended because it
may stay wet and slippery from soil mix media. A con-
crete, gravel, or stone walkway 24 to 36 inches wide can
be built for easy access to the plants. The rest of the
floor should be covered by several inches of gravel for
drainage of excess water. Water also can be sprayed on
the gravel to produce humidity in the greenhouse.
Environmental Systems
Greenhouses provide a shelter in which a suitable
environment is maintained for plants. Solar energy
from the sun provides sunlight and some heat, but you
must provide a system to regulate the environment in
your greenhouse. This is done by using heaters, fans,
thermostats, and other equipment.
Heating
The heating requirements of a greenhouse depend
on the desired temperature for the plants grown, the
location and construction of the greenhouse, and the
total outside exposed area of the structure. As much as
25 percent of the daily heat requirement may come
from the sun, but a lightly insulated greenhouse struc-
ture will need a great deal of heat on a cold winter
night. The heating system must be adequate to main-
tain the desired day or night temperature.
Usually the home heating system is not adequate to
heat an adjacent greenhouse. A 220-volt circuit electric
heater, however, is clean, efficient, and works well.
Small gas or oil heaters designed to be installed through
a masonry wall also work well.
Solar-heated greenhouses were popular briefly dur-
ing the energy crisis, but they did not prove to be eco-
nomical to use. Separate solar collection and storage
systems are large and require much space. However,
greenhouse owners can experiment with heat-collecting
methods to reduce fossil-fuel consumption. One
method is to paint containers black to attract heat, and
fill them with water to retain it. However, because the
greenhouse air temperature must be kept at plant-grow-
ing temperatures, the greenhouse itself is not a good
solar-heat collector.
Heating systems can be fueled by electricity, gas, oil,
or wood. The heat can be distributed by forced hot air,
radiant heat, hot water, or steam. The choice of a heat-
ing system and fuel depends on what is locally available,
the production requirements of the plants, cost, and
individual choice. For safety purposes, and to prevent
harmful gases from contacting plants, all gas, oil, and
woodburning systems must be properly vented to the
outside. Use fresh-air vents to supply oxygen for burn-
ers for complete combustion. Safety controls, such as
safety pilots and a gas shutoff switch, should be used as
required. Portable kerosene heaters used in homes are
risky because some plants are sensitive to gases formed
when the fuel is burned.
Calculating heating system capacity. Heating sys-
tems are rated in British thermal units (Btu) per hour
(h). The Btu capacity of the heating system, Q, can be
estimated easily using three factors:
manage because temperatures in small greenhouses fluc-
tuate more rapidly. Small greenhouses have a large
exposed area through which heat is lost or gained, and
the air volume inside is relatively small; therefore, the
air temperature changes quickly in a small greenhouse.
Suggested minimum sizes are 6 feet wide by 10 feet
long for a lean-to and 8 or 10 feet wide by 12 feet long
for an even-span or freestanding greenhouse.
Structural Materials
A good selection of commercial greenhouse frames
and framing materials is available. The frames are made
of wood, galvanized steel, or aluminum. Build-it-your-
self greenhouse plans are usually for structures with
wood or metal pipe frames. Plastic pipe materials gener-
ally are inadequate to meet snow and wind load require-
ments. Frames can be covered with glass, rigid fiber-
glass, rigid double-wall plastics, or plastic film. All have
advantages and disadvantages. Each of these materials
should be considered––it pays to shop around for ideas.
Frames
Greenhouse frames range from simple to complex,
depending on the imagination of the designer and engi-
neering requirements. The following are several com-
mon frames (Figure 3).
Quonset. The quonset is a simple and efficient con-
struction with an electrical conduit or galvanized steel
pipe frame. The frame is circular and usually covered
with plastic sheeting. Quonset sidewall height is low,
which restricts storage space and headroom
Gothic. The gothic frame construction is similar to
that of the quonset but it has a gothic shape (Figure 3).
Wooden arches may be used and joined at the ridge.
The gothic shape allows more headroom at the sidewall
than does the quonset.
Rigid-frame Quonset
A-frame
Gothic Post and rafter
Figure 3. Greenhouses can have a variety of
different structural frames.
4 5
Rigid-frame. The rigid-frame structure has vertical
sidewalls and rafters for a clear-span construction:
There are no columns or trusses to support the roof.
Glued or nailed plywood gussets connect the sidewall
supports to the rafters to make one rigid frame. The
conventional gable roof and sidewalls allow maximum
interior space and air circulation. A good foundation is
required to support the lateral load on the sidewalls.
Post and rafter and A-frame. The post and rafter is
a simple construction of an embedded post and rafter,
but it requires more wood or metal than some other
designs. Strong sidewall posts and deep post embed-
ment are required to withstand outward rafter forces
and wind pressures. Like the rigid frame, the post and
rafter design allows more space along the sidewalls and
efficient air circulation. The A-frame is similar to the
post and rafter construction except that a collar beam
ties the upper parts of the rafters together.
Coverings
Greenhouse coverings include long-life glass, fiber-
glass, rigid double-wall plastics, and film plastics with
1- to 3-year lifespans. The type of frame and cover must
be matched correctly.
Glass. Glass is the traditional covering. It has a
pleasing appearance, is inexpensive to maintain, and has
a high degree of permanency. An aluminum frame with
a glass covering provides a maintenance-free, weather-
tight structure that minimizes heat costs and retains
humidity. Glass is available in many forms that would
be suitable with almost any style or architecture.
Tempered glass is frequently used because it is two or
three times stronger than regular glass. Small prefabri-
cated glass greenhouses are available for do-it-yourself
installation, but most should be built by the manufac-
turer because they can be difficult to construct.
The disadvantages of glass are that it is easily broken,
is initially expensive to build, and requires much better
frame construction than fiberglass or plastic. A good
foundation is required, and the frames must be strong
and must fit well together to support heavy, rigid glass.
Fiberglass. Fiberglass is lightweight, strong, and
practically hailproof. A good grade of fiberglass should
be used because poor grades discolor and reduce light
penetration. Use only clear, transparent, or translucent
grades for greenhouse construction. Tedlar-coated fiber-
glass lasts 15 to 20 years. The resin covering the glass
fibers will eventually wear off, allowing dirt to be
retained by exposed fibers. A new coat of resin is need-
ed after 10 to 15 years. Light penetration is initially as
good as glass but can drop off considerably over time
with poor grades of fiberglass.
Double-wall plastic. Rigid double-layer plastic
sheets of acrylic or polycarbonate are available to give
long-life, heat-saving covers. These covers have two lay-
ers of rigid plastic separated by webs. The double-layer
material retains more heat, so energy savings of 30 per-
cent are common. The acrylic is a long-life, nonyellow-
ing material; the polycarbonate normally yellows faster,
but usually is protected by a UV-inhibitor coating on
the exposed surface. Both materials carry warranties for
10 years on their light transmission qualities. Both can
be used on curved surfaces; the polycarbonate material
can be curved the most. As a general rule, each layer
reduces light by about 10 percent. About 80 percent of
the light filters through double-layer plastic, compared
with 90 percent for glass.
Film plastic. Film-plastic coverings are available in
several grades of quality and several different materials.
Generally, these are replaced more frequently than other
covers. Structural costs are very low because the frame
can be lighter and plastic film is inexpensive. Light
transmission of these film-plastic coverings is compara-
ble to glass. The films are made of polyethylene (PE),
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), copolymers, and other mate-
rials. A utility grade of PE that will last about a year is
available at local hardware stores. Commercial green-
house grade PE has ultraviolet inhibitors in it to protect
against ultraviolet rays; it lasts 12 to 18 months.
Copolymers last 2 to 3 years. New additives have
allowed the manufacture of film plastics that block and
reflect radiated heat back into the greenhouse, as does
glass, which helps reduce heating costs. PVC or vinyl
film costs two to five times as much as PE but lasts as
long as 5 years. However, it is available only in sheets 4
to 6 feet wide. It attracts dust from the air, so it must be
washed occasionally.
Foundations and Floors
Permanent foundations should be provided for glass,
fiberglass, or the double-layer rigid-plastic sheet materi-
als. The manufacturer should provide plans for the
foundation construction. Most home greenhouses
require a poured concrete foundation similar to those in
residential houses. Quonset greenhouses with pipe
frames and a plastic cover use posts driven into the
ground.
Permanent flooring is not recommended because it
may stay wet and slippery from soil mix media. A con-
crete, gravel, or stone walkway 24 to 36 inches wide can
be built for easy access to the plants. The rest of the
floor should be covered by several inches of gravel for
drainage of excess water. Water also can be sprayed on
the gravel to produce humidity in the greenhouse.
Environmental Systems
Greenhouses provide a shelter in which a suitable
environment is maintained for plants. Solar energy
from the sun provides sunlight and some heat, but you
must provide a system to regulate the environment in
your greenhouse. This is done by using heaters, fans,
thermostats, and other equipment.
Heating
The heating requirements of a greenhouse depend
on the desired temperature for the plants grown, the
location and construction of the greenhouse, and the
total outside exposed area of the structure. As much as
25 percent of the daily heat requirement may come
from the sun, but a lightly insulated greenhouse struc-
ture will need a great deal of heat on a cold winter
night. The heating system must be adequate to main-
tain the desired day or night temperature.
Usually the home heating system is not adequate to
heat an adjacent greenhouse. A 220-volt circuit electric
heater, however, is clean, efficient, and works well.
Small gas or oil heaters designed to be installed through
a masonry wall also work well.
Solar-heated greenhouses were popular briefly dur-
ing the energy crisis, but they did not prove to be eco-
nomical to use. Separate solar collection and storage
systems are large and require much space. However,
greenhouse owners can experiment with heat-collecting
methods to reduce fossil-fuel consumption. One
method is to paint containers black to attract heat, and
fill them with water to retain it. However, because the
greenhouse air temperature must be kept at plant-grow-
ing temperatures, the greenhouse itself is not a good
solar-heat collector.
Heating systems can be fueled by electricity, gas, oil,
or wood. The heat can be distributed by forced hot air,
radiant heat, hot water, or steam. The choice of a heat-
ing system and fuel depends on what is locally available,
the production requirements of the plants, cost, and
individual choice. For safety purposes, and to prevent
harmful gases from contacting plants, all gas, oil, and
woodburning systems must be properly vented to the
outside. Use fresh-air vents to supply oxygen for burn-
ers for complete combustion. Safety controls, such as
safety pilots and a gas shutoff switch, should be used as
required. Portable kerosene heaters used in homes are
risky because some plants are sensitive to gases formed
when the fuel is burned.
Calculating heating system capacity. Heating sys-
tems are rated in British thermal units (Btu) per hour
(h). The Btu capacity of the heating system, Q, can be
estimated easily using three factors:
 1. A is the total exposed (outside) area of the green-
house sides, ends, and roof in square feet (ft2). On a
quonset, the sides and roof are one unit; measure the
length of the curved rafter (ground to ground) and
multiply by the length of the house. The curved end
area is 2 (ends) × 2/3 × height × width. Add the sum of
the first calculation with that of the second.
2. u is the heat loss factor that quantifies the rate at
which heat energy flows out of the greenhouse. For
example, a single cover of plastic or glass has a value of
1.2 Btu/h × ft2 × °F (heat loss in Btu’s per hour per
each square foot of area per degree in Fahrenheit); a
double-layer cover has a value of 0.8 Btu/h × ft2 × °F.
A table of u values is provided in Extension Bulletin
351 Greenhouse Heating, Circulation, and Ventilation
Systems. The values allow for some air infiltration but
are based on the assumption that the greenhouse is fair-
ly airtight.
3. (Ti – To) is the maximum temperature difference
between the lowest outside temperature (To) in your
region and the temperature to be maintained in the
greenhouse (Ti). For example, the maximum difference
will usually occur in the early morning with the occur-
rence of a 0 °F to –5 °F outside temperature while a
60 °F inside temperature is maintained. Plan for a tem-
perature differential of 60 to 65 °F. The following equa-
tion summarizes this description: Q = A × u × (Ti – To).
Example. If a rigid-frame or post and rafter
freestanding greenhouse 16 feet wide by 24 feet
long, 12 feet high at the ridge, with 6 feet side-
walls, is covered with single-layer glass from the
ground to the ridge, what size gas heater would
be needed to maintain 60 °F on the coldest
winter night (0 °F)? Calculate the total outside
area (Figure 4):
two long sides 2 × 6 ft × 24 ft = 288 ft2
two ends 2 × 6 ft × 16 ft = 192 ft2
roof 2 × 10 ft × 24 ft = 480 ft2
gable ends 2 × 6 ft × 8 ft = 96 ft2
A = 1,056 ft2
Select the proper heat loss factor, u = 1.2 Btu/h
× ft2 × °F. The temperature differential is 60 °F
– 0 ºF = 60 °F.
Q = 1,056 × 1.2 × 60 = 76,032 Btu/h (furnace
output).
Although this is a relatively small greenhouse, the
furnace output is equivalent to that in a small residence
such as a townhouse. The actual furnace rated capacity
takes into account the efficiency of the furnace and is
called the furnace input fuel rating.
6 3
A straight-eave lean-to greenhouse can fit This is an example of a curved-eave lean-to
24'
under the roof of a single-story house. built on a two-story house.
6'
D
8'
6'
16'
Figure 4. Use the greenhouse’s dimensions to determine
the necessary heating system capacity.
An even-span attached to a garage allows a larger greenhouse in a limited space.
This discussion is a bit technical, but these factors
must be considered when choosing a greenhouse. Note
the effect of each value on the outcome. When different
materials are used in the construction of the walls or
roof, heat loss must be calculated for each. For electrical
heating, convert Btu/h to kilowatts by dividing Btu/h
by 3,413. If a wood, gas, or oil burner is located in the
greenhouse, a fresh-air inlet is recommended to main-
tain an oxygen supply to the burner. Place a piece of
plastic pipe through the outside cover to ensure that
oxygen gets to the burner combustion air intake. The
inlet pipe should be the diameter of the flue pipe. A
Free-standing greenhouses allow more location choices
piece of plastic pipe about the size of the flue pipe and can be larger than attached greenhouses.
through the outside cover to a point near the burner
combustion air intake would be adequate. This ensures
adequate air for combustion in an airtight greenhouse.
Unvented heaters (no chimney) using propane gas or
kerosene are not recommended.
Air Circulation
Installing circulating fans in your greenhouse is a
good investment. During the winter when the green-
house is heated, you need to maintain air circulation so
that temperatures remain uniform throughout the
greenhouse. Without air-mixing fans, the warm air rises
A window-mounted unit extends a house’s growing space.
to the top and cool air settles around the plants on the
floor. Figure 2. Different types of greenhouses allow many options.

Summer sun
Winter sun
Figure 1. Select location carefully. Note where the shade line occurs in both the winter and summer.
rounding ground so rainwater and irrigation water will
drain away. Other site considerations include the light
requirements of the plants to be grown; locations of
sources of heat, water, and electricity; and shelter from
winter wind. Access to the greenhouse should be conve-
nient for both people and utilities. A workplace for pot-
ting plants and a storage area for supplies should be
nearby.
Types of Greenhouses
A home greenhouse can be attached to a house or
garage, or it can be a freestanding structure. The chosen
site and personal preference can dictate the choices to
be considered. An attached greenhouse can be a half
greenhouse, a full-size structure, or an extended win-
dow structure. There are advantages and disadvantages
to each type.
Attached Greenhouses
Lean-to. A lean-to greenhouse is a half greenhouse,
split along the peak of the roof, or ridge line (Figure 2).
Lean-to’s are useful where space is limited to a width of
approximately 7 to 12 feet, and they are the least expen-
sive structures. The ridge of the lean-to is attached to a
building using one side and an existing doorway, if
available. Lean-to’s are close to available electricity,
water, and heat. The disadvantages include some limita-
tions on space, sunlight, ventilation, and temperature
control. The height of the supporting wall limits the
potential size of the lean-to. The wider the lean-to, the
higher the supporting wall must be. Temperature con-
trol is more difficult because the wall that the green-
house is built on may collect the sun’s heat while the
translucent cover of the greenhouse may lose heat
2 7
rapidly. The lean-to should face the best direction for
adequate sun exposure. Finally, consider the location of
windows and doors on the supporting structure and
that snow, ice, or heavy rain might slide off the roof of
the house onto the structure.
Even-span. An even-span is a full-size structure that
has one gable end attached to another building (Fig-
ure 2). It is usually the largest and most costly option,
but it provides more usable space and can be length-
ened. The even-span has a better shape than a lean-to
for air circulation to maintain uniform temperatures
during the winter heating season. An even-span can
accommodate two to three benches for growing crops.
Window-mounted. A window-mounted green-
house can be attached on the south or east side of a
house. This glass enclosure gives space for conveniently
growing a few plants at relatively low cost (Figure 2).
The special window extends outward from the house a
foot or so and can contain two or three shelves.
Freestanding Structures
Freestanding greenhouses are separate structures;
they can be set apart from other buildings to get more
sun and can be made as large or small as desired
(Figure 2). A separate heating system is needed, and
electricity and water must be installed.
The lowest cost per square foot of growing space is
generally available in a freestanding or even-span green-
house that is 17 to 18 feet wide. It can house a central
bench, two side benches, and two walkways. The ratio
of cost to the usable growing space is good.
When deciding on the type of structure, be sure to
plan for adequate bench space, storage space, and room
for future expansion. Large greenhouses are easier to
Small fans with a cubic-foot-per-minute (ft3/min)
air-moving capacity equal to one quarter of the air vol-
ume of the greenhouse are sufficient. For small green-
houses (less than 60 feet long), place the fans in diago-
nally opposite corners but out from the ends and sides.
The goal is to develop a circular (oval) pattern of air
movement. Operate the fans continuously during the
winter. Turn these fans off during the summer when the
greenhouse will need to be ventilated.
The fan in a forced-air heating system can some-
times be used to provide continuous air circulation.
The fan must be wired to an on/off switch so it can run
continuously, separate from the thermostatically con-
trolled burner.
Ventilation
Ventilation is the exchange of inside air for outside
air to control temperature, remove moisture, or replen-
ish carbon dioxide (CO2). Several ventilation systems
can be used. Be careful when mixing parts of two
systems.
Natural ventilation uses roof vents on the ridge line
with side inlet vents (louvers). Warm air rises on con-
vective currents to escape through the top, drawing cool
air in through the sides.
Mechanical ventilation uses an exhaust fan to move
air out one end of the greenhouse while outside air
enters the other end through motorized inlet louvers.
Exhaust fans should be sized to exchange the total vol-
ume of air in the greenhouse each minute.
The total volume of air in a medium to large green-
house can be estimated by multiplying the floor area
times 8.0 (the average height of a greenhouse). A small
greenhouse (less than 5,000 ft3 in air volume) should
have an exhaust-fan capacity estimated by multiplying
the floor area by 12.
The capacity of the exhaust fan should be selected at
one-eighth of an inch static water pressure.The static
pressure rating accounts for air resistance through the
louvers, fans, and greenhouse and is usually shown in
the fan selection chart.
Ventilation requirements vary with the weather and
season. One must decide how much the greenhouse will
be used. In summer, 1 to 1 1/2 air volume changes per
minute are needed. Small greenhouses need the larger
amount. In winter, 20 to 30 percent of one air volume
exchange per minute is sufficient for mixing in cool air
without chilling the plants.
One single-speed fan cannot meet this criteria. Two
single-speed fans are better. A combination of a single-
speed fan and a two-speed fan allows three ventilation
rates that best satisfy year round needs. A single-stage
and a two-stage thermostat are needed to control the
operation.
A two-speed motor on low speed delivers about 70
percent of its full capacity. If the two fans have the same
capacity rating, then the low-speed fan supplies about
35 percent of the combined total. This rate of ventila-
tion is reasonable for the winter. In spring, the fan oper-
ates on high speed. In summer, both fans operate on
high speed.
Refer to the earlier example of a small greenhouse. A
16-foot wide by 24-foot long house would need an esti-
mated ft3 per minute (cubic feet per minute; CFM)
total capacity; that is, 16 × 24 × 12 ft3 per minute. For
use all year, select two fans to deliver 2,300 ft3 per
minute each, one fan to have two speeds so that the
low-speed rating is about 1,600 ft3 per minute and the
high speed is 2,300 ft3 per minute. Adding the second
fan, the third ventilation rate is the sum of both fans on
high speed, or 4,600 ft3 per minute.
Some glass greenhouses are sold with a manual ridge
vent, even when a mechanical system is specified. The
manual system can be a backup system, but it does not
take the place of a motorized louver. Do not take short-
cuts in developing an automatic control system.
Cooling
Air movement by ventilation alone may not be ade-
quate in the middle of the summer; the air temperature
may need to be lowered with evaporative cooling. Also,
the light intensity may be too great for the plants.
During the summer, evaporative cooling, shade cloth,
or paint may be necessary. Shade materials include roll-
up screens of wood or aluminum, vinyl netting, and paint.
Small package evaporative coolers have a fan and
evaporative pad in one box to evaporate water, which
cools air and increases humidity. Heat is removed from
the air to change water from liquid to a vapor. Moist,
cooler air enters the greenhouse while heated air passes
out through roof vents or exhaust louvers. The evapora-
tive cooler works best when the humidity of the outside
air is low. The system can be used without water evapo-
ration to provide the ventilation of the greenhouse. Size
the evaporative cooler capacity at 1.0 to 1.5 times the
volume of the greenhouse. An alternative system, used
in commercial greenhouses, places the pads on the air
inlets at one end of the greenhouse and uses the exhaust
fans at the other end of the greenhouse to pull the air
through the house.
Controllers/Automation
Automatic control is essential to maintain a reason-
able environment in the greenhouse. On a winter day
with varying amounts of sunlight and clouds, the tem-
 UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND AT COLLEGE PARK
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND EASTERN SHORE
small greenhouse is likely to have a variety of plant
materials, containers, and soil mixes that need different SIT
Y OF MA
R SIT
Y OF MA
R

ER

ER
YL

YL
amounts of water.
Planning a Home Greenhouse

UNIV

UNIV
AND

AND
Time clocks or mechanical evaporation sensors can A

E
O R

K
LL R ST
E G E PA ER N S H O
be used to control automatic watering systems. Mist
sprays can be used to create humidity or to moisten
seedlings. Watering kits can be obtained to water plants
in flats, benches, or pots. Fact Sheet 645

CO2 and Light

Figure 5. Thermostats in the middle of the greenhouse
in a shaded, white, and aspirated box
perature can fluctuate greatly; close supervision would
be required if a manual ventilation system were in use.
Therefore, unless close monitoring is possible, both
hobbyists and commercial operators should have auto-
mated systems with thermostats or other sensors.
Thermostats can be used to control individual units,
or a central controller with one temperature sensor can
be used. In either case, the sensor or sensors should be
shaded from the sun, located about plant height away
from the sidewalls, and have constant airflow over
them. An aspirated box is suggested; the box houses
each sensor and has a small fan that moves greenhouse
air through the box and over the sensor (Figure 5). The
box should be painted white so it will reflect solar heat
and allow accurate readings of the air temperature.
Watering Systems
A water supply is essential. Hand watering is accept-
able for most greenhouse crops if someone is available
when the task needs to be done; however, many hobby-
ists work away from home during the day. A variety of
automatic watering systems is available to help to do
the task over short periods of time. Bear in mind, the
Carbon dioxide (CO2) and light are essential for
plant growth. As the sun rises in the morning to pro-
vide light, the plants begin to produce food energy
(photosynthesis). The level of CO2 drops in the green-
house as it is used by the plants. Ventilation replenishes
the CO2 in the greenhouse. Because CO2 and light
complement each other, electric lighting combined with
CO2 injection are used to increase yields of vegetable
and flowering crops. Bottled CO2, dry ice, and com-
bustion of sulfur-free fuels can be used as CO2 sources.
Commercial greenhouses use such methods.
Alternative Growing Structures
A greenhouse is not always needed for growing
plants. Plants can be germinated in one’s home in a
warm place under fluorescent lamps. The lamps must
be close together and not far above the plants.
A cold frame or hotbed can be used outdoors to
continue the growth of young seedlings until the weath-
er allows planting in a garden. A hotbed is similar to the
cold frame, but it has a source of heat to maintain prop-
er temperatures.
For More Information
For more information on environmental control sys-
tems, refer to Extension Bulletin 351 Greenhouse
Heating, Circulation, and Ventilation Systems. For
further discussion of hotbeds and cold frames, see Fact
Sheet 633 Hotbeds and Cold Frames for Starting Annual
Plants, also available from your county Cooperative
Extension Service office.
P94/R96
David S. Ross
Extension agricultural engineer
Department of Agricultural Engineering
What should a gardener consider when planning to
build a small hobby greenhouse? What materials should
be used to build it? Does it need heating and cooling?
Where can it be placed on the property? There are
many considerations, and careful planning is important
before a project is started.
Building a home greenhouse does not need to be
expensive or timeconsuming. It can be small and sim-
ple, with a minimum investment in materials and
equipment, or it can be a fully equipped, fancy, auto-
mated conservatory. The final choice of the type of
greenhouse will depend on the growing space desired,
home architecture, available sites, and costs. The green-
house must, however, provide the proper environment
for growing plants.
Regardless of the size and type of greenhouse you
choose, consider how much time you have to manage
the system. Do not be too ambitious; some new green-
house owners find they do not have as much time as
they thought. On the other hand, it is a misconception
that greenhouses require constant attention. The envi-
ronment can be maintained with minimal upkeep using
automatic controls, which operate the heating, ventila-
tion, watering, humidity, and artificial lighting systems
when no one is home. A hobbyist should invest in
automatic controls and start with easy-to-care-for plants.
Sometimes the hobby grows into a business, so give
some thought to the possibility of expanding your
greenhouse in the future.
Constructing the greenhouse yourself can make the
project more enjoyable and less expensive if you are
handy with tools. Prefabricated greenhouses can be pur-
chased, or they can be built of simple frames. However,
only qualified electricians and plumbers should install
the automatic systems.
Location
The greenhouse should be located where it gets max-
imum sunlight. The first choice of location is the south
or southeast side of a building or shade trees. Sunlight
all day is best, but morning sunlight on the east side is
sufficient for plants. An east side location captures the
most November to February sunlight. The next best
sites are southwest and west of major structures, where
plants receive sunlight later in the day. North of major
structures is the least desirable location and is good only
for plants that require little light. Morning sunlight is
most desirable because it allows the plant’s food produc-
tion process to begin early; thus, growth is maximized.
Deciduous trees, such as maple and oak, can effec-
tively shade the greenhouse from the intense late after-
noon summer sun; however, they should not shade the
greenhouse in the morning. Deciduous trees also allow
maximum exposure to the winter sun because they shed
their leaves in the fall. Evergreen trees that have foliage
year round should not be located where they will shade
the greenhouse because they will block the less intense
winter sun. You should aim to maximize winter sun
exposure, particularly if the greenhouse is used all year.
Remember that the sun is lower in the southern sky in
winter causing long shadows to be cast by buildings and
evergreen trees (Figure 1).
Good drainage is another requirement for the site.
When necessary, build the greenhouse above the sur-

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30,1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, University of Maryland at College Park,
and local governments. Thomas A. Fretz, Director of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Maryland at College Park.

8 The University of Maryland is equal opportunity. The University’s policies, programs, and activities are in conformance with pertinent Federal and State laws and regulations on nondis-
crimination regarding race, color, religion, age, national origin, sex, and disability. Inquiries regarding compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended; Title IX of the
Educational Amendments; Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973; and the Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990; or related legal requirements should be directed to the Director
of Personnel/Human Relations, Office of the Dean, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Symons Hall, College Park, MD 20742.
 Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service F-6705

The Hobby Greenhouse

Michael A. Schnelle
Assistant Professor, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets
Extension Ornamentals/ Horticulture Specialist are also available on our website at:
http://www.osuextra.com
Steven H. Dobbs
Extension Consumer, Floriculture Specialist

Douglas C Needham
Assistant Professor, Floriculture

John M. Dole
Assistant Professor, Floriculture

A greenhouse gives a homeowner an opportunity to

grow plants year-round in a controlled environment. While a
greenhouse can be either a substantial or nominal investment,
success as a hobby greenhouse grower will depend on the
degree of environmental control that can be maintained in the
structure. Environmental controls can be expensive, and as
most other hobbies, home greenhouses require a financial
commitment.
The first step would be to accurately assess greenhouse
requirements. Would a cold frame, hot bed, or window green- Figure 1. Attached Lean-to Greenhouse. This structure
house meet the requirements, or is more growing space is very convenient since it is placed close to existing
required? (It seems that regardless of the size selected, the utilities.
structure will be too small eventually). Larger greenhouses
(over 300 sq. ft.) cost less per square foot of useable space
than smaller ones, but cost more initially and cost more to op- • Limited space.
erate. Greenhouses are available in a large variety of shapes. • Limited light.
Select the style that will harmonize with other features on the • Limited ventilation and temperature control.
proposed site.
The greenhouse may be a free-standing structure, which The least expensive type is a window mounted green-
generally will provide more growing space and flexibility to house. It allows space to grow a few plants at relatively low
be placed anywhere on the property, or a lean-to structure cost for heating and cooling. This reach-in greenhouse is
attached to a wall of the home, garage, etc. Lean-to models available in many standard sizes, either in single units or
are frequently less desirable because there are limitations tandem arrangements for large windows. Only simple tools
on where they can be placed around the home. Preferred are needed to remove the regular window from the frame and
exposures are east and south. Regardless of the basic design, fasten a prefabricated window greenhouse in its place.
however, the greenhouse must receive a minimum of five to
six hours of unobstructed light during the winter months.
Attached Even-Span
The even-span greenhouse is the standard type—the
Attached Lean-To style generally visualized when thinking about a greenhouse.
A lean-to greenhouse is built against a building, using The even-span greenhouse is similar to a freestanding struc-
the existing structure for one or more of its sides. It is usually ture, except that it is attached to a house at one end. It can
secured to a house, but may be attached to other buildings accommodate two or three rows of plant benches. Attached
(Figure 1). The greenhouse is limited to single or double-row even-span greenhouses cost more than lean-to types, but
plant benches with a total width of 7 to 12 feet. It can be as have greater flexibility in design and accommodate more
long as the building to which it is attached. The advantage of plants.
the lean-to greenhouse is that it usually is close to available
electricity, water, and heat. The lean-to has the following
disadvantages:

Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources • Oklahoma State University

Freestanding
The freestanding greenhouse is a separate structure
and consists of sidewalls, end walls, and gable roof (Figure
2). It is assembled similar to an even-span, except that a
freestanding greenhouse is set apart from other buildings,
allowing full exposure to the sun. It can be made as large or
small as desired.
The freestanding greenhouse is more easily adapted to
the builder’s ideas of location, size, and shape than attached
greenhouses. It also provides more light, but requires more
heat at night because of the additional exposed surface area.
Separate heating and cooling systems will be necessary.
Figure 2. Freestanding Greenhouse. This structure does
what its name implies; it stands alone.
Cost
The lowest cost per square foot of growing space is
available in a 17 to 18-foot wide even-span greenhouse. It
will house two side benches, two walks, and a wide center
bench. The lowest total cost for a greenhouse is a 7 to 12-foot
wide lean-to house with double-row benches and a central
walk. Keep in mind that a lean-to greenhouse has less glass
or other exposed covering; therefore, heating costs are less
than for a free standing greenhouse. desire access, special design specifications should be kept in
Locating the Greenhouse
After deciding on the type of greenhouse desired, its
placement will need to be determined. An ideal site for a
greenhouse would be well drained, nearly level, and with full
exposure to sunlight. It would slope slightly to the south and
have a windbreak on the side of the prevailing wind.
The first choice for a greenhouse site should be on the
south or southeast side of the house in a sunny location. The
east side is the second best location, since it will capture the
most November to February sunlight. The next best locations
are the southwest and west, and the north side is the least
desirable location.
A greenhouse can be placed where it will be partly shaded
during the summer, when a reduction in light is desirable. Be
sure the greenhouse is not shaded too heavily, and take into
account the possibility of falling limbs that can damage the
greenhouse.
6705-2
Some plants will grow in a greenhouse in any location.
However, types of plants which can be grown will be limited if
the greenhouse is not placed in the best possible location.
Sometimes a greenhouse can be placed against a door,
window, or basement entrance of the house. This allows heat
from the house to enter the greenhouse, makes the green-
house more accessible, and saves on construction costs.
The home heating bill, however, will increase significantly.
With an L-shaped house, the cost of two greenhouse walls
can be saved by building the greenhouse in the “L.”
Wind protection may be more important than whether the
greenhouse runs north and south or east and west. Protect
the greenhouse from winds by locating it so existing build-
ings will shield it, or by providing it with a windbreak hedge
or fence.
Designing the Greenhouse
Determine the exact dimensions for the greenhouse
before starting to build. Width is the most important dimen-
sion; it will not be changed during the life of the greenhouse.
Length can be increased if more space is desired.
Greenhouse Width
Determine the width of the greenhouse by adding the
widths of the plant benches and the walks. Allow approximately
six inches for walls at either side and two inches for air-cir-
culation space between the sidewalls and the benches.
Side benches are serviced from only one side and should
be no wider than one’s reach. For some people, this will be
two feet; for others, perhaps as much as three feet. Center
benches are serviced from both sides and, thus, can be as
wide as six feet. They should be narrow enough to permit
one to work comfortably.
Determine the width of the walkways according to their
intended use. If they will be used only as a place to stand
while servicing the benches, 18 or 19 inches is sufficiently
wide; however, if a wheelbarrow will be brought into the
greenhouse, the width must be greater. Wide walks, e.g. 24
to 30 inches, will allow easy passage for visitors who may
not be used to walking between rows of plants.
Should a disabled individual confined to a wheelchair
mind. Access walks to the greenhouse (if freestanding) need
to be at least four feet wide, with a grade of no more than
five percent (6 inches every 10 feet). Obviously, these wide
entrances and paths throughout the structure will influence
the width of the greenhouse.
Greenhouse Length
Determine the length of the greenhouse by dividing the
total number of plants to be grown in the greenhouse by the
density at which they can be spaced per linear foot of bench.
For example, assume a freestanding greenhouse with two
30-inch deep side benches and one 48-inch deep center
bench. Calculate the number of plants that could be grown
per linear foot of bench space. Thus, if 500 plants are to be
grown, and it is calculated that each side bench could grow
five plants per linear foot, and the center bench could grow
seven plants per linear foot, i.e. a total of 17 plants per linear
foot, the greenhouse would need to be nearly 30 feet long,
i.e. 500 divided by 17.
Greenhouse Height
The height of the greenhouse depends on the desired
height to the eave. An eave height of 5 feet is satisfactory for
side benches with low-growing plants. For tall plants, an eave
height of 6 or 7 feet is needed. The pitch of the roof should
be 6 in 12 (approximately 27 degrees). The eave height, the
distance from the sidewall to the center of the greenhouse,
and the roof pitch will determine the height of your green-
house at the center. The height of the greenhouse should
be equal to the eave height plus one-fourth the width of the
greenhouse.
For instance, in an even-span greenhouse 18 feet wide,
the distance from the sidewall to the center of the greenhouse
is 9 feet. The difference in height between the center of the
greenhouse and eave will be one-half of 9 feet, or 4 1/2 feet.
If the eave is 5 feet high, the greenhouse should be 9 1/2 feet
at the center.
Fiberglass Greenhouses
Fiberglass is lightweight, strong, and practically hailproof.
Corrugated panels or flat fiberglass are available. Poor grades
of fiberglass will discolor, which reduces light transmission.
A good grade, on the other hand, may make a fiberglass
greenhouse as expensive to build as a glass house. If fiber-
glass is used, select the clearest grade. Do not use colored
fiberglass.
Plastic Greenhouses
Plastic greenhouses are increasing in popularity be-
cause:
• Construction cost per square foot is generally one-sixth
to one-tenth the cost of glass greenhouses.
• Plastic greenhouses can be heated as satisfactorily as
glass greenhouses.
• Plants grown under plastic have the same quality as
those grown under glass.
• Plastic greenhouses are sometimes considered temporary
structures and usually carry a low assessment rate for
tax purposes, or may not be taxed at all.
Plastic greenhouses can be made of polyethylene (PE),
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), copolymers of these materials, or
other readily available clear films. Plastic coverings will have
to be replaced more frequently than other glazings.
Potting Shed/Workroom
A separate workroom or small building attached to the
greenhouse can be advantageous. Potting, seed sowing, soil
mixing, etc. can be carried out while this room also serves as
storage area for pots, growing media, stakes, pesticides, etc.
Keep this building attached to the greenhouse so that during
cold weather plants can be moved freely about without worry
of freeze damage. Tropical plants may be injured or killed by
temperatures less than 50oF.
The shed can be equipped with a bench for potting along
with containers or bins to store media ingredients, such as
peat moss, perlite, sand, etc. A small closet that can be locked
is a good idea for the pesticides, particularly when pets or
small children are present. Lastly, a sink with running water
should be considered to simplify washing of pots, syringing
of plants, and other chores that may be necessary.
6705-3
Greenhouse Management
Heating
Many types of heaters and heating systems are satis-
factory for greenhouses. Consider the initial cost, operating
expenses, and available fuel. Greenhouses can be heated
efficiently with coal, electricity, gas, or oil. A space heater, a
forced-air heater, a hot-water or steam system, or electric
radiant heaters can be used. Radiant heat lamps over plants
can be combined with soil heating cables under plants.
The required capacity of the heating system will depend
on the size of the greenhouse, the insulating or “R” value of
the glazing material, and the maximum difference between
inside and outside temperatures.
Heating systems are rated in British thermal units (BTU)
per hour. The company supplying the greenhouse should be
able to configure an appropriately sized heating system.
First, find the temperature difference. This is the dif-
ference in degrees Fahrenheit between the lowest outside
temperature and the minimum temperature to be maintained
inside the greenhouse. For instance, to maintain a minimum
inside temperature of 60oF with the coldest expected night
temperature of -10oF, the temperature difference is 70oF. Next,
calculate the number of square feet of exposed glazing in the
greenhouse. Do not forget to add the areas of the sides and
ends to the area of the roof.
Multiply the temperature difference by the number of
square feet. For example, if a 20 by 100-foot greenhouse
has a total of 3,400 square feet of exposed plastic, multiply
3,400 by 70 (the temperature difference) yielding 238,000.
Now, if the greenhouse is covered with two layers of
plastic or glass, multiply the 238,000 by 0.8. If it is covered
with only one layer, multiply by 1.2. This will calculate the
required BTU per hour capacity of the heater. In the example,
a two-layer greenhouse would be:
238,000 x 0.8 = 190,400 BTU per hour
The type of heating system selected will depend on funds
available to spend. The four types are:
• Space heater. For low-cost heating of small greenhouses,
use one or more ordinary space heaters. (WARNING:
Gas, oil, or coal fired heaters need a fresh air supply
for combustion as well as exhaust venting to avoid
carbon monoxide and ethylene accumulation.) Fans
are also needed to improve circulation. In kerosene
heaters use only high-grade (low sulfur) kerosene to
avoid sulfur dioxide emission; the need for high ignition
temperature is important to avoid carbon-monoxide and
ethylene buildup.
• Forced-air heater. The best system for heating a small
greenhouse is a forced-air furnace with a duct or plastic
tube system to distribute heat. A thermostat can be used
to control the temperature in the greenhouse.
• Hot-water or steam heater. A hot-water system with a
circulator or a steam system linked with automatic ven-
tilation will give adequate temperature control. In many
areas of Oklahoma, natural gas is readily available at
a low cost. This fuel is ideal for hot-water or a central
steam system. Steam has an advantage in that it can be
used to pasteurize growing beds and potting soils. Hot
water and steam systems provide more precise control
 over temperature fluctuations and tend to operate more
quietly than forced-air systems.
• Electric heater. Overhead infrared heating equipment,
combined with soil cable heat, provides a localized plant
environment that allows plants to thrive, even though the
surrounding air is at a lower than optimal temperature.
Electric resistance type heaters are used as space heat-
ers or as an integral part of a forced air system.
Important: Consider investing in a temperature alarm
system which alerts the hobbyist to any power failures. These
thermalarms are worth the investment, particularly when grow-
ing expensive plants such as orchids or other highly prized
tropicals.
Ventilation
Even during cold weather, a greenhouse can get too
warm on bright, sunny days. Ventilation equipment, therefore,
should be built into the greenhouse to control temperatures
and humidity in all seasons. When using hand-operated roof
vents, frequent temperature checks will be required. As out-
door weather changes, sashes must be opened and closed
manually to keep plants from getting too hot or too cold.
Automatic ventilation eliminates manual work and is
the best way to cool a greenhouse. If your greenhouse has
roof vents, for example, a thermostat and electric motor will
open and close the vents. Temperature sensitive hydraulic
pistons can be used to open and close small side and roof
vents. Since they offer automatic ventilation without relying on
electricity, proper ventilation will be maintained, even during
electrical outages. Fresh outside air is brought in through the
side vents via convection as the warm air flows out through
the roof vents. In addition to cooling the greenhouse, the
change of air improves growing conditions. Responding to
this air transfer, the thermostat will turn off and on to keep
desired temperatures for plants. Circulating and exhaust fans
provide good ventilation and are needed in both large and
small greenhouses. Exhaust fans should be large enough to
change the air in the greenhouse once every minute. To ac-
complish this, the capacity of the fan in cubic feet per minute
at 1/8-inch static pressure should equal the volume of the
greenhouse. The approximate volume can be calculated by
multiplying the floor area by 7.
If the greenhouse is high enough, place the exhaust fan
and the motorized intake louvers above the doors at opposite
end-walls. This will exhaust the hottest, most humid air and
prevent a direct draft on the plants near the intake.
Fan and duct ventilation can also be used for automatic
greenhouse heating and ventilation. Plastic ducts are sus-
pended by wires or straps from the roof of the greenhouse.
The fan-heater-louver unit gives positive air flow, and the poly-
ethylene duct distributes the incoming air evenly throughout
the house.
Shading the Greenhouse
When protection from the sun is needed, use rollup screens
of wood or aluminum, polypropylene shade cloth, vinyl plastic
shading, or paint-on materials. Rollup screens are available
with pulleys and rot-resistant nylon ropes. These screens can
be easily adjusted from outside the greenhouse, as weather
and sunlight vary.
6705-4
Polypropylene shade cloth can be purchased in custom
sizes, in black or green, and in 30 to 100 percent light trans-
mission. These fabrics can be secured with rope or hooked
onto the greenhouse by grommets woven into the binding.
Vinyl plastic shading is made of a flexible film that reduces
light from 55 to 65 percent. The material comes in rolls and
installs easily against the glass inside your greenhouse. To
apply, just wash the glass with a wet sponge, then smooth
the plastic onto the wet glass. When smoothed into position
it adheres to the glass. It can be pulled off and used repeat-
edly.
Shading compound can be applied on the outside of glass
greenhouses. Do not use shading compounds (whitewash)
on materials other than glass. They may harm the glazing
(covering) and may not be easily or totally removable. Shad-
ing compound can be thinned with paint solvents. It comes
in either white or green. Shading compound that mixes with
water can also be used. The following is a homemade recipe
for whitewash. Mix 5 pounds hydrated lime with 3/4 gallon
water and allow this mixture to age overnight. Then dissolve
1 pound of common salt with 1/5 pound of zinc sulfate in 1/5
gallon of boiling water. Allow to cool, and then mix with lime
paste and stir well. Lastly, add 1/5 gallon of sweet skimmed
milk and again stir. Add water and keep stirring until desired
thickness is reached.
A lime paste can be mixed by using 50 pounds of hydrated
lime with 6 gallons of water, or 38 pounds of quick lime with
8 gallons water. An even more simplified formula is as fol-
lows:
1 part white latex paint to 10 parts water provides heavy
shading; whereas,
1 part white latex paint to 15 to 20 parts water gives moderate
or standard shading.
Removal of Shading Compound
As fall approaches, maximum sunlight will be needed
again for greenhouse grown plants. Much of the shading
compound may be worn off by this time, depending upon the
solution applied. However, any remaining compound should
be scrubbed off clear glass to allow maximum light penetra-
tion.
Cooling can be a Problem
Cooling a greenhouse in Oklahoma is difficult. Two typical
methods of cooling are used in the summer. The first method
is to reduce the light intensity passing through the covering
material by using a shading compound, a shade cloth, or wood
slats on the outside of the greenhouse. The second and most
effective method of greenhouse cooling is accomplished by
using an evaporative cooler. This system works by pulling
outside air through a film of water thus cooling the air 15o
to 20oF by loss of heat through evaporation. The cool air is
pulled through the greenhouse by a fan. Evaporative coolers
work best at lower humidities. Most hobby greenhouse sup-
ply companies have easy-to-install coolers made for hobby
greenhouses. Such a system should receive equal priority
to a heating system. The cost of operating an air conditioner
to cool a greenhouse would be prohibitive and would likely
reduce humidity in the greenhouse to less than optimal lev-
els.
 The ideal temperature range for most greenhouse crops Associations
is 55o to 60oF for night temperature, and 70o to 75oF for day
Hobby Greenhouse Association
temperature. The day temperature should be 5o to 10o higher
8 Glen Terrace
than the night temperature on a cloudy day, and 10o to 15o
Bedford, MA 01730-2048
higher on a sunny, bright day. It is essential that a thermostat
(617) 275-0377
be located in the greenhouse in a central location, at plant
level, and away from direct exposure to sunlight. Do not rely
on the home cooling system with a thermostat in the living Oklahoma Supply Companies
area to cool the greenhouse. Cooling the greenhouse may Acme Engineering & Mfg. Corp.
also be thermostatically controlled. When the temperature P.O. Box 978
exceeds the desired temperature, the thermostat activates a Muskogee, OK 74402
small electric motor which opens a vent, turns on an exhaust (918) 682-7791
fan, and turns on an evaporative cooler. During summer
months, an evaporative cooler will be necessary to keep the American Plant Products and Services, Inc.
temperature close to the optimum level; at other times of the 9200 N.W. 10th
year, an open vent or exhaust fan will dissipate excessive Oklahoma City, OK 73127-9722
heat effectively. (405) 787-4833

Inside Maintenance Aqua-Hort Systems, Inc.

P.O. Box 57197
It is very important that the greenhouse be kept as clean
Oklahoma City, OK 73157
as possible. When this is overlooked, diseases and insects
1-800-446-1694
can rapidly become a major problem. Keep all paths and
floors free of weeds and debris. Don’t allow standing water
or muddy floors to exist. Consider gravel, concrete, or even Hobby Greenhouse Manufacturers and/or
bark floors for cleanliness and drainage. Keep dead and dying Hobby Greenhouse Supply Companies
growth pruned from plants, regularly. Many common sense
B and K Installations Co. Inc.
practices already practiced in the home are also applicable
246 SW 4th Ave.
in the greenhouse. Avoid the temptation to overcrowd the
Homestead, FL 33030
benches with plants, as this will prevent disease or insect
305-245-6968
problems.
B and W Greenhouse Construction Ltd.
P.O. Box 307
Weatherproof Wire Aldergrove, BC Canada VOX 1A0
Always weatherproof wire for all outside wiring. Wire size 604-852-5848
depends upon the distance to be covered and the electrical Dixie Greenhouse Mfg. Co.,
load on a circuit. Use approved terminal equipment and follow Route 1, Box 339
safe wiring practices. All wiring must conform to local wiring Alapaha, GA 31622
codes. It is worth the money spent and peace of mind to 912-532-2905
consult a qualified electrician before building a greenhouse.
Contact your county Extension educator for help in locating Fox Hill Farm
a few of your neighbors who have hobby greenhouses. Visit 20-M Lawrence
them to learn about their problems so that you can choose Vernon, CT 06066
the best greenhouse to suit your needs. 203-875-6676
Check local building codes and zoning laws before start-
ing construction. Greenhouse Mall
Any good book on houseplant care gives guidelines 9900 Highway 620 N.
or suggestions on what grows well in a greenhouse. Most Austin, TX 78726
growers are very surprised to see how much easier plants 512-250-0000
can be grown in the ideal environment a hobby greenhouse
provides. Refer to OSU Extension fact sheet F-6411 and J. A. Nearing Company Inc.
F-6425 regarding houseplant care and annual flowers. 9390 Davis Ave.
Guidelines within are applicable to greenhouse culture. Also, Laurel, MD 20723
readers interested in a commercial greenhouse operation 301-498-5700
should refer to OSU Extension fact sheet F-6700, F-6701, and U.S. 800-323-6933
F-6703. FAX 301-497-9751

6705-5
Northwest Eden Sales Inc. Vegetable factory Inc.
14219 NE 167th 71 Vanderbilt Ave.
Woodinville WA 98072 New York, NY 10169
206-881-1225 212-867-0113
U.S. 800-545-3336
Farm Wholesale, Inc.
Pacific Coast Greenhouse Mfg. Co. 2396 Perkins St. NE
2661 Gravenstein Hwy. S., Unit F Salem, OR 97303
Sebastopol, CA 95472 503-393-3973
707-823-9663 U.S. 800-825-1925
FAX 707-823-9709 FAX 503-393-3119

Snitches Sturdi-built Greenhouse Manufacturing Company

Route 10, Box 608-2 11304 SW Boones Ferry Road
Ft. Worth, TX 76135 Portland, OR 97219
817-237-6696 (503) 244-4100

Turner Greenhouses Gothic Arch Greenhouses

P.O. Box 1260 P.O. Box 1564
Goldsboro, NC 27530 Mobile, AL 36633
919-734-8345 (205) 432-7529
1-800-672-4770

6705-6
 The Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
Bringing the University to You!
The Cooperative Extension Service is the largest, • It provides practical, problem-oriented education
most successful informal educational organization for people of all ages. It is designated to take the
in the world. It is a nationwide system funded and knowledge of the university to those persons
guided by a partnership of federal, state, and local who do not or cannot participate in the formal
governments that delivers information to help people classroom instruction of the university.
help themselves through the land-grant university
• It utilizes research from university, government,
system.
and other sources to help people make their own
Extension carries out programs in the broad catego- decisions.
ries of agriculture, natural resources and environment;
• More than a million volunteers help multiply the
family and consumer sciences; 4-H and other youth;
impact of the Extension professional staff.
and community resource development. Extension
staff members live and work among the people they • It dispenses no funds to the public.
serve to help stimulate and educate Americans to
• It is not a regulatory agency, but it does inform
plan ahead and cope with their problems.
people of regulations and of their options in meet-
Some characteristics of the Cooperative Extension ing them.
system are:
• Local programs are developed and carried out in
• The federal, state, and local governments co- full recognition of national problems and goals.
operatively share in its financial support and
• The Extension staff educates people through
program direction.
personal contacts, meetings, demonstrations,
• It is administered by the land-grant university as and the mass media.
designated by the state legislature through an
• Extension has the built-in flexibility to adjust its
Extension director.
programs and subject matter to meet new needs.
• Extension programs are nonpolitical, objective, Activities shift from year to year as citizen groups
and research-based information. and Extension workers close to the problems
advise changes.

Oklahoma State University, in compliance with Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11246 as amended, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Americans
with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, age, religion, disability, or status as a veteran in
any of its policies, practices, or procedures. This includes but is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid, and educational services.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Robert E. Whitson, Director of Cooperative
Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President, Dean, and Direc-
tor of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of 42 cents per copy. 0506

6705-7
Types of greenhouses and frames 1
Greenhouses vary greatly in size, shape and
type to meet the widely different demands of
gardeners. This wide choice is not always
helpful to the beginner, who is often thor-
oughly confused by the variety of shapes and
materials. The basic factors which must be
considered are what the greenhouse is to be
used for, the amount of money available, and
where the greenhouse is to be erected.
When buying a greenhouse, carefully
assess the amount of growing space required.
There are two ways of measuring growing
space. The first is a simple calculation of the
soil or bench area available, which tells how
many plants may be accommodated. Simply
multiply the length of the greenhouse by the
breadth, taking account of the space taken
up by paths, doors and equipment such as
heaters and water tanks. The second way of
calculating space is to consider the growing
area in conjunction with the height at the
eaves and the height at the ridge. These two
dimensions affect first the amount of grow-
ing space for tall plants, such as tomatoes,
shrubs and climbers, and second ease of
access and comfort in use. In general, the
larger the greenhouse the cheaper each unit
of growing space becomes, though this is less
apparent in those models where the walls
slope inwards. All too often the beginner
chooses a greenhouse which in time proves
to be too small. If cost dictates a small green-
house to start with, make sure it is a model to
which extra sections can be added.
Shapes and styles
Greenhouses are either free-standing or lean-
to, that is, supported on one side by a house
or other wall. Free-standing houses may have
straight or inward sloping walls. Roof shapes
may be a simple span, hipped or double-
hipped curvilinear. The "mini" lean-to is a
structure much narrower than the usual lean-
to greenhouse. They are useful for the small
garden or where wall space is at a premium.
The smallest ones are too narrow to enter and
maintenance of the plants is done from the
outside. On sunny walls overheating can be a
problem in summer.
During recent years greenhouse manufac-
turers have been seeking more original de-
signs, and as a result circular and domed
styles have come on to the market. These
usually have flat oblong wall panels but some
also are geodesic in structure, miniature
versions of the vast space-dome-like Clima-
tron greenhouse at the Missouri Botanic
Garden. Some of the more recent designs
have curved glass panels and an overall shape
that suggests the great Palm House at Kew
Gardens in London. Certain circular styles
have decided aesthetic appeal and can be-
come a feature or focal point in the garden.
In addition they contain a surprising amount
of space, as the central path of a traditional
oblong structure is done away with. At
present however, they are more expensive in
terms of growing space than structures of
traditional shape.
Types of greenhouses and frames 2
Another departure from the traditional
greenhouse is the use of a framework of
tubular alloy or steel supporting a cover made
of plastic sheeting. Early models, still much
used commercially, are called tunnel houses.
Smaller versions of this simple pattern are
available for the amateur, and welded frame-
works in a variety of shapes are made.
Generally these have a traditional outline but
some are dome-shaped. Plastic houses are
cheaper than glass-clad ones but have draw-
backs in use (see pages 10 and 11).
Design
Greenhouses can be fully glazed, or they can
have one or more sides boarded or bricked
up to staging height. Both styles have advan-
tages, and the choice must depend upon the
use to which the greenhouse is to be put. If
crops are to be grown in the border, glass to
ground is needed for light. If most plants will
be grown in pots, a staging is essential and the
wall area beneath it can be made solid. Brick,
wood or asbestos-cement half walls provide
useful insulation, cutting the heating require-
ments of the greenhouse. A compromise is
to board the north wall only, gaining some
insulation with little effect on light values.
Removable w o o d e n insulation panels are
made for some designs of greenhouse. These
can be fitted in winter and removed when
crops are to be grown in the bed. Kick boards
should be fitted at the base of glass-to-ground
walls to protect against accidental damage.
The crucial factors in the choice of shape
are accessibility, light transmission, and sta-
bility and durability. Commercially-available
greenhouses can be expected to be stable,
though the site must be taken into account in
choosing a design. Plastic-covered houses,
for instance, are less durable in very windy
places. Accessibility covers factors such as
door design, which is dealt with on page 9,
and heights at eaves and ridge pole. Low-
built houses can be raised on a home-made
plinth of brick, w o o d or concrete to give
extra headroom. Light transmission is critical
only in winter and early spring, for during the
summer months more light is available than
is needed by the plants. Thus light is only of
concern when planning very early crops.
Mobile greenhouses
Commercial growers use mobile greenhouses
of the D u t c h light type, which can be pulled
on a system of rails over crops. These allow a
crop rotation program to be followed. For
example, salad crops can be started on one
site in spring, then left to mature in the open
while the house is moved onto a new site
where tomatoes are grown.
Frames
It is less easy to vary the overall design of a
garden frame and the basic traditional shape
is still frequently met w i t h . This is a shallow
oblong box w i t h one end higher t h a n the
other and sloping sides shaped to hold a lid
or light of glass or plastic. A useful size is
Types of greenhouses and frames 3
4 x 6 ft. Double and multiple frames of this
design can be obtained. Variations include
double span tops and glass walls with a
number of different patented methods of
opening.
Light-weight metal or plastic frames can be
moved around the garden and placed on
ordinary beds in different positions as re-
quired. Traditional forms have permanent
bases of brick or w o o d .
Frames can be built along the sides of half- ,
boarded greenhouses in order to benefit from
surplus warmth from the greenhouse.
The simplest form of frame is just a light,
a glass or plastic panel, placed over a shallow
pit. This allows pot or container plants to be
hardened off.
Cloches
Until comparatively recently, cloches were
made as units or sections, each one like an
open-ended greenhouse in miniature, fitting
together to cover rows of crop plants. Made
of sheets of glass and a variety of patented
metal clips, they were cumbersome and
breakable but very efficient. Rigid plastic
sheeting has largely taken over from glass for
this type of sectional cloche. The most recent
development is the tunnel cloche made of
strips of flexible plastic sheeting stretched The traditional cloche (a) was made of solid anchored with wire hoops. Plastic tunnel
over a series of wire hoops along a row and glass in a bell form. Class sheets joined cloches (e) consist of long plastic sheets
held in place with further hoops over the top. with clips can be tent-shaped (b) or barn- bent over hoops and held w i t h more
The ends are anchored firmly by burying shaped (c). Corrugated plastic sheeting (d) hoops. Plastic sheet attached to wire
them in the soil. Ventilation is by pushing up can be bent over rows of crops and frames forms a tent cloche (f).
the plastic on the side away from the wind.
Structure materials 1
The superstructure of a greenhouse may be
made of wood, aluminum alloy or steel. Pre-
stressed concrete, used for larger houses, is
too thick and heavy for smaller structures.
Metal
Most custom-built greenhouses are made of
wood or aluminum alloy. The latter is now
by far the most popular material, being light
and strong and easily extruded into the
necessary shapes ready for bolting together
on the site. At one time, corrosion was a
problem, especially in areas of industrial air
pollution and near the sea. Modern alloy is
much more resistant so that corrosion is only
likely to occur in areas of very high industrial
pollution, which are not widespread.
Aluminum frame greenhouses are
maintenance-free and have narrow glazing
bars, allowing the maximum amount of
Unlike the wood-frame greenhouses once
widely sold, aluminum structures do not need
painting. This lack of regular maintenance is
a big factor in their popularity.
Steel is also used in greenhouse construc-
tion, either totally, as in some large commer-
cial houses, or in conjunction with an alloy in
smaller ones. The steel must of course be gal-
vanized or treated in other ways to prevent
rusting. Although generally adequate, after
time the galvanizing treatment breaks down
and rusting becomes a problem. Galvanizing
can also be broken down by an electrolytic
reaction when alloy and steel members
touch. This factor is now well known however
and seldom occurs in well-designed smaller
amateur greenhouses.
light to penetrate. The model shown has
diagonal bracing struts for stability, a sliding
door and cement plinth foundations.
Metal is a good conductor of heat and cold
and for this reason, condensation drip can be
a nuisance in metal-framed houses. This heat
conduction factor also means that metal
houses are colder, or cool more rapidly than
timber-framed ones, though the differences
in temperatures between the t w o are small.
Unless the regular maintenance of painting
and putty renewal is considered a pleasure,
aluminum or steel and aluminum houses are
much to be preferred to the various wood
houses, even those made of decay-resistant
redwood, red cedar or cypress, or other
woods that have been treated with wood
preservative. A metal greenhouse will allow
the gardener to spend more time in the
greenhouse than working on it.
Cedar requires little maintenance and
blends well into the garden surroundings.
The glazing bars are thicker than in
Wood
However wood greenhouses are still popular
for aesthetic reasons. The attractive colors of
redwood, cedar and cypress fit m u c h better
into the garden than the color of bright
aluminum or steel.
Providing a w o o d house is properly con-
structed and secured to a brick or concrete
base and is initially treated with a w o o d pre-
servative (if the wood is not naturally decay-
resistant), there is every chance it will out-
live its owner. Further painting w i t h a w o o d
preservative, or better still, linseed oil about
every five years or so is a wise precaution.
Apart from the aesthetic considerations,
w o o d has some advantages when it comes to
installing extra shelving, securing wires for
aluminum houses, but they have t h e
advantage of being easily drilled for
fixings and plant supports.
Structure materials 2
i climbers ,andl hooks for hanging baskets.
Metal houses arcesometimes drilled for these
purposes but so often these holes seem to
lx> where they are not needed and drilling
extra ones is not easy without the right equip-
ment. Extra holes also often penetrate the
protective coatings on alloy and steel, leading
to corrosion.
Frames
The same considerations and comments re-
garding aluminum or steel and timber in the
construction of greenhouses applies also to
frames. Since a frame is generally used in
conjunction with a greenhouse it should be
of the same materials. If w o o d is selected
do not sit it directly on the soil. M o u n t the
Tubular steel frame
Steel tube frames are used for film-clad
greenhouses. Among the cheapest frame
materials, steel must be galvanized if rust
frame on a low wall of brick or concrete. If
this is not possible then redwood or metal
alloy should be chosen.
Cloches
Class and plasticform the bulk of a cloche and
are discussed on pages 10-11. Glass cloches
are secured by various patented methods
using stout galvanized wire or steel alloy
brackets in conjunction with w o o d or plastic
buffers. The latter method makes assembly
and dismantling easy but it must be used with
care when the cloche is constructed of
larger sheets of glass. Rigid plastic cloches are
secured either by galvanized wire or are
molded to shape and free-standing. Tunnel
cloches require U-shaped wires or canes.
and consequent repeated maintenance
work is to be avoided. Do not allow contact
between steel and alloy components.
PAINTING AND PRESERVING W O O D
The surface must first be prepared before
it is treated. Brush down to remove dirt
and grit then wash the surface and allow
to dry. Rub the wood down with a medium
glasspaper or wet-abrasive, which is easier
and prevents dust from flying about. When
repainting it may be necessary to strip
back and reprime if the paint is blistered
or cracked as moisture is rapidly absorbed
once the skin of the paint is broken.
Softwood greenhouses will need paint-
ing every other year. Use an aluminum
primer if any bare wood is to be seen after
which an undercoat should be applied
Doors
Sliding and hinged doors are available.
If possible, ensure that the base of the
doorway is flat, or provide a ramp.
followed by t w o gloss coats for maximum
protection. Softwood greenhouses are
w i t h o u t question more difficult and costly
to maintain than the more expensive
hardwood greenhouses. The life of the
greenhouse may be doubled if the w o o d
is treated with a preservative which is
toxic to decay organisms. Preservatives
should be applied to the greenhouse by
the manufacturer before the greenhouse
is constructed. They usually consist of
copper or mercurial-zinc compounds,
either in a water-soluble f o r m or in a
spirit solvent.
Guttering
Some aluminum greenhouses have built-in
guttering, with others it is an extra. It avoids
drips and aids water saving.
Covering materials 1
Glass is the traditional glazing material for a
greenhouse, and for a long time was the only
material suitable for the job. Although plastic
sheeting has become more popular, glass is
still the most widely used material. Most of the
glass used for greenhouses is single-strength
sheet glass. However, double-strength is
preferable. From a light transmission point of
view, the larger the pane size the better.
There are also fewer heat-leaking joints with
large panes, although they are more expen-
sive to replace if any get broken.
Glazing
The technique of securing the glass to the
superstructure is known as glazing. In the
past glass was installed in overlapping sheets
like shingles. The side edges were slipped into
grooves in the mullions or were puttied, but
there was no sealant along the top and
bottom edges, thus allowing a fairly free ex-
change of inside and outside air. Today, the
glass is used in larger pieces and is fixed into
the framing members by various methods.
In some cases putty or an equivalent material
is used. Class allows about 90 per cent of the
sun's radiation to pass through but filters out
the ultra-violet part of the spectrum. Ultra-
violet light is not, however, essential to plant
growth and in excess it can be harmful.
Where the sun's heat is excessive and can
lead to scorching of plants, translucent glass
can be used; but this will cut down winter
light penetration considerably. In temperate
climates some form of shading is a preferable
alternative in hot weather.
Plastics
Plastic sheets and panels perform the same
functions as glass in greenhouse coverings
and have the advantage of being cheaper and
non-breakable.
Polyethylene Polyethylene is applied in huge
sheets that make for faster glazing, but it
has a short life span. Normally it needs to be
replaced after one growing season. Poly-
ethylene with ultra-violet inhibitors lasts
about twice as long. Although the material
does not break like glass, it is weakened by
ultra-violet light and often splits during gales;
indeed on windy sites even new sheeting may
split. It is important that the sheeting be
stretched tightly over the superstructure. the type of fiberglass made specifically for Sunlight and the greenhouse
Loosely secured material can act like a sail greenhouses should be used; the familiar Heat builds up rapidly in a greenhouse when
and, because of the movement, chafe against porch-roof material should not be used. the sun is shining and can easily reach limits
its supports during strong winds. These Perhaps the greatest advantage of fiber- lethal to plants without ventilation and/or
factors can spell disaster before the natural glass is its exceptionally high resistance to shading. Light and heat from the sun reach
life of the sheeting is reached. breakage—a compelling reason for using it the earth as short-wave radiation, which
One advantage of polyethylene is that it is in a neighborhood of rowdy children or passes easily through glass and plastics. This
so light that the greenhouse can be built frequent hailstorms. This factor, coupled with radiation warms everything it touches, such
without foundations (although it must, of its good resistance to ultra-violet, means it as the floor, benches, soil, pots and even the
course, be anchored to keep it from being should last between 10 and 15 years. Make plants themselves, which then re-radiate
blown over). Hence it can be moved around sure that it is not exposed to flame or ex- some of this heat as long waves. It is because
the garden if desired. tremes of heat, because it burns readily and glass does not allow these long waves to pass
A disadvantage of polyethylene is that it rapidly. through it that a build-up of heat inside the
radiates heat rapidly. Because of this it is Because fiberglass is translucent, the light greenhouse results. O n c e shadows reach the
often applied in a double layer and a small admitted to the greenhouse is soft and greenhouse, or after the sun sets, heat is
fan used to blow air between the sheets in shadowless. This feature makes the panels lost via air flow through cracks and as long-
order to reduce heat loss. especially attractive in the West, where light wave radiation via solid walls and the basic
Vinyl Vinyl sheet is heavier than poly- intensity is high. framework.
ethylene, more durable and considerably Acrylic Semi-rigid, usually flat acrylic panels Radiation is diffused as it enters a poly-
more costly. If made with an ultra-violet in- are ideal for greenhouses because of their ethylene sheeting greenhouse and the sub-
hibitor, it can last as long as five years. But it strength, light weight, resistance to sunlight sequent long-wave radiation is not trapped.
comes in narrow sheets that must be heat- and good light-transmission characteristics. For this reason, polyethylene sheeting-clad
seamed, which greatly adds to the difficulty They do scratch easily, but apart from this structures, including frames and cloches,
of installation. Also, like polyethylene, it has their principal disadvantage is their very high cool d o w n more rapidly than glass ones once
electrostatic properties that attract dust, cost. However, acrylic is worth the outlay the sun has gone, though the differences are
which clouds the sheeting and therefore as it will give good service for many years. not really significant in most climates. Once
cuts d o w n the transmission of light.
Polyester The best known of the polyester
films is Mylar. In the 5-mm thickness used for
greenhouses, it has the advantages of being
lightweight, it is strong enough to resist
damage by hail, it is unaffected by extreme
temperatures and has light-transmission
characteristics quite similar to glass. Mylar is,
however, expensive.
Mylar should last about four years on
sturdy framed greenhouse roofs and longer
on the sidewalls. It will not be so effective
when used on poorly built frames that are
rocked by wind.
Fiberglass .Plastic panels reinforced with
fiberglass are considerably heavier than film
and much more durable. They retain heat
better than other glazing materials but are
also more expensive.
The panels are semi-rigid and come in long
lengths up to 4 ft in width. The most c o m m o n
weight of fiberglass used by amateurs is 4 or
5 oz, although heavier weights are available.
The panels are either flat or corrugated. The
latter are generally used only on greenhouse Glass should be free of flaws and bubbles, Traditional putty glazing (a). Dry methods
roofs because of their greater strength. Only which act as lenses and scorch plants. (b, c) are used with metal-framed houses.
Covering materials 2
the greenhouse heats up, convection cur-
rents arise and the warm air moves in a cyclic
fashion, varying somewhat with the shape
and size of the house and the amount of
ventilation. In theory, convection currents
warm the whole area, in fact there are often
small pockets of cooler and warmer air.
Light
Good glass allows about 90 per cent of total
illumination to enter the greenhouse. This
includes reflected light from all sources.
Direct sunlight must strike the glass at a
90 degree angle for the maximum amount
of light to enter. If the angle of the sun varies
from this angle some of the light will be de-
flected. During the summer months there is
more than enough light for most plants, but
during winter it is in short supply. For this
reason a fair amount of research has gone
into finding the best greenhouse shapes for
good all-year-round light transmission. As a
result round greenhouses have proved to be
the best shape for this purpose. The angle at
which the glass is set is obviously important
and among traditional greenhouse designs,
Sun angles and the "greenhouse effect"
Noon, Summer. The short rays from the sun
pass through the glass (a) and heat soil,
benches and walls. Heat is reflected as
long rays, which cannot pass out through
large, steeply inclined panes are the most
effective.
During the winter, sunlight in northern
regions reaches the earth at a low angle.
Therefore greenhouses with walls set at a
slight angle present a surface at right angles,
or almost so, to the sun's rays, allowing
maximum penetration. In summer the angle
is not so crucial as the intensity of the sun-
light is far greater.
The position of the sun varies during the
day, moving through an arc that varies from
about 60 degrees during the winter months
to 120 degrees or more in the height of the
summer. Thus a flat surface receives light at
the optimum angle for only a short time. The
round greenhouse solves this problem by
presenting glass surfaces at different angles
so that the plants receive light of sufficient
intensity throughout the year. Some green-
houses have been designed to rotate so that
surfaces are exposed to the sun as required. The position of the sun varies widely from rising and setting of the sun is 60°, in
Round greenhouses, however, are still not winter to summer and this variation must summer 120°. In winter only the south-
as yet readily available. Most greenhouses, be considered when planning the location facing side of this greenhouse receives
whether bought ready-made or built, are of and choosing the type of greenhouse. In direct sun, in summer the ends t o o face
the lean-to variety or tent-shaped. winter, the arc between the points of the sun at morning and evening.
the glass. Thus the temperature rises. A Noon, Winter. In winter, the angle of the to reflect some light, w h i c h is lost. Sloped
plastic-clad house (b) does not get so hot glass surfaces to the sun becomes sides (b) allow light to pass t h r o u g h at right
because reflected long waves can pass important as the sun angle is lower and the angles and light transmission t h r o u g h the
through plastic, which also diffuses light. light intensity less. Vertical sides (a) tend glass is improved.
Site and situation 1
All too often, the greenhouse is relegated to
a distant corner of the garden or to a site
which is far from ideal for the plants to be
grown. If a greenhouse is being purchased
and particularly if the expense of heating it is
contemplated, then the best situation pos-
sible must be found. Failure to choose the
best position could mean the disappointment
of poor quality flowers, fruits and vegetables.
In many cases, space in the garden will be
restricted and there will be only one possible
site. Even so, this site can be adapted to give
the best possible conditions.
Choosing a site
Basic considerations are good light and
shelter from strong winds. Good light is
especially important if plants are to be grown
during the winter months, and without some
sort of wind shelter heat losses will be con-
siderably greater than they need be, especi-
ally during cold spells. If the site is chosen in
summer, and there are tall buildings or trees
to the south, the shadows they will cast in
winter must be calculated. In the latitude of
New York City the sun at noon on the shortest
day is poised about 28° above the horizon
and all shadows are long. Winter sun angles
can be reproduced with the aid of a pair of
calipers and a compass. A simple substitute
for the calipers is two straight flat pieces of
board about 1ft long, joined at one end by a
single nail or screw. Open the calipers thus
formed at the required angle and, keeping
the lower arm horizontal, point the upper
arm due south. If the part of the sky where
the arm points is widely obscured by trees or
buildings, then shade is likely to be a problem.
To take full advantage of the light from the
low winter sun, the greenhouse should be
positioned with its long axis aligned east-west
or as near to this ideal as possible. This posi-
tion cuts shading from roof beams and astra-
gals (glazing bars) to a minimum. An east-west
position also allows the rays of the sun to
penetrate at the most efficient angle (see
page 11).
Access There is no doubt that, to get the
most enjoyment out of a greenhouse, especi-
ally in winter, easy access from the house is
essential. The ideal is to have the greenhouse
physically attached to the house with a direct
entrance, as is usual for sun-rooms or the
larger type of lean-to or conservatory. This
arrangement makes it possible to use the
same heating system to heat both house and
greenhouse, with a saving on installation and
subsequent running costs. If the lean-to is
built against a south, south-east or south-
west-facing wall, winter light will be good and
shelter assured.
A greenhouse will get much more use, and
the plants in it will get more care, if it is easy
of access. Other considerations such as
aspect and shade may take precedence, but
other things being equal it is best to site the
greenhouse as close to the home as possible.
Wherever it is placed, make sure that there
are hard-surfaced paths leading to it. This will
allow the use of a barrow to transport heavy
items such as compost and plants.
If possible the greenhouse should be close
to frames, if they are used, and the seedbed.
Often greenhouse plants will be moved to or
from the frame, and many seedlings will be
planted out into a frame or seedbed for
growing on. Frames can be placed against
the walls of a half-boarded greenhouse.
Measuring shade areas with a sighting angle
1 To check if a site is likely to be shaded,
find out the lowest angle of the winter sun.
Join t w o pieces of w o o d with a screw. Using
a protractor, carefully set the pieces at the
required angle. Tighten the screw.
Shelter
For the free-standing greenhouse it is impor-
tant to choose a protected site or at least one
with some shelter from the coldest prevailing
wind. The stronger and colder the wind blow-
ing across the glass, the greater the heat loss.
Some estimates make the loss caused by
wind as high as 50 per cent when a cold
winter gale is blowing. Some gardens, of
course, are well sheltered by buildings and
vegetation. W i n d problems in such gardens
will be restricted to eddies and occasional
severe storms.
Trees, even if they do not cast shadows
over the greenhouse, can cause problems by
rain drip onto glass, and can shed branches
which can badly damage the greenhouse.
The roots of nearby trees can also damage
foundations and intrude into planting beds.
Creating shelter If it is not possible to find a
sheltered site, a hedge can be planted, or a
fence erected to provide a windbreak. If this
is positioned at a distance of at least three
times the height of the greenhouse on the
north, north-east or north-west side, shading
will be virtually nil.
2 Place the lower arm of the sighting angle
on a spirit level at the planned position of
the greenhouse. Point the sighting angle
south, making sure that it is exactly level.
Although a solid wall or a close-boarded
fence may seem the ideal, the turbulence
factor must be taken into consideration, par-
ticularly in areas frequently subjected to
gales. W h e n wind strikes a solid object such
as a wall, it swirls over the top and causes
turbulence on the other side, the distance
away from the wall that the turbulence ex-
tends depending on wind speed. A hedge or
open-weave fence diffuses the w i n d and
breaks its main force and in this respect is
to be preferred. Such a barrier is effective
over a downwind distance equal to five to ten
times its height, so even if a barrier has to be
placed to the west or south-west of the green-
house to counter prevailing winds, it can be
sited far enough away to avoid shade
problems.
Foundation and erection
Once the position of the greenhouse has
been decided upon, the terrain must be
examined carefully. Ideally the ground should
be level and well drained. If the site slopes or
is very uneven it must be at least roughly
leveled. W h e n leveling the site, take care to
3 The upper arm will now point to t h e
lowest midday sun position. By sighting
along this arm it is possible to estimate
which trees and buildings will cast shadows
over the planned site of the greenhouse.
Site and situation 2
remove and conserve the top-soil especially
if a glass-to-ground greenhouse with soil beds
is planned. Do not compact the soil when
leveling the site and erecting the greenhouse.
Undue pressure can destroy the soil struc-
ture, leading to drainage problems and loss of
fertility.
If the site is wet, some sort of drainage
system should be installed. A row of tile drains
down the centre of the site with a sump or
drywell at one end is usually enough, or a
concrete platform can be made with its sur-
face just above the surrounding soil. If the
greenhouse is to be erected on a sloping site,
ensure that there is drainage to cope with
water running down the slope from above.
Construct a gutter to channel water around
the greenhouse if necessary.
Bases and foundations All custom-built green-
houses are sold with detailed erection instruc-
tions. Many models have an integral or
optional base, made of shaped sections of
concrete which are laid on the soil. No other
foundation is needed for the smaller green-
houses providing the site is firm and
accurately leveled. Ideally the soil should
Walls, hedges and fences must be sited to
block, or preferably filter, wind, yet not cast
shadows over the greenhouse. The 6 ft
hedge above is south and west of the
greenhouse, cutting the force of prevailing
have been uncultivated or under grass for
several years. For greenhouses of 10 x 8 ft or
larger however a proper concrete foundation
is necessary.
Marking out the site Whether of compacted
soil or concrete, it is most important that the
finished surface is level. The site should be
accurately marked out using the plans sup-
plied with the greenhouse. Carefully check
that the base or foundations are on the cor-
rect alignment, using part of a building or a
boundary line as a fixed point. Having estab-
lished a straight line along one wall of the
greenhouse, carefully measure a right angle
for the end wall (see below right). A spirit level
is an essential tool during preparation. If the
base or foundation is not level, erection of
the superstructure may be difficult, or it will
sustain stresses and strains that later could
lead to trouble. Most small greenhouses are
erected level, though some are provided with
a slight fall to allow gutters to function.
Particular attention should be paid to the
anchoring method, especially in windy sites.
If sill bolts have to be cemented in place,
make sure enough time elapses for the
winds yet casting no shadow. The fence to
the north can be sited closer to the
greenhouse, as it will not cast a shadow.
Use hedges or openwork fences as shelter
belts where possible as they filter the wind.
cement to harden before the superstructure
is built or glazed. The period required varies
with the weather and the proportions of the
concrete mixture used. Allow at least 48
hours, more in cool weather. If glazing takes
place after the structure goes up this should
be carried out during dry, calm weather. The
same applies to the erection of sections pur-
chased already glazed. If glazing is carried out
over a period of days there is much to be said
for doing the roof first. This allows the wind,
should it arise, to pass through the structure.
A half-glazed house with a strong wind blow-
ing on to the inside can be badly damaged.
Class can be very slippery when wet and
ideally should be handled only in dry weather.
In addition, the putty and mastic seals used
in traditional glazing do not stick satisfactorily
in wet conditions. If guttering is to be fitted
to the greenhouse some thought should be
given to rain water disposal at this stage. Rain
water butts provide a useful water reserve if
certain precautions are taken (see page 25).
Alternatively, a drywell must be dug nearby
and piping laid to it or to a nearby drainage
ditch or watercourse.
Mark the position of one side of the green-
house, using two pegs and a taut line.
Check that the pegs are level. Then care-
fully measure a right angle, using a T
Water supply
Even if it is decided to use rain water butts as
a water source, these can run dry in dry spells
and there is much to be said for a per-
manent water supply in the greenhouse. If an
automatic or semi-automatic watering system
or a mist propagation unit is planned, run-
ning water is essential. W i t h modern plastic
piping and fittings the installation of a supply
is not difficult, though a professional plumber
must be called in to make the connection
to the main supply. The supply pipe is best
laid at the same time as the foundations. If it
has to be added later, take care not to
damage the foundations.
Electricity
Even if a greenhouse is not heated by it, a
supply of electricity gives many advantages.
It is necessary for heated propagators, mist
units, soil-warming cables and artificial illumi-
nation. Lighting is a very w o r t h w h i l e extra,
for its installation allows the greenhouse to be
used on winter evenings, adding a novel
dimension to gardening under glass. For
details of electricity, see page 17.
square, to establish the position of one
end wall. Repeat to fix the remaining
corners. Check that all eight pegs are level.
A spirit level is an essential t o o l .
Ventilation and shading 1
Owing to the "greenhouse effect" (see p. 11),
which causes a rapid build-up of heat inside
the greenhouse when the sun shines on it, an
efficient ventilation system is essential to
control temperature. Ventilation is also
necessary in order to provide a supply of
fresh air and to control humidity. Stale air
provides ideal conditions for the spread of
diseases and pests. Ventilation must be con-
sidered a factor in the maintenance of a
balanced greenhouse environment. It must
be matched to heating, shading and the
control of humidity.
Despite the advances made in small green-
house design few models, if any, are provided
with enough ventilators to cope with warm
summer day temperatures without opening
the door. While using the door as an emer-
gency ventilator is acceptable for some crops
and on quiet days, it should never be con-
sidered standard practice. For manufacturers,
more ventilators means design modification
and extra material with the inevitable in-
creased costs. However, most greenhouse
manufacturers can supply more ventilators
Air flow
Ventilators in both roof and sides allow
complete air circulation within the
greenhouse. Roof vents can also act as
wind scoops in hot weather.
as optional extras so it is possible to rectify
the deficiency.
W h e n warmed, it is the nature of air to
become less dense and to rise. For this reason
ridge vents are all-important for releasing
over-heated air. As the hot air rises up and
passes out of the ventilators, fresh cool air is
sucked in through the glass overlaps, glazing
cracks, and around the doors. For full and
adequate ventilation the overall area of the
ridge ventilators should be equal to at least
one-sixth of the floor area, more if feasible.
For the smaller greenhouse alternate ventila-
tors either side of the ridge or at least two per
6 ft length are usually adequate. For larger
structures or those used as alpine houses the
provision of continuous ventilators along
both sides is ideal.
Air exchange and subsequent cooling is
faster if side ventilators are also fitted. These
can be just above ground or at bench level.
Ventilators should be installed in both posi-
tions if possible. Ventilators should be posi-
tioned on both sides of the greenhouse so
that those on the lee side can be opened
Ideally, roof ventilators should open to
about 55°, thus continuing the line of the
roof when fully open. Ventilators should be
positioned on both sides of the roof.
when cold winds are blowing. This practice
cuts down damaging cold drafts. All venti-
lators must be easily adjustable from closed
to wide open. This is particularly important
for the ridge ventilators which, when fully
open, should ideally continue the line of the
opposite side of the roof. This is equivalent
to being openable to about 55 degrees. Less
than this will mean that maximum ventilation
is not possible. However, there are practical
difficulties to such an installation and many
small houses have ventilators which open
less wide. A fully open ventilator at this angle
is also an efficient wind trap, directing a cool-
ing current downwards into the greenhouse.
This air-flow warms and rises up to exit via
the lee side ventilators, thus ensuring a rapid
air exchange on sunny days.
Air movement through side and ridge
ventilators can be strong on windy days and
create drafts unwelcome to many tropical
foliage plants and orchids. To cut down the
force of this airflow louvered ventilators have
been designed. However, while they can cut
down the full force of a draft they cannot
Side ventilators
Side or wall ventilators speed air exchange
and cooling. They can be conventional
(above) or louver (above right). Check that
louver installations are draft-free when
eliminate it. Before installing louvered venti-
lators, check that they are reasonably draft-
free when closed.
Ventilator mechanisms
In the small greenhouse ventilators are oper-
ated by hand, being opened and secured by
the same perforated bar and pin m e t h o d
used for some factory windows. In larger
greenhouses, particularly those w i t h venti-
lators too high to reach, a variety of open-
ing methods are used, including cranks and
gearwheels, pulleys and cords, and rack and
pinion.
Automatic ventilators All the manual meth-
ods, however efficient in themselves, rely
entirely on an efficient operator. Forget-
fulness can result in loss of or damage to
valuable plants. This factor, added to the
frequent absence of the gardener during the
day, has given the impetus for the invention
of automatic mechanisms. Initially, and still
widely used in the better-equipped nurseries
of commerce and public gardens, came the
electric motor coupled with lifting gears and
closed. Louver ventilators are useful w h e n
orchids or other tropical plants are being
grown as they cut d o w n , but do n o t
eliminate, drafts.
Ventilation and shading 2
controlled by a thermostat-activated switch,
more recently and now popular for the
smaller greenhouse, a system has been per-
fected which is triggered by a heat-sensitive
compound. The compound is contained in a
strong metal cylinder, one end of which is
closed by a plunger, the other end being
blanked off. On heating, the compound ex-
pands, pushing the plunger forwards. This
comparatively small amount of pressure is
magnified by a system of levers which open
the ventilator. Closing is gradual once the
compound starts to cool. Most types can be
adjusted to open at various temperatures.
The more sophisticated systems control ven-
tilators according to a full range of weather
conditions. W i n d gauges actuate motors to
shut ventilators to avoid drafts. A rain
gauge can be linked to ventilator controls to
shut down the house in the case of rain,
though simple temperature controls, which
will respond to increased cloud cover and
the resulting temperature drop, produce the
same effect. Sunlight-operated controls are
another refinement.
Ventilators can be opened by hand (top),
automatically (above) or by remote control
(right). Automatic systems consist of a
cylinder of a compound which expands
Ventilator fans
While the methods of controlling ventilation
described above work adequately, particu-
larly in the small greenhouse, the natural air
currents upon which they rely are not totally
efficient in maintaining a perfectly uniform
climate. In larger structures in particular,
there may be unsuspected pockets of warm
or cool air which can locally affect plant
growth. To eliminate this factor and to cut
down drafts and conserve heat, ventilator
fans are used. The usual high speed fans used
in kitchens and bathrooms are unsuitable,
as they can create artificial drafts, and low
speed fans, which can move large volumes of
air, have been designed. Ventilator fans are
also useful in plastic-clad greenhouses, where
water vapor condensing on the plastic may
raise humidity unduly. A fan will prevent this
by circulating fresh air.
Installing fans Ventilator fans should be in-
stalled at one end of smaller houses or at
intervals along one side of larger structures,
with ventilators at the opposite end or side.
Each fan is set with the blades parallel to and
w h e n heated. This expansion operates a
plunger, which pushes the ventilator open
via a system of levers. Remote systems
are used in large houses.
almost flush with the wall of the greenhouse.
In place of glass are a series of louvers or flaps
which hang down and cover the gap when
the fan is not working. Under air pressure
from the working fan, the louvers assume a
horizontal position. The same system, but in
reverse, can be used for the inlets at the other
end or the side opposite the fans, thus pre-
venting unwanted ventilation when the fans
are not working. The fans are usually operated
automatically, being coupled to a pre-set
thermostat.
In general, the smaller the fan the higher it
should be set in the greenhouse wall. In the
small amateur greenhouse, one fan installed
above the door is a usual recommendation,
while the big 4 f t fans used in commercial
houses are set at various heights, depending
upon the crop. The use of fans within the
greenhouse, to circulate air rather than to
ventilate, is usually coupled with heating, but
when the artificial heat is not in use it is
beneficial to leave the fan on to maintain a
buoyant atmosphere which is vital for the
healthy growth of many greenhouse plants.
Fans
Position a ventilator fan above the door of
a small greenhouse. Use only slow-running
fans designed for greenhouses.
Plan fan installations carefully, taking
account of the capacity of the installation to
make the necessary air changes. The placing
of inlet openings is important w i t h fan venti-
lation. Site the inlets to allow cross-drafts to
occur, thus stimulating air m o v e m e n t . Damp-
ing pads can be placed over inlet openings to
moisten incoming air in hot, dry conditions.
A b o u t 40 air changes an hour is the right rate
to aim for.
Humidity
Humidistats, which w o r k on the same prin-
ciples as thermostats but respond to humidity
rather than temperature, are used in c o m -
mercial greenhouses. They have the effect of
avoiding any excess build-ups of humidity by
turning on fans for short periods and thus
circulating the air. O n e effect of fans, especi-
ally in smaller greenhouses, is to dry the air.
If a fan is used as the main means of ventila-
tion, some form of damping d o w n or other
humidity control should be practised in warm
weather. Automatic spray systems can be
obtained for this purpose.
A louvered ventilator must be positioned at
the opposite end of the greenhouse to a fan
to provide a flow of air.
Ventilation and shading 3
Shading is a greenhouse necessity that is
easily overlooked. While in winter every effort
is made to maximize the amount of sun re-
ceived, in spring and summer too much sun-
light can quickly overheat the greenhouse,
killing plants. Some form of shading system is
therefore essential. It must, however, be used
in conjunction with ventilation and watering
with the aim of maintaining a balanced
greenhouse environment. All too often
shading is used simply to reduce heat and the
maintenance chore of watering.
In greenhouses where ventilation is efficient
there is much to be said for not shading unless
absolutely necessary. Sun-loving plants in
particular, such as succulents, will grow more
sturdily in full light. Where a very varied col-
lection of plants is grown it is not difficult to
position them so that the shade lovers are
behind those that need or tolerate full light.
Methods of shading
Shading can be carried out in two basic ways,
by painting or spraying liquid onto the glass,
or by blinds. Lime wash was once a standard
liquid shading and well-diluted emulsion
paint has also been used. If applied too
thickly, both of these substances tend to stick
on tight and need hard rubbing to remove at
the end of the season. Proprietary com-
pounds are now available which rub off easily,
yet are not affected by rain. All the traditional
shading substances are likely to be thinned
or washed off during heavy rain and will need
replacing if hot weather continues. All liquid
shading should be white. Green paint—and
green blinds—absorb heat, while white
reflects it.
The primary disadvantage of liquid shading
is that, during summer's inevitable dull, cool
spells, plants suffer from lack of light and
warmth just when they need it most. For this
reason the use of blinds is more efficient and
to be preferred. Roller blinds can be fitted
either to the outside or inside of the green-
house, and Venetian blinds fitted to the
interior. Exterior blinds are the most effective
as they prevent heat build-up. Blinds on the
inside of the glass stop light reaching the
plants but the heat penetrates the glass and
warms the greenhouse in the normal way.
Although they can be neat and easily used,
internal blinds can also be a nuisance where
lots of tall plants with leaves or flowers near
the glass are grown. In general, blinds fitted
to the outside of the house are to be pre-
ferred, though weather hazards must be
taken into consideration, particularly that of
strong wind. Exterior blinds can be rolled
down in winter to provide a certain amount
of protection against frost.
Blinds Slatted blinds of w o o d or plastic laths
are best, being long lasting and rolling and
unrolling easily. A certain a m o u n t of light
penetrates the blinds, but individual plants
are not harmed as the angle of the sun
changes slowly during the day. Also good arc-
blinds made from white suffused plastic
sheeting, and Venetian blinds. Ideally, and
especially for the greenhouse owner away
each day, the roller blinds should be auto-
mated, the unrolling mechanism coupled to
an electronic eye or thermostat. This of
course adds greatly to the cost. W h e r e auto-
mation is not contemplated, the owner of the
smaller greenhouse can easily devise make-
shift shading for a few hot spells. W i n d o w -
like frames of strong laths or canes can be
covered with opaque plastic sheeting or light
burlap and hung or clipped to the green-
house sides and roof, inside or out.

Methods of shading Automatic shading Improvised shading

1 Shading paint is applied 2 Exterior blinds prevent 3 Interior blinds are less Exterior blinds can be unrolled and Improvised screens can be made f r o m
to the outside of the glass heat build-up and cut d o w n effective than exterior ones, retracted by motors triggered by light- burlap or cloth, and cloth or plastic sheet
in spring. Do not apply too light. They can also be but are neat and easily sensitive devices. This is expensive, but can be pinned or stuck to the outside
thickly. useful as frost protection. used. useful on greenhouses often left unattended. of greenhouses.
Electricity 1
Although it is possible to run ,1 greenhouse
without an electricity supply, lack ol power
|)uts many of the techniques of modern
horticulture out of the gardener's reach. A
whole range of appliances from heaters to
pest control equipment depends upon a
power source. Electric light also makes it
possible to use the greenhouse for more
hours per day in winter.
Installing electricity
House electricity out of doors is a matter for a
professional. Amateur gardeners are not
recommended to attempt installation, for the
risks are great. Cables will have to be laid
outdoors unless the greenhouse is a lean-to
adjoining the home, and the environment of
the greenhouse itself raises dangers due to
high humidity and damp.
If cables have to be installed, plan the
route they are to take with the aid of an elec-
trician. Cables can be buried or suspended
from posts. Buried cables should be sunk
in trenches at least 2\1/2 deep. Route the
trenches where they will cause least disturb-
ance to garden plants, lawns and trees. W h e n
burying the cables, the electrician will pro-
tect them from accidental damage by cover-
ing them with a board or a row of tiles.
Such a protective layer will prevent damage
when digging or carrying out other cultiva-
tions in the garden. Make sure that trenches
do not interfere with drainage systems.
Cables buried beneath paths or lawns need
not be so deep, but wherever they run, a
record should be kept of their position so
that if the layout of the garden is changed
the gardener is aware of the exact position
of the cables.
Cables taken overhead must be fixed to a
stout wire supported on poles well above the
ground. Keep the cable clear of trees which
may chafe it. The gardener may be able to
save on the electrician's bill by doing un-
skilled preparatory work such as digging
trenches or erecting poles. Consult the elec-
trician and agree on exactly what is to be
done by w h o m before starting work.
Power points
Inside the greenhouse, the power cable
should terminate at a purpose-designed
greenhouse control panel. Choose only those
installations designed for greenhouse con-
ditions. A control panel allows several pieces
of equipment to be run from one point.
Fused, switched sockets are provided with an
independent main switch. The main power
cable has only to be connected, the sockets
being ready wired. The equipment is then
plugged in in the normal way. Always use
fused plugs, if possible made of rubber
rather than plastic.
Lighting
Strip or bulb lighting, using heavy-duty damp-
proof fittings, is relatively easy and cheap to
install once a power supply is available. Light-
ing will increase the use a greenhouse gets
during winter, making it possible for the
gardener who is away during the day to
attend to the plants in comfort.
Lighting installations can also be used to
speed plant growth and to modify growth Cables laid underground should be A control panel simplifies the installation of
rates to produce special effects. Many plants protected against accidental damage while electricity in the greenhouse. All equipment
are very sensitive to "day length", the period digging. Cover the cable with a treated can be controlled from the panel, which has
during which light is strong enough for growth plank or place tiles over it. fused, switched sockets.
to occur. During winter in northern areas, and
in areas with high atmospheric pollution, this
level is often not reached. Banks of strip
lights are used commercially to modify the
day length and bring plants into flower out-
side their normal season. Install lights about
3 ft above the greenhouse bench, in banks
sufficiently large to provide the light intensity
required. Consult specialist suppliers of green-
house equipment for details of light levels
and periods. Too much light, or too long a
"day", is often worse than too little, as many
plants have very specific requirements. Use
mercury vapor lamps, as the type of light they
produce is best for plant growth. Banks of
fluorescent tubes can also be used, mounted
2 ft above the bench.
Other electric equipment
Propagating equipment, watering devices
and ventilation equipment are described on
the appropriate pages. Equipment used in the
greenhouse must be made for the purpose. Thermostats should be set to the Fan heaters can be used to back up other
Do not, for instance, use domestic cooling temperature required in the propagating heating systems or as a system on their
fans and fan heaters as they may be affected case or soil cable unit. Check the o w n . Use only those designed for
by the damp atmosphere in the greenhouse manufacturer's literature for the greenhouses, which can withstand damp.
and become dangerous. temperature range the appliance controls.
Heating 1
In the cooler temperate regions where frost
occurs regularly in winter, sun heat alone is
too weak and unreliable for the successful
growth of tender plants under glass. There-
fore to get the best out of a greenhouse an
artificial heat source must be installed if only
to keep the minimum temperature above the
frost limit. An alternative is to use a heated
propagating case as a "greenhouse within a
greenhouse" to allow seeds and cuttings to be
started earlier than in the greenhouse itself.
It is possible to run a greenhouse without any
heat—see the Cold Greenhouse section
(page 64)—but a heat source which, c o m -
bined with insulation, maintains the temper-
ature above freezing, is almost essential.
The first question to ask when planning a
heating system is what level of heat is needed.
Two factors must be taken into account. They
are the prevailing weather conditions in the
locality and the needs of the plants to be
grown. There are certain levels of tempera-
ture which must be maintained if various
types of plants are to be grown (see Intro-
duction, page 2). Refer to the map, right,
for the lowest likely temperature. Consider
the modifying effects of height, exposure and
proximity to the coast, which can raise or
lower minimum temperatures.
Once the minimum temperature needed
in the greenhouse has been decided, the
temperature increase required can be calcu-
lated. This is the number of degrees that the
temperature must be raised above the likely
minimum to be encountered in the locality.
CALCULATING HEAT LOSS
Use the map right to establish the tem-
perature rise required. Then calculate the
rate of heat loss. First measure the glass
area of the greenhouse in square feet. Each
square foot of glass will lose 1.13 British
Thermal Units (BTU's) of heat per hour for
each degree F of temperature difference
between inside and out. Thus if there is
360 sq ft of glass and the temperature
difference between inside and out is 10°F,
the heat loss is 4,068 BTU/hour (360 x 10
x 1.13). Thus in order to maintain a tem-
perature 10°F above the likely minimum,
Thus if the likely minimum temperature of the
area is — 2°C, and a cool greenhouse is plan-
ned the temperature must be raised by 6°C
and the heating system must be adequate.
Greenhouses have higher heat losses than
other, more solid, structures and are more
prone to drafts. Also, heat is lost quickly
through glass so cold spots can easily develop
if the heating system is not carefully designed.
A single stove or radiator placed in the center
of the greenhouse will not necessarily warm
the whole air space, which is the reason why
pipe systems are popular. To check for cold
areas, place several m a x i m u m - m i n i m u m
thermometers at intervals around the green-
house and leave them overnight. Alter-
natively, use a single thermometer, placing it
at different points on nights with the same or
very similar air temperature.
Before calculating heat needs, check what
can be done to improve the insulation of the
greenhouse. Double glazing is the most
effective means of cutting heat loss. Per-
manent double glazing is heavy, costly and
can interfere with light transmission, but is
becoming a more attractive option as better
systems are designed and fuel costs continue
to climb. Alternatives to permanent double
glazing are temporary plastic sheet double
glazing or the use of insulating panels on the
lower parts of the greenhouse sides.
Drafts should be stopped wherever pos-
sible, not only because they increase heat
loss but because drafts can interfere with the
working of heating systems.
a heating system capable of raising the
temperature by 4,000 BTU's- is needed.
Heaters and fuels have their heat outputs
quoted in BTU's/hour so the size of heating
installation needed can be calculated.
Bear in mind additional heat loss from
wind, through gaps in the structure and The map above divides North America of growing season. W h e n calculating
through necessary ventilation. Measures into ten zones of hardiness. This zone greenhouse heating needs, use the map
taken to reduce heat loss such as double system was devised by the Arnold Arbor- to assess the local minimum temperature.
glazing reduce the amount of heat needed. etum at Harvard, and is widely used by The difference between the expected mini-
Heat loss varies with material: the all-glass scientists and gardeners. The zones are mum and the temperature desired in the
figure quoted gives a slight over-estimate defined in terms of consistent average greenhouse is the necessary temperature
for a part w o o d or brick house. annual minimum temperature and length increase the heating system must provide.
Heating 2
Air circulation Supplying oxygen to heaters

Wind can lower the temperature of the Allow a gap between benches and stagings Leave a ventilator open while combustion Alternatively, install a door or wall vent
exposed side of the greenhouse. Adequate and the sides of the greenhouse to permit heaters are in use. Avoid drafts over which will provide enough oxygen for
air circulation helps to avoid cold spots. air to circulate. plants. combustion w i t h o u t creating drafts.

Checking for cold spots Insulation

Check for cold spots in the greenhouse by greenhouse or, if only one is available, vary Insulation can be applied in the form of using tacks or a staple gun. Remove
using one or more m a x i m u m - m i n i m u m its position noting minimum temperatures special panels (left) or plastic sheeting, right, insulation as soon as the weather moderates
thermometers. Place them around the on nights of similar outside temperature. which should be fixed in double layers for it will impede light transmission.
Heating 3
Solid fuel piped hot water systems
Heating water by burning solid fuel is a cheap
method of heating a greenhouse. Modern
furnaces burning coal, anthracite, and other
special fuels are designed to reduce stoking
and the clearing of ash to a minimum. Many
have quite good thermostatic control but
are not so accurate as the more easily con-
trolled fuels such as electricity and gas. Water
heated in a boiler within the furnace circu-
lates through a system of pipes. The pipes,
which must rise gently from the boiler, should
be of narrow-diameter aluminum rather than
the large-diameter cast iron type. Furnaces
are rated in terms of heat output as BTU's/
hour. Choose a furnace large enough to heat
the greenhouse to the desired temperature
(see page 18). Only the fuels recommended
by the maker must be used. The pipes are
best filled with soft water such as rainwater,
and will have to be topped up from time to
Piped systems circulate hot water from a
furnace through pipes laid around the
greenhouse. The hot water rises from the
boiler, slowly cools, and returns via the
time. Large installations may have a main
constant-level system of the water tank and
ball-valve type.
Oil-fired piped hot water systems
Solid fuel furnaces may be adapted to burn oil
or a purpose-built system can be installed.
Oil-fired systems can be thermostatically
controlled: an efficient thermostatic control
system reduces the amount of attention
required to maintain a constant temperature.
Large, specially manufactured oil-fired in-
stallations are highly efficient and automatic.
Gas-fired piped hot water systems
Gas furnaces are easy to operate and may be
fully automatic, being controlled thermo-
statically. Care should be taken to site the
furnace where its fumes will not be carried
into the greenhouse. Gas fumes can be
dangerous to plants. If the furnace is not
lower pipe to the furnace. This kind of
system, using large-diameter cast iron pipes,
is less efficient than the small-bore system,
right, which has mostly superseded it.
burning correctly, dangerous carbon mon-
oxide fumes will be given off instead of carbon
dioxide and water vapor which is beneficial to
plants. Ensure that the flue fitted to the fur-
nace is tall enough to carry fumes away from
the greenhouse. Regular maintenance should
be carried out on all furnace systems to avoid
problems with fumes and fuel wastage.
Linking greenhouse and domestic systems
Where a lean-to greenhouse or sun room
is to be heated and a hot water radiator
system is used in the home, it is sometimes
possible to link the two. However, it is
advisable to consult a heating engineer first,
and best if possible to incorporate the green-
house heater in the home system when it is
installed rather than to add later. Problems
can arise with a linked system because
greenhouses need heating at night, whereas
homes are heated during the day and evening.
The small-bore piped system uses narrow
aluminum piping. Because of the extra
friction in smaller pipes, the water does not
rise by convection as freely as in large
Natural gas heating
Natural gas burnt directly in special heaters
is very efficient. Its by-products carbon
dioxide and water vapor which enhance the
greenhouse atmosphere make the com-
mercial greenhouse practice of atmosphere
enrichment, which encourages the plants to
grow, available to the amateur gardener. As
the burner is sited inside the greenhouse,
regular maintenance is necessary in order to
avoid possible emission of poisonous gases
such as carbon monoxide. The natural gas
systems on the market are thermostatically
controlled and fully automatic, with a safety
valve which prevents the main supply from
being turned on unless the pilot flame is
alight. It is more convenient to use a piped
natural gas supply in c o n j u n c t i o n with a
special greenhouse heater which is portable
to some extent. Bottled natural gas such as
propane or butane tends to be expensive
pipes and a circulating p u m p may be
needed. A header tank (illustrated) tops up
the water in the system. Such furnaces
can be fuelled by solid fuel, gas or oil.
Heating 4
although it is convenient where piped
supply is not available. Propane is advisable
when the storage bottle is kept outside as
butane does not readily volatilize in cold
weather. The larger the bottles or cylinders,
the more economical is this type of heating.
Kerosene heaters
Kerosene is the simplest form of heating to
install. Choose a heater that is designed for
the greenhouse, as some household kerosene
heaters give off fumes deadly to plants.
Greenhouse heaters are specially designed to
reduce the risk of fumes and are often
equipped with tubes or other devices to
distribute the heat evenly around the green-
house. They are, however, difficult to control
thermostatically. A flue is a desirable feature,
since some models may tend to produce
harmful fumes. Some have hot water pipes
as well as hot air ducts. Kerosene heaters
Where pipes run across a doorway, lay
metal grilles above them to allow heat to
rise yet protect the pipes from damage.
produce water vapor as they burn which Siting a boiler
keeps the greenhouse atmosphere moist,
although ventilation is necessary at times as
the atmosphere may become excessively
humid. W h e n combustion is taking place the
greenhouse must be ventilated to provide an
oxygen supply. Keep the heaters clean and
the wick trimmed according to the maker's
instructions. Features to look for when buying
a kerosene heater are stainless steel lamp
chimneys, fuel level indicators and large,
separate fuel tanks to make filling easier and
less frequent.
Electric heating systems
Electric heating is the most efficient and
effective. It is easy to control, clean and is the
safest for use with plants as there are no
fumes. It must be fitted by an electrician as
the combination of electricity and damp can Fumes from a furnace can harm plants. Site d o w n w i n d , so that the prevailing w i n d
be lethal (see page 17). it therefore outside the greenhouse and carries smoke and fumes away.
Electric tubular heaters distribute warmth Natural gas heaters heat the air by the Kerosene heaters must be carefully
evenly in the same way as piped hot water burning of a gas which is harmless to plants maintained to avoid harmful fumes.
systems. They can be mounted in banks or if the burners are correctly adjusted. Piped Choose a model with a large, easily-filled
installed singly in greenhouse cold spots. or bottled gas can be used. fuel tank and a fuel level indicator.
Heating 5
There are many different types of electrical
heating apparatus especially developed for
greenhouses. Tubular heaters have a similar
capacity for even distribution as hot water
piping systems. Position along a side wall of
the greenhouse in a single line or group
together at points around the greenhouse to
give more heat to colder areas.
There are compact fan-assisted heaters
which are easily moved and will spread the
heat over the whole area of the greenhouse.
They may also be used to circulate cool air
when heat is not needed. Thermostatically
controlled fan heaters will accurately control
temperatures to within one or two degrees
with no waste of fuel or heat and need little
maintenance. Fan heaters circulate air, keep-
ing the atmosphere buoyant and reducing
the chance of fungal disease. The best type of
fan heater has separate thermostats con-
trolling the fan and the heat, supplying heat
when it is needed. W h e n the fan is switched
off the air will remain relatively motionless
except for convection currents. The advant-
age of this system is that there will be inter-
mittent air circulation with little heat loss.
The fan-heated greenhouse can be safely
left closed during cold weather as there is no
contamination of the air and no need for
extra ventilation.
Convection heaters are another type of
efficient electric heater. They consist of a
cabinet with holes at the top and bottom
with heating wires inside which warm the air.
The warm air rises and flows out at the top
causing cold air to be drawn in at the bottom.
In this way convection currents cycle the air
around the greenhouse.
Storage heaters can be economical using
the off-peak rate for greenhouse heating.
This type of heating is, however, difficult to
control thermostatically. There will some-
times be too little and sometimes too much
heat. They are best used for background
warmth in conjunction with a main heat
source keeping the maximum temperature
thermostatically. An accurately controlled
electric heater can be used to maintain the
maximum temperature level with a kerosene
heater for background warmth. The advan-
tage of using a combination of heaters is that
the more expensive fuels are conserved.
Soil heating cables
There are many advantages to the gardener
in warming the soil from below. Crops may be
raised earlier than normal and cuttings and
seed germination should be more successful.
There are t w o good methods of warming
the soil using cables. The first utilizes bare
cables buried 6 - 9 in below the surface of the
soil with low voltage current passed through
them by means of a transformer to step down
the primary voltage. Alternatively, insulated
soil-heating cables are used in conjunction
w i t h the full house current buried 6 - 9 in
below the surface.
The soil is excavated to the required depth
and a layer of sand spread over the bottom
of the trench and raked level. The required
length of cable, as recommended by the
manufacturer, is laid over the surface in
parallel lines as evenly spaced as possible.
The cable is then pegged in position using
galvanized wire pegs.
There is no need for special precautions to 1 Remove the border soil to a depth of 2 Lay soil heating cables on the soil
protect the wire when using a low voltage. 9 in. Pile the border soil to one side and surface. Space the cable in a series of loops
However, 115 and 230-volt cables can be rake over the base of the trench produced. 4—6 in apart. Do not let the loops t o u c h .
dangerous if accidentally severed. It is there- Peg the cable down with staples.
HEATING COSTS
At a time when the relative prices of the
various fuels are fluctuating, it is impossible
to give a realistic indication of what it
costs to heat a greenhouse. Two key
points emerge from any study of heating
costs. First, waste of heat, through inade-
quate insulation, drafts and poor ad-
justment of heating systems, is a major
factor in most fuel bills. Second, the effect
of raising the greenhouse temperature
from cool to warm level is to double bills.
Therefore the decision to grow warm
greenhouse plants is one that must be
taken with an eye on the cost. Also,
careful management and heat conserva-
tion can make all the difference to the
economics of greenhouse heating. The
flexibility of the various fuels must be
considered as well as cost. Electricity,
especially when used to power fan heaters, 3 Replace the border soil and rake it level. 4 Connect the soil heating cable to a
is very flexible and little energy is wasted Water the bed lightly. Damp soil conducts thermostat, if one is supplied w i t h t h e cable
providing unwanted heat. heat better than dry. kit, or direct to an outlet. Carefully follow
the maker's instructions on installation.
Heating 6
lore a good plan to lay ,1 length ot galvanized
mesh over the cable. Spread sand over the
mesh and then replace the soil. Plug the
cable into a waterproof outlet which is
placed well above the level of the soil where
there is no danger of it getting wet.
Soil-heating cable kits are available com-
plete with thermostats, although the ther-
mostat is not essential. Soil-heating installa-
tions vary in power. They usually provide a
temperature of 16°C/60°F.
Thermostats
The various heating systems described may
all be controlled by special greenhouse
thermostats. A thermostat is a device that
controls the temperature of the atmosphere
in the greenhouse by regulating the fuel
supply to the heater. Two strips made of
different metals, joined together within the
thermostat, expand and contract in response
to changes in temperature. The movement
of this bi-metallic strip switches electrical
contacts which control the flow of fuel, or the
flow of air to solid fuel, thus regulating the
speed at which the fuel is burnt. Very
Warm-air duct heating
Polyethylene ducts, which may be
perforated, distribute heat given out by an
electric fan heater or a gas heater fitted
with a fan. Such pipes can be installed
either below benches or along the
accurate thermostatic control is possible
with electric heaters, and for this reason
other types of heater use electricity to
operate motors or electro-magnets which
regulate the flow of fuel. A thermostat usually
has a graduated dial which is set to the
required temperature which the thermostat
will then maintain, if the heating system is
powerful enough.
Conserving heat in the greenhouse
Heat will be lost through broken and cracked
glass, ill-fitting doors and vents, which must
be repaired or improved.
Lining the greenhouse in winter with
polyethylene sheet to give a "double glazing"
effect will help enormously (see page 22). Use
the thinnest and clearest polyethylene sheet
available. It is the static air trapped between
the plastic and the glass that forms the insula-
tion—so do not leave gaps. So that vents can
be opened, line them separately.
Burlap or old blankets placed over the
roof at night in extremely cold weather will
conserve heat. They must, however, be
removed in the morning.
greenhouse eves. First used in commercial
greenhouses, they are an efficient means of
distributing heat in larger greenhouses.
SOLAR HEATING
All sources of heat are solar in the sense Heat storage
that their fuels are derived, however
distantly, from the power of the sun. Oil,
coal, and gas, and electricity generated
from them, are fossil fuels produced by
nature from sun power. Because these
fuels are expensive, increasingly scarce
and liable to interruptions in supply,
many attempts have been made to har-
ness the sun directly. Two linked problems
immediately arise: timing and heat stor-
age. The sun tends to shine when heating
is least required, so some means of heat
storage is essential. None of the systems
available can be said to overcome these
problems so completely that they can be
recommended as a sole system of heating.
Solar heating has two uses at the present
stage of development: as a back-up heat
source and as an area for experiment by
technically-minded gardeners. The illus- W a r m air is sucked by a fan d o w n a duct
trations on this page show the principles from the roof space, where sun heat is
behind some of the solar heat methods greatest during the day. Rocks below the
in use. floor store heat. At night, the fan reverses.
Water panels and heat storage Solar furnace
Water is pumped up and flows over roof The sun heats air behind the glass wall,
panels. The sun heats the panels and the causing it to rise. W a r m air flows into the
water, which is stored in an insulated tank. heat storage of rocks, w h i c h are heated. At
At night, flaps are opened to let heat out. night warm air is pumped f r o m the storage.
Water supply and watering 1
Every greenhouse should have a piped supply
of water, unless it is very small or is close to
the house or an outside faucet. Despite the
contrary preferences of some gardeners,
city water is perfectly acceptable for plants,
and, unlike rainwater, the piped supply is
unlikely to fail. However, guttering is useful
in itself in preventing drips from the green-
house and it is sensible to store the water the
gutters channel. Rainwater storage requires
careful planning and attention to hygiene if
water butts are not to become havens for
waterborne pests and diseases.
If stored rainwater is to be the only source
of supply, at least two 60 gal butts will be
needed for a fully-stocked 8 x 8 f t green-
house, and even then the reserves will be
used up during a dry spell. Butts should have
tight-fitting lids to keep out leaves and other
debris which can foul the water. Two or
more butts can be connected by overflow
pipes to store surplus water. An alternative to
butts is a tank within the greenhouse or
even under the floor, with pipes leading from
the guttering. W i t h this arrangement, a faucet
WATERING CANS
Watering cans should be durable and
well-balanced. A long, possibly sectional,
spout is useful in a crowded greenhouse
and a small can allows plants on high
can be installed over the tank to replenish
it when rain fails. If water reserves of these
kinds are contemplated, it must be borne in
mind that mosquitoes and other pests will
breed in static water. Water from tanks can
also act as a distributor of fungal and bacterial
plant diseases.
If running water is installed in the green-
house, make sure the water piping is well
buried to prevent freezing. Install the pipes,
which can be of modern plastics with com-
pression fittings, when the greenhouse is
being built. Fit a faucet chosen to suit the
watering equipment likely to be used. A
range of modern hose couplings and connec-
tions for automatic watering devices is
available, allowing several watering systems
to be used at the same time.
Watering systems
Once a supply of water is assured, watering
systems can be chosen. These range from
simple cans to automatic devices.
Cans Even if automatic watering devices are
favored, a watering can will still be necessary
shelves and hanging baskets to be easily
reached. A fine rose will be required for
watering seeds and delicate seedlings and
rooted cuttings.
for watering plants on shelves and lor
measuring out liquid fertilizer, fungicides and
insecticides. A gallon can is the most useful.
It should feel balanced and comfortable to the
grasp. It should have a tapered extension
spout for plants at the back of benches and
on shelves, and a fine rose for watering newly-
sown seeds or pricked-off seedlings, or for
damping down floors. If high-level shelving
or hanging baskets are fitted, obtain a
smaller 1/2 or 3/4 gal can with a long, curved
spout. Cans are made of galvanized or
enameled metal or plastic, the latter being
now the most readily available. Plastic is
cheaper than metal and lighter to handle.
Automatic watering: Capillary benches
Watering plants properly by hand can be a
time-consuming job, requiring knowledge
and experience. There are several methods of
watering plants automatically, whether in
pots or beds. Where a large collection of pot
plants is maintained and especially if the
owner has to be away during the day, a
capillary bed system is a worthwhile invest-
ment. This method works on the capillarity
of moist sand. That is, water is sucked up
through the tiny spaces between the grains
of sand through the drainage holes into the
pot. Line a deep bench top with heavy gauge
plastic sheeting, and fill with washed sand
to a depth of 2 - 3 in. Special trays can also
be used. The sand is kept continually moist
on the surface but not waterlogged, either
with a watering can or an automatic device.
The simplest of these is the inverted demi-
john or header bottle in a shallow reservoir,
which overflows directly onto the sand
or into connecting guttering. A more fully
automatic system uses a header tank con-
nected to a piped water supply and fed to
the sand bench via a ballcock valve. The pot
plants, which should not be crocked, are
pushed into the top inch of the sand with a
screwing motion so that sand is forced into
the drainage hole or holes and makes
contact with the soil. Water is taken up into
the soil by capillary action.
An alternative to sand is the so-called
capillary matting which is kept wet in the
same way. It can however, become clogged
with algae after a time and then needs
careful washing or replacing.
Automatic watering: Pipe systems these
methods of watering involve piping and
finer tubing or nozzles. Trickle systems are the
most popular. In its simplest form this is
piping perforated at intervals and so arranged
that a perforation is over each pot, or by
each plant to be watered. Somewhat more
sophisticated versions have nozzles or a
length of tubing from each perforation. In the
so-called spaghetti system a sheaf of very
small-bore tubes runs from the end of a
hose. Each tube is then led to a pot and
clipped into place. These methods can be
set to trickle indefinitely, or the water supply
can be set to a solenoid valve and linked to a
time clock to run at set intervals.
If a slow non-stop trickle is used the pots
must be inspected regularly. Large, vigorous
plants may need more water than the trickle
can deliver, and will suffer as a result.
Overhead sprinklers can also be used on an
automatic basis and for plants w h i c h need
a high humidity they are ideal. Care must be
taken, however, to see that all plants are
getting an adequate water supply. The dense
or broad foliage of some potted plants can
effectively prevent enough water f r o m reach-
ing the rootball beneath.
While all these self-watering methods are
invaluable to the greenhouse gardener, they
must be used intelligently. As with all forms
of automation, they are non-selective and
this is a disadvantage where living organisms
are concerned. Every plant will get the same
amount of water whether it needs it or not.
Some will respond by growing lush and out of
character, others may become waterlogged
and slowly die. Where a wide variety of plants
is grown, they must be inspected regularly.
Over-wet plants must be taken o u t of the
automatic system for a while to dry out,
while dry ones must be given extra water
by hand.
Humidity
Although water is primarily used for keeping
the roots moist, most plants appreciate or
need humidity in the air, at least w h e n in full
growth. This too can be provided by automa-
tion, using overhead or near-ground nozzles
such as those used in mist propagation
systems (see page 30).
Water supply and watering 2
Storage butts Internal tanks Connecting fittings Header tanks

Water butts should have tight-fitting lids. Guttering can be led into the greenhouse Special fittings replace faucets and allow Header tanks and bottles supply water to
Two or more can be connected by pipes. to fill an internal water tank. Fit a tight- several appliances, such as hoses and a capillary and trickle irrigation systems by
Faucets allow cans to be filled. fitting cover to keep insect pests out. header tank, to be used at once. gravity.

Capillary bench Capillary matting

The capillary bench watering system plants take up water from the sand through An alternative to a sand bench, capillary Water can be supplied manually or by a
consists of a polyethylene-lined tray filled the pots' drainage holes. Push the pots matting soaks up water which is then header tank or bottle. The m a t t i n g becomes
with sand. The sand is moistened and the into the sand with a screwing motion. taken up by plants by capillary action. clogged with algae after a time.
Water supply and watering 3
Watering
All watering under glass requires care, espe-
cially that of plants in containers. In the
beginner's greenhouse at least, more plants
are likely to suffer or die from lack of, or t o o
much, water than succumb to pests and
diseases. Watering is a skilled operation, not
even all professional gardeners fully master it.
Like so many other aspects of gardening
under glass, it is essential to get to know the
plants well. In time, personal observation
will provide the experience that is required to
judge accurately the needs of each plant at
any time of the year.
Watering containers
Water plants in containers by filling the space
between the soil surface and the pot rim with
water, thus ensuring that the whole of the
root system is moistened. Frequency of
watering depends on several factors, notably
the vigor of the plant, temperature, type of
soil, and the container. A fast growing, well
rooted plant will probably need watering
each day in summer, perhaps even twice
daily during a hot spell. In winter the same
plant may need watering only once or twice a
week, or even less if it has a definite resting
period.
If in doubt as to when a plant needs water,
there are several useful observations that can
be made and points to check. Wilting or
flagging of the plant is very obvious when in
an advanced state but the observant gar-
dener will note the slight drooping of soft
stem and leaf tips which precedes this,
denoting a need for water. Whatever the
soil mixture used it is always paler in tone
when dry. W h e n this state is reached in a
clay pot, watering is required. In a plastic pot
however, this indication is not so reliable, as
containers of this sort are not porous and the
soil stays more moist below the surface layer.
If the plant is not growing vigorously or the
weather is cool, it is advisable to scratch into
the surface of the soil with the finger tip.
If the top 1/4 in of the soil is dry, then water-
ing should be carried out. An estimate of
the weight of a pot full of soil can also
be used as a guide. To enable the weight
differences to be recognized, a range of pots
should be filled and firmed as for potting and
allowed almost to dry out (or dryish potting Spray lines Trickle irrigation
mixture can be used at the outset). Each pot
is then weighed in the hand, watered tho-
roughly and checked again. A method
formerly much used involves the use of a
tapper, easily made from a length of cane
and a small block of w o o d about the size of
a cotton reel. Each pot is rapped smartly in
turn and if a ringing tone is given out the root
ball is dry and watering is needed. A dull,
hollow noise denotes that the rootball is
moist. This only works with clay pots.
The above methods can be used success-
fully on healthy actively growing plants. They
are less easily applied to dormant or resting
plants which require keeping barely moist.
Provided a free-draining potting medium is
used, ideally a loam-based mixture, applying
just half the usual amount of water at each
application is usually successful. All-peat pot-
ting mixes shrink away from the sides of the
pot when kept too dry and much of the
subsequent water applied runs down the Fine sprays of water directed by nozzles Trickle systems supply a small a m o u n t of
sides. To overcome this difficulty the plants onto plants are an efficient way of both water continuously to each plant. Check
should be stood in trays of water so that the watering and raising humidity. plants regularly.
bottom half of each pot is submerged. Unless
the soil is dust-dry, a few minutes in water Trickle irrigation—spaghetti
will suffice to moisten it adequately.
Watering beds
Beds and borders in the greenhouse are
watered in much the same way as those in
the outdoor garden and it is even more
important to use a rose or sprinkler on the
can or hose. This prevents panning of the
soil surface and unsightly soil-splash on
lower leaves of small plants. As with pots,
beds must be attended to regularly and
thoroughly. It is all too easy to think the bed
has been well watered when in effect it is
still dry several inches down. Many a crop
of grapes, peaches or tomatoes has been
spoilt for this reason. The equivalent of at
least one inch of rain should be applied each
time. To get a rough idea of this amount,
stand a straight-sided container on the bed
during watering. W h e n an inch is measurable
in the bottom, leave for at least an hour then
dig a small hole about 6 in deep and if dryish The so-called spaghetti system works on the coupling, deliver water to each plant. A
soil shows at the bottom of the hole, water same principle as the trickle system. header tank can be used to give a
again. Flexible tubes, attached to a central continuous supply, or a timeswitch fitted.
Benches and staging 1
Kent lies and staging of some sort arc used in
most greenhouses, the only exceptions being
those houses used entirely for growing crops
in the border soil, those devoted to tall con-
tainer plants and possibly those lean-tos
which are primarily used for growing fruit
against the rear wall. Benches are less per-
manent than stagings, a term used to refer
to robust long-term constructions often
supporting raised soil beds.
The use of benches and staging has several
advantages. They multiply the amount of
useful growing space available, as the area
underneath them can often be used. This is
especially true in glass-to-ground houses,
where enough light will penetrate the area
beneath the benches to grow crops such as
lettuce and to raise seedlings in boxes and
pans. In half-glazed houses the area beneath
the staging can be used for forcing crops such
as rhubarb and seakale and for storing dor-
mant plants during winter. Plants grown on
benches are likely to receive more light than
those placed on the floor or grown in soil
beds. It is also easier to water and generally
Types of staging
Staging can be timber or metal-framed, or
supported on brick or concrete piers.
Slatted w o o d staging (a) is traditional and
attractive. It allows air circulation in winter,
maintain plants at bench level—most
benches and stagings are 2 1/2 ft high. The
plants are also nearer eye level, allowing
them to be better appreciated.
Other kinds of structure such as shelves,
pot holders, orchid baskets, and hanging
baskets for ferns and trailing plants can also
be fitted into the greenhouse. Take care not
to over-crowd the greenhouse, for too many
structures will cut out light, impede air circu-
lation, and allow high-level plant containers
to drip onto those below.
Positioning benches
Take account of the aspect of the greenhouse
when planning the position of benches and
staging. If the axis of the house is east-west,
then one bench on the north side is ideal, as
it does not block light. The south soil bed can
be used for crops, and adequate light will
reach plants on the bench. Place high-level
shelves where they will not cast shadows over
other plants for an appreciable portion of the
day. Bear in mind that shelves raised near to
the roof glass will be subject to extremes of
and in summer can be covered with plastic
sheet which can be spread with moisture-
retaining vemiculite, gravel or peat. Net-
topped stagings (b), with metal frames, give
heat, cold and sunlight, and that plants
placed on them will need extra care. Finally,
ensure that there is easy access to all plants.
Benches and staging should be no more than
4 ft deep, and shelves, pot holders and hang-
ing baskets should be placed where they do
not impede normal work in the greenhouse.
Keep hanging baskets, for instance, above
normal head height unless they are sus-
pended over a bench or other area away
from the central path. Shelves can be placed
across the end of the greenhouse, opposite
the door, it they do not obstruct side benches.
Types of bench and staging
The first choice to be made is between solid
and perforated tops. Both have their advan-
tages, and the choice depends to a large
extent upon the crops to be grown and the
type of cultivation to be carried out. Air
circulation around benches is not so critical
in summer, when more ventilators will be
open. Then, perforated benches may be
covered with plastic sheet or metal trays to
allow solid-bench techniques to be used.
maximum air circulation allowing heat to
circulate. Metal trays can be laid on the
staging and filled with gravel (c). Solid
brick staging (d) acts as a heat reservoir,
Uses for solid benches A solid top to the
bench or staging allows beds of soil, sand or
gravel to be formed. These can range from
thin layers of gravel on w h i c h containers are
stood, to aid drainage and increase humidity,
to 4 - 6 in deep beds of sand or soil. Such beds
are essential if mist propagation or the use of
soil heating cables are to be practiced.
Gravel trays are watered in summer with the
aim of increasing humidity. Solid-topped
benches are also needed if trickle irrigation
systems are contemplated. Hydroponics sys-
tems, which rely on a flow of nutrients in
liquid form, need solid benches. Shallow
metal trays can be used to convert per-
forated benches into solid ones.
Materials The choice is between metal
frames, w o o d frames and permanent brick
or concrete stagings. Metal and w o o d frames
can be fitted with perforated or solid tops.
Some benches are removable, giving flexi-
bility in the arrangement of the greenhouse.
W o o d will need to be thoroughly cleaned at
least once a year as it can harbor pest and
disease organisms.
releasing at night heat absorbed during the
day. Concrete is also strong, and can
similarly support raised soil beds and heavy
pots, but it retains less heat t h a n brick.
Benches and staging 2
Shelves Displaying plants

1 Metal or wood shelves can be fixed to 2 Tiered staging displays large numbers of Pot holders allow plants, especially trailers, Hanging baskets can be suspended from
glazing bars on the sides and roof of the pot plants attractively. It is available in to be mounted on the greenhouse sides. brackets mounted on walls or from the
greenhouse. Use special clips on aluminum w o o d or metal and can be placed on the They can be bought or improvised from greenhouse roof. Use those fitted with drip
frames. Make shelves at least 6 in deep. ground or on staging. bent wire. trays if they are placed above other plants

Displaying orchids Shelves under staging Hardening-off shelves

1 Many orchids grow best in perforated 2 Epiphytic orchids can be grown on thick Shelves can be mounted under staging in Some greenhouses are equipped w i t h
containers or wooden baskets, which can pieces of bark. W r a p roots in compost and glass-to-ground houses, especially on the opening panes allowing flats of plants on
be suspended from the greenhouse roof. wire the plant and rootball to the bark, south side. Use shelves for pots of bulbs shelves below the staging to be slid into the
(See pages 84-85) which is hung from the roof. during their dormant periods. open by day and returned at night.
Benches and staging 3
Solid brick and concrete stagings can he
built as part of the structure of half-glazed
greenhouses with a brick base, lhey are very
strong, and also have the advantage of in-
creasing the amount of heat the greenhouse
can store and release during the night. Sun
shining through the glass strikes the staging
and heat is stored in the same manner as in
a brick or stone wall. This heat is given off
during the night, moderating the temperature
drop in the greenhouse. Brick is a much more
efficient storer of heat than concrete, and
therefore brick structures should be chosen
if heat storage is an important factor. Choose
hard-faced bricks which are less porous than
the normal sort. These are easier to scrub
down and less likely to harbor pest and
disease organisms.
Bench-top beds
Soil beds at bench level are described on
page 46. They need strong brick or concrete
staging and by their nature are permanent.
Less permanent beds can be formed by add-
ing raised edges to solid-based benches. Such
benches can be covered with soil, sand or
gravel. The use of soil heating cables re-
quires a bed of sand or soil 4 in deep, in which
the cables are buried. Power cables of special
type are used to raise the sand temperature
to 43°C/110°F, and the sand transmits the
heat to pots and flats of plants and seeds
placed upon it. Soil-heating systems are fre-
quently used with mist propagation.
Alpine houses frequently have stagings
topped with a tray containing 4 - 6 in of
gravel, into which the pots containing the
plants are plunged. Again, a strong per-
manent structure is essential. Alpines can
also be grown in bench-top beds. Often t w o
beds are constructed: one filled with stony,
acid soil, the other with a free-draining
alkaline soil.
Shelves
The use of narrow shelves above the main
bench or staging maximizes growing space
and allows pot plants to be placed where they
are attractive yet not in the way of propaga-
tion and other bench-top activities. Shelves
may be fixed to the glazing bars or suspended
from them. Shelves can also be suspended
from the roof beam if there is enough head-
room. Proprietary fastening systems have WIRING A WALL
brackets which can be adjusted to the dis-
tances between the greenhouse frame bars.
Shelves should be wide enough to take the
pots envisaged, strong, and easy of access.
Bear in mind the need to water the plants.
Tiered shelves Banks of tiered wood or metal
shelves can be installed in place of normal
benches, or can be mounted upon the bench
itself. They are of most use where large num-
bers of ornamental pot plants are grown,
allowing the largest possible number of
plants to be displayed.
Hanging baskets
Hanging containers may be essential if many
trailing ornamentals are grown, and in any
case such containers are attractive. Baskets
are made of metal, or preferably plastic-
covered metal. They are filled with soil mix
and lined with moss (see page 54). Place them
carefully where drips will not be a problem, Rear walls of lean-to greenhouses can be wall and make maintenance and repair
and ensure that fastenings are strong enough used to grow fruits and ornamental to the framework difficult.
to support the combined weights of con- plants. Careful preparation pays dividends First scrub d o w n the wall with water and
tainer, plants and wet soil. later on, when the plant will cover the a dilute horticultural disinfectant to kill
Pots can be suspended in wire or cord
"cradles", or in the decorative purpose-made
holders designed primarily for house plants.
Drill plastic pots to take the wire; clay pots
can be fitted into a sling.
Pot holders Simple metal rings attached to
brackets can be used to support pots. Fix the
rings to greenhouse frame uprights.
Permanent supports
Plant support systems are discussed on page
50. Permanent supports, such as the system
of wires illustrated right, must be planned
when other fittings such as benches, staging
and shelves are being considered. In a lean-
to house the rear wall can be wired for the
growing of espalier or cordon fruit trees or
climbers. Walls should be scrubbed down,
preferably with a fungicide, rendered if
necessary and then painted or whitewashed
before the wires are fitted. Trellising can be
fitted to battens and hinged at the bottom to pest and disease organisms. If the wall is Fix 2 in square w o o d battens vertically
allow the wall behind to be painted. This is of brick, repoint and render if possible. at either end of the wall. Using straining
only necessary for very long-lived plants such Then whitewash or paint the wall to bolts at one end, stretch wires horizontally
as vines. Full details can be found in Gardening provide a light-reflecting surface. between the posts, 15-18 in apart.
Techniques in this series.
Propagating aids 1
All gardeners like to propagate their own
plants, at least by the two basic means of
sowing seeds and taking cuttings. The prin-
ciples and methods of propagation are dealt
with on pages 55-63, the equipment used, on
the next t w o pages.
Most tender plant seeds germinate more
readily if kept at a temperature a little warmer
than is required by the growing plant. Seeds
of hardy and half-hardy vegetables and
flowers are often sown under glass in late
winter or early spring before the weather is
warm enough outside. The main problem in
propagation is to ensure survival of the
propagated material (be it seed, cutting or
graft) until it forms a new young plant. If the
correct material has been used at the start,
and properly prepared, then success is
directly related to the control of the environ-
ment by the gardener.
Environmental factors In plant propagation
there are two environments: the aerial en-
vironment, which can be broken down into
A mist unit provides fine sprays of water in
the air above the plants, which are thus
constantly covered by a fine film of water.
Such a unit is used in conjunction with
soil-heating cables. A thermostat c o n -
humidity, temperature, gas content and light
transmission; and the environment of the
medium (soil or compost), which covers tem-
perature, moisture, aeration and chemical
reaction (acidity/alkalinity). The job of propa-
gation equipment is to modify these factors
to provide the o p t i m u m conditions.
The ideal environment An ideal environ-
ment is one that allows minimum water loss
from the plant, cool air temperatures,
adequate light penetration, a normal atmo-
spheric balance between soil and air, good
drainage and warm soil temperatures. The
acidity/alkalinity reaction should be neutral.
The degree to which a particular system of
environmental control operates will limit the
propagation techniques that can be used
successfully within it. In general, the "softer"
or less hardy the plant material the greater
will be the degree of environmental control
needed to achieve success. The vagaries of
the normal outdoor climate are too great
for all but the easiest and hardiest plants to be
trols the soil heat, and a cut-off switch,
responsive to light, moisture or time, the
water supply. Sunlight is uninterrupted as
there is no need for a glass or plastic cover.
Mist units can cover entire benches.
propagated successfully without protection
For these reasons a properly-constructed
heated propagating frame or case is highly
desirable. In addition, the larger propagating
cases can be used to house a small collection
of tropical plants in a cold or cool greenhouse.
Propagating cases
Basically, the propagating frame or case is a
smaller version of a garden frame. It provides
a closed high-humidity environment and can
be used either in the greenhouse or indoors if
light is adequate. The case can be of wood or
aluminum, with a cover of glass or plastic
sheeting. Bottom heat can be supplied elec-
trically by soil heating cables (see page 22)
or custom-made units with built-in heating
elements can be purchased. Small units are
heated by light-bulbs fitted to the end walls,
or by fluorescent lighting tubes. For the
amateur there is now a wide range of easily-
portable propagating cases with a heating
unit as an integral part. Generally of reason-
An ordinary seed flat, pan or pot can be
converted into a propagator if polyethylene
sheeting is spread over hoops and sealed.
able cost, they are much to be preferred to
inexpertly-made or put together do-it-your-
self frames. The cheaper custom-built cases
have cable heating which maintains a tem-
perature around 65"F/18"C. If outside con-
ditions are cold, however, the temperature
can drop much lower and for this reason ,a
more efficient heating unit coupled with a
thermostat is desirable. If tropical plants are
being propagated, it must be possible to
maintain a minimum temperature of about
75°F/24°C. Sophisticated units have both
bottom heat to warm the soil and cables
around the sides to w a r m the air.
Unheated propagators If most of the propa-
gation is done from late spring to late sum-
mer, b o t t o m heat is not so important and a
wide variety of custom-made propagators
without heat are available. Like the heated
ones, they are largely of plastic, the b o t t o m
being like a seed flat, the t o p an angular
dome of clear rigid plastic. Home-made
frames of w o o d and glass or plastic sheeting
Purpose-made propagators have a d o m e d
plastic top over an ordinary seed flat.
Ventilators are usually fitted.
Propagating aids 2
CAN be just as effective and for small-scale
propagation some of the rigid plastic boxes
sold for food storage are useful. Simplest of
all is a plastic bag with either the pot of
cuttings or seeds placed inside, or with the
bag inverted over the pot. If the latter method
is used, two U-shaped loops of galvanized
wire can be pushed into the rooting medium
to prevent the bag from collapsing onto the
cuttings or seedlings.
Mist units
For the gardener who is particularly keen to
propagate plants of all kinds, a mist unit will
ensure a higher rate of rooting success and
give much interest and satisfaction. Mist
propagation requires electricity and piped
water supplies. It keeps the foliage of the
plant material moist with a fine mist-like
spray of water, thus eliminating the need for
light-reducing covers of plastic or glass. The
sun's light and heat can fall onto the cuttings
with only the greenhouse roof glass in the
Soil heating
Soil-heating cables or heated panels in the
base heat the growing medium in larger
propagators.
way. As a result, a high level of photosynthesis
t a n continue from the moment of insertion
and subsequent rooting is more rapid and
assured. There can be weaning problems
with some of the more difficult to root plants
once they reach the potting stage.
The system known as intermittent mist
is also useful. The spray nozzles are coupled
to a solenoid positioned among the cut-
tings. W h e n the solenoid dries sufficiently it
actuates a switch to start the misting again.
Another method is triggered by an absorbent
pad attached to a switch. W h e n the pad is
wet and heavy it presses d o w n and turns the
system off. W h e n dry it rises and turns it on
again. Where the growing season is persist-
ently warm and sunny, misting nozzles may
be left on, or just shut off at night.
Siting a propagator
Whatever propagation equipment is chosen
it must be sited with care in the greenhouse.
Adequate light is essential but direct sunlight
Thermostat
An adjustable thermostat allows the internal
temperature to be maintained at the
required level despite weather changes.
will raise the temperature excessively , in Heated propagators
closed cases, sometimes to lethal limits.
Shading must then be provided for all propa-
gators enclosed with glass or plastic. This can
be done by shading the cases or frames
themselves or the glass of the greenhouse
above. Any of the shading methods described
on page 16 can be employed, though the
permanent or semi-permanent liquid prep-
arations are less desirable in climates where
long, dull spells can be experienced at any
time of the year. Ideally, shading should be
used only on bright days or during sunny
spells so that photosynthesis is not curtailed
more than necessary. A position at the north
side or end of a greenhouse is best.
The mist propagation method requires
little or no shade in temperate zones, parti-
cularly if the unit is sited at the north side or
end of the greenhouse. In areas of hotter
summer sun, light shading during the middle Small propagating cases are heated by a
part of the day may be necessary unless con- light-bulb in a glass-covered case. Flats are
tinuous misting nozzles are used. placed on the glass.
Roof shape
A sloped roof causes condensation to run A kerosene-heated propagator can be used
to the sides of the roof, avoiding harmful where there is no electricity.
drips onto plants.
Introduction/Hygiene 1
Of all the branches of horticulture, growing Summer A routine for an imaginary summer Winter Much the same procedure is followed Hygiene
under glass is the most specialized. Not only day could be as follows. Once the morning in winter, but if the weather is cold and tem- Along with the right environment and routine
is the constant maintenance of the plants sun is fully on the greenhouse, check the peratures do not rise, ventilation and damp- care, a good level of hygiene must be main-
necessary, but the environment must be con- temperature. If it is about five degrees above ing will not need to be carried out and water- tained to ensure healthy, vigorous plants
trolled to give acceptable growing conditions. the desired minimum temperature for the ing will be minimal. The need to keep the greenhouse and parti
The ideal environment The basic aim should plants being grown, open the ventilators by While this sort of routine is ideal for the cularly the glass clean is often overlooked. II
always be to create an ideal environment for half to two-thirds. If temperatures continue plants, it is not easily carried out by the is surprising how much dirt can settle firmly
healthy growth, but perfection is seldom to climb, open up fully around mid-morning. gardener who may have to be away all day. onto a sheet of glass in the open, even in
possible, and never possible if a mixed col- Damp down, shade if required and check that Happily, it can be modified and compromises areas where air pollution is low. This consider
lection of plants is grown, for plants have there are no dry plants (but leave the main made. Full ventilation and essential watering ably cuts down light intensity, the effects of
differing needs. In theory at least, the fully watering operation until later). In early after- can be carried out just before leaving in the which are particularly noticeable in winter.
automated greenhouse can be programmed noon, go over the watering thoroughly and morning and the main watering and damping Plants which need good light, such as tomato,
to provide the correct levels of heat, light, damp down again if conditions are hot. If it is down done on arriving home. Damping down lettuce and freesia, look thin and pale and
humidity and ventilation whatever the con- not particularly hot, damp down in late after- during the day, while desirable for most lack substance.
ditions in the outside world. But in practice noon. As soon as direct sunlight is off the plants, is not essential. Automatic watering Class should be washed thoroughly in
this is rarely the case. Freak weather con- greenhouse the blinds can be rolled up and and ventilation help to optimize conditions autumn, using a suitable non-toxic detergent
ditions, a breakdown of equipment or a when the temperature drops back to about in greenhouses left unattended during the Where the glass overlaps, dirt accumulate-
simple power failure can quickly upset the five degrees above minimum, shut down day. and algae flourish, forming a dark band.
automated system. In the end, it is the skill the ventilators. During a warm spell the In the winter a daily check over in the Remove this dirt with a metal plant label
of the gardener that counts. Automatic temperature may not drop so low even after morning or evening is enough. If automatic or a sliver of sheet metal. Class washing
equipment can at best work to only fairly nightfall and the greenhouse can then be left ventilators and capillary watering are in- should be carried out at intervals during
wide tolerances and has the disadvantage of open day and night. Ail depends on the stalled, then a weekly check over should the winter, especially in areas of air pollution.
providing the same levels of water, heat and minimum temperature being maintained. suffice in winter. At other times of the year it is usually not
so on for all the plants in the greenhouse. It
is most important to get to know the limita- Cleaning the greenhouse
tions of the individual greenhouse and the
degrees of tolerance of the plants being
grown. This knowledge goes to build up the
intuitive skill which all good growers have, to
know when to water and ventilate, when to
damp down, shade or feed for the very best
results. All this takes patience and practice
and the beginner must be keen enough to
spend time with his plants, noting what
happens to them under different conditions.
Record keeping There is much to be said for
keeping a greenhouse diary or notebook.
Record in it the daily maximum and minimum
temperatures, when seeds are sown or cut-
tings taken, when plants are potted, fed,
staked, and stopped. In addition, comments
can be made from time to time on the
vigor, appearance and health of the plants.
Over the seasons, a valuable record of the
prevailing conditions is built up.

The daily routine

It is important to establish a regular daily
routine when gardening under glass. To fail
to do so is likely to lead to the disappoint-
ments of poor-quality plants and frequent
failure of seedlings and young plants.
In late summer, scrub the framework of the In autumn, wash the glass thoroughly using At the same time, scrub surfaces such as
greenhouse to remove pest and disease a non-toxic detergent. Remove dirt and paths and walls to remove algae, using a
organisms. First empty the greenhouse. Use algae from glass overlaps with an alloy dilute solution of a proprietary algicide.
a dilute sterilizing agent. plant label.
Introduction/Hygiene 2
so important and in summer the layer of
grime can even he beneficial, acting as
partial shading,
At least once a year the framework of the
greenhouse should be scrubbed to remove
pest and disease organisms such as the eggs
of red spider mite and spores of fungal
diseases. To do the job properly the green-
house should be empty so that a sterilizing
agent, a chemical fluid, can be added to the
washing water. Late summer is a good time to
wash the greenhouse, when all but the
tenderest plants can be stood outside.
In a humid greenhouse a film of green algae
can form on all moist surfaces including walls
and floors, and can become slippery. All such
surfaces should be scrubbed, using one of the
proprietary algicides in the water.
Hygiene should not stop at keeping the
greenhouse clean. All used pots and seed
flats should be thoroughly washed and
scrubbed before re-use to minimize the
spread of disease. Remove any "tide-marks"
After use, wash and scrub seed boxes and
pots to minimize the spread of disease.
Store containers neatly and do not allow
debris to build up. Potting soil should be
of soil or chemicals around the insides of the
pots. Soak clay pots in water to ensure
cleanliness. Perhaps the chief cause of infec-
tion of soil-borne rots is the use of dirty
containers for propagation. It is of great im-
portance to ensure that containers are clean.
In order to avoid cross-infection, always
remove containers and used soil from the
greenhouse when not in use. Spent soil pro-
vides ideal conditions for the multiplication
of both damping off fungi and sciarid flies.
It is important to wipe tools clean after use
to ensure they do not become a potential
source of infection.
It is futile to go to great lengths to sterilize
soil, or to go to the expense of buying sterile
soil mixes, if they are left lying about open to
the elements. All mixtures and their c o m -
ponents should be kept bagged and covered
to maintain their reliability. Do not attempt
to re-use spent soil mixes, even if sterilized,
as the chemical balances will be out of
proportion.
kept in a bin with a tight-fitting lid to avoid
staleness and possible contamination.
Remove spent soil from the greenhouse
after use.
PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL
Good greenhouse hygiene, as outlined in the
previous section, is an essential starting point
in the avoidance of pests and diseases. How-
ever, problems will inevitably occur because
it is impossible to avoid introducing infected
material into the greenhouse. The following
pages detail pests and diseases met with in
the greenhouse and prescribe remedies. On
this page methods of control are discussed.
Control methods
Because the greenhouse is a closed environ-
ment it is often easier than in the open
garden to control pests and diseases. Some
pests, such as snails, can be removed by hand,
but most greenhouse problems will have to
be dealt with by chemical means. Some bio-
logical control is possible for a few green-
house pests (see below). Good growing prac-
tice is the first line of defence, for healthy
sturdy plants are less susceptible to disease
than sickly ones.
Applying chemicals Choose a chemical
which will not harm the plants being grown,
but which is effective against the problem
concerned. Remove any plants likely to be
harmed by the chemical, or cover them with
plastic sheeting secured with string or elastic
bands. Carefully follow the instructions given
on the next page for the use of chemicals in
the greenhouse. When spraying, open all
ventilators and the door. Many pesticides are
also available as dusts which are applied from
a puffer pack. Use dusts on flowers and on
plants sensitive to moisture on foliage.
Fumigation Chemicals can also be applied in
smoke form, a process called fumigation.
First check carefully that none of the plants
present will be damaged by the fumigant to
be used. The manufacturer's instructions will
contain a list. Remove any such plants from
the greenhouse. Fumigants are available as
simple pyrotechnic smokes which resemble
slow-burning fireworks, or as solids which are
vaporized on electric elements. Fumigants
should be applied at a measured rate depend-
ing upon the cubic capacity of the green-
house. Measure the capacity by the formula
length x breadth x average height. Fumiga-
tion can be used against specific pests or as a
general hygiene measure every six months.
Apply fumigants in the evening, then leave
the greenhouse closed overnight. Seal any
leaks and close all ventilators before applica-
tion. To sterilize the greenhouse, empty it of
plants and burn sulfur at the rate of 1 lb per
1000 cu ft. The burning sulfur produces sul-
fur dioxide gas, which is highly poisonous.
Leave the greenhouse as soon as the sulfur
is ignited.
Biological control
In the open, many harmful pests are kept
under control by predators such as birds or
other insects. In the closed greenhouse
environment, such natural balances break
down, leading to pest problems. In an effort
to avoid over-use of chemicals, biologists
have investigated the possibility of biological
control. This means introducing a predator to
attack concentrations of harmful pests. Some
predators have been f o u n d to be regularly
effective and are available commercially. A
predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis, con-
trols greenhouse red spider mite. A ladybird,
Cryptolaemus montrouzeri, can be used
against mealybugs; a parasitic wasp, Encarsia
formosa, for greenhouse whitefly; and a
bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis, attacks
caterpillars.
If biological control is used chemical means
must be ruled out until the predators have
had a chance to work, which limits its applica-
tion if more than one pest is f o u n d . Predators
are a cure rather than a prevention: they
cannot work until their prey, the pest, is
present. The critical time to introduce preda-
tors is when the pest first appears. The preda-
tor can then breed and build up a large
enough population to eradicate the pests.
Predators will only breed faster than the
pests when the daytime temperature exceeds
21°C/70°F and light intensity is good.
While biological control avoids chemical
build-up on plants, a point especially to be
borne in mind with food crops, it is a less
certain and more complicated method of
pest control than the use of chemicals. The
use of predators has to be carefully timed.
This may involve investigating sources of
supply well before the trouble is likely to
arise and taking swift action once the pests
are noticed.
Pests and diseases 1
Introduction
This section is concerned with the various
pests, diseases and disorders that may affect
plants grown under glass. It is divided into
two parts: ornamental plants, and fruits and
vegetables. Within each part, the possible
troubles are listed by symptom, such as
Leaves discolored or Stems galled. Under
each symptom the various causes that may
produce it are described and control measures
suggested.
The most important means of controlling
pests and diseases is by good cultural prac-
tice. In particular, ensure that plants are not
allowed to become pot-bound or suffer from
malnutrition, that they are given sufficient
water and light, and that the greenhouse has
the correct temperature and humidity for the
plants. If any of these conditions is unsuitable,
the plants will not only be much more sus-
ceptible to attack by pests and diseases, they
may also be damaged by the condition itself
and develop recognizable symptoms. Such
problems are known as physiological dis-
orders. They are discussed under the appro-
priate symptom.
Even if plants are given the correct growing
conditions, pests and diseases will still occur
occasionally, and in this case it is often
advisable to use pesticides or fungicides.
Such chemicals are, however, potentially
dangerous and must be handled with care at
all times; failure to do so may harm the user
or damage plants. It is particularly important
that the manufacturer's instructions are read
and followed, and that all chemicals are
stored in a cool dark place away from food-
stuffs, if possible in a locked cupboard where
children and pets cannot reach them. Wear
rubber gloves when diluting chemicals, and
thoroughly wash the sprayer, gloves and any
other equipment after use. Always spray
from all sides of the plant to give an even
coverage and ensure that both upper and
lower leaf surfaces are covered. Finally, avoid
using insecticides on plants that are in flower
since the petals may be damaged.
Plants that have been severely attacked by
pests or diseases should not be left in the
greenhouse since they can become a source
of infection for other plants. All such plants
should, if possible, be burned.
SEEDLINGS
This section covers the period of plant growth
between germination and the emergence of
true leaves.
Seedlings eaten
Slugs, woodlice and millipedes can destroy
plants by eating the foliage before the seed-
lings have a chance to become established.
Slugs are the most destructive; woodlice and
millipedes only become troublesome when
thev are present in large numbers. Slug
pellets containing metaldehyde give some
additional protection against woodlice and
millipedes. Scatter pellets along seed rows.
Seedlings collapsing
Damping off is usually due to species of the
soil- and water-borne fungi Phytophthora
and Pythium. Seedlings of antirrhinum, sweet
peas, lobelia, stock and zinnia are particularly
susceptible to infection, and collapse at
ground level. Prevent infection by sowing
thinly, since the disease is encouraged by
overcrowding, and by using sterilized soil or
compost of a good tilth. Over-watering can Plant wilting caused by over- or under-watering or malnu-
also induce damping off, so water carefully Bacterial wilt (Xanthomonas begoniae) trition; prevent it by maintaining even growth
with clean water. Give adequate light but causes wilting and spotting on leaves of through good cultural treatment.
not too much heat. Check slight attacks by winter-flowering begonia hybrids derived
watering with captan or zineb after removing from B. socotrana and 6. dregei. Burn severely Leaves distorted
all dead seedlings. Captan or thiram seed diseased plants and do not propagate from Tarsonemid mites are a group of tiny
dressings can help prevent damping off them. If they are only slightly diseased, cut creatures that infest the growing points of
disease. out affected parts and decrease the tempera- certain greenhouse plants. The bulb scale
ture and humidity of the greenhouse. This mite (Steneotarsonemus laticeps) lives in the
BULBOUS PLANTS will reduce the spread and severity of the neck of narcissus and hippeastrum bulbs.
This section treats problems that are specific disease, but it will also delay flowering. It causes a distinctive sickle-shaped cur-
to plants having bulbs, corms, tubers or Disinfect the greenhouse after a severe vature of the leaves and a saw-toothed
rhizomes. attack of the disease. notching along the margins. The flower
stems become stunted and distorted, again
Plant stunted Leaves discolored with a saw-toothed scar along the edges of
Non-rooting of hyacinth bulbs is a physio- Leaf scorch (Stagonospora curtisii) causes the stem. The cyclamen mite (Tarsonemus
logical disorder, the precise cause of which brown blotches to appear on the leaves of pallidus) and broad mite (Polyphagotarson-
is not known. The leaves do not develop at the hippeastrum (amaryllis), particularly at the emus latus) live inside the leaf and flower buds
normal rate and the inflorescence remains leaf bases, and also on the flower stalks and of plants such as cyclamen, Hedera (ivy),
stunted. The roots of an affected bulb are petals. The affected tissues usually rot begonia, impatiens, saintpaulia and Sin-
either lacking or poorly developed. This and become slimy. Cut out such tissues and ningia (gloxinia). Their feeding causes stems
problem can be caused by the temperature burn them. Spray or dust affected plants with and leaves to become scarred and frequently
being too high during storage or forcing, or sulfur or zineb. to be distorted into spoon-like shapes. The
by forcing or lifting too early. Unfortunately Unsuitable cultural conditions can check the growing points may be killed and the flowers
it is not possible to detect in advance those growth of hippeastrums, causing red blotches are either distorted or fail to develop. There
bulbs in which the non-rooting tendency has or streaks (or both) to appear on the leaves, are no controlling chemicals available to
developed. flower stalks and bulbs. This trouble is usually amateur gardeners. Burn all infested plants.
Pests and diseases 2
Leaves, flowers and bulbs rotting
Soft rot (Erwinia carotovora var carotovora)
causes a soft, slimy, evil-smelling rot of the
leaves and bulbs of hyacinths. It often c o m -
mences in the inflorescences when florets
have withered through a physiological dis-
order known as blindness; for details see
right under Buds withering. If the rot has not
advanced too far it may be possible to save
the bulbs for planting outside by cutting out
all infected tissue. Such bulbs planted out-
side will not flower for a year or two.
Roots or tubers eaten
Vine weevil grubs (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) are
plump white maggots about 1/2 in long with
light brown heads. Plants grown from tubers
are particularly susceptible but many other
plants may be attacked. Usually the first
symptom that is noticed is the plant wilting
and, when it is tipped out of its pot, most of
the roots are seen to have been destroyed.
Such plants rarely recover. Badly affected
plants should be destroyed, the soil thrown
away and the pot sterilized. Some protection
is given by adding chlorpyrifos granules or
naphthalene flakes when potting up.
Bulbs, corms or tubers rotting
Basal rot may be caused by various fungi,
and affects mainly Lilium and Lachenalia. The
roots and base of the bulb rot, resulting in
stunting of the top growth and discoloration
of the leaves. Discard badly affected bulbs.
In less severe cases cut out diseased roots
and tissues, or scales in the case of lily bulbs.
Then dip the bulbs in a solution of captan or
benomyl before re-potting. Prevent such
troubles by using only sterile compost and
clean pots.
Begonia tuber rot and cyclamen corm rot
usually occur as a result of frost damage dur-
ing storage. The tissues become soft and
have a sweetish smell. Prevent these rots by
ensuring that tubers and corms of the
respective plants are stored carefully in a
frost-proof place.
Arum corm rot {Erwinia carotovora var caro-
tovora) can be serious wherever arums
{Zantedeschia spp. and hybrids) are grown
under glass in large numbers. The plants
wither and collapse due to rotting of the
corms; these may develop extensive brown
areas with rotting roots arising from them.
The corm lesions can lie dormant during
storage but when the corms are replanted
the rot progresses rapidly. Destroy badly
infected plants and disinfect the greenhouse.
Sterilize the soil where diseased plants have
been growing in beds. Examine corms when
removing them from store and cut out any
brown areas. Then steep them for two hours
in a 2 per cent formalin solution before
planting them out.
Inflorescence loose
Loose bud of hyacinth, in which the stem
below the flower bud fractures completely at
an early stage of growth, is usually caused by
storing bulbs at too low a temperature.
Bulbs that have been moved from cold
storage into a very warm place are parti-
cularly susceptible. Loose bud may also be
caused by incorrect lifting or forcing. Unfortu-
nately it is impossible to detect the tendency
for loose bud in a consignment of bulbs.
Buds withering
Blindness of bulbous plants is usually caused
by the soil being too dry at a critical stage of
growth. Prevent this by making sure that the
compost never dries out. Less frequently it is
caused by storing bulbs before planting in
conditions that are too hot and dry. Prevent
this either by potting up immediately on
obtaining bulbs, or by storing them in the
proper conditions. The flower buds of affected
bulbs turn brown and wither at an early
stage. Such bulbs can be planted out in the
garden but will not flower for a year or two.
GENERAL PLANTS
The pests and diseases mentioned in this
section may, unless otherwise stated, affect
any type of plant, including those with
bulbs, corms, tubers, or rhizomes.
Leaves eaten
Carnation tortrix caterpillars {Cacoecimor-
pha pronubana) feed on a very wide range of
plants and can be found throughout the year
in heated greenhouses. The "caterpillars grow
up to 3/4 in long and are pale green with brown
heads. They fold over the edge of a leaf with
silken threads, or bind two leaves together,
and when small feed unnoticed by grazing
away the inner surfaces of these leaves. Later
these caterpillars eat holes in the foliage.
Control light infestations by searching for and
squeezing the caterpillars' hiding places.
Otherwise spray the plants thoroughly with
a dilute solution of trichlorphon when signs
of damage are seen. Other caterpillars that
can be found on greenhouse plants include
those of the angle shades m o t h (Phlogo-
phora meticulosa) and the silver-Y moth
(Autographa gamma). These feed in the open
on the foliage and flowers but may be
difficult to find since they are active mainly at
night. Control these pests by hand-picking or
by applying the above insecticides.
Slugs (various species) can damage most
plants, especially during the early stages of
growth. They frequently leave a slime trail on
the foliage, which distinguishes their damage
from that caused by caterpillars. Control
them by scattering slug pellets based on
metaldehyde onto the soil surface around
the plants.
Leaves discolored
Faulty root action may be caused by over- or
under-watering, malnutrition or poor pot-
ting. It results in irregular yellow or brown
blotches on the leaves, or complete dis-
SOOTY M O L D
Some sap-feeding insects such as aphids,
whiteflies, scales and mealybugs excrete a
sugary liquid known as honeydew. Since
these insects feed mainly on the under-
sides of leaves the honeydew drops down
onto the upper surfaces of leaves grow-
ing below the actual infestation. Such
leaves become sticky, and under damp
conditions various black, non-parasitic
fungi known as sooty mold rapidly de-
velop. They do not directly harm plants
because they grow on the honeydew,
although the amount of light and air
reaching the foliage is reduced. Remove
sooty mold by wiping the leaves with a
soft damp cloth. Good ventilation makes
the atmosphere drier and thus less suitable
for the growth of sooty mold, but the
best cure is to identify and control the pest
that is producing the honeydew.
Pests and diseases 3
coloration of the foliage, and premature leaf-
fall. Prevent such troubles by careful potting
up and correct cultural treatment for the
type of compost being used. Applications of
foliar fertilizer should help overcome the
troubles, but in severe cases it may be neces-
sary to re-pot the affected plant.
Tip scorch of the leaves of plants such as
aspidistra, chlorophytum and sansevieria
may be caused by the air being too hot or
dry, or by faulty root action (see above).
Affected plants should recover once the
scorched leaves have been removed and the
correct cultural treatment given. In the case
of saintpaulia, anthurium and palms such as
kentia, it may be necessary to place the pot in
a larger container packed with damp moss or
peat in order to create a humid atmosphere.
Sun scorch of leaves usually shows as pale
brown blotches (often elliptical) across the
foliage. It is caused by the sun's rays on a hot
day passing either through glass onto moist
foliage, or through a flaw in the glass which
acts as a lens to intensify the rays. Prevent
scorch in greenhouses by careful ventilation
to reduce humidity.
Leaf spots are caused by a variety of fungi. In
practically all cases they produce brown or
black spots on the leaves, but on some hosts
the spots have a purple border or they may
have pinpoint-sized black dots scattered
over them. Remove affected leaves and spray
with mancozeb or zineb. If further trouble
occurs the plants may be lacking in vigor due
to faulty root action, in which case see above
and previous page.
"Ring pattern" on saintpaulias and achimenes
is caused by a sudden chilling of the leaves
from watering overhead in sunlight. Affected
leaves develop large yellow rings. Prevent
this by careful watering.
Viruses such as tomato spotted wilt and
cucumber mosaic affect a wide range of
plants. In general the symptoms are mottled,
blotched or striped leaves, affected parts
being pale green, yellow or black. The
leaves may also be distorted and the plants
stunted. Destroy any plant showing these
symptoms. A valuable plant such as an
orchid may be kept but it will always produce
discolored leaves and the trouble may spread
to previously healthy plants.
Glasshouse thrips (Heliothrips haemor-
rhoidalis) are thin yellow or dark brown
insects about 1/10 in long that live mainly on
the upper surfaces of leaves and on flowers.
They feed by sucking sap and cause a full
green or silvery discoloration of the foliage,
which is also marked by minute black spots
caused by the thrips' excretions. Control this
pest by spraying thoroughly with a pyre-
throid compound, derris, malathion or a
systemic insecticide.
Leaves with corky patches
Oedema, or dropsy, is caused by the atmos-
phere being too moist or the soil too wet. It
shows as pale pimple-like outgrowths on the
undersurfaces of the leaves and on the stems.
The outgrowths later burst and then become
brown and powdery or corky. The most sus-
ceptible plants are eucalyptus, ivy-leaved
pelargonium, peperomia and camellias—
the last mentioned develops large scabby
patches on the undersurfaces. Improve the
cultural conditions by careful watering and
by ventilating the greenhouse. Do not re-
move affected leaves since this will only make
matters worse.
Corky scab of cacti is caused either by a lack
of light and the humidity being too high, or control eelworms, and infested plants should Leaves with visible fungal growth
by over-exposure to sunlight. It occurs most be burned. However, it is possible to give Powdery mildews are c o m m o n on chrysan-
frequently on Epiphyllum and Opuntia and chrysanthemum stools a hot water treat- themums, begonias and cinerarias, and occur
shows as irregular rusty or corky spots which ment so that they will subsequently produce occasionally on other plants. The symptoms
develop into sunken patches as the tissues cuttings free of eelworms. Wash the dormant are white powdery spots on the leaves and
beneath die. Where the trouble is very un- stools free of all soil and then plunge them sometimes the stems. Ventilate the green-
sightly propagate from the affected plant and in hot water at 46°C/115°F for five m i n u t e s - house well since the fungi are encouraged by
ensure that new plants are given correct it is important that the time and temperature a humid atmosphere. Plants that are dry at
cultural treatment and are not exposed to are exact. Then plunge into cold water. the roots are more susceptible to infection,
too much light. so water before the soil dries out completely.
Leaves mined Fumigate the greenhouse with dinocap
Leaves blotched Chrysanthemum leaf miner grubs (Phyto- smokes or spray with dinocap or benomyl.
Chrysanthemum eelworm and fern eelworm myza syngenesiae) tunnel the leaves of Remove severely affected leaves.
(Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi and A. iragariae) chrysanthemum and related plants such as Rusts can affect chrysanthemums, fuchsias,
are microscopic worm-like animals that live cineraria (Senecio cruentus hybrids) and ger- pelargoniums, cinerarias and carnations. On
inside leaves. Many different plants may be bera. These mines show on the leaves as fuchsias and cinerarias orange powdery
infected, although in greenhouses the main whitish-brown lines meandering through the pustules develop on the leaves, predomi-
hosts are those indicated by the pests' com- leaf and, in heavy infestations, leaves may nantly on the lower surfaces. On other plants
mon names. Infested parts of the leaves turn lose almost all their green color. A single the pustules produce masses of chocolate-
brown. At first these areas are clearly separ- application of benomyl pirimiphos-methyl colored spores. Remove arrd burn affected
ated by the larger leaf veins from the green, controls this pest if applied as soon as mining leaves. If severely infected, destroy the plant.
healthy parts, but eventually the brown areas begins, but if the plants are badly infested Reduce the humidity of the atmosphere, and
coalesce and the whole leaf dies. None of the three applications of insecticide at ten day avoid wetting the leaves. Spray at seven to
chemicals available to amateur gardeners intervals will be necessary. ten day intervals with zineb or mancozeb.
Pests and diseases 4
Leaves with pests visible
Greenhouse whitefly (ltrialeurodes vapor-iro-
rum is one of the most c o m m o n and
troublesome of greenhouse pests. for details,
sec page 40.
Peach-potato aphid and mottled arum aphid
(Myzus persicae and Aulacorthum circum-
llexum) are both species of greenfly that suck
sap from a wide range of plants. For details,
see page 40.
Soft scales (Coccus hesperidum) are sap-
feeding insects that live on the stems and
undersides of leaves near the main veins. For
a description of these pests and their control,
see below.
Leaves mottled
Greenhouse red spider mites (Tetranchus
urticae) are minute pests that attack most
greenhouse plants. For details, see page 40.
Greenhouse leafhoppers (Zygina pallidifrons)
suck sap from the undersides of leaves and
cause white, pinhead-sized dots to appear on
the upper surfaces. In heavy attacks these
dots coalesce and most of the leaves' green
color is lost. Adult leafhoppers are about
5/8 in long and pale yellow with two V-shaped
gray markings on their back. The nymphal
stages are creamy-white. As they grow they
periodically shed their skins, which remain
attached to the undersides of the leaves.
Control leafhoppers by spraying with any of
the insecticides malathion, pirimiphosmethyl,
methoxyclor or a pyrethroid compound.
Stems or crowns rotting
Blackleg (various organisms) affects pelar-
gonium cuttings and sometimes the mature
plant. The stem bases become soft, black
and rotten, and affected plants die. Prevent
this disease by using sterile soil mixes and
pots, and by hygienic cultural conditions,
including the use of clean water. Destroy
severely diseased cuttings, but in the case of
valuable plants it may be possible to propa-
gate by taking a fresh cutting from the top of
a diseased plant.
Foot, crown and root rot may be caused by
black root rot fungus or other soil or water-
borne fungi. These organisms cause a brown
or black rot of the tissues at the base of the
stems, around the crowns or at the roots,
and the top growth wilts or collapses. Prevent
these diseases by using sterilized soil mixes
and pots, and by using clean water. Pot up
carefully and tease out the roots of pot-
bound plants. Control by watering with
ethazol plus benomyl, or use a solution of
Banrot as a soil drench. In severe cases re-
pot, using a smaller pot if necessary, in sterile
soil or potting mixture after having removed
all dead parts including roots. Spray the
developing leaves with a foliar fertilizer.
Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) causes plants to
decay and affected leaves and flowers to
become covered with a gray-brown mass of
fungal spores. The petals may also develop
numerous small red or brown spots. Cray
mold spores are always present in the air
and infect plants through wounds and dead
or dying tissue. Infections can also occur
between diseased and healthy tissues. Pre-
vent gray mold by good hygiene and by
removing dead leaves and flowers promptly.
Ventilate the greenhouse carefully to reduce
humidity, and water early in the morning and
not at night. Once the disease has appeared
on any type of plant, spray with benomyl or
a copper fungicide or use Isotherm Termil
bombs. In the case of cyclamen affected by
gray mold around the crown, dust with
captan.
Carnation wilt is caused by the fungi Verti-
cillium albo-atrum and Fusarium oxysporum
f dianthi. Affected plants wilt rapidly and the
leaves become either yellow or gray-green
and then straw-colored. In both cases a
brown discoloration can be seen in the inner
tissues of affected stems. Prevent these
diseases by using sterilized pots and soil.
Destroy severely affected plants and sterilize
the greenhouse bench or floor on which the
plants were standing. Do not propagate
from diseased plants. To reduce the spread
of wilt drench the remaining plants with a
solution of benomyl or thiophanate-methyl,
repeating the treatment t w o weeks later.
Stems or crowns with pests visible
Scale insects such as hemispherical scale
(Saissetia coffeae) and soft scale (Coccus
hesperidum) encrust the stems of many
different plants. The former have red-brown
convex shells about ^ in in diameter, while
the latter have yellow-brown, flat, oval shells
of the same length. The insects live under-
neath these shells and feed on sap. Once
a suitable feeding place is found they do not
move. Control by spraying plants thoroughly
with malathion or nicotine three times at two
week intervals.
Mealybugs (Pseudococcus spp.) are gray-
white soft-bodied insects that grow up to 1/4 in
long. They infest cacti, succulents and many
other plants, and secrete white, waxy fibers
that cover the mealybug colonies and their
egg masses. Control them by spraying with
malathion or nicotine. Thorough applications
are necessary because mealybugs tend to
live on relatively inaccessible parts of the
plant, and two or more sprays at two week
intervals may be needed. On plants that are
liable to be damaged by insecticides, such as
Crassula and ferns, dab mealybugs with a
brush dipped in methylated spirit.
Stems galled
Leafy gall (Corynebacterium tascians) affects
mainly pelargoniums and chrysanthemums,
and shows as a mass of abortive and often
fasciated (flattened) shoots at soil level.
Destroy affected plants and sterilize pots and
the greenhouse bench on which the plants
were standing. Do not propagate from dis-
eased plants. For details of sterilizing, see
page 33 on Hygiene.
Flower buds dropping
Bud drop affects stephanotis, gardenias,
hibiscus and camellias. It is caused by the soil
being too dry at the time the buds were
beginning to develop. Prevent this trouble
by ensuring that the soil never dries out.
Gardenias may also lose their buds if the
atmosphere is too dry. Prevent this by
syringing the plants in the morning and
evening during warm sunny weather except
when the flowers are open, otherwise they
will discolor. Over-watering can also cause
bud drop of gardenias. Bud drop can be
avoided by careful greenhouse management.
Ensure that temperature, humidity and venti-
lation are correct.
Flowers discolored
Thrips (various species) are thin, black or
yellow insects, about 1/10 in long, that suck
sap from the petals of carnation, chrysan-
themum, cyclamen and other plants. The
petals develop white flecks where the thrips
have fed. Control them by spraying thorough-
ly with malathion or nicotine. Care needs to
be taken since flowers may be marked
by insecticides, so spray w h e n the plants
are not exposed to bright sunlight or high
temperatures.
Viruses such as cucumber mosaic and
tomato spotted wilt can cause spotting or
streaking of flowers, w h i c h may also be dis-
torted. Most frequently affected are chrysan-
themums and bulbous plants, especially
lilies and cyclamen. Destroy affected plants.
Flowers spotted or rotting
Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) frequently attacks
the flowers of cyclamen and chrysan-
themums. For symptoms and treatment, see
under Stems or crowns rotting, above.
Pests in or on the soil
Vine weevil grubs (Otiorhynchus sulcatus)
are plump white legless grubs, up to 1/2 in long,
with light brown heads. For symptoms of
attack, and treatment, see under Roots and
tubers eaten in the Bulbous plants section.
Fungus gnats or sciarids (various species) are
small gray-black flies that run over the soil
surface of pot plants or fly slowly around
them. Their larvae are thin white maggots up
to 1/4 in long with black heads. They live in the
soil and feed mainly on rotting plant material
but they sometimes damage the roots of
seedlings and plants that are in poor health.
They may also tunnel into the base of soft
cuttings and cause them to rot. Control the
adult flies by spraying w i t h a pyrethroid
c o m p o u n d . Against the larvae, mix some
diazinon granules into the soil around the
plants.
Springtails (various species) are white soil-
dwelling insects, about 1/10 in long. They are
found especially in peat-based mixes, and
are distinguished by their habit of jumping
when exposed on the surface of the soil. They
usually appear on the soil surface after plants
have been watered. However, they cause no
damage and there is, therefore, no need for
any controls.
Pests and diseases 5
Leaves discolored
Downy mildew of brassica seedlings, especi-
ally cauliflowers, is caused by the fungus
Peronospora parasitica and that of lettuce by
Bremia lactucae. White mealy or downy tufts
of fungal growth develop on the underside of
the leaves, which become blotched on the
upper surface. Affected seedlings are severely
checked and lettuces may later be attacked
by gray mold (see below). These mildews are
most troublesome on overcrowded seedlings
growing in very humid conditions. Prevent
the diseases by sowing seed thinly in steril-
ized, well drained soil or seed sowing mix, and
ventilate carefully to reduce humidity. Do not
over-water seedlings. Should mildew occur,
remove diseased leaves and spray with
mancozeb or zineb. On brassica seedlings,
chlorothalonil and captafol may be used.
Stems collapsing
Damping off is usually due to species of the
soil- and water-borne fungi Phytophthora
and Pythium. Seedlings of lettuce, tomato,
mustard and cress are most susceptible to
infection, and collapse at ground level. Over-
crowding encourages the disease, therefore
sow thinly and use sterilized soil of a good
tilth or a well-prepared sterilized sowing mix.
The organisms that cause damping off are
often present in unsterilized soil, particularly
if it is compacted causing poor aeration.
Overwatering can also induce damping off.
Use clean water to prevent infection by
water-borne organisms which build up in
dirty tanks and butts. give adequate light but
not too much heat. Check slight attacks by
watering with captan or zineb after removal
of the dead seedlings.
Wirestem fungus, caused by Rhizoctonia
solani, is a disease of brassica seedlings,
particularly cauliflowers, but the same fungus
can also affect seedlings of other vegetables.
Stems of affected brassica seedlings shrink
at ground level before they topple, but other
seedlings damp off as described above. Let-
tuce seedlings affected by this fungus usually
succumb to gray mold (see below) fairly
soon afterwards so that the original cause
may be overlooked. Prevent by sowing
thinly in a good tilth and avoid over-watering.
Use sterilized soil or a good-quality soilless
mix to help prevent infection. The fungus is
not controlled by fungicides with the excep-
tion of dicloran. The chemical can be raked
into the soil before sowing seed where this
disease is known to be troublesome.
DISEASES OF MATURE CROPS
The diseases described below may affect any
crop, fruit or vegetable, being grown in
greenhouses, cold or heated frames or under
cloches, unless otherwise stated. Vines and
peaches are treated separately at the end of
this section.
Leaves discolored
Faulty root action is due to over- or under-
watering or poor transplanting and can cause
irregular yellow or brown blotches on the
leaves. Prevent this by careful planting and
correct cultural treatment. Applications of a
foliar fertilizer should help to overcome the
trouble, but with severely affected tomatoes
it may be necessary to mound sterile soil
around the base of the stem into which new
roots can grow as the plant recovers.
Magnesium deficiency is common on t o m -
atoes and eggplants. Orange-yellow bands
develop between the veins on the lower
leaves, which gradually turn brown as the
symptoms spread progressively upwards.
Spray at the first signs of trouble with 1/2 lb
magnesium sulfate in 21/2 gal of water, to
which is added a spreader. Spray repeatedly
every seven to ten days until the plants have
completely recovered. Affected plants can
still produce good crops it the deficiency is
corrected early on.
Leaves moldy
Tomato leaf mold (Cladosporium lulvum)
affects only tomatoes grown under glass or
polyethylene. A purple-brown mold develops
on the lower surface of leaves which show
yellow blotches on the upper surface. These
symptoms may be overlooked as affected
leaves are subsequently often attacked by
gray mold. Grow resistant varieties and keep
the greenhouse temperature less than 21°C/
70°F. Ventilate well since the disease is
encouraged by humid atmospheres. At the
first signs of trouble spray with benomyl or
mancozeb or use Exotherm Termil every
7 days.
Leaves and stems rotting
Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) is a c o m m o n
problem under glass, affecting particularly
grapes, strawberries, cucumbers and t o m -
atoes. Lettuce tends to wilt due to attack at
ground level. Affected stems, fruits and leaves
rot and become covered with a gray-brown
velvety fungus growth. Sometimes the fungus
does not rot tomato fruits but produces pin-
point spots, each with a pale green ring,
known as water spots, which can still be seen
on ripe fruit. Spores of the fungus infect plants
through wounds and dead and dying tissues,
or by contact between diseased and healthy
tissues. Remove dead leaves and over-ripe
fruits promptly to avoid infection. Ventilate
greenhouses carefully to reduce humidity
and water early in the morning, not at night.
Over-watering plants should be sprayed
with thiram every three or four weeks.
Prevent infection of grapes and strawberries
by spraying with benomyl as the first flowers
open, repeating twice at ten day to t w o week
intervals, or with captan or thiram except
on fruit to be preserved or canned. Fumigate
an affected greenhouse with smokes if
possible.
Stems wilting
Foot and root rot can be due to various fungi,
including Thielaviopsis basicola and species
of Fusarium, as well as those fungi which
cause damping off and wirestem of seedlings
HORMONE WEEDKILLER DAMAGE
This commonly affects plants under glass,
particularly vines and tomatoes. Affected
leaves become narrow and fan-shaped,
show parallel veins, are frequently cupped
and the shoots twist spirally. Take care
when using hormone weedkillers, apply
ing them with equipment kept solely for
their use. Do not use them on a windy day
and, when spraying nearby, close green-
house ventilators. Do not store weed-
killers in a greenhouse since vapors from
them can affect plants. Wash hands and
tools after applying weedkillers.
(see above). The top growth wilts or collapses
completely because these soil: a n d water-
borne organisms attack the roots and stem
bases. Prevent this by the use of clean water
and by changing or sterilizing the soil at
least once every three years, or by the use of
sterile soil. Plant carefully, and tease out
roots of pot-bound plants. Do not over- or
under-water as plants suffering from faulty
root action (see above) are very susceptible
to attack. If foot rot occurs, water with a
solution of captan, or alternatively, zineb,
or dust at the base of the plant with dry
bordeaux powder. W h e n tomatoes are
affected, place fresh sterilized soil around
the base of the stems and spray all plants
with a foliar fertilizer to encourage the
development of new roots in the fresh soil.
As these new roots develop they should re-
vitalize the plants.
Verticillium wilt is caused by species of the
fungus Verticillium. The larger leaves wilt
during the day, particularly on hot days, but
recover at night. Affected plants may lose
their older leaves. Brown streaks are seen
running lengthways in the tissues if the base
of the stem is cut longitudinally. Destroy
badly affected plants. Prevent the disease by
using sterilized soil or planting mix, and
always plant verticillium and fusarium re-
sistant varieties. Seed catalogs indicate which
varieties are resistant.
Tomato stem rot {Didymella lycopersici)
causes a sudden wilting of mature plants.
A brown or black canker develops on the
Pests and diseases 6
stem, usually at ground level, and small black
specks, which are the fruiting bodies of the
fungus, can just be seen with the naked eye all
over the diseased tissues. These produce
many spores which over-winter and act as a
source of infection the following season. It is
essential, therefore, to burn all debris and to
sterilize the greenhouse and equipment at the
end of the season if this disease has occurred.
Destroy badly affected plants and spray the
stem bases of the rest of the crop with beno-
myl or captan. Less severely diseased plants
may be saved by cutting out affected tissues
and applying a paste of captan mixed with a
little water, or by painting them with a solu-
tion of benomyl.
Flowers dropping
Tomato flower drop is almost always due to
dry conditions at the roots. The flowers may
open, but break off from the stalk at the
joint and fall to the ground. Prevent this
trouble by adequate but careful watering.
Fruits failing to develop normally
Withering of young cucumbers starting at
the blossom end is due to uneven growth
resulting from irregular watering. Remove all
the fruits from an affected plant to rest it, and
spray the foliage with foliar fertilizer if a poor
color. Later-developing fruits should be nor-
mal once the plant regains its vigor, providing
there is no root disease present. Prevent fur-
ther trouble by watering cucumbers carefully
and regularly.
Chats (small tomato fruits) may form on
plants which are dry at the root, but poor
pollination caused by cold nights and a dry
atmosphere may also be responsible. Encour-
age pollination by syringing the foliage in the
morning and again during the day when the
weather is hot.
Dry set of tomatoes is also due to poor pol-
lination. It is caused by the atmosphere being
too hot and too dry. The fruits remain 1/8 in
across and become dry and brown. Syringe
the foliage as described for chats above.
Fruits discolored
Blossom end rot of tomatoes shows as a
circular and depressed brown or green-black
patch on the skin at the blossom end of the
fruit (the end farthest away from the stalk). In
most cases it is due to a shortage of water at a
critical stage in the development of young
fruit. Prevent this by seeing that the soil is
never allowed to dry out completely. All the
fruit on one truss may be affected but those
developing later should be normal if the
plant has a good root system and is looked
after carefully.
Greenback and blotchy ripening of tomatoes
show as hard green or yellow patches on the
fruits. The former occurs on the shoulder of
the fruit and the latter on any part. Both may
be encouraged by high temperatures and a
shortage of potash; greenback is also caused
by exposure of the shoulder to strong sun-
light, and blotchy ripening may occur where
nitrogen is deficient. Prevent these troubles
by adequate and early ventilation, by ensur-
ing that plants have sufficient shade, and by
correct feeding and watering. Crow tomato
varieties resistant to greenback. Consult seed
catalogs for lists of tomato varieties resistant
to greenback.
Bronzing of tomatoes is caused by tobacco
mosaic virus. Brown patches develop be-
neath the surface, usually at the stalk end,
and give a bronzed patchy appearance to the
young fruit. When cut open the patches
show as a ring of small dark spots beneath
the skin. W i t h severe infection depressed
streaks which fail to ripen may radiate from
the stalk end. The internal tissues of such
fruits show large brown corky areas. Plants
bearing bronzed tomatoes would have shown
other symptoms such as stunted growth
or mottled foliage earlier in the season and
should have been destroyed when these
symptoms first appeared.
Fruits rotting
Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) can attack
various crops. For details, see page 38.
Fruits bitter
Bitter cucumbers can be due to an excess of
nitrogen in the soil or irregular growth. Avoid
excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers, and
maintain even growth by watering carefully.
Since pollination of the fruit can also result
in bitterness, grow varieties having mostly
female flowers.
VINES
The most serious disorder to affect vines
grown under glass is powdery mildew.
Leaves, shoots and fruits with fungal growth
Powdery mildew (Uncinula necatof) shows a
soft white floury coating of fungus spores on
the leaves, young shoots and fruits. Affected
berries drop if attacked early, but in later
attacks become hard, distorted and split,
and are then affected by secondary fungi
such as gray mold. Ventilate carefully since
the disease is encouraged by humidity.
Avoid overcrowding the shoots and leaves
and provide some heat if the greenhouse is
cold. Avoid also dryness at the roots. At the
first sign of mildew spray or fumigate with
dinocap, spray or dust w i t h sulfur, or spray
with benomyl. Up to four applications may be
needed. In winter, after removing the loose
bark, paint the vine stems w i t h a solution of
sulfur made up as follows: mix equal parts
of flowers of sulfur and soft soap to form
lumps the size of golf balls. Put one lump into
a jam jar with a little water and stir well with
the brush used to paint the stems.
Leaves discolored
Scorch is due to the sun's rays striking
through glass onto moist tissues on a hot day.
It shows as large brown patches which soon
dry out and become crisp. Prevent this by
careful ventilation in order to reduce the
humidity, and carefully remove all the
affected leaves.
Pests and diseases 7
Magnesium deficiency shows as a yellow-
orange discoloration between the veins,
but in some varieties the blotches may be
purple. Later the affected areas turn brown.
Spray with 1/2 lb of magnesium sulfate in 21/2 gal
of water plus a spreader such as soft soap
or a few drops of mild washing-up liquid.
Repeat applications once or twice at two-
week intervals.
Leaves with small globules
Exudation of small round green or colorless
droplets from the leaves is quite natural and
usually goes unnoticed. However, in the
spring the transparent globules may become
very noticeable on the young foliage. The
symptoms are most obvious on plants grow-
ing in a very humid atmosphere and they
indicate that the root action is vigorous and
the plant is in good health. Nevertheless,
ventilate carefully to reduce the humidity
and prevent other troubles.
Vine dying
Honey fungus (Armillaria mellea) frequently
kills indoor and outdoor vines. W h i t e fan-
shaped growths of fungus develop beneath
the bark of the roots and the main stems at
and just above ground level. Dark brown
root-like structures known as rhizomorphs
develop on the affected tissues, grow out
through the soil and spread the disease. Dig
out dead and dying plants together with as
many roots as possible. If the greenhouse is
vacant, sterilize the soil with 2 per cent
formalin, or change the soil completely before
replanting. Sterilizing is a potentially danger-
ous process. Wear gloves, protective clothing
and a mask.
Fruit failing to develop normally
Shanking is due to one or more unsuitable
cultural conditions. The stalks of the grapes
shrivel gradually until completely girdled.
O d d berries or small groups of berries then
fail to color and develop naturally at the
early ripening stage. The berries are watery
and sour, black varieties turn red, white
varieties remain translucent. Ensure over- or
under-watering or stagnant soil are not re-
sponsible. Reduce the crop for a year or two
until the vine regains its vigor.
W h e n shanking occurs early in the season,
cut out the withered berries and spray the
foliage with a foliar fertilizer.
Splitting of berries most commonly occurs as
a result of powdery mildew (see above).
However, it is sometimes due to irregular
watering. Remove affected berries before
they are attacked by secondary organisms
such as gray mold, and water before the soil
dries out.
Scald is caused by the sun's rays striking
through glass onto moist tissues on a hot
day. Ventilate carefully to reduce the humid-
ity. Remove affected berries showing sunken
discolored patches.
Oedema occurs when the roots of an affected
plant take up more water than the leaves
can transpire and is due to extremely moist
conditions in the soil, the atmosphere, or
both. It shows as small warts or pimples on
the stalks and sometimes on the berries and
even on the lower leaf surface. These out-
growths may break open and then have a
blister-like or white powdery appearance, or
they may become rusty-colored and show
as brown scaly patches. Do not remove the
affected parts as this will make matters worse.
Maintain drier conditions both in the air and
soil; with correct cultural treatment the
affected plant should eventually recover.
PEACHES
The following remarks on split stone also
apply to nectarines.
Fruit failing to develop normally
Split stone shows as a cracking of the fruit at
the stalk end, forming a hole large enough for
the entry of earwigs. The stone of such a fruit
is split and the kernel is either rotting or
absent. Affected fruits are susceptible to
secondary rotting. This trouble can be due to
the soil being too acid. Lime to bring the pH
up to 6.7-7.0. Poor pollination can also cause
split stone, therefore hand-pollinate flowers
by passing cotton-wool or a soft camel hair
brush from flower to flower. The commonest
cause of this trouble, however, is an irregular
water supply. Prevent this by watering in dry
periods and mulching to conserve moisture.
In particular, ensure that the soil is never
allowed to dry out.
C O M M O N GREENHOUSE PESTS
Greenhouse red spider mite (Tetranychus
urticae) are tiny, eight-legged creatures
that can occur in large numbers on the
undersides of leaves. They are just visible
to the naked eye but a hand lens is neces-
sary to see them clearly. Despite their
c o m m o n name, these mites are yellow-
green" with black markings; they only
become orange-red in the autumn when
they hibernate. Their sap feeding causes
the upper surface of the leaves to become
discolored by a fine mottling. In severe
infestations leaves dry up and the plants
become festooned with a silken webbing
produced by the mites. Maintaining a
damp atmosphere helps to check this pest
but treatment with insecticides such as
malathion or dimethoate will also be
needed at seven day intervals until the
pest has been controlled. Take care when
applying these chemicals to cucumbers
and melons as they may be damaged by
insecticides. Avoid this risk by spraying in
the evening when temperatures are
cooler, and by making sure the plants are
not dry at the roots. As an alternative to
insecticides this pest can be controlled
by introducing a predatory mite, Phyto-
seiulus persimilis.
Peach-potato aphid and mottled arum
aphid (Myzus persicae and Aulacorthum
circumflexum) are both species of greenfly
that suck sap from a wide range of plants.
The former is either pink or yellow-green,
both types often occurring together on the
same plant, while the latter is yellow-green
with a dark horseshoe marking on its back.
Both types of aphid excrete honeydew
upon w h i c h , in humid conditions, sooty
molds may grow and cause the leaves
and fruit to blacken (see page 35). As the
aphids grow they shed their skins, w h i c h
become stuck on the leaf surface where
they are held by the sticky honeydew.
These skins are white and are sometimes
mistaken for whitefly or some other pest.
Control aphids by applying pirimiphos-
methyl or pyrethroid compounds. Use
the last-mentioned if the crops are ready
for eating.
Greenhouse whitefly (Thaleurodes vapor-
ariorum) is a major pest of greenhouse
plants. Both the small, white, moth-like
adults and their flat, oval, white-green,
scale-like larvae feed by sucking sap from
the underside of leaves. Like aphids, adults
and larvae excrete honeydew, w h i c h
allows the growth of sooty mold. W h i t e -
fly eggs and immature stages are not very
susceptible to insecticides, making well
established infestations difficult to c o n -
trol. Early treatment with pirimiphos-
methyl or a pyrethroid c o m p o u n d such as
pyrethrum will prevent damage occurring
if applied early. Spray heavy infestations
several times at three to four day inter-
vals. Greenhouse whitefly can be c o n -
trolled by introducing a parasitic wasp,
Encarsia formosa.
Feeding and fertilizers
Plants require certain basic (hemic .lis in order
to grow. In nature these arc present, to a
greater or lesser extent, in the soil, contri-
buted by the base rock and by the growth
and decay of plant and animal life. A balance
between the nutrients available in a given
environment and the plants that will grow
soon forms and is maintained. Gardening
conditions, under glass or outside, upset this
balance. In the greenhouse, the plants are in a
closed environment. The only nutrients avail-
able are those in the soil and those supplied
by the gardener.
An explanation of the nutrient needs of
plants and a list of the essential elements is
given on page 45.
Properly formulated soil mixes contain
nutrients needed for at least the initial stages
of plant growth. At some point, however,
these nutrients will become depleted and
more must be added in the form of fertilizer.
This process is called feeding.
Types of fertilizer
Balanced fertilizers contain nitrogen, po-
tassium and phosphorus. They are used for
Applying fertilizer
1 Mix liquid or powdered fertilizer with
water in the proportions given on the p a d
Do not make solutions stronger than the
recommended rate.
general cultivation of most plants. Some
plants require larger proportions of one
element, and fertilizers are available which
provide higher concentrations of potassium
for tomatoes, for example. Special formula-
tions are sold designed for carnations, chrys-
anthemums and various fruits and vegetables.
Fertilizers containing several elements are
called compound fertilizers, simple fertilizers
contain only one element. They are applied
when specific deficiencies are diagnosed, but
must be used with care in the greenhouse as
it is easy to build up large concentrations
of elements in soil mixes, damaging the
plants. In addition to the three basic ele-
ments, many commercially available com-
pound fertilizers also contain trace elements
needed for plant growth.
Using fertilizer
While nutrients are necessary, too great a
concentration can be harmful. Nutrient salts
can build up in the soil mix and damage
roots. Plants must be ted at the rate they can
take up food. Fast-growing crops such as
tomatoes need heavy feeding, slow-growing
2 Apply the dilute fertilizer to the surface of
the soil or potting mix with a watering can.
plants such as cacti and alpines need very
little. Feed plants when they are growing,
not when they are dormant. Plants that are
suffering from over-watering, incorrect en-
vironmental conditions, pests or diseases will
not be cured by feeding. Establish the cause
of the trouble and take steps to correct it.
W h e n the plant has recovered and is growing
normally it will benefit from feeding. Follow
the feeding instructions given for individual
crops and carefully adhere to the instruc-
tions on the fertilizer pack. When using
liquid feeds, dilute to the proportions in-
structed and do not use too strong a mixture.
Liquid feeding Liquid feeds are watered onto
the growing medium and taken up by the
roots of plants. Because nutrients have to be
dissolved before they can be taken up by the
roots, application in liquid form speeds the
process of absorption and allows the nu-
trients to reach the plant quickly. Nutrients
applied to the soil or a mix in a solid form
are dissolved by water applied as irrigation
and are then taken up by the roots.
Because liquid feeds are fast-acting, they
are applied at frequent intervals, especially
3 Apply top-dressings to beds, borders and
large containers in granule form. Sprinkle
the granules onto the soil or potting mix
and rake or fork in.
when a plant needs a nutrient boost, such as
just before it flowers.
Solid feeds Fertilizers in solid form—granules
or powder—can be added to soil mixes.
The John Innes formulae call for the addition
of certain amounts of John Innes base
fertilizer, which is made up as a powder. Solid
fertilizers can also be added in the form of
top dressings to plants w h i c h are kept
permanently in pots. Solid feeds are also
added to soil beds. The larger amount of
rooting medium in a bed makes it possible for
solid fertilizers in slow-release form to be used.
These fertilizers are specially formulated to
release the elements they contain over a
period. W h e n using solid fertilizers around
plants, take care not to scorch the foliage.
Apply the top dressing as close to the soil
surface as possible and water in immediately.
Foliar feeding Some liquid fertilizers—but
not all—and some special compounds, can
be watered or sprayed onto the leaves of
plants. Foliar applications are very effective
in controlling deficiency symptoms, parti-
cularly of magnesium and the minor elements,
as the elements are quickly absorbed.
Foliar feeding
Mix foliar fertilizers according to the
maker's instructions. Apply to the leaves of
the plant until run-off, using a watering can
fitted w i t h a fine rose.
Soil and mixes 1
Plants growing under glass, whether in a c o n -
tainer or in a bed in a greenhouse or frame,
have access to lower levels of soil nutrients
than do plants in open ground. Therefore soil
in beds needs to be enriched, and special
soils or mixes are required for pots or con-
tainers. An understanding of the nutrients
necessary to plant growth is important in
order to judge what needs to be added to
basic soils and growing mixes to ensure
health (see page 45).
Beds provide a larger root run than do
containers, and therefore need less enrich-
ment. But the soil in the bed must be in good
condition and well drained and aerated. Also,
soils in beds may become infested with build-
ups of pests and diseases, especially if the
same crop is grown year after year. Con-
sequently the soil must be changed, or
sterilized, regularly if beds are used.
Beds
Ground level beds or borders created from
the soil on which the greenhouse is placed
can provide the best possible rooting condi-
Greenhouse beds
1 Improve a greenhouse or frame bed by
digging in organics such as well decayed
manure or garden compost at a rate of
2 gallons per square yard.
tions and may contain good reserves of
nutrients. The bed must be well drained and, ROOT SYSTEMS
unless it was previously part of a fertile
garden, extra organic matter should be
added. Well-decayed manure, garden com-
post, leal-mold, peat or other organics should
be dug at a rate of one 2 gallon bucketful per
square yard, ideally some weeks before plant-
ing. Spread balanced fertilizer over the bed
just before planting. Apply at a rate of 3 - 4 oz
per square yard. If the top-soil was stripped
from the area prior to the erection of the
greenhouse, the existing sub-soil should be
removed from the border site to at least one
spade depth. Replace it with good top-soil or
a mixture of loam and one of the organic
matter sources mentioned above.
Mixes
Apart from natural soil beds, plants can be
grown in special mixes or composts, or in
inert media to which are added nutrients in Plants growing in open ground have room Container-grown plants have their root
fluid form (see Hydroponics, page 49). The to expand their root system in order to systems confined and therefore nutrients
root systems of plants growing in containers search out water and nutrients. must be added to the soil available.
are confined to a very much smaller volume
Replacing soil
2 Just before planting, rake in a balanced 1 If good top-soil is lacking, remove 2 Add good top-soil or a mixture of loam
fertilizer at a rate of 3 - 4 oz per square yard. exposed sub-soil to at least one spade's and organics to bring the bed back to the
depth. Deal with any drainage problems. original level. At intervals add organics and
general fertilizer to maintain soil fertility.
Soil and mixes 2
of soil than they would normally occupy in a
bed or border (see box). If ordinary garden
soil is used in containers, vigorous plants in
particular rapidly use up the available
nutrients. This can be corrected by the
application of extra minerals in the form of
solid or liquid fertilizers, but plants will be
more successful if they can be kept growing
at a steady rate from the beginning. To this
end it is necessary to create a richer, well-
balanced soil for container-grown plants.
Compost formulae In the past, professional
gardeners devised their own formulae for
container soil, using in varying proportions
such basic ingredients as turfy loam, decayed
manure and leaf-mold, plus various ferti-
lizers. These potting media were known as
composts, not to be confused with the de-
cayed vegetable matter known as garden
compost. The American term mix or potting
mix is now commonly used. The need for a
reliable standardized mix became imperative
for research purposes as horticulture de-
veloped. In the 1930s the John Innes Institute
in England devised such a formula. It proved
Making loam
1 Cut sods 4 - 6 in deep from good pasture.
Stack them grass side down in a sheltered
position, adding a 2 in layer of strawy
manure between each 10 in of sod.
to grow a wide variety of plants well, soon
became popular, and is still widely used.
Any good potting medium must be well
aerated and free-draining, but moisture-
retentive. It must contain sufficient fertilizers
to supply all the needs of the plants for as long
as possible. In addition, it should be free from
weed seeds, pests and disease organisms.
These can be present in the basic loam which
is an ingredient of most mixes. The John
Innes formula demands that the loam be
sterilized to destroy harmful organisms. Al-
though the term "sterilized" is widely used
in connection with soil and mixes, the loam
is actually heat-pasteurized, because it is
not desirable to kill all life in the soil.
Loam The key ingredient of the John Innes
formula is loam, the subtly-blended soil c o m -
posed of clay, fine sand, humus and minerals
that is found under long-established valley
pastures. To create the finest loam the top
4 - 6 in layer of pasture turf is removed and
stacked in layers. Between each 10 in layer of
turf a 2 in layer of strawy manure is laid. The
stack should not exceed 6 ft high and wide
2 Water the stack, which should be no
more than 6 ft high and wide, and cover
well w i t h heavy-duty plastic sheeting. Leave
tor six months until the sods have rotted.
STERILIZATION
Commercially, loam is pasteurized in
specially constructed flat-bottomed bins
or troughs injected with steam from
below. There are also electric sterilizers,
small versions of which can be bought and
used by amateurs who garden on a
moderate scale. Small quantities of soil
can be pasteurized in the kitchen, using a
steamer saucepan. Pass the loam, which
should be almost dry, through a1/2 in mesh
sieve and place a 6 in layer in the steamer.
Bring 2 in of water to the boil in the sauce-
pan. Then put the lid on the steamer and
allow the loam to heat up. A thermometer
must be used throughout the operation (a
candy thermometer is suitable) and once
the surface of the loam reaches 82°C/
180°F it must be kept as steady as possible
for 10 minutes. As soon as the 10 minutes
are up the loam must be turned out to cool.
Loam can be steamed in large amounts 1 Pass good-quality, dry, fibrous loam
by passing steam from a boiler into a pile through a 1/2 in mesh sieve. Prepare sieved
of soil covered with a tarpaulin. loam to form a 6 in layer in t h e steamer.
2 Place the loam in the steamer and bring Alternatively, use a purpose-made soil
the water in the lower portion to the boil. sterilizer, which heats water by means of
Keep at 82°C/180°F for 10 minutes. an electric element.
Soil and mixes 3
and the sods must be moist or made so as Preparing mixes
the work proceeds. Ideally, the stack should
be made in an open shed to protect it from
the rain. Alternatively, cover the top with
heavy duty plastic sheeting. The stacked
sods will turn into high quality loam in about
six months. Suitable pasture turf is in short
supply and some of the commercial potting
mixes sold are made with inferior loam.
Generally speaking, however, such c o m -
posts are still superior to garden soil and
equal to other substitutes. Test a mix
before purchase by handling a sample. A
mix made with good loam will have a high
fiber content.
How to make soil mixes The first stage in
making soil mixes to one of the John Innes
formulae is to sterilize the loam (see page 43).
The mix should be made up as soon as the
loam cools. Ingredients must be mixed well
to obtain an even and uniform end product.
It is helpful to have a bushel or half-bushel
box in which to measure the ingredients, as
lime and fertilizers are normally added at a 1 Prepare a bushel box for measuring 2 Fill the box with the first of the ingredients 3 Spread the first of the ingredients on a
bushel rate. A bushel is the amount that will ingredients. The box should measure 22 in to the 10 in level. Do not compact the hard, dry surface.
fit into a box 22 in x 10 in x 10 in without by 10 in. Mark the 10 in depth on the inside. ingredients.
compacting. Evenly layer the ingredients into
a pile on a clean concrete floor. Sprinkle some
of the lime and fertilizers onto each sand
layer. When the heap is complete it will
clearly show layers of the various ingredients
as they are of varying colors. The whole
should be well mixed with a clean shovel.
John Innes formulae The basic potting mix
formula is: 7 parts by bulk loam, 3 parts
of coarse washed sand, and 2 parts of moist
moss peat. To each bushel of this mixture add
4 o z of John Innes base fertilizer and | o z of
ground limestone. This is a No. 1 compost
or mix. For a No. 2 mix add twice as much
fertilizer, and for No. 3, three times as much.
For lime-hating plants a neutral to acid loam
should be used if possible and the limestone
omitted.
John Innes base fertilizer is rarely available
commercially but can be made up as follows:
2 parts superphosphate, 2 parts blood meal
and 1 part sulfate of potash.
For the seed-sowing mix the proportions
are: 2 parts loam, 1 part peat and 1 part sand, 4 Sprinkle lime and fertilizer, according to 5 Add further ingredients in layers, 6 W h e n all the ingredients have been
adding to each bushel 11/2oz of superphos- the formula being followed, onto the pile. sprinkling lime and fertilizers between added, mix the resulting heap w i t h a clean
phate and 3/4 oz of ground limestone, which each layer. shovel until the mix is an even color.
Soil and mixes 4
is omitted for lime-hating subjects. It is recom-
mended that, except for very fine or slow
germinating seeds, sowing is made direct
into John Innes potting compost No. I, thus
doing away with seed-sowing mixes.
Although there is plenty of experimental
evidence to show the benefits of properly
sterilized loam, it must be clearly stated that
good plants can be grown without it. Weeds,
pests and diseases will occur and have to be
dealt with, but everything else considered,
the risks are not high. Weeds are a problem
when seed sowing and it is advisable to use
one of the non-loam mixes mentioned below.
A particularly annoying possible result of
using non-sterilized loam is the introduction
of earthworms. Their tunneling activities can
slow down plant growth and render the
mix so well drained that most of the water
applied runs straight through. Kill the worms
by watering affected pots with solutions of
potassium permanganate.
Soilless mixes
Sources of good loam have been in short
supply for many years and much experi-
SOIL NUTRIENTS
Balanced feeding is the key to successful
plant growth although plant groups vary
widely in their requirements of each
nutrient. If a plant is to thrive, its soil must
contain both the major and minor mineral
elements. The macro or major nutrients
are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
magnesium, calcium, sulfur, carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. Of these, nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium (abbreviated
to N, P and K) are required in large quanti-
ties. In addition to these nine mineral
elements, plants also need minute
amounts of the minor, or trace elements
such as iron, manganese, boron, molyb-
denum, zinc and copper.
All balanced fertilizers contain nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium with some
of the trace elements occurring as im-
purities. Some balanced fertilizers are
compounded so as to include balanced
amounts of trace elements.
mental work has been carried out to find
alternative growing media. The most success-
ful substance of all has been peat, in both its
sedge and sphagnum moss forms. Soil mixes
consisting purely of peat with mineral
nutrients added are now the most popular of
all for the amateur market. Professional
opinion, however, favors the adding of at
least some loam to peat-based mixes.
Peat mixes All-peat mixes have the advan-
tage of being comparatively sterile and of
being light and fairly clean to handle. They
have proved remarkably successful for a wide
range of container-grown plants providing
they are used to makers' instructions. They
must not be firmed when potting in the way
loam-based mixes are and watering must
be done with care. If the plant's rootball
becomes too dry and shrinks away from the
sides of the pot, subsequent watering is less
effective even when wetting agents are used.
As much for this reason as any other, all-peat
mixes are best used for quick-growing short-
term plants which require regular watering.
A disadvantage of peat is the lack of
weight a peat rootball has. Tall plants soon
The functions of the various nutrient
mineral elements are summarized here.
Nitrogen Essential for the formation of pro-
teins which in turn make up protoplasm,
the life-stuff of plants, nitrogen encourages
leafy growth and promotes rapid growth
in the spring and summer. Insufficient nitro-
gen results in a general suppression of
growth.
Phosphorus Phosphorus is a constituent of
protoplasm which plays a part in photo-
synthesis, the complex process by which
plants use light energy to make their own
food. Deficiency shows as thin shoots and
narrow leaves.
Potassium (Potash) Essential to the function-
ing of enzymes active in the formation of
fibrous tissue, sugars and starches, potassium
makes plants more disease-resistant. De-
ficiency shows as thin growth.
Magnesium Magnesium is a constituent of
chlorophyll, the important green matter
become top-heavy. To overcome this factor
and to render dryish peat more readily wet-
table, it is an advantage to add a small
percentage of coarse washed sand.
U.C. mixes A series of simple standardized
peat and sand media has been devised at the
University of California. They are known as
U.C. mixes. There are three variations: 3 parts
by bulk moss peat and 1 part sand; equal parts
peat and sand and 3 parts sand to 1 of peat.
To this is added a special fertilizer.
Soil mixes for special purposes Lime-hating
plants such as azaleas must be grown in lime-
free mixes. These can be bought, or normal
John Innes formulae can be used with
the lime omitted. The formula for John Innes
acid compost, intended for acid-loving plants,
is: 2 parts loam, 1 peat, 1 sand, with 1 1/2-oz
calcium superphosphate and 3/4 oz flowers of
sulfur added per bushel. To give a mix for
plants which require sharp drainage, add
gravel or grit to the mixture. Plants which
need large amounts of water may benefit
from the addition of charcoal, which helps
prevent souring of the saturated mix. Steri-
lized leafmold can be used in mixes.
normally present in most plants. It is essen-
tial to those enzymes involved in the trans-
porting of phosphorus within the plant.
Deficiency shows as severe chlorosis of the
leaves.
Calcium A major element but required in
very small amounts, calcium is important
for the movement of carbohydrates in the
plant and aids in the entry of phosphorus,
nitrogen and sulfur with which it combines.
Deficiency is rare but can show as wilting of
shoots, leaves and flower stalks.
Sulfur Sulfur takes part in the formation
of protoplasm and proteins. Deficiency is very
rare in well-prepared soil mixes but when
it occurs symptoms are similar to those of
nitrogen.
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen These ele-
ments are available from water and the
atmosphere. Oxygen is absorbed from the
atmosphere and helps to convert the plant's
food (sugar) into energy. Hydrogen is taken
PREPARING SOILLESS MIXES
Follow the bushel proportions listed on
the left, with a quarter-bushel box (81/2 x
8 1/2 x 73/4 in) substituted if smaller quantities
are required. The necessary chemicals can
be applied one by one or in the form of
ready-mixed compounds available c o m -
mercially. The nutrients can be added
as the mix is used to save prior mixing.
If a commercial c o m p o u n d is to be used,
ensure that it includes the necessary trace
elements as well as the basic nutrients.
Slow-release forms of potassium and
nitrogen can be added to soilless mixes
to provide for plant needs for three
months or longer, removing the need for
feeding. Trace elements can also be
applied in fritted slow-release form. Fritted
trace elements are released over a period
of months. Mixes should be used as soon
as slow-release fertilizers have been added,
or they will build up in the mix before
plants are present, leading to levels pos-
sibly damaging to plants.
up from the water by the plant's roots and
combines with carbon dioxide, absorbed
from the atmosphere, to form a sugar
compound which is the plant's f o o d .
Iron In its mineral form iron enters into
the making of chlorophyll and therefore is
vital to all green plants. Deficiency shows
as yellow to whitish shoot tips w h i c h often
turn brown and die back.
Manganese Manganese is a trace element
needed for the functioning of various
enzymes and cell chloroplasts. Deficiency
symptoms vary but usually show as
chlorosis.
Boron Deficiency of boron, a trace ele-
ment mainly concerned with cell division,
results in a crippling or death of developing
tissues.
Molybdenum, copper and zinc All three
are vitally important, in small quantities,
to the proper growth of the plant. They
are often present in soil mixes.
Growing systems 1
Greenhouse growing systems are basec
either on open beds or some form of con-
tainer to restrict root run. The size, type and
site of the greenhouse and the choice of
plants to be grown will dictate the kind of
growing system used. Another factor is the
manner in which the greenhouse is to be run.
Container, or restricted, systems lend them-
selves more readily to automated watering
than do soil beds, for instance. If mist units or
soil-heating cables are to be installed, then
a bench or staging system with containers or
raised soil beds will be needed.
Containers are the best growing system if
a large number of different plants is to be
grown in a greenhouse, for they can be
moved and re-sited as the plants grow, thus
freeing space for further propagation and
plant raising. Soil beds, on the other hand, do
very well if only one major crop is to be grown
at any one time. If, for instance, tomatoes or
carnations grown for cut flowers are to be the
main crop, then soil beds are preferable. Soil-
level beds do not make use of the vertical
dimension of the greenhouse except when
tall crops are being grown. The use of c o n -
Raised bed
On wet sites, raise the soil by building a
9-12 in deep raised bed. Use boards, a
brick wall or concrete as sides.
tainers allows staging and high-level shelves
to be installed to maximize the use of growing
space, though the space below the staging is
to a large extent wasted. The decision must
depend upon the crops chosen.
Open beds
If the greenhouse is sited upon good soil, and
that soil is free of pests, diseases and per-
ennial weeds, open beds are the simplest
growing system. Open beds must contain a
good-quality soil or mix. If the soil is in-
adequate, modify or replace it (see page 42). If
the site is wet and difficult to drain, a raised
bed is the best solution. Construct one 9-12 in
deep with the sides retained by boards or a
brick or concrete wall. Fill the space above
the cultivated garden soil with good-quality
top-soil up to the level of the top of the wall.
Beds may also be formed on stagings, but the
stagings must be specially built to support the
weight. Bench beds have the advantage of
bringing small plants nearer to the light and
to a level which makes cultivation easier.
They are especially applicable to the growing
of alpines (see page 88). Melons, and to a
Bench bed
Beds can be placed on benches at waist
level. The benches must have extra-strong
supports and drainage must be adequate.
lesser extent cucumbers and tomatoes, are
traditionally grown on ridges or mounds of STERILIZING BORDER SOIL
soil on benches. This system not only gives
the plants more light than ground-level beds,
but also enables the rooting medium to be
maintained at a beneficially higher tempera-
ture than is possible at ground level without
soil heating cables. This is because air can
circulate below the bench as well as above
the soil surface.
Although open soil beds are the most
suitable growing system for such early crops
as lettuce, they are not economic of room
where ornamentals are concerned. Climbers
and shrubs given a free root run make strong
growth, but often at the expense of blooms.
A further disadvantage of soil-level beds,
particularly if tomatoes are to be the main
crop, is the possible build-up of soil-borne
pests and diseases. This is inevitable if the
same crop is grown year after year. The only Empty the greenhouse and open ventila-
remedy is replacement or sterilization of the tors. Then, wearing gloves, apply a for-
soil. Removing all the affected soil to 1ft maldehyde solution (one part of 3 8 - 4 0
depth and replacing it with fresh, or sterilizing per cent formalin to 49 parts water) at
it (see page 43), is a laborious task. There are 5 gal per square yard. Leave for 4 weeks.
methods of sterilizing the soil in situ with
Ring culture
Ring culture consists of a bed of aggregate, containing soil. Roots penetrate into the
placed in a trough or a plastic-lined trench, inert aggregate, where they absorb moisture
with plants grown in bottomless pots or rings and nutrients.
Growing systems 2
steam or chemicals, but in the main they are
not convenient for the amateur. The easiest
technique is to soak the soil with formalde-
hyde (see page 46). The greenhouse must be
empty when this is done, and the soil cannot
be used for at least one month after treat-
ment. Formalin will give fair control of fungal
diseases but has no effect on eelworms.
Cresylic acid, D-D and methyl bromide are
used commercially against eelworms, the
latter controlling fungi also, but these chemi-
cals should never be used by amateurs. The
work can be done by skilled contractors, but
it is costly and only worthwhile on a large
scale where other growing systems cannot
be used.
Restricted growing systems
This term is used to describe growing systems
where the plants' roots are in some way
restricted by a container.
Ring culture The ring culture system was de-
vised for, and is mainly used for, growing
tomatoes (see illustration, page 46). The aim
of the ring culture system is to eliminate the
problems of the build-up of pests and diseases
Growing bags
1 Place the bag on a flat surface in the
growing position. Slit the top to provide
planting spaces.
in open soil without restricting the plants'
roots to the confines of a pot. Each plant is
grown in a bottomless pot stood on a bed,
or substrate, of gravel about 6 - 9 in deep.
The substrate is laid in a trough lined with
plastic sheeting to prevent it coming into
contact with the soil. Thus the roots are able
to pass out of the bottomless pot and enter
the substrate. Water is applied to the sub-
strate only, not to the pots, as soon as roots
begin to penetrate the substrate. Dig out a
trench in the border soil at least 6 in deep and
16 in wide. Line the base and sides of the
trench with heavy gauge plastic sheeting and
fill it with the substrate. For the substrate
a mixture of three parts gravel to one of ver-
miculite is recommended. Other suitable
substrata are formed from perlite, stone
chips or coarse sand. The substrate must be
chemically inert.
Place fiber rings or bottomless pots at least
8 in deep on the substrate and fill them with a
sterilized rooting medium such as John Innes
potting compost No. 2 or 3. Soil-less media
can also be used. Because of the small amount
of growing medium contained with the ring,
2 Add water to wet the peat-based
growing medium.
feeding has to be begun early in the plant's
growth. Proprietary liquid fertilizer, or a mix-
ture consisting of 2 parts nitrate of potash,
3 parts sulfate of ammonia and 5 parts
super-phosphate (all by weight) should be
applied to each ring weekly. Apply at the
rate of 1 oz of the mixture to 1 gal of water.
The main disadvantage of the ring culture
method is the need for precision in the
application of water and fertilizer. Water
loss can be high, especially early on when the
roots have not yet penetrated the substrate.
Ring culture means devoting the whole
greenhouse, or a large part of it, to tomatoes.
Pot plants such as chrysanthemums can be
stood on the substrate later in the year.
Plastic growing bags Crowing bags provide
restricted root runs but a larger than average
amount of growing medium. They are plastic
sacks usually the size of pillows, filled with
an all-peat growing medium. They are laid
flat in the growing position and sections of
the top cut away so that plants can be in-
serted. Drainage is provided if necessary by
making slits along the edges near ground
level. Watering must be carried out with care
3 Water and feed the growing plants with
care, for it is easy to over-wet the peat in
the bag. Make drainage slits in the sides if
as it is easy to over-water a large volume of
all peat mix. The mix also dries out quickly
and it can be hard to re-wet. Feeding is
necessary to supplement nutrients.
This method can be used for a wide range
of plants but is particularly useful for toma-
toes, peppers and small squash. It keeps plant
roots away from the possible contamination
of diseased soil in greenhouse beds. Growing
bags can also be used in concrete-floored
greenhouses as temporary beds, and smaller,
lighter growing bags can be placed on the
staging. Supporting tall plants such as toma-
toes is not very easy. The traditional cane
stake cannot be used, for it will not sup-
port itself in the growing bag. It is necessary to
fix strings or wires to the greenhouse frame
above the plants and to train the plants.
The advantages of growing bags are free-
d o m from disease, a growing medium that
warms up fast, and convenience. Against
these advantages must be set the difficulties
of accurately assessing feeding and watering
needs, and the possible build-up of mineral
salts in the peat. Crowing bags can also only
be used once.
needed. Feeding will be necessary as the
plants grow, although the peat in the bags
has some nutrients added to it.
Growing systems 3
Straw bales The growing of plants under glass sium nitrate and 3oz of ferrous sulfate, all The straw bale system
on slowly decomposing bales of wheat straw rates per bale. Water the nutrients in. The
can be considered a modern development of second method is that favored by c o m -
the old hot bed system. The reason for its mercial growers of tomatoes.
development, however, is quite different. Its Fermentation Whichever regime is applied,
aim is that of ring culture, to provide a disease- the straw will heat up through fermentaion
free root run, primarily for tomatoes and and should reach 43 o -54°C/110 o -130°F.
cucumbers. It is thus a restricted system, Check the temperature with a soil thermo-
although containers are not used. The straw meter every few days. W h e n it drops to
bales are thoroughly wetted and fermentation about 38°C/100°F and is still falling, planting
is triggered by applying nitrogen, thus build- can take place.
ing up heat and giving off carbon dioxide. To plant, pile a ridge of John Innes No. 3
Both are beneficial to the young plants, which compost or equivalent mix along the top of
are placed in soil mounds on the bales as the the bales and set the plants into this. Sub-
temperature in the bales starts to fall. The sequent watering and liquid feeding must be
temperature in the center of the bale will, carried out regularly and thoroughly as the
under the right conditions, reach at least bales are very free-draining. Plants should be
43°C/110°F. Due to the difficulty in obtaining supported with strings tied to the greenhouse
straw and the relatively intensive care needed, roof (see page 50). Do not make the strings
the system is a difficult one for the amateur. It too tight as the bales will settle.
also restricts the use of the greenhouse as Straw bale culture has the advantage of
the ammonia given off during fermentation providing heat and carbon dioxide which aid
can damage some plants. plant establishment, but bales take up a lot The straw bale system is used for toma- placed on fermenting wheat straw bales,
Preparation Wheat straw bales are usually of greenhouse space. Care must be taken not toes, cucumbers and other food crops. into which the roots penetrate. Do not use
used as they do not decompose quickly; to use straw sprayed with hormone weedkiller. Plants are grown in ridges of soil mix. straw sprayed with hormone weedkiller.
barley and oat straw are inferior substitutes.
Bales of 4 0 - 6 0 lb weight should be used. If Preparing the bales
possible, they should be bound with wire
rather than string, which can rot. They are
put on polyethylene sheet end to end in rows
where the plants are to be grown. The bales
can be placed in a shallow trough lined with
polyethylene, which helps to save water
which runs through the bale. The ventilators
should be kept closed, and the greenhouse
temperature should ideally be around 10°C/
50°F to promote fermentation.
There are two alternative methods, one
fast, one slow. Choose that which fits the
period during which the greenhouse is free of
other crops. The slower method first involves
thoroughly watering the bales. Then water in
1 1/2 lb nitro-chalk (ammonium nitrate-lime mix-
ture) per bale. Four days later, apply a further
1lb of nitro-chalk, again watering in. Four
days after that, add 3/4 lb of a general fertilizer
and water in. Keep the bales damp at all
times. This method takes about 18 days.
The second method takes 7-10 days.
Thoroughly wet the bales and then apply 1 lb 1 Add fertilizers as listed in the text to the 2 Check the temperature every few days 3 Sprinkle soil or mix in a ridge along the
of nitro-chalk, 6oz of triple superphosphate, tops of the wet bales. Water the fertilizers during fermentation. Plant when it drops tops of the bales and plant. The roots will
6 o z of magnesium sulfate, 12 oz of potas- in. to 38°C/100°F. enter the straw.
Growing systems 4
HYDROPONICS
Hydroponics is the technique of growing
plants in water and dissolved mineral nutrients
without soil or other solid rooting medium.
I he fluid used has to contain all the nutrients
necessary to plant growth, and some kind of
support system is necessary to replace the
anchoring action of roots in soil.
The use of a hydroponic system does take
away the skilled chore of watering and virtu-
ally eliminates diseases and pests of the root
system. However, for success regular chemi-
cal analysis of the nutrient is essential. There
are several nutrient formulae which the
amateur can try, some being available pre-
mixed. If mixing is necessary, great care must
be taken. An excess or a deficiency of any
one or more minerals could spell disaster to
the plants. None of the commercial systems
now available can be recommended to
amateurs except to those interested in ex-
perimenting for its own sake. Experiments
continue and a system wholly suitable for
amateurs may be developed. Meanwhile, kit
systems may interest enthusiasts.
Nutrient film technique
The warmed nutrient solution is pumped
from a storage tank along gently sloping
gullies. The gullies contain a strip of capillary
Nutrient film technique
The nutrient film technique is a system of
growing plants in troughs of shallow re-
circulating nutrient solution. Polyethylene
troughs or pre-formed open gullies are laid
on flat surfaces in the greenhouse to a slope
of not less than 1 in 100. A narrow strip of
non-toxic capillary matting is laid along the
base of the gully beneath each plant con-
tainer. This ensures that no plant dries out in
the early stages of growth and it leaves most
of the roots uncovered allowing good, in-
expensive aeration. The nutrient solution,
containing a complete range of plant foods,
and if possible warmed to 25°C/77°F, is con-
tinually circulated by a submersible pump
through the troughs to a catchment tank at
a flow rate of about 31/2 pints per minute per
gully. The systems available in kit form for
amateurs are based upon modifications of
this technique.
Other hydroponics systems
The other systems developed for commercial
horticulture are of mostly academic interest
matting and are covered by "tents" of
black polyethylene to reduce evaporation.
Amateur systems are smaller.
to the gardener. However, some details of Hydroponics systems
them are given so that the basic technique
may be understood.
Pure solution This method uses nutrients
contained in tanks about 8 in deep with fine
wire mesh stretched across the top to hold
the stems of the plants upright. The nutrient
solution needs to be artificially aerated and
regularly tested for pH, and must be changed
every t w o weeks. Among the disadvantages
of the pure solution method are the difficulty
of supporting plants adequately, and the fact
that only a limited range of species will
tolerate the permanent immersion of roots.
Flooded substrate Similar tanks to those used
for the pure solution method are required for The pure solution system uses tanks of
this system, but they must be protected with solution, with plant stems supported by
a layer of bituminous paint. Plastic-lined tanks horizontal wire mesh.
or troughs are an alternative. The tank or
trough is filled with an inert aggregate, ideally
washed gravel or grit, though coarse vermi-
culite, perlite, polystyrene chips, lignite or
weathered coal ash may also be used. This
substrate is regularly flooded with the nutrient
solution, the surplus being recycled. The
solution must be tested regularly for con-
centration and pH, and adjustments or
replacement made when necessary. Replace-
ment of the solution is more costly than
adjustment, but is more reliable, as the
correct concentration is assured. The flood-
ing and draining operation ensures that
sufficient air gets to the roots and the sub- The flooded substrate system uses troughs
strate gives the plants adequate support. filled with an inert aggregate w h i c h supports
Drainage tank The drainage tank system is the roots.
a simplified version of the flooded substrate
method. The system can be adapted to a
variety of situations. Dig a trench and line it
as described under Ring Culture (page 46).
Make drainage holes in the sides about 3 in
above the base. Alternatively, any tank of
similar depth and width with the same pat-
tern of drainage holes can be used. Ideally,
use an absorbent substrate, such as vermi-
culite, perlite or lignite, the last being recom-
mended. Washed sand that is not too coarse
and thus has good capillarity is also suitable.
Add nutrient solution to the substrate regu-
larly, the surplus draining away, a reservoir
remaining below the drainage holes. Less
The drainage tank system is similar to the
nutrient is needed than for other methods,
above. A trench lined w i t h perforated
and checks are less frequent.
plastic sheet is used.
Plant supports
Many greenhouse plants require some kind
of support to control and direct their growth.
Examples are tomatoes, fruit trees and orna-
mental climbers. The plants that require sup-
port outdoors, such as certain shrubs and
annuals, will also need support under glass,
though the supports need not be as strong as
those used in the open. Permanent systems
are needed for some plants such as grape
vines. Such supports are attached to the
framework of the greenhouse, by nails or
screws in the case of wooden frames, or by
clips or bolts to metal frames. Other crops
such as tomatoes require temporary props.
These are similar to those used outdoors, but
use is often made of the greenhouse frame-
work to anchor them.
Canes Bamboo or wooden canes can be
used in borders where there is sufficient soil
to anchor them securely. Use one cane per
plant, of a height suitable for the mature
plants. Insert them on planting. Tie the plants
to the canes with soft garden string at 12 in
intervals.
Strings Where canes are impracticable, be-
cause for instance pots or growing bags are
being used, drop lengths of strong string from
secure fixings in the greenhouse roof to the
base of each plant. Attach the string loosely
around the plant beneath the lowest true
leaf. Twist the string gently around the plant
as it grows. Do not allow the string to become
too tight.
Netting Plastic or plastic-covered wire net-
ting can be draped from the greenhouse
structure along the line of the plants. Support
top and ends of the net securely to the frame-
work. Gently guide the plants through the
netting as they grow, tying in with soft string
as necessary. Netting of varying mesh sizes
can be used. Some crops, such as melons and
cucumbers, require large-mesh nets.
Wires Fruit trees and climbers can be trained
up permanent or temporary systems of wires
stretched horizontally along greenhouse
walls. In lean-to greenhouses, screw eyes can
be attached to rear walls and 14 gauge gal-
vanized wire fixed between them. Alterna-
tively, fix vertical battens to the wall and drill
them for bolts, to which the wires are
attached. Wires should be kept taut by the
use of a straining bolt at one end of the wire.
Fix wires for fruit trees 15-18 in apart. Crapes
need wires at a 10 in spacing.
Wires can be used vertically to support
climbing crops such as beans and ornamental
climbers. In all cases, attach the plants to the
wires with soft string as necessary. Some
forms of plastic netting are perishable and
rot after a season or two. Do not use such
netting for perennial plants. Rigid wire or
plastic-covered wire netting can be fixed,
using battens, to walls or greenhouse frames
to provide support for climbing plants.
Fastenings Metal-framed greenhouses need
drilling, or the addition of special bolts, be-
fore wire or other support systems are
erected. Special bolts are available with T-
shaped ends which slot into the glazing bars
of most aluminum greenhouses. To these
bolts attach drilled brackets between which
the wires can be fixed. W o o d e n battens can
be attached to the bolts to provide easy
permanent or temporary fixing points for
strings, nets or wires. Ordinary screws or bolts
can be used in wooden-framed houses.
Supporting plants in growing bags It is not
possible to drive supports into the growing
bag, as the small amount of soil will not
hold a stake or cane and the plants which
grow up it. Self-supporting metal frames can
be obtained which stand over the bag.
Alternatively, drop strings from the green-
house framework to the plants or attach
plants to wall wires or nets.
Supporting plants in pots Lightweight wire
frameworks can be bought which are inserted
into the potting mix. Several light canes
tied together in a fan-shape achieve the same
result. Bushy twigs, as used outdoors for peas,
are useful for supporting small climbers and
other ornamental plants. If flowering plants
such as carnations are being grown for
cutting in large numbers, plastic or wire
netting can be stretched horizontally above
the bed or staging and the plants allowed to
grow through it.
Perennials Fruit trees and climbers need
robust support systems to control and direct
their growth. Avoid perishable materials.

Canes Strings Netting Tall crops Grape vines Lean-to walls

Tie the plants to bamboo Loosely tie strings below the Wire or string netting Tall or heavy crops need Vines require a rigid system Climbers can be trained up
canes at 6-12 in intervals, plant's first true leaf, wind attached to the greenhouse stronger strings or wires of horizontal wires at 10 in a framework of wire mesh
using soft garden string. them around the stems and frame can be used to and strong fixings to avoid spacings, firmly attached to fixed to battens.
then run them to the frame. support plants. collapse. the greenhouse frame.
Pots and potting 1
Until the advent of methods such as ring
culture and growing bags, most greenhouse
plants were grown in containers. There were
primarily a range of plastic or clay flower pots,
with tubs being used for larger, semi-
permanent plants. Containers are still the
main tool for propagation, and they find
favor with gardeners who want to concen-
trate on ornamental greenhouse plants. They
provide the most versatile way of growing a
wide range of plants in a small greenhouse.
Pots come in a wide range of sizes, and tubs
extend the size range upwards. There are also
several types of disposable pot, including
those formed from organic material which
can be planted with the plant.
Whatever container is used, there are
certain principles which must be followed
when potting, re-potting and potting on
plants. These operations are covered in
detail on pages 52-54.
Clay and plastic pots It was once asserted
that only clay pots could be used to grow
plants successfully. Plastic pots, when first
introduced, were viewed with suspicion,
CONTAINERS
mainly because they did not have the porous
quality of clay. However, as clay pots become
more and more expensive, and often difficult
to obtain, the controversy fades into the
background. It has been widely proved that
plastic pots will grow plants just as well as
clay, and it had become clear that they have
certain advantages. The first advantage is that
plastic pots are much cheaper than clay. They
are also more durable and easier to clean, for
they do not harbor dirt. Clay pots need
soaking, scrubbing and sterilizing between
use, whereas plastic pots can be wiped clean
with water and detergent. Plastic pots are
also lighter than clay, which makes for easier
handling. However, because they are lighter,
plastic pots when used with light soilless
mixes may be top-heavy.
Plants in plastic pots need watering less
frequently than those in clay, because clay
pots are porous. The difference is minimal
when plants are well rooted and growing
vigorously. Plants in plastic pots therefore
need less day-to-day care than those in clay,
but there is a danger of overwatering.
Drainage All pots should have adequate
drainage holes in the base. Lack of drainage
leads to saturated soil and rotting roots.
Good drainage also allows capillary watering
systems to be used efficiently. The drainage
holes allow water to rise up into the soil
from the capillary medium below. Many
plastic pots have a raised rim around the
base. This lifts the drainage holes clear of the
bench or shelf on which the pot is standing,
allowing water to drain away through gaps
in the rim. W i t h o u t such a rim, water can be
prevented from draining away.
Size and shape Pots are traditionally round,
and round pots have advantages in display-
ing plants. They are also easier to fill with
soil, especially in the smaller sizes, than
rectangular pots. Square pots do have the
merit of being economical on space. More
can be fitted onto a shelf or into a propagating
case. They contain a greater volume of soil
than round pots of the same diameter.
Pots are measured by their diameter at the
rim in inches. Two sizes should be acquired
as the basis of a stock of pots: 2-21/2 in and
Potting bench
A potting table or bench w i t h sides and a
back keeps soil mix away from growing
areas.
5 - 6 in. Pots are normally a b o u t as deep as
they are wide, but half pots—half as deep as
their width—are also used. They are often
called alpine pots as one of their main uses is
for alpines and other low-growing plants.
Half pots can also be used for raising seed
and for other propagation w o r k w h e n only a
small quantity of material is being raised. The
broader the base of the pot, the more stable
it will be when it contains a possibly top-
heavy plant.
Alternatives to pots
The illustration below left shows the range of
alternatives to the traditional pot that is avail-
able. Clay pots (a) have been joined by plastic
pots (b), also available as half pots (c). Shallow
seed pans (d) are useful for sowing in small
amounts. Non-rigid pots such as black plastic
sleeve containers (e) are often used for trans-
planting and for plants for sale. Disposable
pots include peat rectangles (f), individual
peat pots (g), paper pots (h), peat pellets (i)
and soil blocks (j). Flats in w o o d and plastic
complete the range (k and I).
Soil blocking
Moisten special peat-based blocking
mix and press the blocking machine into
it. Use the blocks 24 hours later.
Pots and potting 2
Disposable pots
Several alternative systems have been de-
veloped to avoid the problems of root dis-
turbance that result from growing in pots or
flats. Seedlings grown in flats, for instance,
are traditionally pricked out into small pots,
then moved again into individual pots or into
the open garden. Sowing in soil blocks or peat
pots makes these moves unnecessary. The
block or pot is planted with the young plant,
and provides it with extra humus as it is
becoming established in its new pot or bed.
Paper and papier mache pots have the same
effect. Bedding plants are often raised from
seed commercially in strips of expanded
polystyrene which contain holes for seed and
soil mix. This material is heat-retentive and
easily broken to release the plants on planting
out. However, the strips can only be used
once. Plastic sleeve pots, also widely used
commercially, can be used for pricking on
seedlings which are later to be planted out.
W h e n filling such non-rigid containers with
soil mix care must be taken to fill all the
corners to avoid air pockets.
Potting
Crock the pot to provide adequate drainage.
Moisten a supply of potting soil and water
the plants to be potted.
Peat pots and soil blocks Peat pots can be
bought individually or in strips and blocks.
While they have the advantages in cutting
the amount of root disturbance described
above, they are relatively expensive. They
are useful for sowing large seeds such as
beans. Soil blocks also involve expense, for a
special machine must be bought. However,
the cost of the blocking machine can be set
against the saving in pots, whether of plastic
or peat, that soil blocks bring. Special soil
mix is needed, but soil mix or its ingredients
has to be purchased anyway, and its cost is
the only factor once the machine is paid for.
The blocking machines produce either
square or hexagonal blocks about 2 in high,
with a depression in the top for the seed to be
sown or the seedling pricked on. To make a
batch of soil blocks, moisten some special
blocking mix in a bucket or bowl. Test
the moisture content by squeezing. If the
mix crumbles a little, it is ready. If it falls
apart, it is too wet. If it does not start to
crumble, it is too moist. Push the mould into
the damp mix and when it is full depress
Hold the plant in the pot by a leaf and pour
in compost with a circular motion. Tap the
pot to distribute the soil.
the plunger a little to consolidate the soil
mix. Place the soil blocks on a flat so that
they are touching and leave for 24 hours to
consolidate. Then insert the seed or seedling.
Pot on or plant out when the roots begin to
emerge from the sides of the block. Keep the
block moist at all times as the peat-based
blocking mix is difficult to re-wet.
Substitutes for pots Plastic dairy produce
containers, paper or plastic cups and similar
substitutes can be used in place of pots when
expense is a major consideration. Punch
adequate drainage holes in the base of the
pots, and use the correct mix, and good
results should be obtained.
Seed flats
Just as plastic pots have replaced clay ones,
so wooden seed flats have been superseded
by plastic. Flats are vital for raising larger
numbers of seedlings. Many propagating
cases are designed to take the standard-sized
seed flat, which measures 14in x 81/2in x 21/2in.
Half-sized flats, 6 in x 81/2 x 21/2, are also used.
Plastic flats must be well drained and rigid,
Firm gently with the finger tips to avoid air
pockets around the roots of the plant.
even when filled with damp soil mix. Make
sure also that the seed flats chosen are of
good quality plastic: some sorts become
brittle when exposed to sunlight for any
length of time.
One advantage of wooden flats is that a
side or end can be easily prized away to allow
seedlings to be slid out in a block. If w o o d e n
flats are used, they must be carefully (leaned
between use. W i t h o u t careful maintenance
they rot easily and thus have a shorter lift'
than plastic flats.
Substitute flats may be created by press-
ing into service such things as fruit boxes,
plastic and polystyrene cartons and kitchen
foil or plastic food containers. Cleanliness and
good drainage are the main conditions; when
they are achieved just about anything will do.
There is, however, no substitute for the neat
appearance of a bank of clean plastic or
wooden flats.
Other equipment
A sieve with a 1/2 in mesh, a further fine sieve,
and a supply of labels will be required.
Place the potted plants in a position w i t h
good light and water to settle the soil
around the roots.
Pots and potting 3
Potting procedure
Potting, re-potting and potting on are some
of the most frequent tasks the greenhouse
gardener faces. While they are not difficult,
the basic techniques should be mastered, for
if plants are not potted properly, no amount
of subsequent care will make them grow to
their full potential.
Potting is the initial transfer of a seedling,
rooted cutting or bought-in plant to a pot or
other container. Potting on is its transfer to a
larger pot as it grows. Re-potting is move-
ment to a new pot of the same size as the old,
the prime object being to renew some of the
soil mix around the rootball.
The potting bench The first step is to have a
proper work surface for potting. A bench or
table with a back and sides allows the soil
mix to be piled up. If there are never more
than a few plants to pot at a time, construct a
portable bench from a 2 ft square board with
a retaining rim 3 - 4 in high around three sides.
This board can be rested on the greenhouse
bench when required. A permanent potting
bench should be at waist height, 3 ft wide and
Potting on
Water the plant. Select a pot 1 in larger than
the present pot and crock it if necessary.
2 ft deep. The sides and back can be 6-12 in
high. The bench can be placed in the green-
house or in a shed or outhouse, wherever
there is space. If the bench is in the green-
house, be sure not to leave surplus soil
lying on it or on the floor, where it will attract
pest and disease organisms.
Preparation Assemble the pots, drainage
material such as crocks if needed, and the
soil mix. Carefully choose pots no larger
than necessary: most plants grow and look
better in small rather than large pots. Use
a soil mix suitable for the plant being grown,
and make sure that it is well mixed. Soil
should be damp but not wet. It should be
possible to pour it cleanly into the pot by
hand or with a trowel.
Potting
Seedlings or cuttings growing in flats or pots
should be watered. Loosen them from their
container by knocking the sides. Remove
seedlings carefully, holding them by the seed
leaves, not the stem. Keep the rootball as
large as possible. Use a dibble to help free
Hold the plant stem between the fingers
and invert the pot, tapping gently so that
the rootball slides out.
the seedling and roots from the soil. Place
the plant in the pot and pour fresh soil
around the roots. Make sure that the plant is
not potted too deeply—the base of the stem
should be level with the surface of the soil.
Distribute the soil around the roots with a
circular motion of the hand or trowel. Tap
the pot gently on the bench to settle the soil
around the roots. Make sure that the plant
is centered in the pot. If roots still show
after tapping, add more potting soil, then
firm lightly with the fingertips. A further tap
on the bench will level the soil leaving it
ready for watering. The degree of firming
can vary with the type of plant and soil
type. All-peat mixes require little firming,
tapping followed by watering will settle the
medium amongst the roots. Loam-based
mixes, particularly when used for vigorous
plants, can be made firm with light finger
pressure. The former practice of ramming
soil firm with a potting stick is now con-
sidered unnecessary.
W h e n the potting operation is completed
there must be a space between the soil
Place the rootball in the new pot and
sprinkle moist soil around it. Firm
carefully.
surface and the pot rim to allow for efficient
watering. As a guide, aim at a space equal to
one-seventh or one-eighth of the depth of
the pot. As much water as will fill this space
should thoroughly wet all the soil with a
little surplus trickling out at t h e b o t t o m .
Potting on
W h e n the young plant has filled its container
with roots it will need p o t t i n g on, that is,
removing from its container and placing in a
larger one. First water the plant, but do not
soak it. Invert the pot onto an open hand
with the plant stem hanging d o w n between
the middle and index fingers. Gently rap the
pot rim on a firm w o o d surface, or tap it with
a light hammer, and lift the pot off. If this
operation does not w o r k the first time, the
plant may be too dry and watering should be
repeated before trying again. Prepare a new
pot which should be large enough to allow
about an inch gap all round the rootball to
the right level, then fill the gap with fresh soil,
tapping and firming as described above.
W a t e r to settle the soil.
PEAT PELLETS
Peat blocks and pellets allow seedlings to
grow and be transplanted w i t h o u t root
disturbance. The plants should be potted
or planted out when the roots emerge
from the block. The netting will decom-
pose in the soil.
Pots and potting 4
Re-potting
Re-potting is carried out when the plant has
reached as large a size as is required and
the status quo needs to be maintained. The
aim is to replace some of the spent soil
around the rootball. Re-potting is necessary
every year or every other year. Check the
cultural instructions for the plant concerned
for advice on the frequency of re-potting.
Some species resent disturbance, in which
case they should be top-dressed (see below).
It is best done when the plant is resting or
dormant in late autumn. Remove the plant
from its pot and reduce the size of the root-
ball by up to a quarter, using a small hand fork
and a sharp knife or shears to prune any
thick roots. On larger perennial plants such
as fruit trees and bushes, prune the top
growth by the same amount as the roots. This
ensures that the plant remains balanced. If
necessary, tease out the roots from the root-
ball using a fork or stick. Remove some of the
old spent soil from the rootball, without
damaging the roots if possible. If the same
pot is to be used, clean it well. Place some
Re-potting
Remove the plant from its pot as described
under potting on. Remove some of the
spent soil from the rootball by loosening.
fresh soil in the base of the pot and put
the plant back in position. Push more fresh
soil in around the sides, making sure there
are no air pockets left and that the soil is
pushed around the roots. Firm the surface
of the soil, and water.
Top-dressing
Top-dressings of fresh soil are applied to
beds, borders and containers. W h e n used
on pot plants the process of top-dressing
serves the same function as re-potting. It is
more practical than re-potting on very large
plants which are difficult to re-pot, and is
essential for those plants which resent the
disturbance of re-potting. During the dor-
mant season, strip away the top layer of
soil and any small roots. This must be done
carefully and any of the thicker roots en-
countered should be left. On completion,
fill the gap with a rich mix such as John
Innes No. 3. Firm the mix carefully and
water lightly. Top-dressing is usually carried
out in early spring, just before the plant
begins to grow again.
Trim the roots with sharp scissors, knife or
shears. On larger plants, prune top
growth In proportion.
Hanging baskets
Baskets made from wire, without a drip-tray,
must be lined with sphagnum moss before
the mix is added. Black polyethylene is a
more convenient but less traditional and less
attractive lining. It must be perforated.
Use John Innes No. 2 potting compost for
hanging baskets, as its loam base holds
moisture well. Peat-based mixes can be used
but they tend to dry out in the exposed
environment of a basket and are hard to
re-wet. Place a layer of moss in the bottom
of the basket and weigh it down with moist
mix. Add one or two trailing plants and firm
more mix around their roots. Proceed by
building up layers of plants and mix, pushing
the trailing plants through the basket so that
they can hang down the sides. Build up the
layer of moss around the sides, keeping it
above the level of mix at all times. Place up-
right plants in the final layer of mix so that
they grow upwards from the basket. Hanging
baskets should be replanted with fresh
material each year so potting on and re-
potting do not arise.
If the old pot is to be used, clean it well.
Replace the rootball and add fresh soil,
firming well.
MAINTENANCE OF CONTAINERS
If looked after, pots, tubs, boxes and other
containers will last for many years. Once
plants are removed from t h e m they should
be washed in a mild disinfectant, dried and
stored in a dry place. W o o d e n container!
should be treated w i t h a non-toxic: pre-
servative, ideally coated inside with .in
asphalt paint. If metal cans are used as
substitute containers, make sure that they
are painted with non-toxic paint to pre
vent rust. Some improvised plastic; con-
tainers will tend to become brittle under
the effects of the ultra-violet component
of sunlight.
Clay pots are expensive to replace and
should be wired or riveted to prevent
breakage. Unless completely shattered,
broken pots can be repaired very satis-
factorily with waterproof ceramic glue.
Those based on epoxy resin are strong and
permanent. It is rarely possible to repair
broken plastic pots. W o o d e n containers
can often be mended using screws or
nails. Use greased brass screws when
assembling large wooden containers.
To strengthen a cracked clay pot, wrap
galvanized wire around the pot and twist
the ends gently together. Keep cracked
pots scrupulously clean, for the cracks
can harbor dirt and pest and disease
organisms.
Growing from seed 1
One of the most satisfying aspects of garden-
ing under glass is raising plants from seed,
cuttings or by other propagation methods.
Many plants can be raised with a minimum of
equipment and skill, while with practice and
patience the ability to cope with the more
difficult plants grows quickly.
The main methods of propagating green-
house plants are by seeds and stem cuttings.
Less important methods are layering, offsets,
bulbils, root cuttings and leaf cuttings.
Propagation equipment ranges from the
most basic improvised tray to the sophistica-
tion of a mist unit. Equipment is described on
page 30, containers on page 51. The purpose
of propagation equipment is to provide the
optimum environment, in terms of tempera-
ture, irrigation and humidity, for the plants.
Hygiene W i t h all aspects of propagating,
hygiene is vital. The seed sowing or rooting
medium should be sterilized and all c o n -
tainers scrubbed clean before use. Between
each batch of propagation, the case or frame
should be washed inside with disinfectant.
(See page 32.) Check all cuttings regularly and
remove all leaves that are fallen and any
which are yellowing or browning. Take pre-
cautions against damping-off disease of seed-
lings (see page 33). Make sure that the stock
plants are free from pests and diseases.
Growing from seed
In the wild, all flowering plants reproduce
themselves by seed and in the garden too this
is an important method of increase. It must be
borne in mind, however, that many garden
plants are of mutant or hybrid origin and
may not come true to type from seeds. For
such plants, vegetative propagation methods
are required. Make sure that home-saved
seeds are from healthy plants.
Growing conditions In order to germinate
successfully, seeds must have moisture, air
and a suitable temperature. The temperature
they need varies widely, depending upon the
species or variety. The majority of greenhouse
plants will germinate at 15°-18 o C/60 o -65°F, a
temperature easy to maintain in a home
propagator. Some of the plants raised under
glass for setting outside will germinate at
lower temperatures, around 10°C/50°F or
less, while many tropical plants need
24 o -26°C/75 o -80°F. As a rough guide, a
suitable germinating temperature is at least
five degrees above the minimum required by
the plants when growing.
When to sow The best time to sow seeds
varies with the species, but in general early
spring suits most plants. The seeds of many
hardy plants need a cool period after sowing
before they will germinate properly. This is
an example of the often complex dormancy
factors that are inherent in some seeds. The
seeds of a few plants benefit from a dry warm
period because, though superficially ripe,
they are not fully mature within. Some seeds
have chemical inhibitors in the seedcoat
which normally leach out during heavy rain-
fall. Seeds in this category should be soaked
in cold water for 24 to 48 hours before sowing.
This simulates the natural leaching process. In
general, most tropical and sub-tropical plants
do not have these dormancy problems. If
there is any doubt as to when to sow seeds,
particularly if home-saved, sow half when
gathered or received and the other half the
following spring if the first batch has not
already germinated. Alpines grown from seed
need special treatment. See pages 88-90 on
the alpine house.
Soil and containers Pre-mixed seed sowing
mixes (composts) are available commercially,
some containing loam, as in the John Innes
formula, while others are all peat. Both sorts
are suitable for most greenhouse plants. For
details and mixtures see page 42. W h e n a few
plants only of each species are needed, small
pots or pans of 3 - 4 in diameter are ideal.
Sowing Fill each container above the rim, tap
it gently on the potting bench, then strike
off the surplus soil with a straight-sided
board so that the soil comes level with the
rim. Firm the soil d o w n with a presser, then
sow the seeds evenly and thinly.
Seeds which are large enough to handle
either with the fingers or flat-tipped forceps
are best space-sown, that is, each seed should
be placed in position sufficiently far apart
each way that subsequent seedlings can
develop w i t h o u t crowding. Larger seeds such
as sweet peas can be sown singly in batteries
of small pots, soil blocks or peat pellets to
save both initial pricking-off and potting. Use
the presser again to push the seeds into the
surface so they are not m o v e d during the
covering operation.
Very fine seeds such as those of begonia
and lobelia are difficult to sow evenly and are
best mixed with some fine dry sand to aid
dispersal. Fine seeds of this sort do not need
covering. Larger seeds should be covered
with a layer of fine soil equal in depth to the
longest diameter of the seed. This is best done
through a fine mesh sieve.
Aftercare Watering should be carried out as
soon as the seeds are sown, using a fine-rosed
can or by immersion. Immersion is best for
very fine seeds as overhead watering may
disturb or clump them. Place the pot in a
bowl or deep tray filled with water so that it
comes at least halfway up the pot. As soon

Seed sowing

1 Fill a container with 2 Firm the soil w i t h a 3 Space-sow seeds which 4 Press the seeds into the 5 Water by immersion, 6 Cover containers with a
soil mix, tap it, then presser to within \ in of the are large enough to handle surface of the soil. Cover placing the container in sheet of glass or plastic
strike off surplus soil rim. Sow the seed thinly with the fingers or a pair of with a thin layer of sieved water until the top of the and keep t h e m away from
with a board. and evenly. forceps. soil. soil darkens. direct sunlight.
Growing from seed 2
as the surface of the soil darkens and glistens
remove the pot and place in the appropriate
germinating temperature.
To prevent undue drying out of the soil
during the germinating period the pots
should be kept out of direct sunlight and
placed either in a propagating case or
covered with sheets of glass. If direct sunlight
is likely to fall on them, they must be shaded
with sheets of cardboard or newspaper to
prevent scorching. This covering is important,
for if the soil surface dries out just as the
seeds are germinating it can be fatal, especi-
ally to very small seeds.
Germination Inspect the seed containers
regularly and either wipe off the condensation
or turn the glass over. After the first week to
ten days, examine daily to catch the first
signs of germination. Once the seedlings are
seen pushing through the soil, remove the
covering and bring into good light, but shade
from direct sunlight for the first week or so.
If the seed was sown too densely or more
seedlings appear than were expected, it is
advisable to spray with captan or zineb as
a precautionary measure against damping-
off disease.
Feeding If seedlings are to be kept in the c o n -
tainer for some time, they should be given a
liquid fertilizer according to the manufac-
Pricking off
1 Lift seedlings in clumps with a wooden
label or a dibble, then tease them apart,
taking care to handle them by the seed
leaves only.
turer's instructions. Additional feeding is
necessary because many seed mixes con-
tain only a phosphate fertilizer, and other
nutrients are necessary for healthy plant
growth.
Pricking off
Once the seedlings are seen to be ready for
pricking off, fill pots, pans or boxes with the
chosen potting mix as described for seed
sowing. Lift the seedlings with care. If in quan-
tity, small clumps should be dug out with a
dibble or a stout wooden label, then teased
apart, taking care to handle them by the seed
leaves only; damaged seedlings should be
discarded.
W h e r e a few seedlings are growing in a
small pot it is best to tap out all the seedlings
and soil, and then to shake or tease them
apart. If there is little or no root branching,
seedlings can be left to make small plants for
direct potting later.
Make planting holes with a dibble, a cylin-
drical stick like a blunt-pointed pencil and
thick enough to make a hole large enough to
take the seedling root comfortably. Dibbles
of differing thickness will be needed for seed-
lings of varying size. Each seedling should be
inserted at the same depth or a little deeper
than it was when growing in the original con-
2 Make planting holes in fresh soil with a
dibble, and insert the seedlings to the
correct depth. Firm the soil lightly around
the roots with the dibble.
tainer. Push the soil gently around the root
and firm each seedling lightly with the dibble.
The distance apart at which seedlings
should be set varies with its size. Very small
seedlings such as those of begonias can be
set about 1 in apart, larger ones to 2 in or
more. Bedding lobelia seedlings may be
pricked off in groups of t w o or four to make
handling easier. The equally small begonias
can be treated in the same way but are best
kept singly. To aid handling, each tiny seed-
ling can be picked up with a notched-tipped
flat stick or plant label.
Once pricking off is completed, each pot,
pan or box must be watered carefully with a
fine-rosed can and returned to the same en-
vironment. W h e n the seedlings have grown
GERMINATION
On germination, each seed produces one
primary root or radicle, a stem known as a
hypocotyl, and one or t w o seed leaves or
cotyledons. Flowering plants are classi-
fied by the number of seed leaves they
produce. The monocotyledons, which in-
clude all members of the lily, amaryllis,
onion and agave families, produce one
usually grassy seed leaf. The dicotyledons,
which include most other vegetable and
flower families and all the broad-leaved
trees and shrubs, have two, usually
rounded or oval seed leaves.
There are some anomalies to this appar-
ently straightforward classification. Some
members of both groups retain their seed
leaves as food stores below ground, the
first leaves to appear being true ones.
Familiar examples are broad bean, sweet
pea, oak and palm.
The germination of seeds covers the
entire process, from subjecting a resting
seed to suitable conditions to cause it to
develop to the stage at which the seedling
produces true leaves and establishes as a
young plant. If a seed is subjected to the
conditions required for germination, and
it fails to germinate, despite the fact that
it is alive, then the seed is described as
being dormant.
Water is vital to allow plant growth to
to the stage when their leaves start to over
lap, they are ready lor potting or hardenning,
off and planting out.
Hardening off
After the seedlings have been pricked off,
they have to be gradually weaned to a stage
at which they can be planted out and survive
cool temperatures, fluctuating water condi-
tions and the effects of wind w i t h o u t their
growth rate being affected. This process is
called hardening off.
Once the pricked-out seedlings have re-
established, move them to a cold frame,
which should be kept firmly closed. Gradually
air the frame during the day by raising the lid,
until the frame is open continually.
get under way. So, if the seed has not been
soaked before sowing, it is important that
the soil should be watered immediately
after sowing.
Once the seed has sufficiently imbibed,
the embryo inside the seed begins to
produce root and stem systems, w h i c h
eventually break out of the seed.
To grow, the embryo uses its food
reserves. W h e n oxygen is combined w i t h
carbohydrates in these food reserves, the
energy necessary for growth is produced.
All growth processes within the seed are
chemical reactions activated by the addi-
tion of water. To develop successfully, the
seed needs an increasing quantity of
water, and the soil used must be capable
of holding these amounts.
As all the processes involved are basic-
ally chemical reactions they will obey
normal physical rules, the simplest of
which implies that the higher the t e m -
perature is raised, the faster will be the
rate of the reaction. In practice, this
means that the warmer seeds are kept,
the quicker they will germinate. As all
these reactions are taking place in a
biological context, there are biological
limitations as to how high the temperature
can be raised. Higher temperatures are
also more costly to maintain.
Cuttings 1
Growing from cuttings is the most popular
method of vegetative propagation. Cuttings
are severed pieces of stem, leaf or root in-
duced to form roots and shoots and develop
into young plants. The advantage of this
method of vegetative propagation is that
every young plant will be identical with its
parent and often will flower and fruit sooner
than a seedling. The severed piece of the
plant is detached from its parent and has to
survive while it develops a root and shoot
system and becomes a complete plant.
Therefore, it is vital to provide an environ-
ment that will induce the production of new
root and shoot growth as fast as possible.
Stem cuttings
Depending on the species and variety and the
age of the plant, stem cuttings take anything
from about ten days to several weeks to pro-
duce roots and start to grow. The younger the
parent, the faster the cutting will root. This is a
factor often overlooked and it must be a
major influence on the choice of plant
material when taking cuttings. During this
period they must be kept alive and in a
healthy condition. To cut down water loss as
much as possible, all leafy cuttings must be
kept in a "close" or humid propagating case
or improvised container.
The rate at which a stem cutting develops
its roots is dependent on the temperature
around it. The higher the temperature, within
reason, the faster the root-triggering chemical
reaction and thus root production. However,
if the whole cutting is kept warm, the tip
should begin to grow and food will be diverted
from the important function of forming roots,
thus weakening the cutting. Therefore, a stem
cutting ideally requires cool air to retard the
growing tip, and warm soil to encourage root
production.
The exact temperatures vary with the c o n -
dition of the stem and how susceptible it is
to water loss. Softwood and greenwood cut-
tings require b o t t o m heat of about 21C/70°F
and as cool an aerial temperature as practic-
able—a mist unit with soil heating is ideal.
Semi-ripe and evergreen cuttings may be
rooted in a similar environment, although
less bottom heat is required. Some may also
be rooted successfully in cold frames or
closed cases if a mist unit is not available.
A moist but well-aerated rooting medium TYPES OF CUTTINGS
must be used in all cases. John Innes seed
compost, all-peat seed and cutting mixes, and
the 50/50 sand and moss peat mixture (see
page 42) are all suitable. For difficult plants
use pure sand, which must be coarse and
well washed. There are no nutrient minerals
in sand and almost none in peat, so once the
cuttings start to root a proprietary liquid ferti-
lizer should be used at each watering until
potting is carried out. Potting should be
done as soon as the cutting is well rooted.
Selecting and taking cuttings
Cuttings should always be taken from vigor-
ous plants, which are young and healthy in
themselves. If possible, the parent plant
should be severely pruned to encourage it to
produce faster-growing shoots from which
cuttings can be made. If it is anticipated that a
large number of cuttings will be taken from
one parent, the parent plant should be pruned
hard to encourage the growth of new shoots. Heel cuttings can be made from soft, Mallet cuttings consist of a side-shoot and
Growth-controlling chemicals called hor- green, semi-ripe or hardwoods. Strip a a section of the main stem. They are taken
mones are responsible for the rooting of young side-shoot away from the main from semi-ripe and hardwoods. The plug
cuttings. In many cuttings enough natural stem so that a strip of bark comes away. of mature w o o d helps prevent rotting.
hormone is present to initiate rooting but it is
recommended that one of the proprietary
hormone rooting powders is used as a stan-
dard procedure. These powders also usually
contain a fungicide to combat rotting.
The ability of the propagating material to
regenerate roots and shoots depends on its
stage of development. This is particularly
true of woody-stemmed plants. Some root
best from soft shoots, others as the shoots
begin to get w o o d y at the base, and yet others
when they are fully woody. Four categories of
development are generally recognized. These
are softwood, greenwood, semi-ripe and
hardwood stem cuttings. The box right illus-
trates some of the ways of taking cuttings.
Heel cuttings are short stems pulled away
from the main plant. The heel is the thin sliver
of plant material that tears away from the
main stem. Mallet cuttings incorporate a
section of main stem on either side of the Softwood stem cuttings are taken from the Leaf-bud cuttings can be taken from any
side-shoot chosen for propagation. Softwood tips of the current season's growth. Hor- type of w o o d . They consist of a short piece
and other cuttings are often taken from the mone powder is not needed, but it is good of stem with a leaf and a b u d in its axil. The
tips of branches. Leafbud cuttings consist of practice to dip the cutting in fungicide. leaf chosen must be fully mature.
a whole leaf, bud, and short piece of stem.
Cuttings 2
Softwood stem cuttings Vigorously growing
shoots of non-woody plants, or fast-growing
tips of potentially woody stems, are used as
softwood cuttings. Softwood cuttings are
taken in spring or early summer. The stems
are best gathered in early morning when at
maximum turgidity. If the cuttings are not to
be used immediately, place them in a bucket
of water. An exception is the zonal geranium
which roots better after cuttings have been
left exposed and shaded for a period of
24 hours.
Trim each shoot to 3 in long, cutting cleanly
just beneath a node or leaf. All leaves on the
basal third to one half should be removed.
Place a 4-6 in layer of the chosen rooting
medium in the bottom of the propagating
case, or fill boxes or pots. If there are only a
few cuttings of each species, 3-4 in pots
make best use of propagating room. This is
particularly useful if several species are being
propagated which have a wide range of
rooting times. Insert the cutting into the
rooting medium so that about one-third of
its length is in the soil, water and place
in a propagating case, ideally with bottom
heat. Softwood cuttings are extremely
susceptible to water loss. A mist unit thus
provides a very high quality environment.
Aim for a rooting medium temperature of
21°-24°C/70 o -75°F. Spray with fungicide on
insertion and weekly thereafter.
Greenwood stem cuttings Greenwood cut-
tings are taken in early summer from the soft
tips of the stems, just as the main flush of
growth slows down but before any sort of
woodiness is observable. They differ from
softwood cuttings only in their speed of
growth. Treat them in the same way as
softwood cuttings, rooting them in a mist
unit or a heated propagating case.
Semi-ripe stem cuttings This category is a
stage further from green wood, each cutting
being made from shoots which are hardening
at the base. Such cuttings are taken in late
summer. Semi-ripe cuttings can be rooted in
poorer light and lower temperatures than
softwood or greenwood cuttings, and can
thus be grown in a cold frame.
Cuttings should be 4 - 6 in long, and it is
often advantageous for them to have a heel
of older wood at the base. To obtain a heel,
choose lateral shoots as cuttings, each one
being either sliced or gently pulled off with a
downwards movement so that a sliver or heel
of the parent stem is attached. If a tail of
tissue extends from the heel this should be cut
away cleanly. If the tip of the semi-ripe cut-
ting is soft it should be removed. Cut off the
lower foliage, leaving about a third of the
cutting bare. Insert them in the same way as
softwood cuttings. Semi-ripe cuttings taken
in late summer should be left in the cold
frame until the end of the following growing
season. Feed regularly to encourage vigor-
ous growth. Lift and transplant the new
plants in autumn.
Hardwood stem cuttings This method is sel-
dom used under glass, though it is suitable for
bougainvillea and a few other shrubs and
climbers that have a fully dormant period.
Growth will have then ceased and the stems
will be fully mature. Use 6 in pieces of mature
wood which have dropped their leaves. Treat
with hormone powder and insert them in a
closed frame within the greenhouse. Leave
about half the length of the cutting above soil
level. Hardwood cuttings, although leafless,
will still lose some water by evaporation from
their surface. The commonest reason why
these cuttings may fail to develop roots is
because they are allowed to dry out. To avoid
water loss, expose as little of the cutting ,is
possible above the ground. However, it the
cutting is planted too deep, the buds will not
grow properly. Thus it is vital to expose
sufficient of the cutting above ground for
about three buds to develop. Keep the
cuttings cool to prevent dormant buds
developing and diverting energy from the
developing roots.
Leaf-bud cuttings
Leaf-bud cuttings may be taken from any of
the types of stem. Each cutting consists of a
leaf, a bud in its leaf axil and a very short piece
of stem. The leaf supplies food to support the
cutting and the regenerative processes; the
bud is the basis for the new stem system; and
the piece of stem is where the first roots are
produced.
New stems produced by pruned plants
have the best chance of success. Select one
of these new stems with an undamaged

Softwood cuttings

1 Gather shoots from the
tips of vigorously-growing
plants. If possible, take
cuttings in the early
morning.
2 Trim each shoot to 3 in
long, cutting below a node
or leaf. Remove leaves from
the bottom third of the
cutting.
3 Fill pots or trays with
soil mix. Make planting
holes with a dibble and
insert the cuttings.
4 Water the cuttings and
place in a propagating case
or mist unit. The rooting
medium should be kept at
21 o -24°C/70 o -75°F.
5 Spray the cuttings with
a dilute fungicide on
planting and weekly
thereafter. Label the
containers.
6 When the cuttings have
rooted, gradually reduce
bottom heat and when they
have hardened off pot using
John Innes No. 1 compost.
Cuttings 3
mature leal, insure that there is a viable bud
in the leaf axil.
Cut close above the bud so that as small a
snag as possible is left. This minimizes the
likelihood of rotting and die-back. Make the
basal cut about 1-11/2 in below the top cut so
that sufficient stem is available to anchor the
cutting firmly in the growing medium. Apply
a rooting hormone. Insert the cutting with
its bud level with the soil surface. Place
cuttings of the more hardy plants in a cold
frame and cuttings of less hardy plants in a
well-lit protected environment such as a mist
unit or closed case. It may be necessary to
support large-leaved plants such as Ficus
elastica with a short length of cane inserted
next to each cutting to prevent it toppling.
The cane can be inserted through the rolled
leaf, which is itself secured by a rubber band.
Vine eyes Vine eyes are the hardwood
equivalent of leaf-bud cuttings taken while
the grape vine, or other woody plant, is leaf-
less. Prepare the vine eyes as described above.
Insert them horizontally with the bud just
above the soil surface. If this method is chosen
it will aid rooting if a sliver of bark is removed
on the opposite side of the stem from the bud.
Label the pot and stand it on a greenhouse
bench or in a closed case—the higher the
temperature, the faster will be the rate of
regeneration.
Water the cutting to prevent it drying out.
Do not overwater during the winter when
the cutting is dormant, as the soil will
readily waterlog, causing the cutting to rot
and die. Harden off the cutting once it has
rooted, and transplant in spring. Label it.
Stem sections
A few greenhouse plants, notably Dietlen-
bachia (dumb cane), Dracaena and Cordyline,
become leggy with age, the lower stem be-
coming leafless. W h e n the plant becomes
unattractive it can be cut back to just above
soil level. Sever the top of the removed stem
and use it as an evergreen cutting. Cut the
remaining bare stem into 11/2-2 in lengths
and insert these stem section cuttings verti-
cally w i t h the top flush with the soil, or
horizontally and completely covered by
about 1/2 in of the rooting medium. It is advis-
able to dip the sections into a fungicide before
insertion. If they are inserted vertically, make
sure they are the same way up as when
growing on the plant. Each cutting will have
several incipient buds, one to three of which
may grow into aerial shoots.
Evergreen cuttings
Evergreen cuttings are taken from stems of
very ripe w o o d . Unlike hardwood cuttings
they are not leafless and are not fully dormant
because of their evergreen habit. Because
they have leaves, the cuttings need extra care
to prevent excessive water loss.
Take evergreen cuttings, from a pruned
plant if possible, during later summer to early
a u t u m n ; rooting will normally take place
during winter. Evergreen cuttings taken in
late summer should be 4 - 6 in long. Take a
heel with the cutting if it is to be propagated
in unsterilized soil in a cold frame or poly-
ethylene tunnel. Neaten any tail on the heel.
Leave on the cutting any terminal bud that
may have formed. If, however, growth is c o n -
tinuing, cut out the soft tip with a knife. Strip
the leaves off the bottom third of the cutting.
Make a shallow vertical w o u n d about 1 in long
in the b o t t o m of the stem of plants that are
difficult to root. Dip the base of the cutting in
rooting hormone powder. Ensure the cut
surface is covered w i t h the powder.
Plant the cutting up to its leaves in a cold
frame or mist unit. Allow the leaves of cuttings
to t o u c h but not to overlap.
Aim for cool, moist conditions by shading
the frame until light intensity becomes lower
in winter. Leave frame-grown cuttings in place
for the whole of the next growing season. Pot
on mist-unit cuttings in spring, taking care not
to damage the roots.
Evergreen plants can be propagated from
softer w o o d earlier in the growing season.
Treat these cuttings according to the con-
dition (soft, green w o o d or semi-ripe wood) of
their stems.
Conifers
Some conifers, but not most spruces, pines
and firs, can be propagated from cuttings.
Either a warm environment such as a propa-
gating case or a cold frame can be used.
Select young, actively-growing shoots and
take cuttings in autumn and winter.

Evergreen cuttings

1 In late summer, take heel
cuttings of the current
season's growth, from a
pruned plant if possible.
Rooting is in winter.
2 Trim the heel, pinch out
the growing tip and remove
leaves from the lower third
of the cutting.
3 Make a shallow 1 in cut
at the base of the stem.
Dip the cut area in rooting
hormone powder.
4 Mix peat, grit and sand
into cold-frame soil. Plant
the cuttings in the frame up
to their leaves. Do not
allow leaves to overlap.
5 Shade the frame and
water well. In winter,
insulate the frame against
frost if necessary.
6 The following autumn,
transplant t h e rooted
cuttings, taking care not to
damage t h e fragile roots.
Label the plants.
Leaves 1
Some greenhouse and house plants will
develop plantlets on their leaves. In some
cases this is done naturally, in others leaves
are detached, treated in much the same way
as cuttings, and the plantlets which develop
grown on. Although only a small range of
plants can be grown from leaves, this range
includes many of the most popular such as
Begonia rex and the African violet Saintpaulia
ionantha.
Types of leaf cuttings
The simplest form of leaf cutting is a complete
leaf with a stalk. Such leaf-petiole cuttings
can be taken at any season when a complete
young leaf is available. Midrib cuttings make
use of the fact that a leaf midrib is an exten-
sion of a leaf-stalk and is able to regenerate
in the same way. Propagation by midrib
cuttings is most successful from plants
having leaves with a single central vein,
such as Streptocarpus. Lateral vein cuttings
develop on the side-veins of a leaf after the
midrib has been cut out. Leaf slashing
involves the growth of plantlets from cuts
made in a leaf without a central main vein.
Leaves of plants such as Begonia rex can be
cut into squares which will, given correct
conditions, each produce a plantlet. Succu-
lents and some bulbs have the capacity to
produce plantlets from leaf sections.
Foliar embryos
A few plants develop plantlets naturally.
Examples are Tolmiea menziesii, the pig-a-
back plant, and Mitella. Some plants release
their plantlets naturally, on others the plant-
lets have to be separated from the parent
plant.
Propagation conditions
Leaf cuttings of all sorts are vulnerable to
moisture loss and therefore must be kept in
a closed propagator, or under a glass sheet
or polyethylene tent. Bottom heat best
provides the warm, humid conditions re-
quired The most c o m m o n cause of failure in
leaf propagation is rotting of the leaf before
it has a chance to become established.
Hygiene is thus vital. All propagating equip-
ment and containers should be clean, and
soil should be sterile.
Choice of leaves Young yet fully developed
leaves should be chosen. If the leaf is still
growing, its energy will go into developing
fully. This will delay the generation of new
plant life in the form of plantlets. Since a
leaf is unsupported by a root system, any
delay can be a source of problems. Select
leaves that are complete, normal and un-
damaged, and free from pests and diseases.
It is possible to take leaf cuttings all the year
round, so long as young complete leaves are
available.
Planting and aftercare Use a cuttings mix
made up of equal parts of sand and grit.
When taking the leaves from the parent
plant, use a sharp knife or razor blade. Always
spray or water leaf cuttings with a fungicide
on planting. If the plantlets are slow to
develop, foliar feeding may be necessary.
Do not feed until plantlet growth has begun.
Taking leaf-petiole cuttings
Leaf-petiole cuttings can be taken at any
time of the year when new leaves are avail-
able. Choose an undamaged leaf which has
recently expanded to its mature size. Make
up a mix of equal parts silted peat and grit
Fill a container and firm the mix to within
1/4 - 3/4 in of the rim. Cut the chosen leal from
the parent plant with a clean sharp knife
About 2 in of stalk should be attached to the
leaf. Using a dibble, insert the petiole at a
shallow angle in the mix. Firm the mix gently
around the petiole. The leaf should be almost
flat on the surface of the mix so that the
stalk is in the topmost layer of the cuttings
mix, where air can penetrate. Insert the
remaining cuttings, label them and water with
a dilute fungicide.
The leaf cuttings will need an a t m o s p h e r e
of high humidity, such as that produced in a
heated propagating case. Bottom heat,
maintaining a temperature of 20*C/68*F, is
ideal. The cuttings must have sufficient light
to develop, but should be shaded from direct
sunlight.
In about 5 - 6 weeks, plantlets should begin
to develop on the leaf stalk. Several may
appear on each stalk, though the number is
variable. The number of plantlets that appear
on each stalk is smaller than the number that
each leaf will produce using leaf squares of

Taking leaf-petiole cuttings

1 Cut an undamaged, fully
grown young leaf from the
parent plant. Cut near the
base, and trim the stalk to
about 2 in.
2 Insert the stalk at a
shallow angle in a flat of
cuttings mix. Firm the
mix gently around the
stalk.
3 Spray the cuttings with a
dilute fungicide as soon as
they are inserted.
4 Place the flat of cuttings
in a propagating case at
20°C/68°F. Shade lightly to
protect the cuttings from
direct sun.
5 Alternatively, place a few
cuttings in a 3 in pot.
Cover with a polyethylene
bag supported on wire.
Place in a warm, light room.
6 Pot on the plantlets once
they are large enough to
handle. Harden off by
reducing heat and increasing
ventilation.
Leaves 2
leal slashing. W h e n the plantlets are suffi-
ciently large to be handled, pot them on into
|ohn Innes No. 1 or equivalent. Liquid
feeding may be necessary if the plantlets
have to remain in the original cuttings
mix for any length of time. The popular
African violet, Saintpaulia ionantha, is often
propagated from leaf-petiole cuttings. Other
plants that respond to the method are
begonias (other than Begonia rex), Peperomia
caperata, and P. metallica.
Taking leaf square cuttings
Unlike the leaf-petiole method, the leaf
square cuttings technique allows a large
number of plants to be propagated from a
single leaf. It is mainly used to propagate
Begonia rex and related species.
Take a fully expanded, undamaged young
leaf from the parent plant. Lay it face down on
a sheet of clean glass and cut the leaf into a
series of squares. Each piece should be
roughly 3/4 in square. Be careful not to crush
the leaves when cutting. Prepare a flat of
cuttings soil and firm it to within 1/4-3/8 in of
the rim, water it well and lay the leaf squares
on the soil surface, face upwards and about
j in apart. Label and spray with a dilute
fungicide. Do not water leaf squares, but
irrigate if necessary by standing the flat in
a bath of water.
Place the flat of cuttings in a closed
propagating case with bottom heat and
keep them at a temperature of 18-21°C/65-
70°F. Avoid direct sunlight, but allow the
cuttings enough light to begin development.
Plantlets should begin to appear after 5-6
weeks. They should not be detached from
the leaf square and potted on until they are
large enough to handle. Gradually harden off
the plantlets by admitting air to the pro-
pagating case and reducing the temperature.
Leaf slashing Begonia rex can also be pro-
pagated by leaf slashing, a technique similar
to propagation from leaf squares. Choose a
large mature leaf, lay it on a sheet of glass,
and instead of cutting it into squares, make
3/4 in cuts across the leaf veins. Aim for one cut
every square inch. Place the leaf face up on
damp soil, and secure it with a wire staple.
Treat as leaf squares above. Plantlets will
develop at the cuts.
Monocot leaves Taking leaf square cuttings
Some plants have monocotyledonous leaves,
that is, leaves with a series of parallel veins
running along the length of the leaf. Such
plants include bulbous species such as
hyacinth and snowdrop, and succulents
such as Sansevieria (mother-in-law's tongue).
Leaves from bulbous plants are delicate and
should be handled as little as possible.
Take a mature leaf and cut into 1 in sections
across the veins, using a sheet of glass and a
sharp blade as described above for leaf
squares. Insert the cuttings vertically in
cuttings soil or mix. Spray with fungicide and
place in a warm (21°C/70°F), humid environ-
ment.
New leaves used for propagation from
bulbs in spring will take four to six weeks to
produce plantlets. Pot up the plantlets once
they are large enough to handle.
Grafting
Grafting is not a c o m m o n method of pro- 1 Carefully cut a large fully 2 Lay the leaf face d o w n on 3 Place the leaf squares 1/2 in
pagation in the amateur greenhouse, though grown young leaf from the a sheet of clean glass. Cut apart on the surface of a
it is used by professionals and in the open parent plant, cutting near the leaf into squares, each flat of damp soil in a warm,
garden to propagate shrubs, roses and fruit the base. about 3/4 in across. humid environment.
trees. The main purpose of grafting is to
replace the rootstock of a given plant with
another, compatible rootstock. This can
have the effect of restricting the growth of
the plant, conferring resistance to disease, or
promoting vigorous growth. The process is
not technically difficult, and grafting can
form an enjoyable area for experiment. Full
details may be found in the companion
volume in this series, Plant Propagation.
MIDRIB CUTTINGS
Leaves with pronounced central ribs can
be used as propagation material in the
same way as whole leaves with stalk
attached. The midrib is an extension of
the stalk, and when cut into sections
plantlets will develop from the cut sur-
faces of the rib, given the correct condi-
tions. Cut leaves of Gloxinia, Streptocarpus
and similar plants into 1 1/2 in sections.
Insert vertically in flats of soil and treat 4 Spray the cuttings with 5 Harden off young 6 Pot on the plantlets
as leaf square cuttings. Plantlets should dilute fungicide. Shade from plantlets by increasing when they are large enough
appear in 5 - 6 weeks. direct sunlight. ventilation and reducing to handle John Innes No. 1
temperature. or equivalent.
Other propagation methods 1
Air layering
1 In spring, trim leaves and side-shoots
from the chosen stem. Girdle by cutting
off a 1/3 in ring of bark with a sharp knife.
3 Wrap a square of black polyethylene
around the moss ball. Secure top and bottom
with tape. Leave for a growing season.
2 Apply hormone power to the cut.
Squeeze a ball of wet sphagnum moss
around the girdled stem.
4 Towards the end of the following dormant
season, prune any new growth above the
layered portion.
Air layering
While cuttings are induced to form roots after
being detached from the parent plant, air
layering is a technique which induces the
growth of roots on stems still attached to the
parent. Its main use in the greenhouse is to
propagate Ficus elastica, though it can also be
used on citrus trees and on shrubs.
Air layering is carried out in spring or late
summer on growths of the current season
that are becoming woody. The necessary
conditions for root formation are restriction
of the chosen stem and the exclusion of light.
The roots thus stimulated are encouraged by
damp, moist conditions.
Preparing a stem Trim off the leaves and side-
shoots of a straight stem to between 6 and
12 in from the tip. Girdle the stem with a sharp
knife and apply hormone powder.
Applying the rooting medium Sphagnum
moss, which is well aerated and holds mois-
ture, is the best rooting medium. Soak a hand-
ful of moss thoroughly and squeeze it to
remove excess moisture. W o r k it into an
interwoven ball of fibers 2 - 3 in in diameter,
split and place around the girdled stem. Hold
5 Then cut the stem below the poly-
ethylene. Remove the polyethylene, taking
care not to damage the delicate new roots.
the moss in place with a square of black
polyethylene wrapped around to form a tube
and fixed in place with tape. The black poly
ethylene will keep in moisture, keep out light
and maintain the correct warm, moist en
vironment for root formation and growth,
Aftercare and potting Air-layered plants will
normally take at least a growing season to
establish themselves. Towards the end of the
dormant season after the first growing season,
prune back any new g r o w t h above the
layered section. Cut the stem just below the
b o t t o m of the polyethylene-clad section and
carefully remove the polyethylene and the
tape. The moss should be combined with
the new roots to form a rootball. Cut away
the section of stem below the new roots,
slightly loosen the rootball and plant < art-
fully in a pot of John Innes No. 1 or equivalent
Firm gently to avoid damaging the roots.
Bulb scaling
Bulbs increase naturally by producing bulb-
lets or offsets but this method is slow. A faster
method of propagation is bulb scaling. This
can be done with lily and f ritillary bulbs. These
6 Pot into John Innes No. 1 or equivalent,
firm in gently and place in the greenhouse
until new growth begins.
Other propagation methods 2
bulbs have relatively narrow scale leaves
which can be readily pulled off the bulb's
basal plate,
lake scales from fresh, healthy bulbs,
preferably in October or November. Cut only
a few scale leaves from each bulb. Treat all
scales with a fungicide such as captan by
shaking them in a bag with fungicide powder.
Place the scales in sterile cuttings mixture or
damp vermiculite and seal the whole in a
plastic bag. Store at 21°C/70°F until, in about
6 - 8 weeks, bulblets develop at the base of
the detached scales. W h e n the bulblets
appear, plant the scale leaves, with the bulb-
lets, in pots of potting mix or soil. Plant them
vertically with the tips just above the soil
mix. Water sparingly, and keep at 21°C/70°F
until leaves are produced. At the end of the
season, after the leaves have died down, lift
and separate the new bulbs, potting on or
replanting them at once.
All material propagated—seeds, leaves or
cuttings—must be labeled. Otherwise it is
very easy to lose track of what plants are.
The label should show the date of sowing
or propagation, the species and the variety.
Other information such as the source of
the propagating material or reminders of
the conditions required may be added.
Labels can simply be wood, plastic or
metal tags (a). Data can be written on these
tags using a soft lead pencil or wax crayon.
Division Bulb scaling
I he garden technique of propagating peren-
nials by division is practiced in the green-
house. Mature plants which have become too
large can be divided, as can those fibrous-
crowned plants which become woody in the
center and only produce new growth at the
edges. Dahlias and tuberous begonias can be
divided but grow better from cuttings or seed.
Greenhouse plants that can be divided in-
clude arums, ferns, and some orchids. Plants
with fibrous crowns should be divided im-
mediately after flowering. Remove the plant
from its pot and dip the rootball in a bucket
of water. Then gently pull the crown into
pieces of the required size. Tough crowns can
be cut with a knife. Make sure that each piece
has a good eye or bud. Trim the long snoots
on the divided segments to balance the top-
growth and roots and lessen water loss. Plant
in pots and water well.
1 In autumn, remove scale leaves from the 2 Place the scale leaves in a plastic bag
outside of bulbs. Cut only a few scale leaves containing damp vermiculite or an equal
from each bulb. Dust with fungicide powder. mixture of damp peat and grit. Blow up the
bag, seal it and put it in a w a r m dry place.
Alternatively, paint a strip at the end of a
seed flat white to form a writing surface
(b). W h e n the flat is re-used a new layer of
white paint can be applied to obliterate
the label and provide a new writing sur-
face.
Mature plants can have labels attached
to the stem. These can be made of plastic
or light metal (c). Hand machines are avail- 3 Six-eight weeks later, when bulblets 4 Place the pots in a w a r m (21°C/70°F) well-
able which print labels on strips of plastic appear at the base, plant the scales upright lit place. New leaves will appear in spring.
or punch letters onto lead strips (d). in John Innes No. 1 or equivalent and Harden off, and in a u t u m n lift and separate
cover the mix with grit. the bulbs. Replant as soon as possible.
The year in a cold greenhouse 1
The year in a cold greenhouse
This calender details sowing and harvesting
times for basic cold greenhouse crops and
lists planting, sowing and potting on times
for ornamentals.
Regular tasks such as watering, feeding,
damping down, shading and ventilating are
not listed every month. The timing of these
procedures is to a large extent dependent
upon day to day conditions and on the crops
being grown. Follow the instructions given
under individual crops, and act according to
the basic principles discussed in the first t w o
sections of this book.
Pest and disease control is another regular
task that must be attended to whenever
problems arise. The worst period for pests is
from April to October, but problems such as
whitefly and red spider mite can appear in
any of the 12 months. Follow the instructions
on pages 33-40 for the control of pests and
diseases.
Using a cold greenhouse
A cold greenhouse is one which possesses no
form of artificial heat. It is, in effect, no more
than a protective covering against extremes
of cold, wet and wind. A cold greenhouse can
form a vital and interesting adjunct to the
garden provided its limitations are recognized
and the plants to be grown carefully selected.
The most important limitation of the cold
greenhouse is that of temperature. In winter,
if the outside temperature drops to around
7°C/20°F it is likely that there will be several
degrees of frost inside the greenhouse. It is
wise to recognize this and to avoid trying
to over-winter plants which are not frost-
hardy. It is possible to give protection against
frost by plunging pots and covering plants
with polyethylene or burlap, but these pro-
vide limited defense against severe frosts.
Conditions and choice of plants
A cold greenhouse will suit those plants that
are hardy outdoors, and will in most cases
allow them to be grown better. It also suits
annuals, including fruits and vegetables,
which are half-hardy outdoors. A cold green-
house can extend the growing season at
either end, allowing crops to be taken earlier
and later than outdoors. Ornamental annuals
and biennials can be raised from seed in the
predictable conditions a cold greenhouse
offers, and various propagation techniques
carried out.
Despite the lack of artificial heat, the
gardener has various techniques available to
allow him to alter the environment of a cold
greenhouse. The basic principles explained
in the section on Running the Greenhouse
(pages 32-33), apply here, though with the
narrow tolerance of many cold greenhouse
plants extra care is needed.
Ventilation The most effective method of
temperature control available is ventilation.
In very cold conditions it can be colder in the
greenhouse than outside if the doors and
lower ventilators are not opened for a few
hours in the middle of the day. Cold air is
heavy and collects in a pool at ground level,
but will flow out if given the chance.
Most ventilation is concerned with trap-
ping solar heat. Once outside temperatures
start to rise in spring, ventilators should be
opened a little in the morning and closed
some hours before sunset. This regime may
well cause the thermometer to rise five
degrees above normal; this heat surplus not
only acts as a cushion against the rapid drop
in temperature as night falls, but also im-
proves the growing atmosphere. Some of the
surplus heat is absorbed by the soil, paths
and structure generally, moderating night
temperatures as it is given off into the cooling
air. This mechanism is exploited by several
solar heating systems
At all times the aim is to produce a buoyant
atmosphere, one in which the air within the
greenhouse is moving up and around rather
than lying stagnant.
Air movement The circulation of air is a vital
factor in cold greenhouse management. Even
in a closed-up cold house in winter, imperfec-
tions in glazing can allow air to escape suf-
ficiently fast to give t w o complete air changes
per hour. In high summer well-ventilated
greenhouses can have 120 air changes per
hour, which helps to keep internal tempera-
tures close to those outside. If through a
deficiency in ventilation air changes drop to
3 0 - 4 0 per hour, summer greenhouse tem-
peratures can rise as high as 43°C/110°F, to
the detriment of plants.

January February March April May June

Plan the year's crops and order
seeds and seedlings. Ventilate the
greenhouse on sunny days.
Sow onions for transplanting. Sow
early radishes in soil borders or
peat pots.
Bring in plunged bulbs to flower in
the greenhouse (Babiana,
Chionodoxa, Crocus, daffodils,
Fritillaria, Iris, Leucojum,
Ornithogalum.)
Bulbs which have finished flowering
can be planted out into frames.
Sow lily seed. Begin sequence of
chrysanthemum cuttings later in
the month.
Ventilate as necessary. Water
sparingly.
Sow lettuce, early bunching turnips,
carrots, parsnips and early beets
(until March), bulb onions (until
April). Sow tomatoes in heat later
in the month.
Bring potted strawberries in to crop
in late spring.
Bring in remaining plunged bulbs to
replace those which have finished
flowering.
Pot on and divide ferns if necessary.
Pot on over-wintered coleus,
fuchsias and pelargoniums.
Sow and place in a propagating
case: Abutilons, tuberous and
fibrous begonias, Coleus, Celosias,
Gloxinias, Streptocarpus.
Pot on annuals sown in autumn.
Re-pot evergreen azaleas.
Sow lettuce, celery, carrots,
mustard and cress.
Sow in heat: eggplants, sweet
peppers, dwarf beans, tomatoes if
not sown in February.
Prick out lettuce seedlings. Pot out
late in month.
Sow for transplanting: broad beans,
runner beans, brassicas, leeks,
celery, peas, sweetcorn, chives,
thyme.
Continue to bring in pot
strawberries.
Sow half-hardy annuals and alpines.
Pot on over-wintered annuals. Take
pelargonium and dahlia cuttings.
Plant out rooted cuttings taken in
winter. Plant hippeastrum bulbs in
pots.
Sow according to needs: lettuce,
radish, mustard and cress, beets,
endive, parsley. Sow sweetcorn,
celeriac, dwarf French beans,
cucumbers.
Harvest early radishes and lettuce,
chicory, seakale and rhubarb.
Complete sowing half-hardy
annuals. Sow biennials for spring
flowering under glass. Prick out
March-sown seedlings. Begin to
harden off bedding plant seedlings.
Take fuchsia cuttings, pot rooted
dahlia and other cuttings. Pot up
tuberoses for flowering. Start
feeding camellias.
Plant eggplants, sweet peppers, Harvest lettuce, radish, endive,
okra and cucumber, melons. mustard and cress, beans, parsley.
Harvest early carrots, early Continue to sow biennials. Pot on
bunching turnips, beets. cyclamen seedlings.
Plant out tomatoes after last Take cuttings of pinks. Plunge
frost. azaleas outside and feed every
Harden off bedding plants and 14 days.
plant out after frosts have ended.
Take cuttings from regal
pelargoniums. Sow Calceolaria,
Freesia, Schizanthus for winter
flowering.
The year in a cold greenhouse 2
Excessive summer temperatures can be
reduced by damping down floors and walls
with city water, which rarely rises above a
temperature of 10 L C/50"F. Damping down
also promotes a degree of humidity enjoyed
by most plants. Excessive transpiration caused
by very dry, hot conditions gives a severe
check to plant growth. Shading, used in con-
junction with ventilation, is also important in
controlling summer conditions. For full de-
tails of shading and ventilation practice, see
pages 14-16.
Thus the management of a cold green-
house is an amalgam of attention to ventila-
tion, atmospheric moisture, warmth and
light. Holding the environmental balance is a
complicated art in which experience is an
important factor.
Plants for the cold greenhouse
Most annuals, biennials and shrubs, provided
they are hardy, can be successfully over-
wintered in a cold house. The advantage of
doing so is that they flower two to three weeks
earlier than plants grown outdoors. Their
condition, not having had to contend with
winter weather, is better than that of outdoor
plants. Blooms are more spectacular as wind
and rain damage is not a problem.
Alpines and similar plants can also be
grown in an unheated greenhouse, but they
require conditions which preclude the growth
of many other plants. The running of an
alpine house is described on pages 8 8 - 9 0 .
Many food crops can be grown in a cold
house, providing cash saving over shop
prices and often produce of a higher quality.
Tomatoes, the most popular crop, are covered
in detail on pages 70-71. The following pages
also detail the cultivation of fruits and other
salad and vegetables. Another aspect of
garden food production that a greenhouse
can assist is the raising of seedlings for trans-
planting outdoors. This frees the gardener
from dependence on commercially raised
plants, and makes the growing of unusual
vegetables, and the obscurer varieties of
c o m m o n ones, possible. As with flowers, the
quality of crops grown under glass will be
higher than those grown outdoors, due to
the lack of weather damage. This is especially
true of salad crops and strawberries.
Over-wintering Successful over-wintering is
more likely if certain precautions are taken.
During the coldest spells, plants must be kept
on the dry side. It is best that the roots do not
freeze for these are often more tender than
the tops. Ground level beds should be deeply
mulched with bracken or straw and the bases
of shrubs and climbers wrapped. Large pots
and tubs must be wrapped either with straw,
glass fiber, or any other approved insulating
material that can be secured in place with
netting or burlap and wire twine. Smaller
pots are best plunged in peat or sand.
Winter sets limitations on what can be
grown permanently in the unheated green-
house. From about mid-spring to late autumn
the full range of cool greenhouse plants thrive
happily. From late spring to early or mid-
autumn even warm greenhouse plants suc-
ceed. W i t h a heated propagating case, such
plants can be over-wintered.
Flowering plants from seed
A wide range of hardy and tender annuals
and biennials is readily available to provide
color and interest in the cold greenhouse
for a large part of the year. These plants can
be used as the main display or to fill in gaps
between non-flowering permanent plants or
fruit and vegetable crops. Hardy annuals can
be sown in late summer or early autumn. They
will over-winter well in a cold greenhouse and
flower late the following spring, well ahead of
their normal season. This technique can be
used for hardy biennials, but these need to be
sown in early summer and may be grown
outside or in an open cold frame until late
autumn. Routine seed sowing and pricking
off into flats or pans is all that annuals and
biennials initially require (see pages 55-56).
Thereafter place the young plants singly into
5 in pots, or space three out into 6 or 7 in con-
tainers. A fairly rich soil mix is recom-
mended, a John Innes potting No. 2 being
very satisfactory. Once the y o u n g plants are
3 - 4 in tall, pinch out their tips to encourage
branching and a more bushy habit. As soon
as they are growing more strongly, in late
winter or early spring, c o m m e n c e liquid
feeding and repeat at 10-14 day intervals.
At about this time, insert twiggy sticks or
canes for support. For full details, see page 55.

July August September October November December

Harvest sweet peppers, lettuce,
radishes, mustard and cress,
parsley, tomatoes left in the
greenhouse.
Take hydrangea cuttings.
Take half-ripe cuttings.
Sow lettuce, radishes, mustard and
cress, winter endive.
Sow cyclamen seeds. Take fuchsia
cuttings, pot on half-ripe cuttings.
Sow lettuce, radishes, mustard and
cress, alpine strawberries.
Plant late in month: apricots,
peaches, grape vines.
Harvest lettuces, parsley, radishes,
mustard and cress.
Lift seakale roots late in month,
pot up and blanch.
Sow hardy annuals for spring
flowering under glass.
Pot on hardy biennials for spring
flowering.
Bring in evergreen azaleas, pot-
grown chrysanthemums. Plant
bulbous irises and hyacinths in
pots.
Sow lettuce for crops in spring.
Plant fruit trees.
Continue to pot up and blanch
seakale.
Bring in tender bedding perennials
for over-wintering.
Repeat sowings of annuals. Prick
out annuals sown in September.
Pot on biennials. Sow sweet peas.
Over-winter chrysanthemum stools
and dahlia tubers.
Sow onions for transplanting. Harvest chicory.
Box up rhubarb crowns, chicory Bring in remaining plunged bulbs
and remaining seakale. Insulate for spring flowering.
boxes if necessary. Take advantage of quiet period to
Bring in pots of herbs for winter do cleaning and maintenance jobs
supply. on greenhouse and equipment.
Plant grape vines.
Cut back chrysanthemums to 6 in
after flowering to encourage
growth for cuttings. Prick out
October-sown sweet peas. Pot on
annuals. Bring plunged bulbs into
the greenhouse as shoots appear.
Fruits
A t o l d greenhouse can be used to grow a
variety of fruit (Tops, the best c h o k e being
melons, strawberries, grapes, peaches, apri-
cots and nectarines. The more stable environ-
ment of the greenhouse, and the protection
it affords, allows the production of earlier,
more reliable fruit crops compared with out-
door culture, especially in districts with
cooler than average summer temperatures.
The greatest limitation of the cold green-
house for growing fruit is that many of the
crops, but particularly grapes, peaches, apri-
cots and nectarines, take up a great deal of
space. If possible, it may be best to devote a
whole greenhouse to fruit culture but if this
is not practical, select fruit that will not
occupy the whole house or block light from
other plants. Alternatively, cultivate plants
in pots to restrict their growth to manageable
proportions.
Choosing a greenhouse
I or small-growing crops such as melons and
strawberries a house of conventional dimen-
sions will be suitable but a larger house is
necessary to accommodate other fruit ade-
quately unless they are grown in pots. W h e n
choosing a greenhouse for growing fruit
remember that a vigorous grape vine will
need a border at least 8 ft long and that a
peach, apricot or nectarine will require a
greenhouse with a wall or glass sides at least
12 ft high. When selecting a greenhouse for
fruit growing follow all the general principles
described on pages 12-13. Fruit trees should
be grown against a south-facing wall.
Planting
Vines, peaches and their relations and melons
can all be planted direct into the border soil
of the greenhouse, which should be prepared
according to the individual requirements of
each crop. Strawberries, however, are best
cultivated in pots or barrels. If space is
limited it is also possible to cultivate grapes,
peaches, apricots and nectarines—and even
plums, apples, pears and cherries—in pots,
although for the last four of these it is essen-
tial to select varieties grown on dwarfing
rootstocks. Container culture has the added
advantage that it is possible to provide
exactly the right type of soil but it is important
to give plants the maximum possible light. It Melons
will be difficult for plants to thrive, and for
fruit to ripen, if plants in pots are shaded b)
a thick vine or a vigorous peach.
Training and support Except for strawberries
all the types of fruit suggested for the cold
greenhouse will need some system of wire;
on which they can be trained and this should
be combined with a support system. Always
remember to arrange the training system
before planting because inserting wires be-
hind growing plants is not only difficult but
can lead to damage.
Ventilation
The exact needs of fruit crops vary in detail
but good ventilation is essential. Peaches, for
example, ideally need ventilation from the
roof and sides of the house. W h e n growing a
crop that takes up a good deal of space in
the greenhouse always make sure that the
growth of the plant does not interfere with 1 Prepare a soil mix of 2 oz steamed 2 Stretch wires along the sides 1 ft apart
the ventilation system or make window; bonemeal and 2 oz compound fertilizer to and 15 in from the glass. Tie in t w o canes
difficult to open. one 2 gal bucketful of soil. Place this on top per plant, one from soil to eaves, the other
For full details of cultural practices see the of the border soil in a ridge 1 ft high. from the eaves to the house ridge. In May
volume Fruit in this series. plant the seedlings raised in heat.
CULTIVATION
Grapes Construct a training system of
horizontal wires 9 in apart and 15 in from
the glass. Plant in November in well-
drained porous border soil containing
loam, peat and grit with added base
fertilizer and limestone. Water to give a
thorough soaking in early spring. Mulch.
Keep the soil thoroughly damp, watering
every 7-10 days in hot weather, and re-
duce watering as fruit ripens. Ventilate
from January to March then close the
vents until May or when the air tempera-
ture exceeds 18°C/64°F.
Peaches, apricots and nectarines Con-
struct a training system of wires placed
10 in apart and 10 in from the glass. Plant
in October in border soil enriched with
peat and add lime at 1 lb per sq yd. Mulch.
Water well after planting and from the 3 As the plants grows tie stems to canes 4 Thin the fruit to four of t h e same size per
time growth starts. Ventilate during the and laterals to the horizontal wires. Pinch plant when fruits are walnut-sized. Water
day only after fruit has set. Close the house out the growing point when plant is 6 ft the plants very well and liquid feed them
at night. tall. Pinch back side shoots to t w o leaves every 7-10 days. As fruits enlarge support
beyond each flower. Increase ventilation. t h e m w i t h netting slings.
Tomatoes 1
Tomatoes are an excellent choice of crop for
a cold greenhouse for they are tender plants
that profit greatly from the protection glass
affords. A heated propagating case can be
used in a cold greenhouse to provide the
added heat necessary for raising plants from
seed. All greenhouse-grown tomatoes need
careful attention to watering, feeding and
care in controlling pests and diseases.
Raising tomato plants
W i t h o u t the use of a heated propagating case
it is usually best to purchase tomato plants
rather than raise them from seed. Choose
strong plants with no trace of disease.
Seed sowing Seed may be sown in a heated
propagating case in early January for plant-
ing eight weeks later. Sow seed thinly in
John Innes No. 1 compost placed directly in
the case or in flats or pans which are placed
in it. Seeds sown too thickly are likely to
suffer from damping-off diseases. Set the
propagator thermostat to 18°C/65°F. At this
temperature germination and emergence
should take place in 7-10 days. Keep the
seedlings evenly moist but not waterlogged.
Raising from seed
1 Early January Sow 2 - 3 seeds per sq in
in propagator filled with sieved soil.
Sprinkle over 1/8 in layer of soil and
cover with newspaper.
Pricking out W h e n the seedlings have de-
veloped their first true leaves 10-12 days after
sowing, carefully prick them out singly into
individual 3 in peat or plastic pots filled with a
proprietary potting soil or mix. Insert a small
dibble beneath the roots of each seedling and
hold the seedling by its leaves to prevent
damage. Use the dibble to make a hole big
enough to take each seedling without re-
stricting its roots. Water the seedlings gently
to firm the soil round their roots and replace
them in the propagator.
Temperature control Keep the seedlings at
18°C/65°F until they begin to shade each
other, then turn the thermostat down to
16°C/60°F. About a week before planting,
reduce the temperature to 10°C/50°F. Apply
a balanced liquid feed (see page 41) and sup-
port plants with a small cane if they become
too tall to support themselves.
Planting
While seedlings are maturing, decide which
growing system will be used. The main choices
are between greenhouse soil, ring culture,
9 in pots placed direct on greenhouse soil,
2 Prick out seedlings 10-12 days after
sowing using a small dibble. Transfer to
3 in pots filled with John Innes No. 1 or
an equivalent mix.
growing bags or straw bales (for full details
see page 46). If plants are to be grown directly
in greenhouse soil, double dig and enrich
the lower spade depth with well-rotted com-
post or manure. For pot or ring culture fill pots
with John Innes No. 2 or 3 or an equivalent
mix. Plant tomatoes when the young plants
are 6 to 9 in tall. This is usually when the
flowers on the first truss are just opening.
Immediately before planting, water plants
thoroughly and destroy any plants that show
signs of disease. Make a hole in the chosen
growing medium big enough to accom-
modate the roots without crowding. Place
the top of each rootball level with the soil
surface. Plants raised in peat pots should be
made thoroughly wet before planting (tear
down one side of the pot wall if necessary to
prevent drying out) and planted complete
with the pot. Space plants about 18 in apart
each way. Give planted tomatoes a thorough
watering in and keep them moist to make
sure the roots become well established.
Support In the greenhouse tomato plants are
usually best supported on soft garden string
tied to a horizontal wire near the greenhouse
Planting
3 Place pots in propagator and set
thermostat to 18°C/65°F. Water sparingly
but often. Liquid feed before planting.
roof at one end and to the stem of the plant,
under the lowest true leaf, at the other, Each
plant is then twisted loosely round the string
as it grows. Take care not to damage the plant
stem by pulling the string too tight. Alter
natively, plants in pots or g r o w n entirely in
greenhouse soil may be loosely tied to
bamboo canes for support.
Watering and feeding
The success of greenhouse-grown tomatoes
depends on meticulous attention to watering
and feeding throughout the life of the plant.
Plants will be damaged by drying out which
causes flower drop, or waterlogging which is
a particular hazard for plants grown in iso-
lated systems such as growing bags, for it
quickly kills off plant roots. Plants in growing
bags will only thrive if the growing medium is
kept uniformly moist, which may mean water-
ing three or four times a day in hot weather.
Ring culture also demands m u c h water be-
cause drainage is very rapid. The most stable
water supply is achieved with plants grown
directly in greenhouse soil. In all systems,
irregular watering will cause fruit to split.
4 Mid-late April W h e n flowers on first
truss are just opening water plants well.
Remove plants from pots and place 18 in
apart in chosen growing medium.
Tomatoes 2
Greenhouse grown tomatoes should he
liquid fed with a proprietary fertilizer mixed
with the water according to the manufac-
turer's instructions. A balanced fertilizer will
provide nitrogen to encourage vegetative
growth and potassium to improve quality.
Trimming and de-leafing
As tomato plants grow they develop side
shoots in the junctions (axils) between leaf
and stem. These must be removed while they
are small or they will use up water and
nutrients needed by the productive parts of
the plant. Snap off each side shoot cleanly
between finger and thumb, preferably in early
morning when the plants are turgid. Avoid
pulling which leaves scars that are easily
invaded by disease-causing fungi.
W h e n plants are 4—5 ft tall, remove the
lower leaves up to the first truss. Use a sharp
knife and cut cleanly leaving no snags. De-
leafing allows more light to reach the plant
base, improves air circulation and helps to
combat fungal diseases. As the trusses crop
make sure any yellowing or diseased leaves
are removed.
TRAINING SYSTEMS
Vertical training Plants are carefully
twisted round soft string attached below
lowest true leaf and to a horizontal wire
6 - 8 f t above ground level.
Pollination and fruit setting Support
If fruit setting is a problem it can be improved
by assisting pollen dispersal. Spray the plant
with a fine droplet spray, shake the plant
gently or tap the flower trusses.
Stopping
In a cold greenhouse tomatoes will not
usually produce more than six or seven fruit
trusses per season so it is best to snap off the
growing point t w o leaves beyond the sixth
or seventh truss. Continue to remove further
sideshoots, which will often be stimulated
into growth by the stopping process.
Harvesting
Ripe fruit should be ready for picking in mid-
May from seed sown in early January. Harvest
time depends upon sowing time. If climate
allows, crops can for instance be sown in
|une for September-December crops.
1 Bamboo canes can be 2 Snap off side and basal 3 Spray the flowers with a
Pests and diseases used for support. Tie the shoots between t h u m b and fine droplet spray or shake
Greenhouse tomatoes are notoriously sus- plant on loosely with soft forefinger. If possible de- the plant gently to disperse
ceptible to pests and diseases which are garden string so that stems shoot in early morning pollen and improve fruit
described in detail on pages 3 8 - 4 0 . are not damaged. when the stems are turgid. setting.
Stopping
V-training Plants are twisted round strings 4 Liquid feed growing 5 Snap off growing point 6 Pick ripe fruit by snap-
set alternately at 60° to the ground. This plants following manu- 2 leaves above top truss ping the stalk, leaving the
system is good for straw bale culture with facturer's instructions. when 6 - 7 trusses have set calyx on the fruit. Ripe fruit
plants placed closer than 18 in. Water them as necessary. fruit. Remove any lower left under hot sun will soon
leaves that turn yellow. lose its firmness.
Vegetables and salads 1
The greatest advantage of the cold green-
house in salad and vegetable growing is that
it can be used to extend the growing season
at both ends of the year. In warmer parts of
the country, an unheated greenhouse can
also provide winter crops. Those summer
crops normally grown outside, such as tomato
and cucumber, can be grown under glass for
faster maturing and protection against rain,
hail and wind. W i t h good planning a green-
house can provide food for the kitchen
almost all the year round. It is also very
useful for raising young vegetable plants
which are later planted out into the garden.
The most significant limitation of the cold
house is implicit in its description—because
it is unheated, the gardener must wait until
the house temperature reaches a suitable
point before certain seeds can be sown.
Also, the winter temperature in the cold
house precludes the growing of many out of
season crops. When considering which crops
to grow, make maximum use of space. Catch
crops such as carrots and radishes can be
grown between tall crops before they develop.
Lettuces
1 Sow seed in 31/2 in pots filled with potting
soil. Cover the seeds lightly and water
using a fine rose. Repeat sowings every
2 weeks.
Leaf crops
Good choices for the cold house include salad
greens, seakale and herbs.
Lettuce Sow lettuce seed in pots then prick
them out into peat blocks or pots before
planting them in greenhouse soil. If seed is
sown in small quantities at fortnightly inter-
vals from early spring until autumn, a
constant supply can be assured. To prevent
diseases, particularly botrytis, it is important
to ventilate the house well in all but the worst
weather. The crop needs adequate light and
attention to watering. Give a few thorough
waterings rather than many small ones. The
crop will be improved by a thorough soaking
about 10 days before harvesting.
Mustard and cress As long as the greenhouse
temperature is 10°C/50°F or above, mustard
and cress can be sown at weekly intervals.
Sow seed on a moist tissue in a shallow dish
and place it in the dark under a bench, lightly
covered with a dark cloth or newspaper if
necessary to exclude light. Once the seeds
have germinated, move the dish up into a
lighter place and keep the seeds well watered.
2 Prick out as many seedlings as required
into small individual peat blocks or pots.
Water well and increase the ventilation
according to the weather.
Winter endive Sow seed as for lettuce in
late August to early September and put in a
well-lit position. Ventilate the house and
water the seedlings regularly. When plants
are fully grown, tie them round loosely with
raffia and place a large plastic pot over
selected plants to blanch the leaves. Cover
the drainage hole of the pot and support it
on crocks to allow free air circulation.
Seakale From late September to late
October, lift seakale crowns from the garden
and trim off the side roots and any yellowing
foliage. Trim the main roots to about 6 in.
Allowing 3 crowns per pot, plant the crowns
in 9 in plastic pots filled with rich soil mix
such as John Innes No. 3. Cover each pot with
another of the same size turned upside down
and place under the greenhouse staging.
Ideally the crowns need a temperature of
about 10°C/50°F, so if the house gets too cold
insulate the pots with newspaper or burlap.
Herbs Many herbs will continue growing
through the winter if plants are potted up and
brought into the cold house for protection
during winter. Herbs that benefit most from
3 When plants have 4 - 5 true leaves plant
the peat blocks or pots 8 in apart into
the greenhouse border soil. Water well
and ensure good ventilation.
such protection include parsley, chives, mint,
French tarragon, pot marjoram, rosemary,
thyme and sage. Water plants well and venti-
late the house during the day in all but the
worst weather. In spring, begin sowing seeds
of annual and biennial herbs as soon as the
greenhouse temperature is high enough.
Root crops and bulbs
Small quantities of root crops can be raised in
the cold house for harvesting weeks before
the main outdoor crops. Seed sowing can
begin in February-March in peat pots or
directly into slightly acid greenhouse border
soil prepared according to crop requirements.
If the vegetables are to be eaten really young
and tender, make more sowings at three or
four week intervals. Thoroughly water and
well ventilate the house once the tempera-
tures begin to rise in April.
Pods
Select dwarf varieties of bush beans for cold
greenhouse cultivation and make t w o sow-
ings, one in spring for early summer cropping,
4 Harvest lettuce by carefully pulling up
whole plants and trimming off the roots,
or cut plants below lower leaves. Remove
discarded matter from greenhouse.
Vegetables and salads 2
the other in July for autumn harvesting. Pre- late the house in warm weather. Watch
WITLOOF CHICORY
germinate the seeds and sow four or five for aphids and red spider mites. Spray with
seeds round the edges of a pot filled with John malathion or derris if pests are seen.
Innes No. 2 or equivalent mix. For the spring Eggplants These need very similar cultural
sowing wait until early April in cool areas, or conditions to peppers, and plants can be
germinate the seeds indoors. Water the raised from seed in the same way or pur-
plants well once flowers appear and ventilate chased from a nursery. Aim for planting in
the house in warm weather. early May and allow two plants to a standard
size growing bag. Pinch out the growing
Vegetable fruits points when plants are 9-12 in high and
Cucumbers, sweet peppers and eggplants, allow only 5 or 6 fruit to develop on each
as well as tomatoes whose culture is des- plant. Remove any extra fruits, leaving the
cribed in detail on pages 70-71, can all be remaining ones well spaced, and pinch off
grown in the cold greenhouse. any extra flowers that form. Water and feed
Cucumbers Pre-germinate cucumber seeds often but sparingly and ventilate the house in
then sow them singly in 3 in pots filled with hot weather. W a t c h out for pests and spray
|ohn Innes No. 1 or a similar mix. Allow against those that appear as for peppers.
4 to 5 weeks from sowing to planting and In November, lift witloof chicory roots plant 3 or 4 chicory roots at weekly
time the operation so that planting can take Raising seed from the garden and cut off the leaves to intervals in a 9 in plastic pot filled with
place in late May, if necessary germinating Seeds of many vegetables can be raised in within \ in of the crown. Trim the roots to sand so that each crown is 1/2 in above the
the seeds indoors. Preferably, plants should the cold house for planting out once the 9 in and take off any side shoots. Store the top of the soil. Water sparingly and cover
be planted in growing bags (2 plants per weather is suitable to provide earlier, more roots horizontally in boxes of dry sand with pot to keep out light. Place under
standard bag) or singly on straw bales. At reliable crops. Sow seed in peat blocks or outside under a north wall until they are the bench and keep well ventilated. The
planting time or before, erect a system of pots for easy planting later on and keep needed. From mid-November onwards chicons will be ready after 4 weeks.
supporting strings tied to horizontal wires house well ventilated. See pages 5 5 - 6 .
near the greenhouse roof, or insert bamboo
canes on to which plants can be loosely tied. Cucumbers
Developing plants should be well watered
and given liquid feed and the atmosphere in
the house should be kept as humid as pos-
sible. Pinch and trim the plants as shown in
the illustrations and remove any male flower.
Sweet peppers These vegetable fruits are
best grown in the cold greenhouse in pots.
Because the seed needs a temperature of
21°C/70°F for germination, seeds must be
germinated in a propagating case and the
seedlings hardened off, or the gardener can
buy plants from a nursery. Allow 10 to 12
weeks between sowing and planting in late
May. Sow seed thinly on moistened soil
covered with 1/8 in of compost and then with
glass and newspaper. W h e n seedlings are
large enough to handle, prick them out into
3 in pots filled with John Innes No. 3 compost
or plant 3 plants in a standard sized growing
bag. Place pots 18 in apart on the border soil
or greenhouse staging. W h e n plants are
about 6 in tall, remove the growing point to
1 Late May Plant seedlings raised in heat in 2 June-July Tie growing plants to canes for 3 June onwards Keep single laterals in each
encourage bushy growth, and support and
9 in pots filled w i t h potting soil. Water support. Pinch out growing points as main leaf axil and stop t h e m at 2 leaves. Remove
tie them to bamboo canes if necessary. Keep
and liquid feed regularly. Keep the stems reach the roof. Ventilate frequently, male flowers if appropriate. Harvest by
plants well watered and liquid fed and venti-
greenhouse humid. but carefully, as humidity is important. cutting the stems with a sharp knife.
The year in a cool greenhouse 1
A cool greenhouse, one provided with a heat-
ing system that ensures that temperatures do
not fall below 4.5°C/40°F, provides an en-
vironment suitable for a vast range of plants.
Nearly all the plants from the world's t e m -
perate zones can be cultivated, and the
choice extends into those from the sub-
tropical and tropical regions. A distinction is
made between those plants that can be
grown in winter in a cool house, such as
salads and chrysanthemums, and those such
as sub-tropical bedding plants which are
dormant at cool greenhouse temperatures
but survive the winter undamaged, when
they would die in the open garden or an
unheated house. In addition, all those plants
which will tolerate cold greenhouse condi-
tions can be grown in a cool house. In many
cases their growing seasons will be longer. It
is possible to raise a wider range of out-of-
season food crops and ornamentals given the
minimum temperature of a cool house.
To many gardeners, the cool greenhouse
is the norm and a cold or warm house is a
deviation from it. When gardening literature
and catalogs are consulted, it will be noticed
that "greenhouse plants" tends to mean
those to be grown in a cool house.
While there are very many plants to choose
from for growing in a cold house, it is often
worth experimenting to try to widen the
range still further. Plants rarely have an
absolute minimum temperature which kills
them, unless it be frost level which, by
freezing the cells, can cause physical damage.
Many plants thought to need higher tem-
peratures than the cool house minimum can
in fact be acclimated to the prevailing con-
ditions. A lot depends upon avoiding ex-
tremes and sudden changes. If the balance
of the environment—heat, humidity and
ventilation—is carefully watched, plants
thought tender may survive and go on to
flourish. A m o n g those worth experimenting
with are the many house plants available, and
sub-tropical flowering plants such as those
fostered by Victorian conservatory gardeners
for winter blooms.
Management
The principles of cool greenhouse care are
those outlined earlier in this book for the
running of any greenhouse. The one main
difference in the running of a cool house is
the need to manipulate the heating system.
An inefficient heating system is undesirable
for three reasons. First, if the system is not
running correctly it will not be able to main-
tain the necessary temperature and plants
will suffer. The second reason is that in-
efficiency in the use of fuel will lead to
rapidly escalating bills. Heating a greenhouse
is expensive, and if the system used keeps
the temperature unnecessarily high, or burns
fuel inefficiently, the cost will be magnified.
Third, certain kinds of heating system, those
which burn gas or oil, can harm plants if
they are not adjusted correctly. Badly set
wicks and burners can cause the heater to
give off poisonous fumes.
Thermostats The sensible management of a
heating system centers around the use of
thermostats. These devices sense tempera
ture changes and act as switches, turning the
heating system on and off as required. They
are most often used with electrical systems,
which are easily controllable and capable "I
producing heat quickly. Gas and oil systems
can also be fitted with thermostats—as are
domestic central heating boilers.
A thermostat is only useful if the system it
controls has sufficient capacity. The heaters
must be capable of maintaining the desired
temperature w i t h o u t running constantly. The
section on heating (pages 18-23) shows how
to calculate the size of heating installation
necessary. O n c e a large enough system has
been installed, thermostatic control will

January February March April May June

Check draft-proofing, insulation
(if fitted) and heating system. Set
thermostats to night minimum of
4.5°C/40°F. Water plants in flower,
water others sparingly. Maintain a
dry atmosphere to discourage
mildew.
Sow canna, fuchsia, pelargonium.
Bring in bulbs for flowering as they
show growth.
Take cuttings of winter-flowering
chrysanthemums and carnations.
Ventilate when possible and
gradually increase watering. Day
length will increase. Maintain
minimum temperature.
Sow bedding plants with long
germination/growing periods, half-
hardy annuals, sweet peas, begonia,
calceolaria, salvia, schizanthus, and
germinate in a propagating case.
Continue to take chrysanthemum
cuttings.
Sow brassicas and onions for
transplanting outdoors. Sow early
bunching turnips, carrots, parsnips,
beets, okra, tomatoes, cucumbers.
Plant tomato plants from middle
of the month.
Begin re-potting of ferns and palms.
Bring in more bulbs for flowering.
Increase watering, ventilate well on
sunny days and maintain a more
humid atmosphere. Be alert for and
combat insect pests such as aphids.
Sow sweet pepper, squash, half-
hardy annuals, tomato, bedding
plants, basil.
Transplant rooted cuttings taken in
winter.
Repot orchids and other perennials
as necessary.
Begin to take softwood cuttings.
Pot up tuberous begonias.
Pay attention to ventilation and
watering as temperatures increase.
Keep heating switched on, setting
thermostat for minimum night
temperature.
Sow cucumbers, squashes,
pumpkins, dwarf French beans,
runner beans for transplanting
outdoors, primulas, half-hardy
annuals such as stocks and zinnias,
and Campanula pyramidalis.
Continue re-potting and potting on.
Move bulbs which have flowered
to a frame. Move over-wintering
pot plants outdoors into a
sheltered position.
Transplant seedlings from seed
sown earlier in the spring. Take
further softwood cuttings.
Dust tomato flowers to encourage
pollination.
Move half-hardy plants into a
frame to harden off.
Water freely, shade as necessary in
sunny weather and encourage a
more humid atmosphere.
Sow cineraria, primula. Plant
chrysanthemums and move
outside. Pot on carnations, zonal
pelargoniums, tuberous begonias,
annuals raised from spring-sown
seed. Feed all plants in active
growth. Take precautions against
insect pests.
Pinch out young fuchsias when
4-5 in high.
Remove cucumber laterals and all
male flowers.
Tie in tomato plants and pinch out
side shoots.
Turn off and overhaul heating
system. Ventilate freely, shade
whenever necessary and damp
down and spray to raise humidity.
Water as required, twice a day if
necessary.
Sow calceolaria, Primula nialamides,
zinnia, all for autumn and winter
flowering.
Feed tomato plants and all other
plants in growth. Pot on plants
raised from seed as necessary.
Plant out bedding plants into their
flowering positions in the open
garden.
Plunge azaleas, hydrangeas and
other pot plants which have
finished flowering.
Cut back shoots of regal
pelargoniums.
The year in a cool greenhouse 2
ensure that it only operates when the tern
perature falls below the pre-set level. The
heater will raise the temperature, triggering
the thermostat again and cutting off the
system. Thermostats must be placed away
from drafts and cold spots, where they will
give an artificial reading.
Balance While the main stress of cold green-
house management is on maintaining the
winter minimum, thought must be given to
the other components of greenhouse
management. Shading, ventilation and humi-
dity control are all crucial, especially in
summer. Just as plants have a minimum
temperature for healthy growth, so they have
maximum levels of temperature which will
harm them. Problems caused by high air
temperatures are often magnified by failure
to ensure adequate humidity. If there is not
enough water vapor in the atmosphere,
plants will transpire—give out water from
their leaves into the air—too quickly. Increase
humidity by regular damping down and the
installation of damp sand beds under benches.
While summer heat and winter cold have
to be countered by active management, the
most difficult times of the year for the running
of the cold greenhouse can be spring and
autumn. During these seasons the sun has
power to quickly heat the greenhouse, while
the nights are cool. Cold daytime tempera-
tures can easily occur due to sudden weather
changes. This combination can be particularly
trying in the late winter and early spring. Sun
heat is becoming more powerful, and the
effect of the sun combined with artificial
heating can quickly raise the temperature,
often above the level required, unless ventila-
tion is promptly given. Under these con-
ditions automatic ventilators (see pages 15-
16) show their worth. A cold house will not
suffer so much from this problem because it
does not have the reservoir of artificially
generated heat that a cool house has. More
sun heat is thus needed to raise the tem-
perature to unwanted levels.
Growing plants
The following pages deal with the cultivation
of ornamentals, including bedding plants
which are covered in detail, and food crops.
All the ornamentals and food crops covered
in the preceding cold greenhouse section,
such as annuals, tomatoes and salad crops,
can be added to the list. The difference comes
mainly in timing of sowing and cropping.
Tomatoes, for instance, can be planted from
mid-February onwards in a cool greenhouse,
while in a cold house late April is the earliest
possible date. Annuals will flower earlier in
the spring in a cool house than in a cold one.
Lettuce, radish and other salad crops can be
sown in late summer and autumn for autumn
and winter cropping.
Other plants Many more plants than those
described in detail on the following pages can
be grown in a cool greenhouse. The plants
chosen, especially those illustrated in the
step-by-step sequences, are the most re-
warding for the relatively inexperienced and/
or those which illustrate a key growing prin-
ciple. The information given can be adapted
to cover the cultivation of many other plants.
There are other categories of plants of
interest which are less popular but still worth
considering if greenhouse space is available.
For example, many shrubs can be grown in
containers under glass and brought into
flower earlier than outside. Examples are
lilac, forsythia and hydrangea. Fruits such as
citrus can be grown in tubs in cool green-
house conditions. Most citrus trees will
tolerate a winter m i n i m u m of 7°C/45°F,
though the lime needs 10°C/50°F. Summer
temperatures should be maintained at 13°-
16°C/55 0 -61°F for successful cropping. Full
details of the cultivation of w a r m temperate
fruits are given in Fruit in this series.

July August September October November December

Maintain a moist atmosphere and
attend to watering. Ventilate well
and shade as required. Sow
sapiglossis and make a repeat
sowing of Primula malacoides
and calceolaria.
Take hydrangea cuttings.
Stake plants, especially annuals
growing in pots, and train climbers
Pot on pelargoniums reared from
spring cuttings and plunge
outdoors. Pot on carnations, and
repot freesias.
Continue summer shading,
watering and damping down
regime. Watch for cool nights
towards the end of the month as
days shorten.
Sow annuals for spring flowering,
cyclamen, cineraria.
Prick out calceolarias and other
seedlings from earlier sowings.
Take cuttings of pelargoniums.
Pot on primulas, cinerarias.
Plant bulbs for winter and spring
flowering, such as freesias, tulip,
hyacinth, narcissi.
Feed chrysanthemums standing
outdoors and water well.
Repair any structural damage to
the greenhouse and repaint if
necessary.
Reduce watering and damping
down as temperatures drop.
Restart the heating system to
check it and switch on if necessary
towards the end of the month.
Check winter fuel supplies if
necessary. Reduce shading.
Sow more annuals for spring
flowering.
Pot up remaining bulbs.
Bring in azaleas, camellias,
chrysanthemums and other pot
plants that have spent the summer
in the open.
Pot on cyclamen, cinerarias and
primulas into final pots and move
onto greenhouse shelves.
Take cuttings of bedding plants
before they are discarded, and of
coleus, heliotropes and fuchsias.
Switch on the heating system and
set the thermostat to maintain a
minimum night temperature of
4.5°C/40°F. Ventilate freely on
warm days but exclude fog and
damp. Reduce watering and
remove shading completely.
Pot up the last of the bulbs.
Feed cyclamen, cinerarias, primulas
and camellias.
If possible, remove all plants and
fumigate the house against fungal
diseases.
Scatter pellets to combat slugs.
Maintain minimum winter
temperature as October and
ventilate sparingly. Further reduce
watering of all except plants in
flower.
Pot on annuals. Keep in good light
and give minimum water.
Bring in the first batch of bulbs for
winter flowering.
Prune shrubs.
Sow lettuce.
Bring in fuchsias, begonias and
hydrangeas and store under the
staging. Keep almost dry.
Fit insulation to greenhouse sides if
possible and stop up all drafts.
Cover the house with burlap or
mats in very severe weather.
Protect tender plants with paper,
polyethylene or burlap if severe
frost is forecast. Cut watering to
the minimum.
Ventilate a little when possible and
run a fan heater to circulate the
atmosphere.
Bring in more bulbs.
Box up seakale and witloof chicory
for forcing.
Cut down chrysanthemums after
they have flowered and start to
take cuttings of soft growth.
Keep cineraria, cyclamen, primulas
and other plants required for
Christmas flowering in a warm part
of the house. Water them with
care, avoiding the foliage.
Clear debris, dead leaves and used
pots from the greenhouse. Clean
all pots, trays and propagating
equipment.
Bedding plants 1
The cool greenhouse is an ideal place for
raising summer bedding plants. Using the
greenhouse in this way shortens the pro-
pagation period and, as long as plants are
properly hardened off and precautions taken
against disease, ensures the production of
sturdy plants. The other advantages to the
gardener of raising his own plants from seed
compared with buying plants direct from the
nursery are that he knows exactly what he is
growing and that there is less risk of plants
being damaged as they do not have to be
transplanted from overcrowded seed flats.
Seed sowing
One of the most critical aspects of raising
bedding plants from seed in the greenhouse
is timing. As a general rule, the sequence of
sowing is determined by the speed at which
seeds germinate and by the growth rate of
the developing seedlings. For this reason
slow-growing species required for summer
bedding are sown in February and March
and a monthly sowing plan adopted accord-
ing to the scheme shown above. Even with
Growing bedding plants from seed
1 Fill a seed flat with seed-sowing soil.
Firm the soil with the fingertips or a
presser board to within 1/2 in of the top.
the artificial heat provided by the cool
greenhouse, development of seeds sown in
the first two months of the year is slow
because of low winter light intensity.
Seeds of bedding plants may be sown in
flats or pans (dwarf pots). Fill the chosen
containers with a good seed-growing mix-
ture which should be damp. There is no need
to avoid peat-based soils, with their low
nutrient reserves, because the seeds will
germinate relatively rapidly in the frost-free
environment of the greenhouse. Once the
containers are full, press down the soil with
the fingers or a presser board to within 1/4 in
of the top, but be careful not to press too
hard as this will restrict the drainage and
tend to encourage damping off diseases and
attack by sciarid flies.
The best method of sowing seed depends
on the size of individual seeds. For small seeds
such as those of Begonia semperflorens, mix
the seeds with fine dry sand in the seed packet
then sow them by broadcasting, keeping the
hand close to the soil surface. Larger seeds
can be broadcast in the same way, but
2 Sow the seeds thinly. Small seeds can
be mixed with fine dry sand and broadcast
onto the soil to make sowing easier.
without the addition of sand. The larger
seeds, such as those of zinnias—and small
seeds that have been pelleted—are best
planted singly by hand. Cover sown seed
with soil but be careful not to make this
covering layer too thick. Label the con-
tainer clearly then water in the seeds with a
dilute mixture of Captan or a copper-based
fungicide to help prevent damping off disease.
Use a rose on the watering can so that seeds
are not dislodged from their planting
positions by the water.
Germination
Even in a cool greenhouse, developing seeds,
particularly those sown in mid-winter, will
benefit from extra warmth. This is best pro-
vided by a propagating case. W h e n using
such a case, place the seed containers in-
side it and set the thermostat to 21°C/71°F.
If a propagating case is not available, either
take the seed containers indoors and put
them in a warm place or cover them with
a sheet of glass. A piece of newspaper may
be placed on top of the glass as light is not
3 Sieve soil over medium-sized or large
seeds so that they are just covered. Do
not cover small seeds.
important until after germination.
As soon as the seeds germinate (this may
take one to three weeks depending on
temperature and the species) remove any
covering and put the containers in a well lit
place but be careful that they do not risk
being scorched by strong sunlight. Water
with dilute Captan to c o m b a t damping oil
and other seedling diseases. If possible
maintain the temperature at 21*C/70*F to
promote speedy development. The seedling)
also need good ventilation and the green
house ventilators should be opened for at
least an hour a day except in very severe-
weather conditions.
Pricking out
Seedlings should be pricked out as soon as
they are large enough to handle. If left in
their original containers they will become
overcrowded and their roots will become so
entangled that the gardener will be unable to
avoid damaging them when they are re-
moved. Prick out seedlings into individual
pots or flats filled with John Innes No. 1 or a
4 Water the seed flat w i t h a dilute mixture
of Captan or other fungicide to combat
damping off and other diseases.
Bedding plants 2
similar potting soil, taking care to handle
then) by one leaf and between finger and
thumb. Use a dibble to pry out the seed-
lings and to make a hole in the soil big
enough to accommodate each plant. If seed-
lings are pricked out into flats, allow at least
11/2 in between them each way to prevent
overcrowding. Firm the soil round each
seedling with the dibble, label and give
another watering with dilute fungicide to
guard against damping off.
Even in ideal conditions the seedlings will
suffer some check to their growth after
pricking out but careful handling and trans-
planting when the root system is small and
unbranched will help to reduce this to a
minimum. After pricking out the temperature
can be reduced to 18°C/65°F but good venti-
lation is still essential to healthy seedling
development. W h e n seedlings are big enough
and when there is no chance of frost, seed-
lings should be hardened off in a cold frame
(see page 91) or by turning off the greenhouse
heating system and gradually increasing the
ventilation first by day and then at night.
5 Place the flat in a propagating case at
21°C/70°F, or in a warm place indoors if a
case is not available.
Propagation
While most bedding plants are raised from PEAT BLOCKS PLANTING O U T
seed, several important plants can be propa-
gated by cuttings or division. Full details of
these methods of propagation are given on
pages 57-63.
Cuttings can be taken in autumn when
the plants are lifted, or in spring from tubers
kept dormant over the winter. Geraniums are
one of many bedding plants that can be
propagated by cuttings. Keep the cuttings at
a minimum temperature of 4°C/40°F over
winter, and water sparingly. Pot on as neces- Larger seeds can be sown in peat blocks W h e n seedlings are ready to be planted
sary into 4 or 5 in pots, harden off and plant formed from damp peat-based soil with out and have been hardened off in a frame
out in the normal way. a blocking device, or in peat pots. Both or been placed outside during the day,
have the advantage of being planted plant in the flowering positions. If possible,
Overwintering with the young plant in the flowering remove both plants and soil, allowing
Some bedding plants can be overwintered in position. The seedlings are therefore not the roots to be gently teased o u t and the
a cool house for re-use the next season. Lift subject to the disturbance of pricking out. young plants to be inserted with an
the plants in autumn and pot or box up. Cut Sow 2 - 3 seeds in each block and water adequate rootball. Make planting holes
back the foliage by about one-half, water well. Provide the conditions described in with a trowel and water well after firming
very sparingly and ventilate freely to guard the caption sequence below. W h e n the in. Water well until the plants have be-
against gray mold. Plenty of light is neces- seedlings have reached first true leaf come established. Pot-grown greenhouse
sary to avoid the production of drawn, weak stage, thin to the strongest per block. perennials can be used as dot plants.
growth. Plant out as normal in spring.
6 As soon as the first seedlings emerge, 7 Spray seedlings with Captan or another 8 Prick out seedlings into flats, boxes or
place the flat in good light. Keep the dilute fungicide to combat damping off individual pots as soon as they are large
temperature at 21°C/70°F. disease. Ensure that ventilation is adequate. enough to handle.
Fruits and vegetables 1
The cool greenhouse can be used to best
effect in growing food crops if it is used to
cultivate not only tomatoes, cucumbers and
the other vegetable fruits described on
pages 70-73 but also more tender vegetables
such as okra. Melons and early strawberries
are also good subjects for the cool house and
so, if space allows, are peaches and nec-
tarines which often fail to do well in the open.
Early strawberries
The cool house will enable the gardener to
pick crops of strawberries in March or April.
Propagation In late June, peg down the
runners of plants growing in the open garden
into 3 in pots filled with John Innes No. 1
potting compost buried with their rims level
with the soil surface. After four to six weeks,
when the new plants are well established,
sever them from the parents and place the
pots on well-drained soil or in an open cold
frame. Water them well and as plants grow
pot them on into their final 6 in pots using
John Innes No. 2 or an equivalent peat-based
mix. Until September, liquid feed the plants
once a week and water frequently.
Leave the plants undisturbed until Novem-
ber then bury the pots up to their rims in peat
or well-drained soil to prevent frost from
reaching their roots. Ideally, this should be
done in a cold frame but a sheltered corner
of the garden (not a frost pocket) will suffice
if necessary. If there is any risk of frost damage,
close the frame or cover the plants with straw.
Greenhouse cultivation In mid-December
take the pots into the greenhouse and place
them well apart on a sunny shelf to allow good
air circulation and maximum light. For a fort-
night keep the temperature just above freez-
ing then raise it to 7°C/45°F. Do not be
tempted to turn the heating up any higher as
this will create too much foliage at the
expense of fruiting capacity. When the flower
trusses appear in February, raise the minimum
temperature to 10°C/50°F and ventilate the
house a little during the daytime if the green-
house air temperature exceeds 21°C/70°F.
At this stage plants will benefit if the house
is damped down once a week and if they are
given a high potash liquid feed twice a week.
W h e n the flowers are open, increase the
minimum temperature to 13°C/55°F but do
not open the ventilators until the temperature Early strawberries
reaches 24°C/75°F. As the flowers open,
carry out a daily pollination routine, trans-
ferring pollen from flower to flower with a
small paint brush. During this pollination
period do not damp down the house as this
may prevent fruit from forming. To obtain
fewer, but larger fruit, remove the smallest
flowers as soon as their petals have fallen off
and leave eight to ten fruits on each plant.
Once fruit begins to set, resume the
damping down routine and water the plants
very well in sunny weather. Continue feeding
until the fruits begin to turn pink in order to
improve fruit flavor.
Melons
In the cool house, melons can be cultivated
as described for the cold house on page 69
except that by maintaining a minimum
springtime temperature of 21°C/70°C fruit
will be produced much earlier. In the cool
house melon seed can be planted in February 1 Mid-December Bring rooted plants in 6 in 2 Two weeks later raise the temperature to
and March to give earlier fruit in June and pots into the cool house. Make sure they 7°C/45°F. W h e n flower trusses appear raise
July respectively. Remember to damp down are well spaced. Keep the temperature just it to 10°C/50°F. Ventilate and d a m p d o w n
the house well except during pollination and above freezing. Liquid feed twice a week. when the temperature exceeds 21°C/70°F.
when the fruits start to ripen.
Okra
Also known as gumbo and ladies' fingers,
okra are unusual vegetable fruits particu-
larly good for cooking in curries and other
oriental dishes. They are not hard to grow
but being tropical plants they need fairly
high temperatures, particularly for germina-
tion and plant raising.
Raising from seed Sow seed thinly in a seed
flat filled with moist soil mix or sow them
singly in peat pots from February onwards.
Cover the seeds with a thin layer of mix,
water them in, then cover the pots or flats
with a sheet of glass and one of newspaper.
Turn the glass once a day and maintain a
temperature of 18°-21 o C/65 o -70°F. The seeds
will take from one to three weeks to ger-
minate, depending on the temperature. As
soon as they are big enough to handle, prick
out the seedlings into 3 in peat or plastic pots
filled with John Innes No. 1 potting compost. 3 When the flowers open stop damping 4 When fruit has set resume d a m p i n g
Greenhouse cultivation In early spring, plant d o w n and increase the temperature to d o w n . Support fruit trusses w i t h forked
out okra direct into the greenhouse border 13°C/55°F. Ventilate the house at 24°C/75°F. twigs inserted in the pots. Stop feeding
soil or transplant them into 10 in pots of Pollinate the flowers daily with a brush. when fruit begins to color.
Fruits and vegetables 2
John Innes No. 2 compost. Whichever method
is chosen, plants should be provided with
canes for support and placed 21-24 in apart
in each direction. Throughout the growing
season, water plants well and when they are
9-12 in high, pinch out the growing points to
encourage a bushy habit and a good suc-
cession of flowers and fruit. W a t c h out for
signs of whitefly and red spider mite.
Okra should be harvested when they are
young and the seeds inside their pods still
soft. Harvest between June and September.
Peaches
In a large greenhouse, especially a lean-to,
it is possible to grow a fan-trained peach or
nectarine. Both these fruits will crop more
reliably in the cool house than in the garden.
The best sort of peach to choose for a cool
house is the common plum rootstock St
Julien A which is semi-dwarfing and so more
manageable.
Soil The border soil of the greenhouse can be
used but should be enriched with plenty of
organic matter before a peach is planted.
Alternatively, the border soil may be re-
FAN-TRAINED PEACH
If space allows a fan-trained peach may be
grown against the back wall of a lean-to
greenhouse or under the roof of a double
or single-span cool house. Ideally an area
of 15 ft x 10 ft is needed. Plant the tree
direct into greenhouse soil enriched with
placed with a preparation made from sods
of fibrous chalky loam stacked for six months
then mixed with one part of rubble to every
ten parts of loam. A fortnight before planting
in spring, mix in 8oz of John Innes base
fertilizer to every 2 gal bucketful of soil.
Care of plants A peach will need a minimum
temperature of 7°C/45°F from late winter
until fruit is formed. Only ventilate the house
when the temperature rises above 18°C/65°F.
Until the flowers open, damp down the house
on sunny days and spray the foliage with
clean water daily. In early summer, mulch
plants well with rotted manure or garden
compost and apply a liquid tomato feed
every 10 days from bud burst to the start of
fruit ripening.
W h e n the flowers open hand pollinate
them with a small paint brush and when
fruitlets form thin them to about two per
cluster when they are about 1/2 in long. Thin
again at the 1 in stage to leave fruits evenly
spaced 8-10 in apart. 1 March Transplant young plants raised in 2 Pinch out the growing points to
Care after harvesting After the fruits have heat direct into greenhouse soil or transfer encourage bushy growth and a good
been picked, open the ventilators and leave them to 10 in pots. Space plants 21-24 in succession of fruits when plants are 9-12 in
them open until spring. apart and provide canes for support. tall. Guard against pests.
organic matter and provide wires 6 in
. apart for support. For early fruiting main-
tain a minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F
from late winter until fruits are formed and 3 Through the growing period water plants 4 June onwards Cut y o u n g pods as soon as
ventilate only when the temperature regularly. If necessary spray against red they are ready, using sharp scissors, to give
exceeds 18°C/65°F. spider mite using malathion or a similar a long cropping period. Remember that old
low-persistence pesticide. pods are stringy and unpalatable.
The year in a warm greenhouse 1
In theory, raising the greenhouse temperature
to bring it into the warm category—minimum
night temperature 13°C/55°F—greatly in-
creases the range of plants that can be
grown. However, two important factors must
be set against this benefit. First, the cost of
heating a greenhouse to warm level is very
high. Second, the range of plants easily
available to gardeners and suitable for warm
greenhouse conditions is relatively small.
The character of a well-stocked warm
greenhouse is quite different from that of
cold and warm houses. Many of the plants
are grown for their foliage, which is often
large and handsomely patterned. A warm
greenhouse full of foliage plants, ferns and
orchids has a lush, tropical feeling. The
gardener's response to this markedly different
atmosphere is a matter of taste, but the
contrast between a warm house, which
reproduces a different climate, and the cool
house, which moderates an existing one,
must be appreciated.
Before deciding on a warm greenhouse,
the gardener should consider the plants to be
grown. If the main use for a greenhouse is
considered to be raising food crops such as
tomato, melon and lettuce, with a few sub-
tropical foliage plants to add interest, a cool
house will suffice, with the foliage plants
kept in a large propagating case heated to
warm greenhouse levels. Similarly if a large
number of seeds are to be raised in the early
spring, a propagating case of soil-heated
bench bed will be more economical.
A medium sized greenhouse can also be
fitted with a partition and used as a combined
cool and warm house. The inner section can
then be double-glazed and fitted with a high-
powered heating system, while the outer
part of the house is run as a cool house. This
allows plants to be moved from one to
another when they are needed for flowering
or forcing. Bulbs can be placed in the cool
section after flowering, and plants raised
from seed in the warm house can be moved
into the cool section as the first stage in
hardening off.
The routine management of a warm
greenhouse follows m u c h the same pattern
as any other heated house. In general,
ventilation problems are fewer than under a
cool regime. Ventilators will not need open-
ing until the temperature reaches 21-24"C/
70-75°F. If, on days of cool winds, hot sun
and passing cloud banks the temperature
briefly rises to 38°C/100°F, there need be no
cause for alarm. Shading, however, is vital
especially as many of the plants grown come
from forest or jungle environments where
shade is dense and light intensity low.
Heating
The heating system will need careful design
to ensure that it is capable of maintaining the
minimum temperature necessary. See pages
2 0 - 2 1 . Whichever fuel is chosen for the main
heating system, failures can occur. Electricity
is subject to power cuts, which can affect
gas and oil systems as well as electric ones
by cutting power to pumps and igniters.
Solid fuel and oil systems may be forced out
of action by fuel supply problems. A back-up
system which uses another fuel is vital, for if
the winter night temperature is allowed to
fall many valuable plants may be lost. A
kerosene heater, kept well maintained and
with a full fuel tank, is a good insurance.
Electric fan heaters are also useful back ups
for solid fuel systems. Fan heaters also have
the beneficial effect of circulating air, Pests
and diseases, especially fungal diseases ,and
mildew, can be a problem all the year round
in a warm greenhouse. A buoyant atmo-
sphere, such as that produced by a fan
heater, helps to prevent such troubles.
Foliage plants
Many of the foliage plants cultivated in warm
greenhouses are widely grown as house
plants. Some houses plants require a higher
minimum temperature than even a warm
greenhouse provides, but most will thrive in
the better light and more even environment
of a greenhouse. The many books on house
plants describe the growing conditions
needed. Bear in mind that while winter
conditions in a warm greenhouse may be
ideal for some house plants, they may find
summer temperatures there t o o hot. Shading
must be considered an essential when
growing foliage plants. A m o n g foliage plants
suitable for warm greenhouse conditions are:
Aphelandra squarrosa (zebra plant). Deep

January February March April May June

Restrict watering to those plants
in flower or active growth.
Keep humidity low and ventilate
only around noon, maintain a
buoyant atmosphere.
Sow begonia, gloxiana,
strepocarpus in heat, also those
seeds listed under Cold and Cool
greenhouses for sowing in a
propagator.
Bring in bulbs for forcing. Force
early-flowering azaleas and other
flowering shrubs. Force seakale,
witloof chicory and rhubarb boxed
up in the autumn.
Take softwood cuttings of begonia
and geranium.
Root succulents, coleus,
philodendron, tradescantia and
other plants which develop aerial
roots.
Check perennials and re-pot those
that are getting pot-bound.
Clear out unwanted, sickly or
overcrowded plants.
Prepare pots, flats and benches
for seed sowing and propagation.
Water more freely and ventilate in
sunny weather.
Keep up cold weather precautions
such as insulation and draft
proofing.
Sow half-hardy annuals and begin
sowing bedding plants. Sow celery
and brassicas for transplanting into
the open garden. Sow tuberous
begonia seeds in a propagating
case.
Take cuttings of chrysanthemum,
fuchsia, salvia and perpetual -
carnations.
Box up dahlia tubers in peat to
promote growth for cuttings next
month.
Continue re-potting and pot up
rooted cuttings.
Bring more bulbs and shrubs in for
flowering.
Bring in batches of primula, and
cineraria.
Force lily of the valley.
Ventilate freely on warm days and
maintain a more humid
atmosphere. Shade susceptible
plants from bright sun. Increase
humidity by syringing, spraying and
damping down, keeping plants in
flower dry. Begin feeding plants in
active growth and those due for
spring flowering.
Sow tomato, cucumber, pepper,
eggplant, melon stocks, aster,
zinnia, coleus. Prick off seedlings
grown from previous month's
sowing.
Take cuttings of dahlia, fuchsia,
hydrangea, solanum, salvia.
Continue re-potting. Divide ferns
and cannas if necessary.
Stop decorative chrysanthemums
and perpetual carnations
propagated from cuttings taken
earlier in the year.
Move orchids and camellias into
shady areas of the greenhouse.
Bring in begonia tubers, place in
flats of peat and start into growth.
Pot up as leaves appear.
Ventilate for most of the day, but
beware of night frosts, which can
still be sharp. Water freely,
increase humidity by damping
down and syringing, and shade
when necessary. Where most
plants require shade permanent
summer shading can be applied
this month. Continue feeding and
be on the alert for increasing pest
and disease problems. Fumigate
the greenhouse against pests if
possible.
Take softwood cuttings of
camellia, fuchsia, osmanthus and
other suitable plants.
Repot azaleas, camellias and other
shrubs after they have finished
flowering. Trim plants into shape
at the same time. Pot on fuchsia,
petunia and zonal pelargonium.
Re-pot orchids.
Move seedlings of half-hardy
annuals and bedding plants to a
frame to harden off before planting
out. Move winter-flowering bulbs
to a frame and plunge.
Increase watering, damping down
and shading as temperatures rise.
Continue feeding and pest and
disease control.
Continue to sow primula and sow
cineraria for winter flowering. Sow
Begonia semperflorens for winter
flowering.
Take cuttings of most plants,
especially euphorbia, azalea,
heaths, and begonia. Pot on
rooted cuttings and prick on
seedlings. Harden off seedlings as
necessary in a frame.
Move remaining potted bulbs into
the open garden or frame for
plunging.
Pot on gloxiana, celosia, begonia.
Pot on chrysanthemums and stand
the pots outdoors in full sun.
Turn off and overhaul the heating
system. Use a fan or kerosene
heater if unseasonal weather
occurs. Ventilate freely and shade
the house. Water twice a day if
necessary. Maintain humidity by
damping down, spraying and
syringing frequently.
Continue to sow primula,
calceolaria, cineraria, and zinnia
for early autumn flowering in pots.
Sow gloxiana and begonia for
flowering the following year.
Take cuttings of fuchsia, hydrangea,
tuberous begonia, rockea and other
succulents.
Pot chrysanthemums into flowering
pots. Pot on as necessary young
plants grown from seeds and
cuttings.
Hand-pollinate melons.
Feed tuberous begonias.
The year in a warm greenhouse 2
green, broadly white-veined leaves with
spikes of yellow bracts and flowers. 2 - 3 f t .
( alathea spp. Many plants in this genus are
grown as house plants. They need a minimum
temperature of 16"C/60"F. C. Makoyana (pea-
cock plant) is one of the most striking, with
oval leaves yellow-green above with a bold
patterning of large and small dark green ovals.
The same pattern is reproduced in red on the
undersides of the leaves. 3 ft.
Cyperus altemifolius (umbrella grass). Not
botanically a grass, this plant provides a
valuable contrast to broad-leaved plants. It
requires plenty of moisture. 2 - 4 f t .
Dieffenbachia (dumb cane). Species include
D. amoena, with white spotted leaves and
D. picta with smaller, deep green ivory
flushed leaves. The variety D. p. 'Rudolph
Roehrs' has longer, almost entirely yellow
leaves with whitish blotches and green
mid-rib and leaf margins. All thrive best at
above 16°C/60°F. 3 ft or more.
Fittonia verschaffelti. This trailing plant has
olive-green leaves with an elaborate net-
work of red veins.
Gynura (velvet plant). Two species are grown
as foliage plants, both having dark green
leaves felted with purple hairs. C. aurantiaca
is shrubby, C. sarmentosa has a trailing habit.
Iresine spp. Several members of this genus
are grown as short-term foliage plants in pots.
The beefsteak plant (/. herbstil) has deep red-
purple oval leaves on red stems.
Maranta leuconeura (prayer plant). This low-
growing spreading plant can be used at the
front of a bench bed. Species have varied-
colored leaves.
Peperomia spp. Plants from this genus grown
for their foliage have shrubby, trailing and
climbing habits. Many are epithytes, and all
need a free-draining soil mix.
Pilea. Two species are grown as foliage plants.
P. cadierei is a bushy plant with elliptic leaves
patterned with silvery blotches. P. microphylla
has sprays of small leaves. The inconspicuous
flowers shed pollen explosively, hence the
vernacular name of artillery plant.
Flowering plants
Plants listed below are perennials. Other
flowering plants appear in the bulbs list, and
orchids and begonias are discussed on the
succeeding pages. Annuals and the other
flowering plants listed in the cool greenhouse
section can be grown in a warm house.
Coleus Thyrsoideus. This sub-shrub carries
clusters of blue flowers in winter. It is best
raised annually from cuttings in spring. 3 ft.
Columnea. These trailing plants are very well
suited to hanging baskets. C. glorosa has
pendant chains of small reddish leaves and
tubular red flowers in winter and spring.
Crossandra infundiluliformis. A shrubby peren-
nial, this plant carries fan-shaped pink to red
flowers for much of the year. The foliage is
attractive. 2 - 3 ft.
lusticia spp. Several are grown as annuals
from spring cuttings. /. carnea has pink to
purple tongue-like flowers in autumn. It can
reach 4 - 6 ft if regularly potted on. J.. rizzenii
has an arching habit and clusters of scarlet
and yellow flowers for much of the year.
Rhoeo spathaca (boat lily). Small white flowers
are carried on boat-shaped bracts in the leaf
axils. Becomes clump-forming with age. 1ft.
Saintpaulia ionantha (African violet). Easy to
propagate, and compact, this plant has
become very popular. Maintain 16°C/60°F,
light shade and moderate humidity. For
propagation, see pages 6 0 - 6 1 .
Streptocarpus (cape primrose). S. rex/7 and its
hybrids have dark wrinkled leaves and clusters
of funnel-shaped flowers in a variety of
colors. Shade tolerant.
Shrubs and climbers
The following species w h i c h survive at a
winter minimum of 13°C/55°F.
Acalphya hispada. This shrub has large oval
leaves and crimson tassel like flower clusters.
It will grow to 6 ft, but can be kept to half this
height by pruning.
Antigonon leptopus (coral vine). Fast-growing
and needing plenty of space, this twining
climber has narrow leaves and small bright
pink flowers in clusters. 10 ft or more.
Coffea arabica 'Nana' (dwarf coffee). The
coffee tree has shiny dark green leaves,
fragrant white flowers and red berry-like
fruits. 3 - 6 ft.
Dipladenia spendens. A vigorous twining
climber with large pink flowers. Tuberous-
rooted, it should be cut back hard each
winter. 10 ft.

July August September October November December

Ventilate night and day according
to temperature. Maintain a moist
atmosphere and keep all plants
well watered. Shade as necessary.
If necessary, repaint the greenhouse
interior, choosing a spell of settled
weather for the task and moving
the plants outside or into a frame.
Maintain the pest control
program. Look out for and combat
fungal diseases.
Continue to sow primula,
cineraria, calceolaria, also first
batches of annuals for winter and
spring flowering.
Take cuttings of hydrangeas and
other plants not propagated in
June.
Re-pot freesias and pot on cuttings
and seedlings planted earlier in the
year as necessary. Pot on perpetual
carnations and place them in an
open frame.
Move remaining winter-flowering
shrubs to a frame or outdoor
plunge bed.
Prepare heating system for autumn
operation. Order fuel if necessary.
Use a fan or kerosene heater to
maintain night temperature in
unseasonal weather. Continue
watering, shading and pest and
disease control.
Sow more annuals for spring
flowering. Sow cyclamen.
Take cuttings of half-hardy
bedding plants such as geranium,
also take softwood cuttings such
as coleus, begonia, tradescantia,
regal and fancy pelargoniums.
Feed and water chrysanthemums
placed outdoors. Tie them in to
stakes to prevent wind damage.
Pot up first batch of bulbs for
winter flowering. Pot on cineraria
and primula grown from seed.
Remove permanent shading and
start the main heating system,
setting the thermostat to maintain
the necessary minimum night
temperature. Continue to water
and damp down freely and
ventilate when necessary.
Temperatures may range from
very warm to freezing, so control
ventilation carefully.
Pot up more bulbs for winter
flowering. Place cyclamen,
cineraria and primula into
flowering pots.
Bring into the greenhouse azaleas,
camellias and other perennials
which have spent the summer in
the open garden. Bring in
chrysanthemums for autumn
flowering.
Spray and wipe down the leaves of
foliage plants.
Prune woody climbers. Pinch out
the flower buds on fibrous begonias
to encourage winter flowering.
Reduce watering and cut humidity.
Continue to ventilate and provide
heat as necessary. Do not allow air
to become stagnant through
inadequate ventilation, or mildew
may occur. Wash down the glass,
inside and out, to permit
maximum light penetration during
winter.
Pot up tulips and further batches
of other bulbs for winter and
spring flowering. Bring in remaining
chrysanthemums.
Re-pot all plants that have outgrown
their pots during the summer.
Bring in any perennial bedding
plants and tub or pot fruit trees
and shrubs needing winter
protection.
Plant climbers and fruit trees and
bushes. Feed cyclamen, camellia,
cineraria and primula.
Cut ventilation to the minimum,
opening the house only in the
middle of the day. Water sparingly
and reduce humidity. Keep
temperature above the minimum
but not too warm.
Re-pot lilies. Bring in early bulbs
from the frame.
Bring primulas and calceolaria in
from the frame or cool house for
early flowering.
Lift and store begonia tubers.
Box up seakale, witloof chicory and
rhubarb for forcing.
Maintain minimum temperatures,
ventilate carefully and water
sparingly. Only those plants in
bloom or about to bloom will need
much water. Cure drafts and
insulate wherever possible.
Bring in more bulbs for forcing. Cut
back chrysanthemums as they
finish flowering, and place the
stools in a frame. Bring in azaleas,
deutzia, primula, cineraria and
cyclamen for winter flowering.
Force seakale and witloof chicory.
Using frames 1
A frame is a versatile piece of equipment
which can be used as an extension <>l the
greenhouse or on its own. A frame is parti-
cularly useful for a gardener without a green-
house, especially if it can be heated, for given
the restrictions in size, a heated frame can be
used for most of the plants that can be grown
in a greenhouse. Both heated and unheated
frames can be used for raising new plants,
including early vegetables; for extending the
growing season; for hardening off green-
house-grown plants before they are planted
out in the garden; for overwintering plants
such as chrysanthemums and for plunging
potted bulbs that will later be taken indoors
to bloom. The soil, mix or other growing
medium placed in the frame will depend on
the exact use to which the frame is put.
The main shapes and sizes of frames are
described in detail on page 7. The frame
should be deep enough to accommodate the
plants to be grown in it.
Siting
A frame can be placed abutting a greenhouse
or on its own. If one wall of the frame is
placed against the greenhouse wall the frame
will benefit from improved insulation and re-
duced heat loss. Another advantage is that
the heating system of the greenhouse can
usually be extended to serve the frame. Place
a frame that is to be used on its o w n in an
open, sunny, easily accessible position that
affords plenty of light and some shelter from
high winds. Never place a frame in a corner
of the garden known to be a frost pocket. The
general rules for siting frames and green-
houses are further explained on pages 12-13.
Heating
A cold frame, that is a frame with no form of
heating, is less useful than a heated frame
which will allow a wider range of plants to be
grown. In a heated frame, early vegetables
will be ready for cropping sooner and there
is less chance of tender plants failing to sur-
vive the winter. A heating system for a frame
works by heating the soil and/or the air. Soil
heating can be provided by electric cables or,
if the frame is abutting a heated greenhouse,
by hot water pipes. The air in a frame can be
heated by electric cables or hot water tubes
placed round the walls. Whichever heating Growing early carrots in a heated frame
system is chosen (see also pages 18-23) it
should always include an accurate thermo-
stat to aid careful regulation of the growing
conditions within the frame.
Insulation To help conserve the heat built up
in a frame during the day, the frame lights can
be covered on cold nights with burlap sack-
ing or a roll of old carpet. Place blocks of
w o o d carefully on top of the sacking or carpet
to prevent it from blowing away. Alter-
natively, buy a special sheet with eyelet
holes and tie it to wooden pegs placed in the
soil. The sides of the frame can also be
insulated by lining them with bales of straw 1 February Dig garden soil in the frame. 2 Rake in 2 - 3 oz of general fertilizer then
encased in chicken wire. Place heating cables in the frame and cover water well. Close the frame.
them w i t h 6 in of good garden soil.
Ventilation
Plants grown in heated and cold frames need
good ventilation to encourage free air circu-
lation. Poor ventilation increases air humidity
within the frame and encourages the growth
of disease-causing organisms. Make sure that
the lights of the frame can be opened at
several different levels and that they can
easily be removed altogether. For ventilation
the lights may be propped open with a block
of w o o d , or a brick, or pushed back entirely
off the frame and placed at an angle over the
frame w i t h one end on the ground, as long
as they will not blow away. In very windy
weather secure the lights with cord wound 3 A week later Sow seed in drills 4 in apart 4 March As seedlings develop t h i n (if
round cleats screwed to the frame wall, or or broadcast at 1/12 oz per square yard. Set necessary) to 1—11/2 in apart. Remove all
by hooks and eyes. thermostat to 18°C/65°F. Keep frame shut. thinnings. Water to firm. Replace lights.
Watering
To water the plants in a frame the lights can
simply be lifted or removed. Always water
plants w i t h a rose fitted to the watering can
or hose so that soil is not washed away from
around plant roots. Semi-automatic watering
with a perforated hose or capillary watering
as used in the greenhouse (see pages 24-26)
are also effective and time-saving. In the
capillary system, water is supplied via a trickle
irrigation line which ensures a slow, steady
water supply to the growing medium in the
frame. W h e n the frame is not in use and in the
summer, remove the lights so that the soil can
get a good natural watering from the rain. 5 As weather warms open lights on sunny 6 April Remove lights completely when all
This will also help to prevent a damaging days but close them at night. Plants will chance of frost is past. Store lights in a
build-up of mineral salts in the soil. now need more water. safe place. Harvest carrots as needed.
Using frames 2
Light and shading
To ensure maximum entry of light, keep frame
lights clean at all times and renovate and
clean them in summer. As in the greenhouse,
plants in a frame risk being scorched and
badly damaged by hot sun. To prevent this,
apply a shading c o m p o u n d to the inside of
the frame lights as necessary, or place a sheet
of muslin or small mesh plastic netting over
the frame on hot, sunny days. The covering
can be rolled back in cloudy weather.
Raising seed
Seed of all kinds can be sown in a heated or
unheated frame in pots, boxes or flats or
directly into prepared soil. Turn on the heat-
ing system, if there is one, for a day or t w o
before sowing to warm the soil. Seeds of
hardy plants can be sown in a heated frame
as early as February, seeds of tender plants
from late February to March. For an un-
heated frame, add on another month to six
weeks in each case, and more if the spring
is a cold one. Seedlings in pots or boxes are
best placed in the frame on a 3 in layer of
gravel or weathered ashes to allow good
Hardening off in an unheated frame
1 Spring As air temperature rises, place
boxes or pots of greenhouse-reared
seedlings or cuttings in the frame.
drainage or, if a capillary watering system is
used, on a 2 in layer of coarse sand placed on
a thick sheet of polyethylene. Note that seeds
planted in pots or boxes will need more care
in watering as they dry out more quickly than
those planted direct into the soil. Seedlings of
tender or half-hardy plants raised in a heated
frame will also need hardening off before
they are planted out into the garden.
Early crops in a heated frame
Carrots, radishes, lettuces, beets and spring
onions are among the many vegetables that
can be grown in a heated frame for early
cropping and for eating when young and
tender. Months of planting for heated frames
are shown in the list above.
Soil Most early crops can be sown in the
frame direct into good well-dug garden soil
enriched w i t h well-rotted manure, compost
or peat, plus 2 - 3 oz of a general well-balanced
fertilizer per square yard. If the garden top
soil is very stony or shallow, it may be prefer-
able to replace the top 1-11/2 ft with new
good-quality top soil or to replace the soil
completely with good sterilized soil placed
2 During first week (weather permitting)
leave lights half open during the day for
ventilation but close down each night.
on a perforated polyethylene sheet placed in
the frame. If necessary, make provision for
any particular needs of the crop to be grown
—lettuces for example do best in humus-rich
soil while carrots prefer soil that has not been
freshly manured.
Care of seedlings Freshly sown seed of most
vegetable crops will germinate best at a tem-
perature of 18°C/65°F so this is the ideal
thermostat setting for seed planted in late
winter or early spring. On cold nights, insu-
late the frame with burlap or similar material.
The frame should be ventilated during the
day as long as the weather is not very cold or
windy. In bad weather ensure maximum
entry of light by washing all debris off the
lights regularly. As the weather warms the
lights can be opened wider during the day
and closed at night. Once all risk of frost is
past and plants are well established, the
lights can be removed altogether, cleaned
and stored and the heating system turned off.
Crops in a cold frame
For vegetables, a cold frame provides similar
protection to cloches (see page 94) but re-
3 During second week leave lights open a
little at night. Towards end of week remove
lights completely except in windy weather.
tains heat better and is cooled less by the
wind. Vegetables sown in a cold frame will
still crop earlier than those sown outdoors
with no protection. A m o n g the best crops for
the cold frame are cucumbers, zucchinis,
melons, smaller squashes and o u t d o o r tom
atoes. Cucumber and similar seeds are best
pre-germinated at a temperature of 21°C
70°F before being planted in the cold frame
in early May. Ventilate the frame as necessary
during the day and close it d o w n at night
until plants are established then remove the
lights in June.
For outdoor tomatoes, raise seeds indoors
and plant t h e m out in the cold frame in May
or early June. Ventilate the frame as neces-
sary but do not remove the lights completely
until the plants are well established, by
which time they will have probably outgrown
the height of the frame. The lights can be
replaced at the end of the season to help
ripen the last fruits and c o m b a t frost.
Cuttings
Cuttings of all types can be g r o w n in a frame.
Use a heated frame for cuttings of tender
4 In third week remove plants f r o m the
frame and plant in their permanent
positions in the garden.
Using frames 3
Softwood shrub cuttings can be planted in a
cold frame in June, semi-hard ones in July
and August. See pages 57-59 for details.
Hardening off
Many tender or half-hardy plants raised in the
greenhouse need to be put through a "tough-
ening-up" process called hardening off before
they are planted out into the garden. A cold
frame is ideal for this purpose. In spring, when
there is no risk of tender or half-hardy plants
being exposed to frost once they are in their
permanent positions in the garden, take pots
or boxes of young plants from the greenhouse
and place them in the frame. For one week
leave the lights open during the day (as long
as the weather is not cold or windy) but close
them at night. During the second week, leave
the lights open a little at night. Towards the
end of the second week open the frame as
wide as possible at night. In the third week
the plants can be planted in their permanent
positions in the garden.
Plunging bulbs in an unhealed frame
1 October Fill frame with a 1 ft layer of sand,
peat or a mixture of gravel and weathered
coal ashes. Water and allow to settle.
Overwintering and storage
A frame can act as a useful protected storage
site for plants during the winter and, at the
same time, save valuable space in the green-
house. A heated frame will be needed for
tender plants such as pelargoniums and
fuchsias which should be placed in the frame
in September. In the same month, freesias
can be potted up and placed in a heated
frame. O u t d o o r chrysanthemums can be
overwintered in an unheated frame after they
have been cut back and boxed in a pro-
prietary potting mix. The frame should be well
ventilated except in very severe weather to
help prevent diseases such as botrytis, which
are encouraged by stagnant air.
Storage A cold frame can be employed to
store dormant bulbs and tubers that are
susceptible to frost damage. After lifting
dahlia tubers, for example, pack them in
boxes of dry peat before storing them in a
heated frame. Store bulbs in a cold frame
loosely packed in wooden boxes with plenty
of room for air to circulate between them.
M a k e sure the frame is well ventilated but
guard against damp which can cause rot.
2 Plant hyacinth bulbs in pots then plunge
up to their rims in the frame. Cover with
a 3 in layer of peat to exclude light.
The plunge bed
A plunge bed is a bed of damp sand, peat or a OVERWINTERING
mixture of gravel and weathered coal ashes
1ft deep into which pots are buried or
plunged up to their rims. A plunge bed in a
cold frame is useful for accommodating
plants throughout the year. From spring on-
wards, as alpines finish flowering in the alpine
house, transfer them to the plunge bed.
Plunge the pots up to their rims and keep the
bed damp but never let it become dry or
waterlogged. The cool moist environment of
the plunge bed will produce good strong
growth. Similarly, pot-grown greenhouse Heated and unheated frames are very use-
plants can be plunged in summer, which will ful for storing and protecting flowering
prevent them from drying out too quickly. plants in winter, so freeing valuable green-
During the summer there is no need to place house space. Use a heated frame for
the lights on the frame. tender plants such as pelargoniums. Lift
Bulb forcing In winter, use the plunge bed for plants from the garden in a u t u m n , cut
forcing bulbs. Plant bulbs in pots, plunge them t h e m back and plant in boxes before
and cover the pots with a 3 in layer of peat. placing t h e m in the frame. Similarly, make
Place the lights over the frame, leaving them chrysanthemum "stools" by cutting back
open a little for ventilation. After eight weeks plants to within 4 - 6 in of the ground
the bulbs will have formed good root systems before boxing t h e m up and placing them
and can be taken indoors in succession for in an unheated frame. Ventilate well..
flowering.
3 Place lights over frame to protect pots 4 After eight weeks Remove pots from
from heavy winter rainfall. Keep the frame frame and take indoors in sequence for
well ventilated. flowering.
Using cloches
Cloches provide plants with virtually the same
protection as cold frames, except that they
retain heat rather less well and that the air
inside them is cooled more quickly by the
wind. The advantage of cloches is that they
are more mobile and versatile to use. Cloches
can be employed in many ways—to warm
the soil before seeds are sown; for raising
seedlings, especially half-hardy annual bed-
ding plants and vegetables to extend the
growing season at each end of the year; to
protect individual plants, particularly alpines,
from cold and wet and to save blooms from
splashing and spoiling by m u d ; to provide
shelter from cold and wind and to ripen off
onions and similar crops in poor weather.
Cloches can also be used to spread the season
of cut flowers. Rows of gladioli, for example,
tend to flower at the same time, but if half is
cloched, the cutting period is lengthened.
Using cloches
Cloches should be placed in an open position
away from the shade of trees. Never put them
in a very windy place where they will cool
quickly and risk being damaged or blown
Year-round uses for cloches
1 January Place cloches over soil prepared
for seed sowing. Leave for 2 - 3 weeks to dry
and warm soil. Do not close cloche ends.
over. Any cloches likely to be overturned by
strong winds should have fittings to anchor
them to the ground or should be secured
with string tied to pegs placed in the ground.
Leave plenty of room between rows of
cloches for easy access and watering.
Ventilation
Ventilation is essential to prevent the build-
up of stagnant, over-moist airthat encourages
disease. If single cloches are placed in rows,
always leave a small gap between each one
if the cloches have no built-in ventilation
system such as adjustable top or sides. In the
case of a polyethylene tunnel sides can be
lifted and supported with a pot or wooden
block. The gaps between the cloches can be
increased if necessary to let in more air, but
to avoid too much draft, and consequent
heat loss, close the ends with purchased
cloche ends or with a sheet of glass or thick
plastic held in place with a wooden stake.
Soil preparation
Before placing cloches in position, prepare
the soil for the plants or crop that is to be
2 Early spring Use cloches to protect newly
sown seed and seedlings. Close cloche ends
but ventilate well according to type.
protected according to its specific needs and
make sure that the same crop is not grown STORING CLOCHES
in the same soil t w o years running. Before
sowing seed or planting out seedlings raised
in a greenhouse or heated frame, put the
cloches in position and leave them for two
to three weeks to dry and warm the soil. A
dressing of balanced fertilizer can be raked in
before cloches are positioned.
Watering
Cloches need only be removed for watering
if they are covering small seedlings which
need a very even sprinkling of water. Other-
wise, water can be applied to cloches from
overhead with a watering can or hose if there
is insufficient rain. The water runs down the
sides of the cloches and is absorbed into the
soil, reaching the roots of the plants which
grow naturally towards sources of food and
water. For long rows of cloches it is also
possible to supply water via a sprinkler or Store cloches not in use by stacking them
irrigation tubing placed between the rows. on their ends in a sheltered corner of the
On light soil make a shallow channel on the garden where they will not get broken or
outside of each cloche in which water can blown over by strong winds.
easily collect and drain into the soil.
3 Autumn In rainy weather place harvested 4 Winter Single cloches can be put over
onions under cloches to dry out before alpines such as cushion plants susceptible
storage. Ventilate well. Leave ends open. to rotting in w e t soil.
 Growing greenhouse seedless cucumbers
in soil and in soilless media
Dr. A. P. Papadopoulos Research Centre Harrow, Ontario

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Publication 1902/E

CONTENTS
Introduction.
The cucumber plant

Origin
Botanical taxonomy
Plant growth habit
The shoot
The root
The flower
The fruit (seeded vs nonseeded)

Seed germination
Plant improvement

Environmental requirements
Temperature
Light
Relative humidity
Carbon dioxide
Air movement
Nutritional needs
Soil plant relationships
Soil as a growth medium
Soil structure and texture
Soil reaction (pH)
Cation-exchange capacity of the soil
Nutrient requirements and effects
Macronutrients
Micronutrients
Nonessential elements
General cultural practices
Crop scheduling
Cultivar selection
Plant propagation
Propagation schedules
Seed sowing and seedling establishment
Soil and soilless mixes
Rock-wool multiblocks
Environment control for seedlings
Seedling transfer (transplanting)
Artificial light
Temperature control
Carbon dioxide enrichment
Grafting
Plant spacing

1
 Pruning and training
General principles
Pruning systems
Training systems
Choosing a training and pruning system
Fruit thinning
Harvesting and storage
Conventional cropping in soil
Type of soil
Drainage
Soil pasteurization
Flooding and leaching
Organic matter
Control of pH
Preplant fertilizer application
Cultivating
Watering (soil)
Scheduling the applications of fertilizer
Mulching
Cropping in soil with drip irrigation
Cropping in peat and other organic media
The trough system
Peat bags
Watering (peat)
Feeding
Recycling
The Harrow peat-bag system
Sawdust
Straw bales
Cropping in rock wool and other inert media
Rock wool
Perlite
Vermiculite
Oasis and other synthetics
Expanded clay
Sand and gravel
Nutrient film technique and other hydroponic systems

Acknowledgment
I thank Dr. W.R. Jarvis for his critical review of this
publication.

SECTION 1
Introduction.
Almost all cucumbers grown now in greenhouses are the long, seedless type (English or European),
referred to in this booklet as seedless cucumbers. The seeded-type cucumbers (regular or American),
referred to in this booklet as regular cucumbers, were popular until the mid 1970s. The regular cucumbers
have disappeared from the market except for those from field production (mostly as imports). Seedless
cucumbers are the second most- important greenhouse vegetable crop in Canada not far behind tomatoes.
Cucumbers are grown mainly in spring and fall, but the plants' fast growth and the short time required from
seeding to harvest provide great flexibility in crop planning. The spring crop has always been the most

2
important because of both the high prices in winter and early spring and the long season of production. This
crop is normally seeded in December, set in the greenhouse the 1st week of January, and harvested from
mid February to July; some plantings extended into the fall. When circumstances allow (e.g., artificial
lighting for transplant raising, modern greenhouse, skilled operator), the spring crop is started even earlier
to capture the lucrative winter market. However, poor light conditions during the winter months make the
early spring crop more difficult to grow. The spring crop is also a riskier business venture, because of the
high production inputs (i.e., energy and labor costs). For the grower choosing between cucumbers and
tomatoes, the decision to grow spring cucumbers is a tough one, because this crop must compete with the
equally important spring crop of tomatoes. The choice in the fall is easier, because the season is much
shorter, the anticipated yield correspondingly low, and the prices are usually depressed until late in the
season. Their quick growth in relation to the time available makes cucumbers a good candidate for a fall
crop. Such a crop is normally seeded in July, set in the greenhouse during the 1st
week of August, and harvested from September to December. The recent rise of sweet peppers as a serious
contender makes choosing between cucumbers and tomatoes as a greenhouse crop even more difficult.

The cucumber plant

Origin
Botanical taxonomy
Plant growth habit
The shoot
The root
The flower
The fruit (seeded vs nonseeded)
Seed germination
Plant improvement

Origin
The cucumber most likely originated in India (south foot of the Himalayas), or possibly Burma, where the
plant is extremely variable both vegetatively and in fruit characters. It has been in cultivation for at least
3000 years. From India the plant spread quickly to China, and it was reportedly much appreciated by the
ancient Greeks and Romans.

Botanical taxonomy
The cucumber ( Cucumis sativus L.) belongs to the Cucurbitaceae family, one of the more important plant
families. The Cucurbitaceae consists of 90 genera and 750 species. The Cucurbitaceae family is divided
into five subfamilies (i.e., Fevilleae, Melothriae, Cucurbiteae, Sicyoideae, and Cyclanthereae). However,
the important cultivated genera are found only in the subfamilies Cucurbiteae (i.e., Citrullus, Cucumis,
Luffa, Lagenaria, and Cucurbita ) and Sicyoideae (i.e., Sechium ). The genus Cucumis contains nearly 40
species including three important cultivated ones (i.e., C. anguria L. [West Indian gherkin], C. sativus
[cucumber], and C. melo L. [cantaloupe]). Other important crop plants in the Cucurbitaceae family are
watermelon ( Citrullus vulgaris Schrad), muskmelon ( Cucumis melo L.), squash and pumpkin ( Cucurbita
pepo L., C. mixta Pang., C. moschata Poir., and C. maxima Duch.), and loofah gourd ( Luffa cylindrica
Roem.). Fig-leaf gourd ( Cucurbita ficifolia Bouche) is also cultivated to some extent, but it is even more
important as a disease-resistant rootstock in the grafting of greenhouse cucumbers.
Plant growth habit
The cucumber responds like a semitropical plant. It grows best under conditions of high temperature,
humidity, and light intensity and with an uninterrupted supply of water and nutrients. Under favorable and
stable environmental and nutritional conditions and when pests are under control, the plants grow rapidly
and produce heavily. The main stem, laterals, and tendrils grow fast. They need frequent pruning to a single
stem and training along vertical wires to maintain an optimal canopy that intercepts maximum light and
allows sufficient air movement. Under optimal conditions, more fruit may initially develop from the axil of

3
each leaf than can later be supported to full size, so fruit may need thinning. Plants allowed to bear too
much fruit become exhausted, abort fruit, and fluctuate widely in productivity over time. Rapid growth,
thick and brittle stems, large leaves, long tendrils, deep green foliage, profusion of fruit, and large, deep
yellow flowers indicate excessive plant vigor. On the other hand, cucumbers are very sensitive to
unfavorable conditions, and the slightest stress affects their growth and productivity. Because fruit develops
only in newly produced leaf axils, major pruning may be needed to stimulate growth; the removal of entire
weakened laterals is more effective than snipping back their tips.

The shoot
The main stem of this herbaceous and annual plant begins growing erect but soon after assumes a prostrate
trailing habit and grows like a vine over the ground. The branching is of the sympodial type (i.e., a lateral
bud at each node grows and displaces the main growing point, the latter assuming a position on the
opposite side of the leaf). From the nodes of the main axis originate primary laterals, each of which can
have their (secondary) laterals, and so on. All stems are roughly hairy, have an angular cross section, may
turn hollow when mature, and bear leaves singly at the nodes. The large, simple leaves (10-20 cm in the
regular cucumber, 20-40 cm in the seedless cucumber) are each borne on long (7-20 cm) petioles. They
have five angular lobes of which the central is the largest, and many trichomes cover the surface. At each
node above the first three to five, a simple unbranched tendril grows from the base of the petiole. The
sensitive tendrils enable the stems, which can not twist themselves, to climb over other plants or objects. A
tendril tip, upon touching a support, coils around it; then the rest of the length of the tendril coils spirally,
pulling the whole plant towards the support. A cross section of the stem reveals 10 vascular bundles
arranged in two rings. The smaller vascular bundles of the outer ring (first five) are located at the angles of
the stem; the larger bundles (remaining five) form the inner ring.

The root
A strong tap root characterizes the root system and may reach 1 m deep. Overall the root system is
extensive but rather shallow; many horizontal laterals spread widely and rapidly producing a dense network
of rootlets that colonizes the top 30 cm of the soil and usually extends farther than the vine. Some of the
lateral roots eventually grow downwards producing a new system of deeper laterals, which replaces in
function the tap root as the plant ages. When the base of the plant is hilled and favorable moisture
conditions exist, adventitious roots arise easily from the hypocotyl as well as from the nodes along the
vines.

The flower

The cucumber plant displays a variety of sex types. Before describing

the most common forms of the greenhouse cucumber, the following terms
need explanation:

Perfect, or bisexual, or hermaphroditic flower: A flower with both male

(stamens) and female (pistil) organs but possibly without a calyx
(green sepals) or corolla (colorful petals).
Male, or staminate, flower: A flower lacking a pistil.
Female, or pistilate, flower: A flower lacking stamens.
Monoecious plant: A plant bearing both male and female flowers.
Dioecious plant: A plant species bearing male flowers on one plant and
female flowers on a different plant.
Androecious plant: A plant carrying only male flowers.
Andromonoecious plant: A plant carrying some perfect and some male
flowers.
Gynoecious plant: A plant carrying only female flowers.
Gynomonoecious plant: A plant carrying some perfect and some female
flowers.
Predominantly female plant: A plant with mostly female flowers, but
also carrying a few male flowers.

4
Hermaphroditic plant: A plant carrying both male and female flowers.
Parthenocarpy: Reproduction without fertilization; in this case,
production of seedless fruit without pollination.
Normally the cucumber is a monoecious plant with male and female flowers borne on the same plant (e.g.,
the American-type greenhouse cucumber, or the pickling cucumber). It reproduces with a high degree of
cross-pollination. Therefore, the regular cucumber and nearly all field cucumbers require pollination, which
is usually assisted by bees; one colony of honey bees per 50 000 plants is recommended. However, the
greenhouse-grown English cucumber is mostly of the gynoecious or, rarely, the predominantly female type.
This parthenocarpic type of cucumber needs no pollination. In fact, pollination is undesirable because it
results in seed set, club-shaped fruit, and loss of revenue. To prevent cross-pollination by stray bees, place
screens on the greenhouse, especially if regular cucumbers are grown close-by. Any factor affecting
growth, including environmental factors, can affect sex expression in cucumbers. Research with
monoecious plants has shown that good conditions, such as high temperature (27°C), long days (14 h),
sunny weather, high nitrogen, and ample water supply, promote male flower development. Poor conditions
promote more female flowers. Predominantly female hybrids generally respond to environmental stress in
the same way. However, gynoecious plants (100% female flowers) are not affected by the environment.
Spraying plants with plant-growth substances (man-made plant hormones) can also influence the sex
expression of cucumbers. It is possible to initiate and maintain a female flowering habit indefinitely by
spraying monoecious plants repeatedly with ethephon at prescribed rates. Ethephon sprays can also ensure
continuous female flower development in predominantly female plants. It is also possible to initiate
development of male flowers, even on gynoecious plants, by spraying them with gibberellic acid at the
proper concentration. This technique is extremely useful in the hands of the breeder because it facilitates
the self-pollination of a female parent line, which otherwise would have been impossible to maintain. Both
male and female flowers have deep yellow, five-lobed petals (Fig. 1). The male flowers, each supported by
a slender peduncle (stem), are generally borne in clusters of 3 5 at leaf-nodes. Each male flower has three
stamens, of which two have two anthers and the other has only one anther. The female flowers are borne
singly at nodes of the main stem and of side shoots. Female flowers have atrophic (small and
nonfunctional) stamens but well-developed pistils (consisting of three bilobed stigmas, the style, and a
three- chambered ovary). They are easily recognizableby the large ovary at the base of the flower. A ring-
shaped nectary surrounds the base of the style. The fruit, being an enlarged ovary, can only develop from a
female or bisexual flower.

Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Morphological and anatomical variation of the cucumber flower.

5
The fruit (seeded vs nonseeded)
Botanically, the fruit is a false berry or pepo, elongated and round triangular in shape. Its size, shape, and
color vary according to the cultivar (Fig. 2). In the immature fruit, chlorophyll in the cells under the
epidermis causes the rind to be green, but, upon maturity, it turns yellow-white. The epidermal layer may
have proliferated (warty) areas, each bearing a trichome (spiky hair). The fruit cavity (three locules)
contains soft tissue (placenta) in which the seeds are embedded. The regular cucumber bears actual seeds
(seeded cucumber), whereas the English cucumber bears either no seeds (seedless cucumber) or barely
distinguishable atrophic seeds. Regular cucumbers are short (about 15-25 cm) and uniformly cylindrical.
Their thick, deep green skin has light green stripes and a rough surface with strong trichomes. The skin is
bitter in taste and not easily digested, so the fruit needs to be peeled before eating. English cucumbers are
long (about 25-50 cm) and cylindrical, with a short, narrow neck at the stem end. Their rather smooth
surface has slight wrinkles and ridges. The thin skin is uniformly green and not bitter, so the fruit need not
be peeled before eating. The cucumber fruit, like that of other Cucurbitaceae, is noted for its high water
content, which is around 95% of its fresh weight. The nutritive value of 100 g of edible cucumber is as
follows: energy 12 cal, protein 0.6 g, fat 0.1 g, carbohydrate 2.2 g, vitamin A 45 IU, vitamin B1 0.03 g,
vitamin B2 0.02 g, niacin 0.3 g, vitamin C 12 g, calcium 12 mg, iron 0.3 mg, magnesium 15 mg, and
phosphorus 24 mg.
Fig. 2 xxxxx Fig. 2 Size and shape variation of the cucumber fruit.
Seed germination
The cucumber is a dicotyledonous plant, so its seed consists of the embryo (miniature plant) and two large
cotyledons (food storage for the embryo) enclosed by the seed coat. The seed is fairly large (largest
dimension about 1 cm) and flat in shape. One gram of seed contains about 28 seeds (800 in an ounce). The
seed remains viable for 4 years, but after that its germination rate falls rapidly. Using modern technology,
most seed companies commonly seal seed in airtight containers filled with carbon dioxide, which preserves
it for many years. The appropriate depth of seeding is 1-2 cm. Because of the shape of the seed, it most
likely lies flat at seeding. Under favorable conditions, the primary root takes 2 days to grow out of the seed
coat; it then extends downward at a right angle to the seed. The root grows rapidly and may be more than 3
cm in length by the end of the 3rd day. At this time a parenchymatous outgrowth develops in the angle
formed by the small horizontal part of the hypocotyl and the vertical radicle (Fig. 3). As this outgrowth
(peg) enlarges, the primary root starts to produce lateral roots, and the hypocotyl then elongates upward.
The cotyledons remain in the seed coat until they are eventually freed, as the arching hypocotyl extends
further, and, by their 6th day, the axis becomes straight. This type of germination is termed epigeal.
Fig. 3

6
Fig. 3 Cucumber seed germination.

Plant improvement
Traditionally, the oldest and simplest way to improve crop plants was to save seed from plants that had
desirable characters, e.g., high yield and good flavor. This approach leads to crop improvement only when
genetic diversity exists to begin with and the plants breed true (i.e., desirable characters are transferred
unaltered from generation to generation). Natural outcrossing (hybridization) occurs when a group of plants
from one variety is pollinated by another distinct group of plants by wind, insects, or other natural means.
However, because nature's way of creating variability is too slow, the plant breeder usually resorts to
artificial ways of producing it. Artificial hybridization involves the crossing of two or more parents chosen
for carrying desirable characters. Breeders frequently use this method to generate variation
from which to select useful plants. In contrast to natural hybridization, which is slow and random, artificial
hybridization is controlled and more effective. The cucumber is a cross-pollinated plant characterized by
parthenocarpy (i.e., production of seedless fruits without pollination). Parthenocarpy is of economic
importance in the breeding and production of cucumbers because it bypasses the laborious and costly
process of artificial pollination. Hybrid vigor in cucumbers is particularly pronounced, resulting in 20-40%
yield increase in relation to the parent lines. Thus for commercial production, seed companies release F1
hybrids almost universally. Furthermore, because the monoecious types are too vigorous and need frequent
pruning, nearly all new hybrids are gynoecious types selected for high yield and moderate vigor. Within the
Cucurbitaceae family, plants of the same species and, in rare instances, even plants of different species will
cross pollinate. However, cucumbers will not pollinate with pumpkins, squashes, gourds, and watermelons,
because they are not of the same genus. Neither will they pollinate with some melons that belong to the
same genus but are of different species.
SECTION 2
Environmental requirements
The greenhouse environment has a profound effect on crop productivity and profitability. In this section,
environment includes only temperature, light, relative humidity, carbon dioxide, and air movement. Other
related subjects, such as water and nutrients, are discussed elsewhere.

Temperature
Light
Relative humidity
Carbon dioxide
Air movement

Temperature
Air temperature is the main environmental component influencing vegetative growth, flower initiation, fruit
growth, and fruit quality (Plate I a-i). Growth rate of the crop depends on the average 24-h temperature the
higher the average air temperature the faster the growth. The larger the variation in day night air
temperature, the taller the plant and the smaller the leaf size. Although maximum growth occurs at a day
and night temperature of about 28°C, maximum fruit production is achieved with a night temperature of 19-
20°C and a day temperature of 20-22°C. The recommended temperatures in Table 1P are therefore a
compromise designed for sustained, high fruit productivity combined with moderate crop growth
throughout the growing season. During warm weather (i.e., late spring and early fall), reduce air
temperature settings, especially during the night, by up to 2°C to encourage vegetative growth when it is
retarded by heavy fruit load. This regime saves energy because a 24-h average can be ensured by the
prevailing high temperatures and favorable light conditions.
Table 1P

Recommended air temperatures for cucumber cropping

----------------------------------------------------
Low light High light With carbon

7
 (°C) (°C) dioxide (°C)
----------------------------------------------------
Night minimum* 19 20 20
Day minimum 20 21 22
Ventilation 26 26 28
----------------------------------------------------
*A minimum root temperature of 19°C is required, but 22-23°C is
preferable.

Light
Plant growth depends on light. Plant matter is produced by the process of photosynthesis, which takes place
only when light is absorbed by the chlorophyll (green pigment) in the green parts of the plant, mostly the
leaves. However, do not underestimate the photosynthetic productivity of the cucumber fruit, which,
because of its size and color, is a special case. In the process of photosynthesis, the energy of light fixes
atmospheric carbon dioxide and water in the plant to produce such carbohydrates as sugars and starch.
Generally, the rate of photosynthesis relates to light intensity, but not proportionally. The importance of
light becomes obvious in the winter, when it is in short supply. In the short, dull days of late fall, winter,
and early spring, the low daily levels of radiant energy result in low levels of carbohydrate production. Not
only do the poor light conditions limit photosynthetic productivity, but also the limited carbohydrates
produced during the day are largely expended by the respiring plant during the long night. The low supply
of carbohydrates available in the plant during the winter seriously limits productivity, as evidenced by the
profusion of aborted fruit. A fully grown crop benefits from any increase in natural light intensity, provided
that the plants have sufficient water, nutrients, and carbon dioxide and that air temperature is not too high.

Relative humidity
High relative humidity generally favors growth. However, reasonable growth can be achieved at medium or
even low relative humidity. The crop can adjust to and withstand relative humidity from low to very high
but reacts very sensitively to drastic and frequent variation in relative humidity. Its sensitivity to such
variation is greatest when the crop is developed under conditions of high relative humidity. Other
disadvantages of cropping under conditions of high relative humidity include the increased risk of water
condensing on the plants and the development of serious diseases. The resultant low transpiration rates are
blamed for inadequate absorption and transport of certain nutrients, especially calcium to the leaf margins
and fruit. At low relative humidity, irrigation becomes critical, because large quantities of water must be
added to the growth medium without constantly flooding the roots and depriving them of oxygen.
Furthermore, low relative humidity favors the growth of powdery mildew and spider mites, which alone
can justify installing and operating misting devices. Note that relative humidity (RH) is an expression of the
actual water vapor pressure (e) expressed as a percentage of the maximum water vapor pressure possible
(es) under certain air temperature and atmospheric pressure conditions. Therefore, RH comparisons are not
meaningful when air temperature is also changed. A more reliable indicator of the drying power of the
atmosphere is the water vapor pressure deficit (i.e., VPD = es - e). A high VPD indicates a "dry"
atmosphere whereas a low VPD indicates a "wet" atmosphere. As more environmental computers become
available enabling growers to measure (and become familiar with the concept of) VPD, reference to RH
should be avoided.

Carbon dioxide
In cold weather, with no ventilation, have a minimum carbon dioxide concentration of 1000 vpm
(approximately 1000 ppm) during the day. In the summer, with ventilation, supplemental carbon dioxide
applied at a concentration up to 400 ppm has proved economically useful in some countries. However, this
technique is too new in Canada to support definite recommendation. Regions with a moderate maritime
climate, such as British Columbia, can more likely benefit from carbon dioxide applied in the summer. But
in regions with a continental climate, such as southwestern Ontario, the need to ventilate the greenhouse
actively throughout the hot summer renders the practice less economical.

8
Air movement
An approximate air speed of 0.5 m/s, which causes leaves to move slightly, is recommended. Horizontal air
movement helps in several ways. It minimizes air temperature gradients in the greenhouse and removes
moisture from the lower part of the greenhouse (under the foliage). It distributes moisture in the rest of the
greenhouse and helps the carbon dioxide from the top of the greenhouse to travel into the leaf canopy,
where it is taken up and fixed in photosynthesis. Even modest air movement in the greenhouse improves
the uniformity of the greenhouse environment, which generally benefits crop productivity and energy
conservation.

Nutritional needs
Soil plant relationships Soil as a growth medium Soil structure and texture Soil reaction (pH) Cation-
exchange capacity of the soil Nutrient requirements and effects Macronutrients Micronutrients
Nonessential elements

Soil plant relationships

Plants in their natural environment live, almost without exception, in an association known as the soil-plant
relationship. Soil provides for the four basic needs of plants: water, nutrients, oxygen, and support.
Advances in science and technology now allow humans to provide these needs artificially and to
successfully grow plants without soil. The various methods and techniques developed for growing plants
without soil are collectively called soilless methods of plant culture. These methods include diverse
systems, from the purely hydroponic, based on water and nutrients only (e.g., nutrient film technique or
NFT), to those based on artificial mixes that contain various proportions of soil. Between these extremes lie
a great number of soilless methods that make use of some sort of growing medium, either inert (e.g., rock-
wool slabs, polyurethane chunks, and perlite) or not inert (e.g., gravel culture, sand culture, and peat bags).

Soil as a growth medium

Soil consists of mineral and organic matter, water, and air. An average soil in optimum condition for plant
growth might consist of 45% mineral matter, 5% organic matter, 25% water, and 25% air space. The
mineral matter consists of diverse small rock fragments. The organic matter of a soil is a mixture derived
from plant and animal remains at various stages of decomposition. In the process of decomposition, some
of the organic entities oxidize to their end-products and others to an intermediate product called humus.
Both the type and the relative quantity of the mineral and organic constituents of a soil determine its
chemical properties. Chemical properties of a soil are the amounts of the various essential elements present
and their forms of combination, as well as the degree of acidity or alkalinity, known as pH. The amount of
nutrients available to the plants depends not only on the soil's chemical properties but also on its physical
properties.

Soil structure and texture

The physical properties of a soil describe its texture and structure. Texture, i.e., the size distribution of its
mineral constituents, is expressed as a percentage of content of sand, silt, and clay (Fig. 4). Structure
describes the type and extent of formation of the various mineral and organic constituents into crumblike
soil aggregates. The organic matter of a soil plays an important role in soil structure for two reasons. First,
diversity in the size of the organic components produces wide variety in soil structure. Second, the humus
cements together the various soil constituents into crumblike aggregates. Soil structure in turn plays an
important role in soil fertility (the ability of soil to sustain good plant growth and high yields). The structure
determines, to a great extent, the water-holding capacity and aeration of a soil (Table 2). The water held
within the soil pores, together with the salts dissolved in it, make up the soil solution that is so important as
a medium for supplying nutrients and water to growing plants. The air located in the soil pores supplies
oxygen for the respiration of root and soil microorganisms and removes the carbon dioxide and other gases
produced by them. Plant nutrients exist in soil as either complex organic or inorganic compounds that are
unavailable to plants or in simple forms that are usually soluble in water and therefore readily available to
plants (Table 3). The complex forms, too numerous to mention, must first be broken down through
decomposition to simple, soluble forms to be available and therefore useful to plants (Fig. 5).

9
pH.
A pH of 7 indicates neutral conditions; values lower than 7 indicate an acid environment; and values higher
than 7 indicate an alkaline environment on a scale of 0-14.

Fig. 4

Fig. 4 Classification of soils according to texture (particle size in mm).

Table 2

Important growth media properties affected by their structure and

texture.
------------------------------------------------------
Capillary Water
Medium rise absorption Percolation
(cm) (%, v/v)
------------------------------------------------------
Soil 18 21 very slow
Peat-mix 30 27 slow
Vermiculite 29 21 fast
Perlite 41 17 fast
Rock wool 10 17 fast
Expanded clay pellets 2 11 very fast
------------------------------------------------------
Table 3P

Essential elements for the growth of most cultivated plants

-----------------------------------------------
Atomic Available
Element Symbol weight from

10
-----------------------------------------------
Organic elements
(from air and water)
Hydrogen H 1.00 H2O
Carbon C 12.00 CO2
Oxygen O 16.00 O2, H2O

Macronutrients
(needed in large quantities)
Nitrogen N 14.00 NO3-, NH4+
Potassium K 39.10 K+
Calcium Ca 40.08 Ca++
Magnesium Mg 24.32 Mg++
Phosphorus P 30.92 H2PO4-, HPO4-
Sulfur S 32.07 SO4--

Micronutrients
(needed in small quantities)
Iron Fe 55.85 Fe+++, Fe++
Manganese Mn 54.94 Mn++
Copper Cu 63.54 Cu++, Cu+
Boron B 10.82 BO3---,B4O7--
Zinc Zn 65.38 Zn++
Molybdenum Mo 95.95 MoO4++
-----------------------------------------------
Fig. 5 xxxxx Fig. 5 The process of mineralization, solubilization, cation exchange, and nutrient absorption.

Soil reaction (pH)

The reaction of the soil solution (pH) also affects the solubility of the various nutrients and thus their
availability to plants (Fig. 6). In acid soils (pH < 7) the nutrients calcium and molybdenum are less
available, whereas in alkaline soils (pH 7) the nutrients iron, manganese, and zinc are less available.
Excessive amounts of bicarbonate (HC03-) may interfere with the normal uptake of certain nutrients. Most
nutrients are available when the pH measures between 6 and 7, so most plants grow best in soils of that
reaction.

11
Fig. 6

Fig. 6 How soil pH affects availability of plant nutrients (diagram courtesy of Plant Products Ltd.).

Cation-exchange capacity of the soil

When small quantities of inorganic salts such as the soluble mineral matter of soil and commercial
fertilizers are added to water, they dissociate into electrically charged units called ions. The positively
charged ions (cations), such as hydrogen (H+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca++), magnesium (Mg++),
ammonium (NH4+), iron (Fe++), manganese (Mn++), and zinc (Zn++), are absorbed mostly on the
negatively charged surfaces of the soil colloids (microscopic clay and humus particles). Cations exist only
in small quantities in the soil solution. Thus, the humus-clay colloids serve as a storehouse for certain
essential cations. The negatively charged ions (anions), such as nitrates (N03-), phosphates (HP04--),
sulphates (S04--), and chlorides (Cl-), occur almost exclusively in the soil solution. Anions can therefore
leach away easily with overwatering. The soil solution bathes the roots and root hairs, which are in intimate
contact with the soil colloidal surfaces. Nutrient uptake can take place either from the soil solution or
directly from the colloidal surfaces (cation exchange). The soil solution provides the most important source
of nutrients, but it is so dilute that its nutrients are easily depleted and must be replenished from soil
particles. The solid phase of the soil, acting as a reservoir of nutrients, slowly releases them into the soil
solution by the solubilization of soil minerals and organics, by the solution of soluble salts, and by cation
exchange. A more dramatic increase in the nutrient content of the soil solution takes place with the addition
of commercial fertilizers. As plants absorb nutrients (ions) they exchange them for other ions. For example,
for the uptake of one potassium (K+) or one ammonium (NH4+) ion, one hydrogen (H+) ion is released
into the soil solution or directly onto the soil colloids through cation exchange. Similarly, for the uptake of
one calcium (Ca++) or one magnesium (Mg++) ion, the root releases two hydrogen (H+) ions. As the plant
absorbs these essential cations, the soil solution and the colloidal particles contain more and more hydrogen
(H+) ions. As a result, when crops remove cations (ammonium nitrogen is a good example), soils become
more acidic. Also, as the plant absorbs essential anions such as nitrates and phosphates, the soil solution is
enriched with more and more hydroxyl groups (0H-) and bicarbonates (HCO3-), which explains why the
removal of anions (nitrate nitrogen is a good example) by crops makes soils alkaline.

Nutrient requirements and effects

Growing a successful cucumber crop depends on the grower's ability to maintain an optimum balance
between vegetativeness and reproductiveness. We judge a well-balanced plant by its thick stem, its large
and dark green leaves, and its high number of rapidly sizing-up fruit. A properly nourished and fully
developed plant has a main stem about 1.5 cm thick, two main sideshoots about 1.0 cm thick, and at least
one fruit set and growing fast (7 days from set to harvest) at each node. Thicker stems indicate
overvegetativeness. They are usually associated with profuse fruit setting, which triggers a cycle of
overbearing, carbohydrate depletion, retarded root growth and renewal, arrested growth, widespread fruit
abortion, and slow recovery. Thinner, slow-growing stems indicate overproductiveness or poor growing
conditions. Long, sustained fruit production is not easy, but it can be achieved under optimum
environmental conditions and by timely application of water and nutrients. Although inorganic nutrients
make up a tiny fraction of the total plant weight (approximately 1%), their application, usually as a
chemical fertilizer, is vital. Fertilizers influence greatly how the crop grows and develops and ultimately the
quantity and quality of fruit relative to other greenhouse crops. Cucumbers are heavy feeders (i.e., they
absorb and use large quantities of fertilizers). At the same time they can easily suffer root damage from
fertilizer overdose or wide variation in the fertilizer supply. Because cucumbers are highly sensitive to
salinity, yield declines inversely as the electrical conductivity (EC) of the fertigation solution increases.
Although the fertilizer feeding program needs adjusting throughout the production season to suit the
changing nutritional needs of the crop as environmental conditions change, take care to make any changes
small and gradual (Table 4P). Computer-controlled multifertilizer injectors are now used commercially for
the precise dosing of fertilizers according to crop needs (Plate II). The following sections describe the role
of each nutrient in the growth and productivity of seedless cucumbers.
Table 4P

Content of nutrients in dry matter of leaves from healthy cucumber

12
plants and from plants with deficiency or toxicity symptoms; dry matter
ranges from 80 to 110 g/kg, with 98 g/kg as an average for fresh
leaves.
----------------------------------------------------------------
Health
Nutrient element --------------- Deficiency Toxicity
Range Mean
----------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (mol/kg)
total N 1.8-3.6 2.96
nitrate N 0.07-1.0 0.24 <0.07 1.3
Phosphorus (mol/kg) 0.11-0.25 0.17 <0.07
Potassium (mol/kg) 0.5-1.5 0.97 <0.4-0.5
Magnesium (mol/kg) 0.2-0.8 0.42 <0.10
Calcium (mol/kg) 0.5-2.5 1.19 <0.5
Sulfur (mol/kg)
total S 0.13-0.30 0.19 <0.08
sulphate S 0.05-0.28 0.13
Boron (mmol/kg) 2.8-10.0 7.0 <2.5 25
Copper (mmol/kg) 0.03-0.30 0.20 <0.03
Iron (mmol/kg) 1.7-5.4 4.2 <0.9-2.7*
Manganese (mmol/kg) 0.9-11.0 5.8 <0.4-0.7 10
Molybdenum (mmol/kg) 0.01-0.06 0.032 <0.008-0.010
Zinc (mmol/kg) 0.9-3.0 0.032 <0.3 10
----------------------------------------------------------------
* Not diagnostic.
Source: Roorda van Eysinga, J.P.N.L.; Smilde, K.W. 1981. Nutritional
disorders in glasshouse tomatoes, cucumbers and lettuce. Cent. Agric.
Publ. and Docum., Wageningen, The Netherlands. 130 pp.

Macronutrients
Cucumber plants need the following nutrients in large quantities: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, and sulfur.

Nitrogen.

Phosphorus.

Potassium.

Calcium.

Magnesium.

Sulfur.

Nitrogen.
Nitrogen contributes more toward the vegetative organs (leaves and stems) of the plant than the fruit. High
rates of nitrogen induce vigorous vegetative growth to the ultimate detriment of fruit and root growth. The
ammonium form of nitrogen particularly encourages vegetative growth. Ammonium nitrate, or urea,
applied at low, well-planned and regulated concentrations can effectively invigorate a weak, stagnant crop.
However, because a high danger of burning the crop exists with such fertilizers, exercise great caution
(Plate III a-d). Seek expert opinion in advance. The early symptoms of ammonia injury are small chlorotic
spots on the leaves; these later increase in size and merge leaving only the veins green. Refer to the specific
guidelines for fertilizer application rates according to each cropping system, as listed later. Deficiency A
nitrogen deficiency expresses itself in hard plants with woody stems in small and thin leaves and a general
pale color on foliage. Nitrogen being a mobile nutrient within the plant, symptoms of yellowish green
appear first on older leaves. Eventually, the entire plant turns pale green and the younger leaves stop
growing. The fruit becomes short, thick, light green, spiny, and occasionally constricted at the distal end.
Toxicity An excess of nitrogen is expressed by strong thick stems, deep green curly leaves, short internodes,
and a profusion of tendrils, short side shoots, and flowers (or small fruit). In severe cases, growth stops,

13
middle and lower leaves curl and drop slightly, and transparent spots appear between the veins, which later
turn yellow and brown. Eventually marginal and interveinal chlorosis turns into leaf scorching and the
entire plant collapses. In most cases, the plants can be saved, provided they have not wilted permanently,
by heavy irrigation and restricting transpiration through appropriate environmental control. Concentration
Normal levels of nitrogen in plant tissue are 5-6% N in the dry weight of the third leaf from the top (10 cm
in diameter), or, 0.5-1.5% N03 in the dry weight of fully developed young leaves, or, 2-3% N (or 0.6-1.2%
N03) in the sap of mature petioles. Nitrogen-deficient plants contain nitrogen at less than 3% or 2% in the
dry weight of young and old leaves, respectively. Correction Correct a nitrogen deficiency with a foliar
spray of urea dissolved in water at 2-5 g/L; to avoid leaf scorching, ideally spray either under cloudy
weather or late in the afternoon or remove the residues from foliage with water. Immediately seek a
permanent correction of the deficiency; identify the cause of the problem and apply the appropriate amount
of nitrogen fertilizer regularly, depending on the production system.

Phosphorus.
Although phosphorus is used in much smaller quantities than nitrogen its presence is also needed
continuously. Initially, phosphorus is important for early root growth, especially under cool root conditions,
but it also has a profound effect on vegetative growth and fruit production throughout the entire season.
Phosphorus stores well in soil but leaches easily from peat and soilless media. Therefore phosphorus must
always be included in the feed of all soilless media. Deficiency Phosphorus deficiency is initially expressed
as restricted overall growth with no characteristic symptoms. In severe cases, the plants are stunted and the
young leaves become small, stiff, and dark grayish green; the older leaves develop large water- soaked
spots over both the veins and the interveinal areas. Eventually the affected leaves fade, shrivel, turn brown,
and desiccate. Toxicity Phosphorus toxicity is uncommon. Concentration Normal levels of phosphorus in
plant tissue are 0.6-1.3% P in the dry weight of main stem leaves; more phosphorus is found in young
leaves; the third leaf below the top with an approximate diameter of 10 cm is the standard for sampling.
Phosphorus- deficient plants contain less than 0.3% or 0.2% P in the dry weight of young and old leaves,
respectively. Correction Correct a phosphorus deficiency by adding fertilizer to the soil (e.g., triple
superphosphate at 20 g/m²) or in the irrigation water (e.g., 30-50 ppm P as monopotassium phosphate).
Potassium.
Plants need potassium, which is mobile in the plant, in large quantities; it is essential for normal growth and
high fruit quality. As a major nutrient with a positive charge, it plays a major role in balancing the negative
charges of organic acids produced within the cell and of other anions such as sulphates, chlorides, and
nitrates. Potassium also activates several enzymes and controls transpiration by affecting the opening and
closing of stomates. The effects of potassium supply depend on interactions with several elements. In
general, nitrogen and phosphorus have antagonistic effects and induce or accentuate potassium deficiency.
Calcium (and to a smaller extent magnesium) antagonize potassium uptake, but severe calcium deficiency
can also bring potassium deficiency. Ammonium greatly decreases the rate of potassium uptake. Potassium
deficiency tends to induce or accentuate iron deficiency. Deficiency Symptoms of potassium deficiency
appear first on older leaves (which remain the worst affected) and progress from the base towards the top of
the plant. In general, growth is stunted, internodes are short, and leaves are small. Chlorosis almost always
occurs first at the margins of older leaves, which often curve downwards. Later, chlorosis moves into the
interveinal areas towards the centre of the leaf, and necrosis of the leaf margins follows. Although leaf
margins desiccate, the veins remain green for some time. Fruit might appear with enlarged tips but
underdeveloped at the stem end. Potassium deficiency is rare in soil culture (except in sandy soils).
However, it can develop quickly in soilless culture when the potassium supply in the nutrient solution is
inadequate. Toxicity Excess potassium rarely presents a problem unless it induces the deficiency of other
nutrients (e.g., calcium, magnesium, iron). Concentration Normal levels of potassium in plant tissue are 4 ±
1% K in the dry weight of a young (10 cm in diameter) leaf laminae (the petioles contain far higher levels,
e.g., 8-15% K), and 3500-5000 ppm K in the petiole sap. Deficiency symptoms and loss of yield can be
expected if the potassium content in leaf laminae drops below 3.5% (dry weight), or below 3000 ppm K in
the petiole sap. Correction Correct a deficiency by ensuring a good supply of potassium either in the soil as
a base dressing (e.g., apply potassium at 80 g/m²), or in the water supply as a liquid feed (e.g., apply 300-
500 ppm K). For immediate results, the crop may also be sprayed with a solution of potassium sulphate in
water at 20 g/L. However, not all the potassium needs of a crop can be supplied through sprays.

14
Calcium.
Calcium moves in the xylem along with the water, and little translocation occurs from the older to the
younger leaves. Therefore, when the supply of calcium is interrupted or low, deficiency symptoms appear
first at the top of the plant. Calcium is of great importance to the structure and stability of cell membranes
and to the stability and rigidity of cell walls. Deficiency Calcium deficiency is uncommon in cucumbers,
other than under continuously humid conditions in well-sealed energy-efficient greenhouses. At the initial
stages of calcium deficiency, the youngest leaves show transparent white dots near the edges and between
the veins. Interveinal chlorosis is common, while the veins stay green. Plants stop growing and the
internodes are short especially near the apex. The younger leaves remain small with their edges curled
characteristically upwards. Older leaves, though, curl downwards. In severe cases, petioles become brittle
and leaves drop easily, flowers abort, and the growing point of the plant dies back. The roots of calcium-
deficient plants are also poorly developed, thicker, and shorter than normal; they usually turn brown and
have few root hairs. The fruits are small and tasteless and fail to develop normally at the blossom end. The
complex interactions and antagonisms of calcium with other cations are discussed under "Potassium." A
calcium deficiency could develop on soils where leaching depletes calcium reserves, in unlimed peat, or in
soilless culture where the nutrient solution contains insufficient calcium. Concentrations Normal levels of
calcium in plant tissue are 1.5% Ca in the dry weight of young leaves (10 cm in diameter), or, 5.0% Ca in
the dry weight of young fully developed leaves. Deficiency symptoms begin to appear when calcium drops
below 0.5% in the dry weight of young (10-cm) leaves. Correction To correct calcium deficiency quickly,
spray plants with a solution of calcium nitrate in water at 10 g/L, preferably under cloudy conditions or late
in the day to avoid salt burns on foliage. Permanent correction is possible only by identifying the cause of
inadequate calcium uptake and fixing the problem.

Magnesium.
Deficiency Magnesium deficiency expresses itself first with mottled chlorosis and brown spotting on the
lower leaves. Yellow spots initially appear in interveinal areas, while the veins remain green. A green
margin might remain around the leaf even in severe cases where the yellow interveinal areas have dried out
to a pale brown. In soil culture, magnesium deficiency usually exists only in the plant, not in the soil. The
deficiency might be related to high potassium (from excessive potassium fertilizer dressings), or calcium
(from excessive liming), or ammonium, or unfavorable (low) soil pH. These conditions make it difficult for
the plant to take in sufficient magnesium, thereby forcing it to move magnesium from the older to the new
leaves. The deficiency also develops in soilless culture if the magnesium in the nutrient solution is allowed
to drop to the minimum recommended level or to go out of balance with the other cations (i.e., K+, Ca++,
NH4++, H+). Toxicity Magnesium toxicity symptoms, consisting of marginal scorching on dark green
leaves, are rare. They appear in soilless culture if the magnesium concentration in the nutrient reaches
extremely high levels. Concentration Normal levels of magnesium in plant tissue are 0.5-0.7% Mg in the
dry weight of young leaves (10 cm diameter) but higher in olderleaves (e.g., 0.5-0.9% Mg in young leaves,
or 1.5-2.0% Mg in old healthy leaves). Deficiency symptoms appear when magnesium in the young leaves
(10 cm diameter) falls below 0.35% (dry weight). Correction Correct a magnesium deficiency with high-
volume sprays of magnesium sulfate in water at 20 g/L, preferably during cloudy weather or late in the day
to avoid salt burns on foliage. Even better, ensure the proper magnesium supply reaches the roots,
depending on cropping system.

Sulfur.
This element is rarely in deficiency because it is present in many fertilizers as a carrying element and
because it exists as a common pollutant. However, high sulfur levels can produce excessive salt levels and
can be detrimental to the uptake of molybdenum.

Micronutrients
Cucumber plants need the following nutrients in small quantities: iron, manganese, copper, boron, zinc,
molybdenum, and chlorine. Iron. Manganese. Copper Boron. Zinc. Molybdenum. Chlorine.

15
Iron.
A small quantity of iron is essential for chlorophyll synthesis. Iron is immobile in the plant. Deficiency
Deficiency symptoms resemble those of magnesium deficiency but appear almost always as chlorosis of
the young, rapidly expanding leaves. At first, the youngest leaves become yellow-green or yellow, but the
veins remain green. Later, chlorosis spreads to veins, first to the smaller ones, and affected leaves turn
lemon yellow to white. Shoots then stop growing, and necrosis appears on leaves that have lost chlorophyll
completely. Side shoots and fruit also show deficiency symptoms. As with calcium deficiency, in most
cases iron deficiency is induced. Indirect causes of iron deficiency may be - too high pH in the medium -
too much manganese in the medium - anaerobic conditions in the medium - poor root growth - root death in
NFT or overwatered media. In many cases, improved oxygenation of the roots, by improving media texture
and structure, optimizing irrigation, aerating media and nutrient solutions, and ensuring sufficient plant
transpiration rates, corrects the problem. Toxicity An iron overdose (toxicity) usually expresses itself as a
manganese deficiency, which indicates further the strong competition between iron and manganese in the
plant. Concentration The normal concentration of Fe in plant tissue is 100-300 ppm in the dry weight of
fully expanded leaves (fifth leaf from the top). Deficiency symptoms appear when this concentration drops
below 50 ppm, although chlorosis may also occur when the Fe content exceeds 100 ppm. This discrepancy
occurs because not always is all iron in the plant tissue physiologically active. Correction When the
nutrient supply itself is the limiting factor, apply iron salts or iron chelates to the soil (Fe-EDDHA at 5-10
g/m² or Fe-DPTA at 12-20 g/m²) or use foliar sprays (Fe-EDTA in water at 0.2 g/L). However, the best
action is to eliminate the source of the problem. Contrary to general opinion, iron chelates are toxic to
plants at high concentrations, so do not exceed the recommended rates, particularly for the foliar sprays.
Also do not use foliar sprays frequently, because salts can accumulate on the foliage and, over time,
become toxic. To enhance the nutrient absorption and reduce the risk of salt burn, try to spray under cloudy
conditions or late in the afternoon. To avoid stem rots, direct spray only at the top part of the plants where
the deficiency symptoms show.

Manganese.
The plants need manganese, in minute quantities, to activate several enzymes. The most important of these
promote photosynthesis and the production of the plant hormone auxin. Without manganese, hydrogen
peroxide accumulates in the cells and damages them. Like iron, manganese is immobile within the plant,
accumulating mostly in the lower leaves. Deficiency Frequently confused with iron deficiency, true
manganese deficiency is rare. In fact, because of the usual competition between iron and manganese, an
apparent manganese deficiency may be an expression of iron toxicity. Manganese deficiency symptoms
appear mostly on new growth. Diagnosing the actual nutritional disorder is often not easy, because
symptoms among iron deficiency, iron toxicity, and manganese deficiency appear similar. The most
characteristic distinguishing feature of manganese deficiency, as compared to iron deficiency, is that,
although the margin and interveinal parts of the leaf become progressively pale green, yellow-green, and
yellow, the veins remain green. Manganese deficiency in leaves is also distinguishable by the appearance of
characteristic necrotic spotting or lesions. At advanced stages, the entire leaf, with the exception of the
main veins, becomes yellow, and whitish sunken areas develop between the veins. Manganese deficiency
occurs on calcareous soils, on heavily limed peat media, or in soilless media when the nutrient solution
contains no manganese. Toxicity Manganese toxicity symptoms, pale green and yellow areas between the
veins, appear first on the oldest leaves. The veins turn red-brown, and numerous purple spots develop on
the stems, petioles, and veins on the underside of the leaves. Manganese toxicity usually follows steaming
of soil. It occurs particularly in acid soil, or when steaming is prolonged or carried out at too high a
temperature, or when leaching of the soil after steaming is inadequate. Concentration The normal
concentration of manganese in young leaves is 30-60 ppm, and in older leaves 100-250 ppm. When the
manganese concentration in young leaves drops below 50 ppm, loss in yield may occur; when it drops to
12-15 ppm, deficiency symptoms generally appear. Toxicity symptoms appear when the manganese
content reaches 500-800 ppm in young and old leaves, respectively. Expect significant yield loss if the
manganese concentration reaches 2000-5000 ppm in young and old leaves, respectively. Correction
Deficiency symptoms disappear quickly after foliar application of manganese sulfate at 1.5-10 g/L as high-
or low-volume spray, respectively. Generally, nutrient solutions should contain 0.05 ppm Mn. In soil, apply
manganese sulfate at 50 g/m² as a long-term remedy to manganese shortage, along with measures to lower
the soil pH, if higher than normal.

16
Copper.
Several enzymes with diverse properties and functions depend on copper, including those involved in
photosynthesis and respiration. Although copper is mobile in plants well supplied with the element, it is
much less mobile in deficient plants. Therefore copper concentration in young developing tissue is likely
related to plant status. However, soil analysis is a more useful guide to copper deficiency than tissue
analysis. Deficiency Copper deficiency restricts growth and causes short internodes and small leaves.
Initially, interveinal chlorotic blotches appear on mature leaves, but later symptoms spread upwards on the
plant. The leaves eventually turn dull green or bronze, their edges turn down, and the plant remains
dwarfed. Furthermore, bud and flower development at the top of the plant decreases. The few fruits that are
produced develop poorly with small, sunken brown areas scattered over their yellow-green skin. Copper
deficiency is unusual, partly because the widespread use of copper in plumbing and in fungicides ensures
an adequate supply in most cases. Occasionally it becomes a problem with crops in peat media or in all-
plastic hydroponic systems when no copper is added to the nutrient solution. High soil pH reduces available
copper, but this effect is much smaller than for manganese, iron, and boron. Toxicity Copper toxicity,
although rare, can appear as an induced iron chlorosis, where the soil is contaminated with copper either
from industrial sources or after repeated spays of copper-containing fungicides. Toxic effects persist, and
the only partial solution is heavy liming. In hydroponic systems, extensive use of copper plumbing can
produce copper contamination. Concentration Normal levels of copper in the dry weight of the first fully
expanded leaf (fifth leaf) range from 8 to 20 ppm. Deficiency symptoms start appearing when the copper
concentration falls below 7 ppm and become severe at 0.8-2.0 ppm. Copper deficiency can dramatically
reduce yield (20-90%). Correction To prevent copper deficiency in peat media, where it is most common,
add copper sulfate at 10 g/m³, as a precaution. Generally, nutrient solutions should contain 0.03 ppm Cu.
For quick results, spray plants with a solution of copper sulfate using up to 1 g/L, plus calcium hydroxide
(approx. 0.5%) for pH adjustment.

Boron.
The specific biochemical function of boron in plants is not known, but it is generally believed that this
element is essential for some processes of cell division and differentiation in apices (growing points).
Boron is not mobile within the plant. A continuous supply of this nutrient to the roots is essential for
healthy growth. The availability of boron is lowest in sandy soils at high pH. The quality of water also
determines the boron status of the plants. Deficiency Deficiency symptoms appear at growing points and in
reproductive organs. Symptoms appear around the first harvest when middle and lower leaves become
slightly chlorotic and brittle. Although the most characteristic effect of boron deficiency is the death of the
stem apex (growing tip), other effects include: - growth of axillary buds and bushy appearance of plants -
malformed young leaves with prominent veins and cupped stiff older leaves - cupped upwards brittle leaves
of reduced size - yellowing of the lower leaves developing broad cream margins and eventually becoming
brown and curling downwards and inwards - short fruit with longitudinal cracks in the skin - blackened
roots with enlarged root tips. Severe boron deficiency can lead to serious yield losses (up to 90%) and fruit
quality deterioration. Toxicity The narrow margin between deficiency and toxicity causes a particular
problem with boron. The cucumber plant is particularly sensitive to high levels of boron in the substrate, or
in the water supply (1 ppm B). Because boron tends to be immobilized in the plant, boron toxicity
symptoms appear first on older leaves. Careless use of boron fertilizers easily causes boron toxicity.
Initially, the edges of older leaves turn yellow- green, cup downward, and grow more circular than usual.
Later the symptoms progress from the base of the plant upwards, and necrotic spots develop between the
veins. Eventually, growth becomes stunted, upper leaves remain small, and few female flowers develop.
Concentration The normal level of boron in the dry weight of leaves varies from 30 to 120 ppm. Deficiency
symptoms appear when the content falls as low as 6-8 ppm B (top leaves) or <20 ppm B (bottom leaves).
Toxicity symptoms appear when the content exceeds 250-300 ppm B (top leaves) or 500-1000 ppm B
(bottom leaves). Correction Boron deficiencies are easily corrected by adding sodium borate to the soil at 2
g/m² or by spraying with sodium borate in water at 1-2 g/L. Boron toxicities are harder to correct. Heavy
leaching of sandy soils and liming of acid soils may be effective.

17
Zinc.
Several enzymes present in plants contain zinc. Of all micronutrients, zinc, when deficient, has the most
obvious effect on photosynthesis. However, this element is rarely deficient. Deficiency Deficiency occurs
when hydroponically grown plants have no zinc in the nutrient solution. The normal zinc content of soils
usually falls in the range of 10-300 ppm Zn. Zinc in soils becomes less available as the soil pH rises and in
the presence of calcium carbonate. A heavy application of phosphorus can induce zinc deficiency because
insoluble zinc phosphates form. Copper and possibly iron, manganese, magnesium, and calcium hinder the
uptake of zinc. The symptoms of deficiency are not well defined, but usually a slight interveinal mottle
develops on the lower leaves that spreads up the plant. The upper internodes remain short. Small leaf size
most characterizes zinc deficiency; in severe cases, short internodes cause the top of the plant to grow
bushy. Overall growth is restricted and the leaves become yellow-green to yellow except for the veins,
which remain dark green and well defined. Toxicity The potential for zinc toxicity exists where galvanized
pipes release zinc. Toxicity occurs in soils contaminated by their proximity to zinc smelters and mines and
in greenhouses with galvanized frames and plumbing. In the case of zinc toxicity, the entire veinal network,
initially dark green, becomes somewhat blackened. The blackish appearance of the main veins helps
distinguish zinc toxicity from manganese deficiency in which the veins remain green. In severe cases of
zinc toxicity the young leaves become yellow and the symptoms resemble those of iron deficiency.
Concentration The normal concentration in the dry weight of the fifth leaf ranges from 40 to 100 ppm Zn.
Symptoms of deficiency appear when the concentration drops below 20-25 ppm Zn. Toxicity can be
expected when the zinc concentration exceeds 150-180 ppm (old leaves) or 900 ppm (tops of plants).
Correction Spraying with zinc sulphate (5 g/L) easily corrects a zinc deficiency. Applying lime or
phosphate sometimes reduces a zinc toxicity.

Molybdenum.
Molybdenum is involved in many enzymes and is closely linked with nitrogen metabolism. Plants need tiny
amounts of molybdenum - an average 0.2 ppm Mo available in soils is adequate. Molybdenum is present in
soil as an anion, in contrast to most other micronutrients, which are present as cations. It behaves like
phosphate. The availability of molybdenum increases as the pH rises and therefore a deficiency of this
element is more likely to occur in acid (and sandy) soils, in which case liming might be helpful. Deficiency
Molybdenum deficiencies are rare, but have been observed in plants growing in peat. Initially, the green of
the leaves fades, particularly between the veins. Later, leaves can turn yellow and die. In some cases, parts
of mature leaves remain green at first, giving rise to a blotchy appearance. Symptoms start first in lower
leaves and spread upwards, the younger ones remaining green. Growth might appear normal but flowers
stay small. Severe deficiency cases in peat can significantly reduce yield (up to 84%), but raising the pH
(up to 6.7) through liming restores yield to near normal. Toxicity While plants can take up high levels of
molybdenum without harmful effects on growth, there might be concern for health with high molybdenum
levels in the produce. Concentration The normal concentration in the dry weight of leaves is 0.8-5.0 ppm
Mo. Deficient plants contain less than 0.3 ppm Mo. Correction As a preventative measure on peat, apply
sodium molybdate at 5 g/m³. Treat a deficiency either by applying sodium molybdate to the soil at 150
mg/m² or by spraying with a solution of sodium molybdate in water at 1 g/L.
Chlorine.
Chlorine is the latest addition to the list of elements considered essential for plant growth. Deficiency of
chlorine has never been encountered other than in strictly controlled experiments, because of the prevalence
of the element in the environment as a contaminant. Toxicity Excess chlorine is a serious concern,
especially in recirculated hydroponic systems. Normal growth requires only small quantities of chlorine
(similar to iron), but if the supply is plentiful more is taken up. The large quantities of chlorine found in
various fertilizers as a carrying element can easily result in toxic levels of chorine accumulating in the
recirculating solution. Concentration For rock-wool culture, in particular, the recommended maximum
concentration of chlorine in the nutrient feed is 35 ppm Cl; the corresponding maximum in the rock-wool
slab is 70 ppm Cl. However, recent experience suggests that these levels may have been underestimated.
Nonessential elements The following elements are potentially useful, or harmful: silicon and sodium.
Silicon Silicon exists as one of the most abundant elements in soils, most of it tied up in quartz.
Available silicon is present as monosilisic acid [Si(OH)4] and decreases with increasing pH. Although

18
we lack absolute evidence that silicon is an essential element, evidence mounts that it is beneficial in
many ways. Silicon often appears stimulatory, but its abundance in dust makes the study of its effects
on yield difficult. The amendment of hydroponic nutrient solutions with 75-100 ppm of soluble silica
(SiO2) has been reported to result in improved yields and reduced powdery mildew and pythium
root rot. Add potassium or sodium silicate continuously. Sodium Sodium may not be essential for
plant growth, but many plants clearly benefit from sodium when potassium is deficient. Sodium may
substitute for potassium in certain instances. It becomes interesting to know what is the upper limit
of sodium concentration in nutrient solutions prepared with mildly saline water. In the case of rock
wool culture, a maximum concentration of 23 ppm Na is recommended for the nutrient feed and 46
ppm Na in the rock- wool slabs.
SECTION 3
General cultural practices
Crop scheduling Cultivar selection Plant propagation Propagation schedules Seed sowing and
seedling establishment Soil and soilless mixes Rock-wool multiblocks Environment control for
seedlings Seedling transfer (transplanting) Artificial light Temperature control Carbon dioxide
enrichment Grafting Plant spacing Pruning and training General principles Pruning systems
Training systems Choosing a training and pruning system Fruit thinning Harvesting and storage
Crop scheduling
Early spring crop - Sow seed 15 November - 15 December - Set plants in permanent bed 20 December
- 20 January - Harvest February to July - Remove plants 1 July - 20 July
- Sterilize soil, general clean-up 1 July - 25 July.
Late spring crop - Sow seed 15 December - 30 January - Set plants in permanent bed 20 January - 1
March - Harvest March to July - Remove plants 1 July - 20 July - Sterilize soil, general clean-up 1
July - 25 July.
Fall crop - Sow seed 20 June - July 15 - Set plants in permanent bed 15 July - August 15 - Harvest 15
August - 15 December - Remove plants 15 November - 15 December - Sterilize soil, general clean-up
16 November - 31 December.
Sometimes the spring crop, either early or late, can extend up to the following November if plants are
healthy and price holds well through the summer months. A spring or fall crop may also be replaced
by a corresponding tomato crop. In rare instances, even dedicated tomato growers will raise a
summer cucumber crop as a quick fix to revenue loss caused by premature termination of a spring
tomato crop.
Cultivar selection
A large selection of seedless cucumber cultivars exist in the international market, and many more are
introduced every year. Many seed suppliers are from The Netherlands, and most have local
representatives in Canada. The main criteria in selecting the best cultivar are - overall productivity -
plant growth habit and vigor - fruit quality (i.e., length, diameter, shape, color, and smoothness) -
fruit shelf life - disease resistance - energy requirements. Only gynoecious types, or predominantly
gynoecious types (i.e., with few male flowers) rather than the old-fashioned monoecious types (i.e.,
with both male and female flowers) are acceptable. The gynoecious cultivars are preferred because
they are less vigorous (and therefore require less pruning), come into production earlier, produce
more, and can grow at lower temperatures. The choice of cultivar is a complicated decision based on
published research findings and growers' experience with the various cultivars available. The
situation is further complicated because, depending on the crop management strategy followed,
different growers can receive equally satisfying results with different cultivars. The existence of a
large number of cucumber breeding houses guarantees that, at least for the foreseeable future, a
good selection of high-quality cucumber cultivars will continue to be available. For reasons that have
to do with the intrinsic benefits of hybridization and the protection of the commercial rights of the
breeding houses, nearly all seedless cucumber cultivars on the market are sterile hybrids (i.e., it is
not possible to save seed from the previous crop). At the time of writing the most popular cultivars
are Corona, Jessica (mostly a fall favorite), Bronco, Ventura, and Dugan. The recent introduction of

19
new cultivars (e.g., Aramon and Flamingo) with powdery mildew tolerance, and possibly some form
of resistance, has raised expectations for improved overall disease resistance. However, until now,
those cultivars having powdery mildew tolerance appear disadvantaged by inferior vigor and
productivity. Contact your local horticultural crop adviser for current advice on recommended
cultivars.
Plant propagation
Most greenhouse operators in Canada grow their own transplants. This practice reduces the
possibility of importing diseases and insects. However, some specialized nurseries in other countries
have ensured a reliable supply of low-cost high-quality transplants to local growers by applying
modern technology. Plant propagation is a vitally important stage in greenhouse vegetable
production. The success of a crop depends largely on the attention paid to detail and the care taken
during plant raising. Moreover, with early spring crops, propagation must take place in the winter,
when natural light is limited. To make the best use of available light, other factors such as spacing,
temperature, irrigation, and nutrition must be closely and accurately controlled. Artificial light, now
used widely to enhance transplant growth when natural radiation is limited, significantly improves
the performance of early-planted spring crops. The preferred way of raising cucumber transplants is
to sow the seed in small multicell propagation trays and then transfer the seedlings into larger pots
for finishing until final planting into the greenhouse. An alternative way is to sow the seed directly in
the large pots (or rockwool blocks) and to bypass the first stage. The first method, because
the trays take less space than the pots, costs less to provide with the required high temperature
before germination and the high light intensity after germination. The second method saves the labor
cost for transferring the seedlings from the trays to the pots. Base your choice of method on the
relative cost and availability of labor, energy, and proper facilities.
Propagation schedules
In deciding when to seed, consider the desired harvesttime. It usually takes 8-10 weeks from seed to
first pick in a normal spring crop but only 7-8 weeks in a normal fall crop. A spring crop that comes
into production at the beginning of February requires seeding to take place around the end of
November. In recent years, an increasing number of growers plant a late spring crop in plastic
houses. In that case, seeding takes place in January and planting in-house in February. Harvest
occurs during March to July, and later. The late spring crop is easier and less expensive to grow but
comes into production when prices are relatively low. For an average fall crop, seed normally in the
1st week of July.
Seed sowing and seedling establishment
Each gram contains about 28 seeds. To achieve a planting density of 14 000 plants per hectare,
assuming a germination rate of 90% and a safety margin of an additional 10% transplants, sow seed
at about 600g/ha. Because of a peculiarity in the way the root of the cucumber plant (and other
cucurbitaceae) develops, it is unacceptable to raise seedlings in flats, or in some other way that
involves pulling the seedlings and damaging their roots. Instead, multicell trays (e.g., plug trays or
plug strips) must be used throughout the entire propagation cycle so that plants can be transferred in
their entirety with their root systems intact.
Soil and soilless mixes
Select a medium for seedlings that matches the growth medium to be used for growing the crop.
Steamed and subsequently leached soil (preferably sandy-loam) is recommended for soil-based
operations; a proven commercial or a home-made peat mix (Table 5P) is recommended if you choose
to grow the crop in peat-bags. Start by filling a plastic tray (55 x 27cm) divided in individual cells
with approximate cell size of 3 x 3 cm (plug trays or plug strips are convenient, and widely available).
Press the growth medium into the tray cells with a second tray, to create space (impressions of 1.5-2.0
cm) for sowing the seed. Place one seed per cell at least 1 cm below the surface of the medium. Add
more medium over the seed and use a ruler or other similar object to strike off any excess medium.
When soil or peat is the growth medium, apply only water after sowing the seed; ideally, cover the
trays with a thin plastic film to conserve moisture. After germination and until seedlings are

20
transferred to pots, add plain water, or very dilute fertilizer solution as needed (overall EC of about
1200 µS/cm; see recommendations in Table 6P and Table 7P).
Table 5P

Ingredients of a standard peat-mix for raising cucumber seedlings

---------------------------------------------------------------------
Medium Amount
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Peat 1.0 m³ (4 bales of 0.17 m³)*
Horticultural vermiculite 0.5 m³ (4.5 bags of 0.11 m³)
Limestone (pulverized FF) 10 kg
---------------------------------------------------------------------
* Expansion of compressed bales is estimated at 50% over the original
volume.
Table 6P

Stock solutions required for the preparation of complete nutrient

solutions for cucumber transplants in soil and soilless mixes
---------------------------------------------------
Fertilizer* Salt in stock
(kg / 1000 L)
---------------------------------------------------
Stock A
Calcium nitrate 67.0
Potassium nitrate 74.0

Stock B
Potassium sulphate 13.5

Stock C
Monopotassium phosphate 22.5
Magnesium sulphate 50.0
Micronutrient mix** 2.0
---------------------------------------------------
* The stock solutions can be used, as described in Table 7P, to prepare
nutrient solutions of various ECs for raising transplants in soil and
soilless mixes.
** A typical micronutrient mix (e.g., Plant Product Chelated
Micronutrient mix) contains 7% Fe, 2% Mn, 0.4% Zn, 0.1% Cu, 1.3% B, and
0.06% Mo.
Table 7P

Amount of each stock solution required to prepare 1000 L of final

nutrient solution with various conductivities for raising cucumber
transplants in soil or soilless media, and corresponding nutrient
concentrations
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Target EC in final nutrient solution (µS/cm)*
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Volume of each stock to be added
(L / 1000 L of final solution)
---------------------------------------------------------
Stock A 3.8 5.8 7.5 9.0 12.0
Stock B 3.8 5.8 7.5 9.0 12.0

21
Stock C 3.8 5.8 7.5 9.0 12.0
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Anticipated nutrient concentrations in final solutions (ppm)
------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (NO3-) 73 112 145 174 232
Nitrogen (NH4+) 3 4 5 6 8
Phosphorus 19 29 37 45 60
Potassium 152 232 300 360 480
Calcium 48 74 95 114 152
Magnesium 19 29 37 45 60
Iron 0.53 0.81 1.05 1.26 1.68
Manganese 0.15 0.23 0.30 0.36 0.48
Zinc 0.030 0.046 0.060 0.072 0.096
Copper 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.018 0.024
Boron 0.099 0.151 0.195 0.234 0.312
Molybdenum 0.004 0.007 0.009 0.011 0.144
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* The EC of the water has not been included; to obtain the final EC of
the nutrient solution add to the ECs listed the EC of your water source
(e.g., if your water has an EC of 400 µS/cm and you add 7.5 L of each
stock to 1000 L of water then your final nutrient solution will have an
EC of 2400 µS/cm).

Rock-wool multiblocks
In the case of rock wool and various other soilless systems, sow the seed and raise the seedlings in
special rock-wool multiblocks. These small blocks (e.g., 3.6 x 3.6 x 4.0 cm) are held together as slabs
of the same size and shape as the common plastic tray. Each comes with the necessary cavity for
placing the seed, but, on delivery from the factory, their pH is too alkaline for immediate use. Start
by soaking the multiblocks in nutrient solution with an overall EC of 1500 µS/cm and a pH of 5.0-5.5.
Table 8 and Table 9 give the recommended nutrient concentrations as well as the quantities of
fertilizer needed for preparing the nutrient solution for soaking fresh rock wool. Sowing the seed
entails placing one seed in each cell cavity and covering it with fine vermiculite; this process can
easily be automated. The seed covering has been omitted in some cases without any loss in
germination, but such practice is not recommended; under certain conditions uncovered seed might
dry out before germination or be eaten by small animals. After the seed germinates, monitor the
moisture content in the rockwool and apply nutrient solution with an overall EC of 1500-1800 µS/cm
and a pH of 5.5, according to need. Judge the need to apply more nutrient solution by how easily you
can squeeze nutrient solution out of the rock wool and by the EC of that nutrient solution. Monitor
the EC and pH of the nutrient solution in the rock wool by extracting samples of the solution
frequently and testing them with portable EC and pH meters. Maintain the EC and pH below 2500
µS/cm and 6.0, respectively, by always applying fresh nutrient solution, in excess of that required to
wet the rock wool. Leaching excess nutrients from the rock wool by applying excess nutrient solution
is an effective technique for avoiding salt accumulation and seedling damage from too high an EC,
but it results in fertilizer waste and must be used responsibly.
Table 8

Stock solutions required for the preparation of complete nutrient

solutions for cucumber transplants in rock wool
------------------------------------------
Fertilizer Salt in stock
(kg / 1000 L)

------------------------------------------
Stock A*
Calcium nitrate 100

22
 Potassium nitrate 45

Stock B**
Monopotassium phosphate 22
Magnesium sulphate 33
Micronutrient mix** 2
------------------------------------------
* The stock solutions can be used, as described in Table 9, to prepare
nutrient solutions of various ECs for raising transplants in rock wool.
** A typical micronutrient mix (e.g., Plant Product Chelated
Micronutrient
mix) contains 7% Fe, 2% Mn, 0.4% Zn, 0.1% Cu, 1.3% B, and 0.06% Mo.
Table 9

Amount of each stock solution required to prepare 1000 L of final

nutrient solution with various conductivities for raising cucumber
transplants in rock-wool blocks, and corresponding nutrient
concentrations
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Target EC in final nutrient solution (µS/cm)*
---------------------------------------------------
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
------------------------------------------------------------------
Volume of each stock to be added (L / 1000 L)
---------------------------------------------------
Stock A 5.0 8.5 12.0 16.0 19.0
Stock B 5.0 8.5 12.0 16.0 19.0
------------------------------------------------------------------
Anticipated nutrient concentrations in final solutions (ppm)
------------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (NO3-) 101 172 244 325 386
Nitrogen (NH4+) 5 8 12 16 19
Phosphorus 25 42 60 80 95
Potassium 117 200 282 376 446
Calcium 95 161 228 304 361
Magnesium 16 28 40 53 63
Iron 0.7 1.2 1.68 2.24 2.66
Manganese 0.2 0.34 0.48 0.64 0.76
Zinc 0.04 0.068 0.096 0.128 0.152
Copper 0.01 0.017 0.024 0.032 0.038
Boron 0.13 0.221 0.312 0.416 0.494
Molybdenum 0.006 0.010 0.014 0.019 0.023
------------------------------------------------------------------
* The EC of the water has not been included; to obtain the final
EC of the nutrient solution, add to the ECs listed the EC of your water
source (e.g., if your water has an EC of 400 µS/cm and you add 8.5 L of
each stock to 1000 L of water then your final nutrient solution will
have an EC of 1900 µS/cm).

Environment control for seedlings

Regardless of the growth medium, place the trays with seed in a small greenhouse or special
propagation room (no light is needed at this stage) and maintain day and night temperature at 26-
28°C until daily inspection proves seedlings to be breaking the surface of the growth medium. If
heating the propagation house to 26°C proves uneconomical or technically impossible, provide the
extra heat to the germinating seed with bottom heat (i.e., heating pipes or heating cables under the

23
table of the seeding trays). The higher the air temperature of the propagation room during
germination the faster and more uniform the germination will be. However, seedlings grow fast at
high temperatures, which makes the use of a high germination temperature risky because a delay of
a few hours in removing the seed tray cover can result in excessive elongation of the seedlings and
carbohydrate depletion. When seedlings have emerged, remove the seed tray covers, reduce the day
and night air temperature to 22°C, and supply as much light as possible continuously. Maintain these
conditions for the next several (5-7) days until seedlings grow enough that they can safely be handled,
but not for too long because seedlings can get crowded, etiolate (stretch tall), and grow too slender.
Seedling transfer (transplanting)
If you have chosen to sow the seed directly into pots (preferably those 10 cm in diameter), you need
not transfer the seedlings. If you sow the seed in trays, then you need to transfer the small seedlings
from the trays to pots or rock-wool blocks. Note that seedlings transferred intact do better than those
transplanted or pricked out. Transferring the seedlings keeps their root systems intact; pulling the
seedlings up from the growth medium and transplanting them into pots disturbs and severs many of
the roots in the process. Take particular care in transferring cucumber seedlings because the
cucumber root develops quickly. If the young root portions, which are most functional, are severed
during transplanting, then the transplant can not absorb enough water after transplanting, usually
experiences serious shock, and in many cases collapses. Transplanting with pots and soil
Transplanting with rock-wool blocks
Transplanting with pots and soil
Choose from reusable plastic, clay, or paper pots, single-use pots of compressed peat, or peat-blocks.
Good topsoil and peat mixes are used extensively as growth media after proper sterilization. A
worldwide trend toward peat-based mixtures is replacing those based on soil, because soil of
desirable specifications is difficult to obtain year after year. Do not change frequently the substrate
used for raising transplants because seedlings respond differently to different substrates. The
experience gained over the years using one substrate may not be entirely transferable to other
substrates. Larger (10-cm) pots, although they appear to increase costs, allow growers to hold their
plants longer in the propagation house, which is cheaper to heat than the entire greenhouse.
Furthermore, longer propagation time results in greater use of artificial light whenever available.
Finally, the use of large pots for transplant raising has frequently been associated with increased
early yields. Pots can be used again the following season, but they should first be washed and soaked
in a solution of bleach (10%) or any other approved disinfectant. For transplants designated for soil,
use topsoil to fill the pots. Avoid modifying recommended mixtures, as the results could be
disastrous. Properly sterilized greenhouse soil that has good texture and structure is valuable as a
growth medium for transplant raising. Heavy leaching following soil sterilization is highly
recommended. This treatment removes excess salt, which can harm young seedlings and results in
low levels of nutrients, especially nitrogen, in the growth medium. Low nutrient levels allow for
better control of plant growth through the manipulation of liquid feeding. For transplants designated
for peat-bags, or other peat-based systems, use a proven commercial peat-mix, or prepare your own
following the recommendations in Table 5P to fill the pots. Immediately after transferring the
seedlings into the pots, water them thoroughly to bring the growth medium to field capacity and to
settle it around the roots. Subsequently apply fertilizer at low concentration with every irrigation;
use a nutrient solution with an overall EC below 2000 µS/cm, as prescribed in Table 6P and Table
7P. Careful watering is needed during propagation. Keep the young plants well supplied with water
without depleting the growth medium of its oxygen by overwatering. Because it is difficult to judge
the moisture content of growth media in plastic pots, pull out two or three plants regularly and keep
the medium at the bottom of the pots moist but not too wet. Transplants raised in 10-cm pots require
watering daily in good weather; in very bright weather, they may need more than one watering a
day; in dull winter weather, watering as infrequently as once every 3 days may be enough. The use of
smaller pots requires more-frequent watering.

24
Transplanting with rock-wool blocks
When seedlings are ready, transfer them with their roots intact into 10-cm rock-wool blocks. These
blocks come with cavities of various sizes, so when ordering rock-wool supplies, match the size of the
individual cells in the multiblock units with the size of the cavity in the rock-wool propagation block.
If you choose to seed directly into the propagation block, select the cavity size just big enough for the
seed. Place the rock-wool blocks, with seedlings, ideally on an ebb and flow system, and subirrigate
them with the nutrient solutions prescribed in Table 8 and Table 9. Use complete flooding, or
watering from the top, from time to time to prevent excessive salt accumulation at the top of the
rock-wool blocks that may burn the seedlings. However, where an ebb and flow system is not
available, cover carefully leveled tables with a plastic film and place the blocks on the plastic. To
improve on this system, provide a raised border around the perimeter of the table so that excess
solution applied can be collected and saved. Perfect leveling of the tables is essential to facilitate
complete drainage of the excess solution after every irrigation. Complete drainage prevents excessive
variations in water and oxygen supplies to the transplants, which lead to unacceptable variation in
the growth of the transplants. Check carefully any excess fertilizer solution that is saved, and
pasteurize it, adjust its nutrient content, before applying it again to the transplants. Implementing
fertilizer recycling in transplant raising is more economically justifiable for the large operator.
Placing the rock-wool blocks, with seedlings, on a layer of vermiculite (or any other water absorbent)
reduces the frequency of required irrigation. However, it is not recommended because some roots
grow outside the rock-wool blocks, which causes great delay and inconvenience at planting time.
Artificial light
Use artificial light first, as mentioned earlier, immediately after germination. Because you need only
a relatively small installation at this stage, high light intensity is economically feasible. Both
fluorescent (ideally in mixture with some incandescent) and high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps are
acceptable and are widely used to generate a minimum light intensity of 100 µmol/s·m² (equivalent to
20 W/m² or 8000 lux or 760 fc) in growing rooms. The fluorescent lamps produce slightly shorter
plants with a deeper bluish green color than HPS lamps; but the latter are the most economical to
install and operate. During the first few days after the transfer, when the pots can be arranged close
together, it is still economical to maintain a high light intensity (100 µmol/s·m²) continuously.
However, as the plants grow they are spaced progressively to avoid crowding and becoming spindly,
which makes the use of high light intensity less and less cost effective. For the rest of the time, while
the plants are in the propagation house, provide supplemental light (artificial light in addition to
natural light) at a light intensity of about 50 µmol/s·m². Whenever cost is not a factor, provide
continuously the highest light intensity available. This treatment results in shorter propagation time
and heavier, stronger, sturdier transplants. There is no advantage in using low-intensity incandescent
light on cucumber plants in midwinter to extend the daylight period.
Temperature control
Recommended temperatures for transplant raising, along with those mentioned earlier for seed
germination and seed establishment, are summarized in Table 10.

Table 10 Recommended temperatures for raising cucumber transplants

---------------------------------------------------------------------
Air Root
temperature temperature
Growth stage Light conditions (°C)* (°C)*
----------- ------------
Day Night Day Night
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Seed germination Not critical 28 28 28 28

After germination Maximum available 24 22 26 26

continuous

25
After transplanting Good light conditions 23 21 24 24
into pots (summer or with
artificial light)

Poor light conditions 22 20 24 22

(winter, with no
artificial light)
---------------------------------------------------------------------
* When continuous artificial light is supplied, the recommended daytime temperatures apply.
Carbon dioxide enrichment
During propagation, an atmosphere enriched with carbon dioxide at a nominal concentration of 1000
vpm (approximately 1000 ppm) increases plant vigor and early fruit production and may partly
compensate for poor light conditions. The beneficial effects of carbon dioxide enrichment are more
evident when air temperatures are on the high side and are proportional to the duration of
enrichment. Apply carbon dioxide during the day or any part of the night when artificial light is
supplied. Because raising transplants occupies only a small area, it is economically feasible and
highly advisable to use liquid carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide gas liquefied under pressure) because
of its guaranteed purity and amenity to accurate concentration control. Liquid carbon dioxide is also
preferred because burning natural gas or propane to generate carbon dioxide increases the risk of
plant injury from gaseous pollutants.
Grafting
Grafting is a useful technique when soil sterilization is not available or when certain diseases, e.g.,
black root rot, cannot always be controlled effectively by soil steaming. Cucumber seedlings of
popular hybrids are usually grafted onto resistant rootstocks, such as Cucurbita ficifolia. The seed of
C. ficifolia is normally sown a few (5-6) days later than the cucumber hybrid and may have to be
chitted (a small part of the seed coat is cut away) and pregerminated because of its hard seed coat.
Fig. 7A, Fig. 7B, and Fig. 7C show various grafting methods suitable for cucumbers. All types of
grafting require a sharp knife and a clean working surface; a razor blade or scalpel are ideal tools.
Avoid contaminating cuts with soil. Type A grafting (Fig. 7A) is the fastest but is associated with the
most check in the growth of the transplant. Type B grafting (Fig. 7B) is also fast and results in a
stable grafting union, but some check in the growth of the transplants can be found. Type C grafting
(Fig. 7C) is the slowest but is usually associated with the greatest success in grafting. Grafting can be
helpful in saving the cost of soil sterilization and in allowing the cropping of cultivars that are
productive but devoid of adequate disease resistance. However, it poses its own problems. The graft
union becomes an obstacle to water and nutrients moving from the roots to the top of the plant and
to photoassimilates moving from the top of the plant to the root. Grafting is therefore a potential
limiting factor in maximizing yield. Grafting also requires skilled labor, which is either expensive or
not readily available. The difference in vigor between scion and rootstock can result in significant
differences in stem diameter (a minimum diameter of 5mm is desirable), which slows down the speed
of grafting and reduces the success rate. Finally, repeated handling of plants at grafting may help
spread diseases. It is therefore extremely important to clean the knife regularly and to wash the
hands frequently with milk during grafting. Make every effort to start with clean seed.

26
Fig. 7A

Fig. 7A Bare-rooted plants, bench graft. Step 1 Select a rootstock (R) and a scion (S) plant of similar
size. Make an upward cut in the stem of one and a downward cut in the stem of the other. Step 2 Join
the two stems, which are then held together by the flaps of tissue. Step 3 Bind both plants together
with adhesive tape, and plant them in a pot with the graft union well above soil level. Step 4 Remove
the top of the rootstock and the adhesive tape when the graft union has healed.

Fig. 7B

27
Fig. 7B Rootstock and scion-plants grown in same pot; immediate detopping of the root-stock. Step 1
Make an upward cut in the scion (S) and remove the rootstock (R) top with a diagonal cut. Step 2
Place the top of the rootstock stem into the cut of the scion stem. Step 3 Remove obstructing leaves
and bind the two plants together with adhesive tape. Step 4 Remove adhesive tape when the graft
union has healed.

Fig. 7C

Fig. 7C Rootstock and scion plants grown together in same pot; delayed detopping of the rootstock.
Step 1 Plant scion (S) and rootstock (R) 10 mm apart in the same pot and grow them until they are
ready for grafting. Make an upward cut in the scion and a downward cut in the rootstock. Step 2
Join the two stems, which are then held together by the flaps of tissue. Step 3 Bind both plants
together with adhesive tape. Step 4 Remove the top of the rootstock and the adhesive tape when the
graft union has healed.
Plant spacing
The optimum space per plant is generally agreed to be 0.70-0.80 m². Ideally, use the same spacing
between rows of plants as between plants in the row. However, to facilitate working among the
plants, use double rows for planting. Place the first two rows 80-120 cm apart and allow 140-200 cm
for a walking path before repeating two more rows spaced at 80-120 cm apart; repeat the process as
necessary. The location of posts, heating pipes, and other physical limitations of the greenhouse
structure may influence plant density, especially row spacing. Factors such as cultivar, season, and
growth medium influence plant spacing. Space the plants in the rows at 45-60 cm. Space farther
apart cultivars that are vigorous (large leaves). Late spring and early fall crops enjoy favorable light
conditions and therefore, plant spacing can be closer. Also, crops planted in rock wool or finely
textured soils (high clay content) tend to be of low vigor (small leaves); therefore spacing must be
close. Actual-row and within-row plant spacing depends on the training system chosen. Although it is
important to use the space in the greenhouse as efficiently as possible, excessive crowding usually
results in small fruit and outbreaks of leaf disease. Pruning and training General principles Pruning
systems Original umbrella system Modified umbrella system Training systems Canopy system
Vertical cordon Inclined cordon (V-cordon, V-training) system Guernsey arch

28
General principles
Pruning involves making a series of decisions based upon the basic concepts of plant growth. Growth
is accomplished when water and nutrients absorbed by the plant are transported to the leaves and
combine with carbohydrates (formed through photosynthesis) to produce various plant foods. Any
reduction in leaf area therefore reduces the amount of plant food manufactured, which in turn
reduces growth. Although pruning usually causes the remaining shoots to increase their length and
their leaf area, especially near the cuts, the total plant size and weight is greatest without pruning.
Thus, pruning is a dwarfing process. The main reasons for pruning plants are as follows: - to help
recovery from injury to the roots - to remove dead or injured growth - to remove or restrict
unwanted growth - to encourage or train growth where it is desired - to rejuvenate old plants - to
promote flower and fruit production - to facilitate light penetration throughout the leaf canopy for
more efficient use of light - to expose fruit to light when beneficial. Pruning and training greenhouse
cucumber plants create conditions for maximum yield production of high-quality fruit by
establishing and maintaining - optimum fruit load - complete leaf coverage (i.e., no light reaching the
ground) - uniform exposure of all foliage (for efficient light absorption). Although training is, for
practical reasons, uniform for all plants, pruning offers the opportunity to adjust the fruit load of
each individual plant according to its vegetative vigor. Maintaining the proper balance in each plant
is essential for maximum productivity and best fruit quality. Under a heavy fruit load, many fruits
do not develop properly (fruit is malformed, curved, short, or of poor color). When eventually the
load becomes excessive, abortion prevents any further development of fruit. Avoid overloading the
plants by removing excess fruit, as early as possible, starting with curved and pointed fruit. Allow
only one fruit per axil. Because fruit will not develop without a continuous production of leaf axils,
you may need to resort to drastic pruning to stimulate growth. In this case, it is more practical and
equally effective, to remove whole laterals than to trim back the tips of all laterals. Maintaining the
proper fruit load prevents overall plant stress and wastage of photosynthates and ensures steady
fruit production throughout the season. When vegetative growth is strong, fruit production suffers at
the expense of excessive leaf development, which fuels an already overvegetated plant. Also, excessive
vegetative growth results in extensive shading of the fruit causing it to be of poor quality (i.e., slow
growth, pale color, and possibly excessively ribbed).
Pruning systems
Always prune cucumber plants to a single stem and support them by plastic twine. Place one end of
the twine under the pot at planting time; attach the other end to an overhead wire supported 1.8-2.5
m above the plant row. As a plant grows, it winds around the twine. Remove side shoots or fruit, or
both, according to the pruning and training system, at least every week. As the plant becomes larger
and carries a lot of fruit, use twist ties or plastic snap-on clips to attach it to the twine. Avoid
removing the lower leaves as long as they are healthy and productive unless necessary for improving
air circulation. When the overhead wires are low (less than 2 m), the early removal of the lower
foliage may be detrimental to yield; keep a minimum of 1.5 m of leaf-bearing stem. The dilemma of
adequate leaf area versus sufficient air circulation is avoided in modern (tall) greenhouses by fixing
the support wires much higher than 2 m. The main pruning systems practiced on greenhouse
cucumbers are the original umbrella system and the modified umbrella system and their variants. A
short description follows. Original umbrella system Modified umbrella system
Original umbrella system
To prune a plant according to the original umbrella system (Fig. 8a), follow these step-by-step
instructions. Step 1 When the main stem reaches the horizontal wire (i.e., 2.0-2.5 m high), pinch out
the growing point allowing an extra two or three leaves above the wire. Use a small piece of a string,
or a plastic clip, to tie the main stem to the wire; the extra two or three leaves above the point of
attachment will help prevent the plant, when fully loaded with fruit, from slippingdown. Step 2
Remove all fruit and laterals from the lowest 60 cm of the main stem. Step 3 Remove all fruit from
the next 60 cm of the main stem but allow the laterals to grow to their first leaf and then pinch them;
allow one fruit to develop on each lateral. Step 4 Allow one fruit and a lateral to grow from each leaf
axil of the rest of the main stem; pinch the laterals after the second leaf and allow two fruit on each

29
lateral (i.e., one in each leaf axil of the lateral). Step 5 Allow the two strongest laterals from the top of
the plant to grow over the horizontal wire and then to hang down along the main stem; pinch these
primary laterals when they grow one-half to two-thirds of their way down to the ground. Step 6
Allow a secondary lateral from the axil of each leaf on the primary lateral to develop, pinch each
secondary lateral after the second leaf and allow two fruit to develop on each secondary lateral. Step
7 Remove any lateral if its fruit touches the ground. Variations In the first variation of the original
umbrella pruning system (Fig. 8b), allow the main stem to grow along the horizontal wire (twisting it
around the wire) and let it continue growing downwards as a primary lateral. Then train a sideshoot
from a leaf axil at the top of the plant as a second primary lateral on the other side of the main stem.
In a second variation of the original umbrella pruning system (Fig. 8c), train the main stem along the
horizontal wire until it reaches the next plant and then pinch its head. Then allow two sideshoots
from leaf axils on the segment of the main stem trained along the horizontal wire to grow downwards
in the usual way.

Fig. 8

Fig. 8 Original umbrella pruning system: a standard form; b first variation; c second variation.
Modified umbrella system
To prune a plant according to the modified umbrella (stem fruit) system (Fig. 9a), follow the step-by-
step instructions. Step 1 When the main stem reaches the horizontal wire (2.0-2.5 m high), pinch out
the growing point allowing an extra two or three leaves above the wire. Use a small piece of a string,
or a plastic clip, to tie the main stem to the wire. The extra two or three leaves above the point of
attachment help prevent the plant, when fully loaded with fruit, from slipping down. Step 2 Remove
all fruit and laterals from the lowest 0.8-1.0 m of the main stem. Step 3 Continue removing all
laterals, but allow one fruit to develop from each leaf axil of the rest of the main stem. Step 4 Allow
two laterals from the top of the plant to grow over the wire and then to grow down along the main
stem (one on each side). Pinch the primary laterals before any fruit developing on them could touch
the ground. Step 5 Remove all sideshoots from the primary laterals and allow only one fruit to

30
develop at each leaf axil of the lateral. Step 6 When the primary laterals get old and unproductive,
allow new sideshoots to develop at the top of the plant and repeat the cycle of steps 4 and 5. Before
allowing new laterals to grow downwards, make sure they first grow over the horizontal wire for
better support and light exposure. Variations In a first variation to the modified umbrella (stem fruit)
system (Fig. 9b), allow the main stem to grow along the horizontal wire (twisting it around the wire) and
then let it continue growing downwards as a primary lateral. Then train a side-shoot from a leaf axil at the
top of the plant as a second primary lateral on the other side of the main stem. In a second variation (Fig.
9c), train the main stem along the horizontal wire until it reaches the next plant and then pinch its head;
then allow two sideshoots from a leaf axil on the segment of the main stem trained along the horizontal
wire to grow downwards in the usual way.
Fig. 9

Fig. 9 Modified umbrella (stem fruit) pruning system: a standard form; b first variation; c second
variation.

Training systems
Modern cucumber cultivars grown as greenhouse crops retain the characteristic weak stem of their wild
ancestors, so they require support when grown with a single vertical stem. The main cucumber training
systems are the canopy system, the vertical cordon, the inclined cordon (V-cordon), and the Guernsey arch.
A short description of each follows. Canopy system Vertical cordon Inclined cordon (V-cordon, V-
training) system Guernsey arch

Canopy system
Set plants to be trained according to the canopy system (Fig. 10) in double rows 120-140 cm apart, with
walking paths 180-200 cm wide separating the double rows. In-row spacing can vary between 40-60 cm
depending on desirable planting density. Position horizontal support wires directly over the rows of plants,
at a height of 2.0-2.5 m (depending on greenhouse structure and convenience, the higher the better). At the
same height, extend a variable number of horizontal wires in the same direction as the rows, over the
walking paths, to provide a convenient support and to give form to the canopy. Train plants initially
vertically along and around the support (plastic) strings. When they reach the horizontal wires, train them

31
horizontally over and across the walking paths. Terminate the main stem, depending on in-row plant
spacing, either half way across the walking path or after it runs the full width of the walking path. Prune
these plants according to the modified umbrella system. However, train the primary laterals, and any
subsequent growth, over the horizontal wires, rather than allowing them to grow vertically, and allow only
the fruit to hang down. The constant need for training new growth over the wire to maintain the canopy,
especially during the heavy harvest period, is a serious disadvantage of this training system. The
advantages are a smaller number of rows (i.e., substantial savings in growth media and labor) and a
potential for straight (high-quality) fruit.

Fig. 10

Fig. 10 The canopy training system.

Vertical cordon
Set plants to be trained according to the vertical cordon system (Fig. 11) in double rows 100-120 cm apart
with walking paths, 140-160 cm wide, separating the double rows. In-row spacing can vary between 50-70
cm depending on desirable planting density. Position horizontal support wires directly over the rows of
plants, at a height of 2.0-2.5 m (depending on greenhouse structure and convenience, the higher the better).
Initially train each plant vertically along and around the support (plastic) string and then along and
around the horizontal wire until it reaches the next plant. Prune these plants according to the modified
umbrella system, or, under conditions of exceptionally good light and low cost for trained labor, according
to the original umbrella system. The minimal plant support infrastructure needed and the system's
simplicity make it the most attractive and popular training system. However, research and practical
experience in most parts of Canada indicate that this system may not always be the best for maximizing
light absorption or the most productive. The vertical cordon training system has a definite advantage in
producing high early yield, but its actual effect on the final yield is still debated.
Fig. 11

32
Fig. 11 The vertical cordon training system.

Inclined cordon (V-cordon, V-training) system

Set plants to be trained according to the inclined cordon system (Fig. 12) in double rows, 140-160 cm
apart with walking paths, 160-180 cm wide, separating the double rows. In-row spacing can vary between
40-60 cm depending on desirable planting density. Position two horizontal wires, 60-80 cm apart, over
each row of plants at a height of 2.0-2.5 m (depending on greenhouse structure and convenience, the
higher the better). Initially train plants on an angle, along and around strings that are stretched
alternatively to the overhead wires, and later along and around the horizontal wire (for twice the in-row
spacing) until they reach the next plant inclined in the same direction. As a result, plants incline away from
the row of planting, guided by the offset support wires above, and form a canopy V-shaped in cross section.
As with the canopy training system and because of the reduced number of rows, there are substantial
savings in growth media and labor. Besides, because of the alternate inclination of the main stems, - light
can penetrate better down the plant canopy and be distributed more uniformly over the leaf area - fruit
hangs away from the main stem becoming straight and of better color (quality) - stem to stem distance
effectively doubles that of the actual plant spacing, so plant pruning and training become more convenient.
Prune plants trained according to the inclined cordon system according to the modified umbrella system.
Under conditions of exceptionally good light and low cost of trained labor, they are trained according to
the original umbrella system. Variations In one possible variation of the inclined cordon system, use two
rows of growth medium at a small distance from each other (e.g., 20-40 cm) instead of one. This approach
is preferable when the growth medium allotment per plant must be increased, or, when the slope of the
main stems must be reduced. In a second possible variation of the inclined cordon system, install an extra
two or three horizontal wires. These wires provide extra support to the main stem and prevent plants from
distorting the ideal V-shape, sagging into the pathway, and obstructing traffic in the walking paths. They
also prevent excessive stem and fruit breakage by the harvesting crews. The inclined cordon system,
especially its variation with the extra horizontal wires, has become popular in some European countries,
where it is believed to have a high yield potential.

Fig. 12

Fig. 12 The inclined cordon, V-cordon, or V-training system.

Guernsey arch
This training system (Fig. 13), as the name indicates, originated on Guernsey (one of the Channel Islands)
where it was popular for many years. However, this training system is rarely used today since the demise of
the greenhouse vegetable industry in those islands, and because it requires considerable quality labor to

33
establish and maintain the arch. The system is described briefly here primarily for historical reasons. Set
plants to be trained according to this system in single rows spaced 3.5-4.5 m apart. Traditionally one arch
was practiced in each narrow greenhouse or two arches in wide-span (e.g., 30-ft) greenhouses. Keep in-
row spacing close (e.g., 20-30 cm), unless two parallel rows of plants are grown at a short distance from
each other to facilitate a larger allotment of growth medium per plant (in that case, provide in-row spacing
of the usual 40-60 cm). The arch, a series of inverted Vs, normally has a width at the base of 3.5-4.5 m, a
height at the apex of about 2.2-2.5m, and a height of about 70-80 cm at the sides. The skeleton of the arch
is provided by an elaborate system of horizontal wires extended over wooden (or metal) supports having
the shape of an inverted V or U. Initially allow the main stems to grow vertically in front of the first couple
of wires. In this way the lower part of the plant can allow for some movement at a later time without the
main stem breaking or the plant pulling out of the growth medium. Subsequently, train the main stems over
the remaining horizontal wires, tie with string or plastic clips, and pinch when they reach the apex of the
arch. Train the primary laterals developing out of each leaf axil of the main stem at right angles to the
main stem. Tie them in the usual manner on the horizontal wires, and stop them after the second leaf. Train
and tie secondary laterals developing out of each leaf axil of the primary laterals at right angles to the
primary laterals (and support wires). Stop them after one or two leaves depending on plant vigor, fruit
load, and coverage of the arch with foliage. During this tying-in period, which usually takes 4-5 weeks
from planting, remove all fruit developing in the leaf axils of the main stem at an early stage. The first fruit
to be harvested develops from the leaf axils of the primary laterals. Because stems and foliage now cover
the arch, no further tying-in is required. Now simply trim (i.e., stop sideshoots, remove dead or aging
leaves and stems, and remove unmarketable fruit) and pull fruit through the wires to hang inside thearch.
Developing the arch requires much labor and skill, but maintaining the canopy is relatively easy. Definite
advantages are the high quality of fruit, ease of harvest, economy in growth medium because of the small
number of rows, and the potential for high yield over an extended cropping season. Several variations of
the Guernsey arch exist but their description is beyond the scope of this publication.

Fig. 13

Fig.13 The Guernsey arch training system.

Choosing a training and pruning system

Although the training and pruning systems described appear very different, all aim to produce an optimum
foliage coverage and distribution and an optimum balance between vegetative growth (plant vigor) and

34
fruit load. Choosing a training system is difficult; research results are limited because of the large size of
the trials needed and because many factors, including availability and cost of trained labor, must be taken
into account. In general, the vertical cordon and canopy systems require little labor and, especially during
the busy harvesting season, are easiest to apply. They also require only simple support systems and little
technical skill in training. The inclined systems (inclined cordon and Guernsey arch) require definite
technical skill in training and elaborate support systems (especially in the case of the Guernsey arch).
However, the extra time needed for applying these training systems is mostly invested during the early part
of the season. Much of that investment in time is recouped later by the shorter time spent in harvesting the
fruit, which is more exposed and accessible. Because of the way the fruit hangs out in the open, fruit quality
is high. With regards to the pruning systems, the modified umbrella system and its variants require little
technical skill and in most cases produce satisfactory results. The original umbrella system may be
preferable when light conditions are exceptionally good (late spring, summer, and early fall) and a short
crop is planned.

Fruit thinning
Overbearing can sometimes be a problem. To prevent the plants becoming exhausted and to improve fruit
size, control the number of the fruit per plant through selective fruit thinning. This technique is powerful, so
use it with great caution. The optimum number of fruits per plant varies with the cultivar and, even more,
with the growing conditions. Although, limiting the number of fruits per plant invariably results in
premium-priced large fruit, growers risk underestimating the crop's potential or failing to forecast good
weather. They may decide to remove too many fruits and thus unnecessarily limit production. Fruit
thinning is undoubtedly most useful in the hands of experienced growers who can use it to maximize their
financial returns. Fruit to be pruned must be removed as soon as it can be handled, before it grows too
large.

Harvesting and storage

After all the effort and money invested in production, it is essential that fruit be handled well at harvesting
and during transportation to the market. Most growers pick twice and even three times a week in hot
weather. Pick fruit carefully and place them in soft plastic, or better, padded containers to avoid bruising
and damage. The size of the fruit at harvest is important. Harvesting underdeveloped fruit loses revenue
because larger fruit sells easier and at a better price. However, fruit left on the plants for too long not only
prevents new cucumbers from developing but also has a short shelf life expectancy when harvested. Make
every effort to minimize losses in fruit quality during harvest and transit. Overfilling the crate or stacking
the produce too high may damage the bottom layer. Harvest fruit in the early morning, while the day is still
cool. Move produce immediately out of direct sunlight and into cool, shaded, ventilated areas so that fruit
temperature does not rise. Wrap each fruit individually with thin plastic film to conserve its water and
extend its shelf life. Use a covered vehicle to transport the produce to the packing shed, thus protecting the
fruit from direct sunlight and exposure to the drying effect of air. Do not park a loaded truck in direct
sunlight for any length of time. During transportation, minimize heat gain and place produce in cold
storage (12°C) as soon as it arrives at its destination. Fruit stored under ideal conditions (i.e., 10-13°C
and 90-95% RH) has a life expectancy of 10-14 days. Stacking the crates too high or too tight prevents the
crates in the middle from cooling down adequately when the product is stored in a cooler. Packing and
storing produce in the same place as active ethylene producers, such as apples, accelerates ripening and
results in yellowing of the fruit. Avoid storing and shipping tomatoes and cucumbers together. After
removing fruit from cold storage, do not allow water to condense on it, especially if fruit is not shrink-
wrapped. Prevent condensation by keeping the environment dry through ventilation or by raising the
storage temperature gradually before the fruit is removed. After harvest, the quality of cucumbers can
only be preserved, not increased.

35
Plate I

Effect of the day and night air temperature (DAT and NAT, respectively) on the growth and development of
greenhouse seedless cucumbers; Spring 1993, nine mini greenhouse complex, Harrow Research Station. a
Cover: glass (DAT=18°C, NAT=16°C); b Cover: double polyethylene (DAT=18°C, NAT=18°C); c Cover:
acrylic (DAT=18°C, NAT=20°C); d Cover: acrylic (DAT=21°C, NAT=16°C); e Cover: glass (DAT=21°C,
NAT=18°C); f Cover: double polyethylene (DAT=21°C, NAT=20°C); g Cover: double polyethylene
(DAT=24°C, NAT=16°C); h Cover: acrylic (DAT=24°C, NAT=18°C); i Cover: glass (DAT=24°C,
NAT=20°C).
Plate I

36
Plate II

The Harrow Fertigation Manager#174 (HFM#174), a computerized multifertilizer injection system (U.S.
Patent ## 5 184 420) for the precise application of water and nutrients according to the changing needs of
various crops. (Harrow Fertigation Manager#174 and HFM#174 are registered trade marks of Labbate
Climate Control Systems Inc., 509 Hwy ## 77, R.R. ## 5, Leamington, Ont.)

37
Plate III

Effect of the form (nitrate vs. ammonium) and rate of nitrogen on the growth of greenhouse seedless
cucumber transplants in rock wool. Rates of fertilizer application (from left to right): 1. Plain water (no
fertilizer) 2. Half strength of complete nutrient solution (HSCNS) (see Table 9, approx. EC=1000 µS/cm) 3.
HSCNS + 1 g/L of additional nitrogen source 4. HSCNS + 2 g/L of additional nitrogen source 5. HSCNS +
4 g/L of additional nitrogen source a Effect of calcium nitrate (100% nitrate); b Effect of potassium nitrate
(100% nitrate); c Effect of ammonium nitrate (50% nitrate, 50% ammonium); d Effect of urea (100%
ammonium).

38
Plate IV

Cropping of greenhouse seedless cucumbers in soil and soilless media: a conventional cropping in soil; b
cropping in soil with drip irrigation and in Harrow peat bags; c cropping in upright bags filled with
sawdust; d cropping in rock-wool slabs; e cropping in large pots filled with expanded clay pellets; f test
plants in NFT experiencing sudden collapse (due to root death).

Growing greenhouse seedless cucumbers in soil and in soilless media

Sections 4 & 5

Conventional cropping in soil

Type of soil
Drainage
Soil pasteurization
Flooding and leaching
Organic matter
Control of pH
Preplant fertilizer application
Cultivating
Watering (soil)
Scheduling the applications of fertilizer

39
 Mulching
Cropping in soil with drip irrigation
Cropping in peat and other organic media
The trough system
Peat bags
Watering (peat)
Feeding
Recycling
The Harrow peat-bag system
Sawdust
Straw bales
Cropping in rock wool and other inert media
Rock wool
Perlite
Vermiculite
Oasis and other synthetics
Expanded clay
Sand and gravel
Nutrient film technique and other hydroponic systems

SECTION 4
Conventional cropping in soil
Conventional cropping in soil (Plate IV a) is the simplest cropping system and involves the planting and
raising of a crop as would be done outdoors. The actual planting is an important stage in the growth of the
crop. First, dig a trench at least 10 cm deep and 15 cm wide. Then place the plants in soil blocks or peat
pots in the trench and heel in with 0.25 L per plant of starter fertilizer solution (10-52-17 in water at 5 g/L);
pull only a little soil around them. Spot-water plants as needed for about 1 week after transplanting. Once
the plants are established and the risk of damping off is reduced, irrigate regularly according to soil type
and light intensity. On light soils general irrigation begins sooner than on heavier soils.

Type of soil
To achieve maximum production, greenhouse vegetables in general need a well-aerated soil with a high
water-holding capacity, rich in nutrients and free of pathogens. Although greenhouse cucumbers can be
grown on awide variety of soils, the most suitable are those classified as loams, sandy loams, and some
silty loams, all with a high organic-matter content (Fig. 4). Other types of soils can be used, but they are
more difficult and expensive to manage. For example, coarse sandy soils have low water-holding capacity,
poor nutrient retention, and poor water cone formation when drip-irrigated; silty soils have an unstable
structure that breaks down with heavy watering; and clay loams are poorly drained, difficult to leach, and
their structure is damaged by cultivation when wet. Proper management can render almost any soil suitable
for greenhouse production. For example, both light and heavy soils can be improved by adding organic
matter. If natural drainage is poor, as in most clay, silty clay, and sandy clay loams, a tile or pipe drainage
system is needed. The soil provides a medium in which a proper balance exists between air, water, and
nutrients. If this balance is ensured, the roots can easily obtain water and nutrients, resulting in rapid
growth.

Drainage
Install tile drainage in ground beds to ensure that all excess water drains away. For drainage, use perforated
or nonperforated clay tiles, 10 cm in diameter, and lay them with a small space between them to allow for
expansion; a few 7.5-cm tiles make effective slip joints for 10-cm tiles. To improve the effectiveness of
drainage, cover the tile lines with glass fiber matting made for this purpose or with 2-cm gravel. Set tiles at
a depth that prevents their being broken by rototilling or other cultural practices. Place tiles 35 cm deep and
45 cm apart, with a slope of 10 cm for every 150 m of 10-cm clay tiles. The same tiles, with perforations on

40
the bottom or the sides, are also used for steam sterilization. Loop adjacent rows of tile together at the ends,
with elbows and tees for more equalized steaming from line to line. Introduce steam into the rows of tile
through a header. This header, with a 50-cm capped riser on each end for steam input, extends across the
width of the house and is equipped with nipples 2-3 cm in diameter and about 25 cm long; one nipple
corresponds to, and is cemented into, each row of tile. Make both the header and the rows of tile no longer
than 15 m, because beyond that length steam condenses into water and gives poor sterilization.
Soil pasteurization
Greenhouse soils may contain weed seeds, insects, and bacteria and fungi that are harmful to the plants.
This warning includes potting mixes unless they are guaranteed sterilized or pasteurized by the
manufacturer. Soil and potting mixes can be pasteurized to eliminate harmful organisms, ideally without
injuring beneficial soil organisms. Soils free of clods, large lumps, and undecomposed crop remains and in
fine tilth allow the steam or fumigant to penetrate rapidly and uniformly. The time-temperature
relationships needed to destroy undesirable organisms are as follows:

Weeds (most) 70º 80ºC for 15 min.

Insects & mites 60º 71ºC for 20 min.
Bacteria (most) 60ºC for 10 min.
Fusarium 57ºC for 30 min.
Botrytis 55ºC for 15 min.
Nematodes 55ºC for 15 min.
Rhizoctonia 52ºC for 30 min.
Sclerotinia 50ºC for 5 min.
Pythium 46ºC for 40 min.
Thus, growers can eliminate most organisms of concern (except viruses)
using ideal conditions of 60ºC for 30 minutes. Heating above 82ºC
begins to destroy beneficial soil organisms. Soil heated at too high a
temperature for too long becomes sterile and subject to a greater
degree of infection by pathogens than previously, simply because all
organisms have been destroyed. Other undesirable effects of over-
steaming include

- excessive ammonia release

- manganese toxicity
- high total-salts levels
- destruction of organic matter.

Steam method
Aerated steam method
Electric soil pasteurizers
Chemical fumigants
Steam method
Steam is the most common source for heat pasteurization. When
pasteurizing soil for vegetable seedlings, growers find it efficient to
inject steam into the bottom of a wagon or old truck body filled with
soil. After cooling, the pasteurized soil can be moved to the area in
which it will be used. For steaming greenhouse soils where the crop is
to be grown, growers follow two main techniques. If the ground beds are
drained with agricultural tile (top of the tile 30-40 cm below the
surface and rows on 40-60-cm centres), steam injected into the tiles
effectively pasteurizes the soil to the sides and above them. Covering
the area with a plastic sheet enhances the efficiency of this method by
confining the steam when it reaches the soil surface. If tiles are not
installed, a coarse, well-drained greenhouse soil can be adequately

41
pasteurized by injecting steam directly under a specially formulated
plastic "steam tarp." For even distribution inject the steam through a
canvas hose or a perforated, flexible field tile. Bury the edges of the
tarp 10-12 cm so that it will confine steam up to 41-48 KPa (6-7 psi)
pressure. With either steaming method, check the temperature accurately
in several locations beneath the plastic, using specially designed
thermometers where the sensitive element is attached to the dial by a
few metres of cable. A soil temperature reading of 80ºC at a depth of
30 cm sustained for 30 min provides sufficient soil pasteurization.
Aerated steam method
Aerated steam is being used more widely today. In this system live
steam is mixed with air in a chamber, and the mixture (at 70ºC) is used
to pasteurize soil. The lower steam temperatures allow the soil to be
pasteurized yet avoid the hazards of oversteaming. Unless there are
specific problems, soil temperatures of 70ºC adequately destroy most
insect and disease organisms.
Electric soil pasteurizers
Electric soil pasteurizers are useful for small volumes of soil when no
other method is available. In this method, over-cooking the soil can
easily occur because, for the temperature between the finned heat
source to reach 82ºC, the fins themselves must be at a higher
temperature.

Chemical fumigants
With the high cost of steaming, the use of chemical fumigants as a
method of soil pasteurizing has become more popular. Each fumigant has
a specific rate and activity against soilborne insects, diseases,
nematodes, and weeds. Directions for use, as provided by the
manufacturer, must be closely followed. Crops in adjoining beds or
greenhouses may need guarding against the drift of toxic vapors from
the fumigant. Recommended fumigants, their use, and rates of application are subject to
government regulations, which can vary from province to province. Licensing is required before
certain fumigants (e.g., methyl bromide) can be used. Pay strict attention to regulations governing
fumigant use and take precautions during application.
Flooding and leaching
To achieve the best results with steam sterilization, first cultivate the soil and bring its water content to field
capacity. The amount of water required varies with the original moisture content of the soil and the soil
type but is generally between 20 and 50 L/m#178. Steam sterilization, particularly oversteaming, often
releases toxic amounts of ammonia and manganese. The content of other elements, such as potassium, iron,
and zinc, may also increase. When soil analysis shows an undesirable excess of soluble salts, leaching with
water usually helps to remove an excess of these substances, and to cool the soil following steam
sterilization. Use the amounts given in Table 11P as a guide.

Table 11

Leaching requirements after steaming

----------------------------------------------------------
Electrical conductivity (#181S/cm) Water required (L/m#178)
------------------------------- ------------------------
Saturated-paste 1:2 water
method extract Sandy soils Other soils
----------------------------------------------------------

42
Up to 1.5 Up to 0.5 15 25
1.5 3.0 0.5-1.0 30 50
3.0 5.0 1.0-1.5 70 100
Over 5 Over 1.5 100 150
----------------------------------------------------------
Notes:
- The numbers suggested for required water (L/m#178) also indicate
equivalent rates of rain in millimetres.
- The rates apply to leaching and are added to the requirement for
bringing the soil to field capacity (usually 20-50 L/m#178).
- The rates apply to use of overhead sprinklers at intervals over 2-5
days.
- It is difficult to leach salts from heavy-textured soils, especially
if no effort is made to improve their structure.
- If the conductivity before leaching is higher than the recommended
range, it must be checked again after leaching and before planting.
- Flooding reduces nitrates and conductivity markedly and may reduce
potassium reserves slightly, but it produces little change in other
nutrient levels.

Organic matter
A high level of organic matter helps to maintain a stable soil structure and improves the water-holding
capacity of the soil. In the past, growers used to steam sterilize greenhouse soils and then add well-rotted
manure after sterilization. This procedure reduced the release of ammonia and other toxic substances, and it
also helped to reinoculate the soil with beneficial organisms. However, the danger of introducing disease
organisms and weed seeds always remained. As an added complication, the use of manure or muck soil as a
source of organic matter has the inherent potential for contaminating the greenhouse soil with herbicide
residues. The recommended amounts of manure varied from 45 to 225 t/ha, depending on the kind of
manure and the soil conditions. For example, spent mushroom compost has a high nutrient content and can
cause soil conductivity problems, whereas undecomposed straw may induce nitrogen deficiency.
Depending on grower experience, intricate planning, and good luck, crops of exceptional vigor and
productivity have been achieved in the past with the timely application of manure. However, the success of
the crop is not easily predictable because it depends on the timing and quantity of nitrogen release as well
as the prevention of high salt and ammonia release from the applied manure. The liberal application of
manure, along with the use of straw as mulch, provided also for the release of significant quantities of CO2.
This gas must have contributed further to the impressive productivity of past crops, despite the limited
environmental controls of old greenhouse structures. In recent years, the addition of organic matter has
been seen more as a means of improving the soil condition (structure) than of increasing the nutrient
content of the soil. In fact, the nutrient content of most manures and other nonstandardized sources of
organic matter is extremely variable. Their use is considered a liability rather than an asset because of the
unpredictable effects on the crop. Now, the benefit from the circumstantial evolution of CO2 from decaying
organic matter is not as important, because of the widespread use of CO2 enrichment in modern
greenhouses. At present, coarse peat is the most satisfactory material as a source of organic matter. When
used to improve the soil conditions, e.g., on new sites, apply peat generously at rates of up to 500
m#179/ha. When the soil reaches the desired condition, reduce the rate; the need for an annual dressing
remains because soil organic matter decomposes rapidly under glass. Apply loose peat to soil at a yearly
rate of 100 m#179/ha. Peat is acid, with a pH of about 4, and therefore has the added benefit of reducing
the pH of calcareous soils; where the soil is noncalcareous, add ground limestone to the loose peat at a rate
of 5 kg/m#179 to neutralize the peat's acidity. Broadcast peat and lime before the main cultivation and
incorporate them into the top 30 cm of the soil.

Control of pH
Greenhouse vegetables generally grow quite well in a wide range of soil pH (5.5-7.5), but a pH of 6.0-6.5
for mineral soils and a pH of 5.0-5.5 for organic soils are generally accepted as optimum. When the pH is
too low, add ground calcitic limestone, or an equal amount of dolomitic limestone when the magnesium
level in the soil is low, to raise it to a desirable level. Use the rates given in Table 12P only as a guide; the

43
actual lime requirement is best assessed by an appropriate laboratory test. Usually the pH in most
greenhouse mineral soils is above the optimum pH range (6.0-6.5). A simple, though temporary, solution to
a high pH problem is to add peat, without neutralizing its acidity with limestone. Peat also helps to
maintain a good soil structure, but it must be added yearly to make up for loss through decomposition. If
needed, supply more calcium either as calcium sulfate (gypsum), which has no affect on soil pH, or in
soluble form (e.g., calcium nitrate), with each irrigation. Adding elemental sulfur, i.e., flowers of sulfur,
provides a more long-term solution to a high pH soil. No definite recommendations can be made about how
much sulfur to apply; it depends on the buffering (cation exchange) capacity and original pH of the soil,
both of which vary from one soil to the next. In general, apply flowers of sulfur at a rate of 50-500 kg/ha.
Theoretically, 320 kg of elemental sulfur could neutralize 1000 kg of limestone, assuming that all sulfur
converts instantly to sulfuric acid. However, this conversion, performed by soil microorganisms#ri
(Thiobacillus), takes time; it goes more rapidly in moist, warm, well- aerated soils. Broadcast and
thoroughly mix ordinary ground sulfur with the top 15-30 cm of soil several weeks before planting the
crop, because the initial velocity of the reaction may be slow in cold soils. For acidification of soils, you
can also use iron sulfate at rates up to 1500 kg/ha. When hydrolyzed, this salt releases sulfuric acid, which
drastically lowers the pH and liberates some of the iron already present in the soil. At the same time,
soluble (i.e., available) iron is added. However, on a weight basis, iron (ferrous) sulfate is four to five times
less effective than sulfur and is usually more expensive. Sulfuric acid can be added directly to the soil, but
it is unpleasant and dangerous to work with and requires the use of special acid-resistant equipment. In
some areas it can be applied by custom suppliers who have the equipment necessary for handling it.
Sulfuric acid has the advantage of reacting quickly with the soil. Under most conditions, only a zone near
the plant roots need be acidified, which takes much smaller amounts of chemicals. Use this method
particularly with drip irrigation; there the root systems occupy a restricted, well-defined, area of soil.
Injecting phosphoric or nitric acid, appropriately diluted for convenience and safety, offers an attractive
method for lowering the pH of the soil near the plants. Furthermore, these acids prevent salts from
precipitating and clogging the irrigation lines and add useful nutrients to the plants. To determine the rate at
which to inject acid, add a known amount of acid to a known volume of water until you obtain the desired
pH. Alternatively, start injecting small amounts of acid into the irrigation line while checking the pH with
an in-line pH sensor; gradually increase the amount of acid injected until the desired water pH is obtained.
When conditions allow, select the regularly applied fertilizers for their ability to lower or increase the soil
pH according to individual soil needs. For example, ammonium sulfate and ammonium phosphate tend to
decrease the soil pH, whereas calcium nitrate tends to increase it.

Table 12

Lime requirements for correcting soil pH to 6.5

------------------------------------------
Lime (t/ha)
---------------------------------
Sandy Loam, Clay loam,
Soil pH loam silty loam organic
------------------------------------------
6.0 3.0 4.5 6.0
5.5 6.0 9.0 12.0
5.0 9.0 12.0 18.0
4.5 12.0 15.0 24.0
4.0 15.0 18.0 30.0
------------------------------------------
Note: The rates of lime suggested are for the top 15 cm of soil. If
acidity has to be corrected to a greater soil depth, increase the rates
accordingly.

Preplant fertilizer application

Apply precrop fertilizers after soil steaming and leaching, and rototill them into the greenhouse soil. Add
these fertilizers to the limestone that may be needed for adjusting the pH level of the soil (Table 12P). Add
as much of the required calcium and phosphorus as possible as a base dressing, because these nutrients

44
store effectively in the soil and their absence from liquid feeds prevents most clogging problems of the
irrigation system. Provide the calcium in the form of limestone and the phosphorus in the form of
superphosphate, both finely ground. Furthermore, these nutrients, by nature of their source and their ability
to bind to soil particles, are released slowly into the soil solution and therefore do not raise the total amount
of salts dramatically, nor do they upset the nutrient balance of the soils to which they are added as a base
dressing. Also, supply a good portion of potassium along with magnesium, as base fertilizer; the ratio of
potassium to magnesium in the soil should be 2:1. Avoid applying nitrogen. Make the final decision on
base fertilization after receiving the soil test results and consulting with your horticultural crop adviser.
Treat the recommended rates of base fertilizers (Table 13P) as a general guide only.

Table 13

Recommendations for base fertilizer

---------------------------------------------------------
Fertilizer Amount
(kg/ha)
---------------------------------------------------------
Superphosphate (0-20-0, fine grade) 250
Potassium sulfate 500
Magnesium sulfate 250

Add the following in combination, if needed

Calcitic limestone 800
Peat 800 bales/ha
---------------------------------------------------------

Cultivating
The soil needs some cultivation to prepare it for sterilization; to incorporate organic matter, lime, and
fertilizers; and to produce planting tilth. Rotary diggers are generally preferred because they provide more
uniform cultivation with less damage to the soil structure. However, repeated cultivation at the same depth
with rotary diggers can lead to a compacted soil layer, so alter the depth of cultivation occasionally.

Watering (soil)
Irrigation is usually of the flood type, although some automated equipment may be used. The objective of
watering is to maintain a fully adequate supply of water to the plant roots without soaking the soil to the
extent that air cannot get to the roots. Do not wait until the plants start to wilt. A good practice is to dig into
the soil and judge how much water remains before starting the next irrigation. Regular watering on the
same day of the week is unwise. The needs of the plants change daily and seasonally. Water young plants
planted in the greenhouse in January or February only once every 5-10 days, and then only enough to wet
15-20 cm of the soil. Similar plants growing in June may need five to ten times as much water. Let the soil
texture and structure determine how much water to add at each application. By examining the soil before
watering and several hours thereafter, you can assess the effectiveness of the water application.

Scheduling the applications of fertilizer

Besides preplant application, fertilizers must also be added regularly throughout the production season. To
apply fertilizers to a growing crop, use the dry form, and broadcast it on most or all the cropped greenhouse
soil. Recommended rates are listed in Table 14P. Note that the rates of fertilizer prescribed in Table 14P
assume that the fertilizers will be applied over most of the greenhouse soil and that they will#ri not be
applied in restricted areas close to the plants, possibly through a drip-irrigation system. Calculations can
show that if the fertilizer prescribed for week ##4, for example, were applied through a drip irrigation
system, in a single operation, supplying water at 4 L per plant, the concentration of major nutrients in the
fertigation solution would be 685 ppm N, 100 ppm P, 980 ppm K, 190 ppm Ca, and 200 ppm Mg. These
concentrations are unacceptably high. Similar calculations show that if the same fertilizers were applied
through a drip irrigation system continuously, assuming that 2 L of water were applied per plant per day,
then the concentration of the major nutrients in the fertigation solution would be 195 ppm N, 28 ppm P, 280

45
ppm K, 54 ppm Ca, and 57 ppm Mg. These concentrations are more reasonable. However, to repeat, the
application rates prescribed for the fertilizers in Table 14P are#ri not intended for delivery through a drip
irrigation system. (Guidelines for fertilizer application through a drip irrigation system are given in the next
section.) The soil has a large buffering capacity, so when fertilizers are spread properly over all the
greenhouse ground area, the given rates (Table 14P) will bring the soil's fertility to a level that can support
a vigorous and productive crop.

Table 14

Recommended fertilizer application rates for spring or fall crops, in

soil
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Stock solution A* (kg/ha) Stock solution B* (kg/ha)
---------------------------- ----------------------------
Week

from Potassium Calcium Ammonium 10-52-10 20-5-30 Magnesium

planting nitrate nitrate nitrate sulfate
------------------------------------- ----------------------------
1 150
2 50 50 100 100
3 50 100
4 50 100 100 100
5 50 100
6 100 100 100 100
7 100 100
8 100 100 50 100
9 100 100 100
10 100 100 50 100
11 100 100
12 100 100 50 100 100
13 100 100
14 100 100 50 100
15 100 100 100
16 100 100 50 100
17 100 100
18 100 100 50 100 100
19 100 100
20 100 100 50 100
21 100 100
22 150
23 150
--------------------------------------------------------------------
* Caution: If fertilizers are first mixed in thick stock solutions
before they are applied to the crop, group them as indicated. Do not
mix in the same concentrated solution a fertilizer containing calcium
and one containing sulfate or phosphate, because such a mixture forms a
thick suspension that can plug watering equipment. Note: Choose soluble
fertilizer formulations that are as free as possible of chlorides,
sulfates, and carbonates.

Mulching
Mulch the soil when cucumber plants grow about 0.5 m tall and only after soil temperature is sufficiently
high. Straw is the most common mulch material, but ground corn cobs are also acceptable. The mulch
reduces evaporation and soil compaction. Also, with mulch present, little soil splashes onto plants during
watering, which avoids dust in the greenhouse. Furthermore, mulch releases a considerable amount of

46
carbon dioxide as it breaks down, which helps plant growth. Mulch incorporated into the soil at the end of
the cropping season also provides useful organic matter. However, mulching with organic byproducts gives
rise to the well-known problems associated with adding any organic matter to intensely cultivated soils, as
discussed earlier. In recent years, traditional mulching has not been practiced widely. Instead, a white
polyethylene film is used to cover the ground whenever the irrigation method permits it. This mulching
alternative has several advantages and is best practiced in conjunction with drip irrigation.
Cropping in soil with drip irrigation
The drip irrigation cropping system (Plate IV b) is similar to, but better than, the conventional soil cropping
system, because it can be used to control crop growth by regulating the supply of water and nutrients. The
system also allows reduced relative humidity in the greenhouse, because not all the soil is irrigated and
because the system is compatible with the use of white polyethylene film as a light-reflecting mulch.
Resources, including energy, are thus used more efficiently with this system. In most cases, use common
in-line drippers with a standard flow of 2L/h and one dripper per plant. However, because of the
shallowness and extensiveness of the cucumber root system, consider a 4-L/h dripper, which usually results
in more lateral movement of the irrigation water; even better, provide two drippers (2 L/h each) per plant.
Microsprinklers, or misters, have also been tried at ground level along the row of plants, with favorable
results on root growth, plant vigor, and productivity. However, such irrigation systems, if not properly
managed, can easily lead to overwatering and then to disease outbreaks caused by excessive humidity and
plant stem wetness. Another alternative is to use lay-flat polyethylene tubes (about 5 cm ID), with small
holes spaced 10 cm apart. This system usually applies water to a much larger area than the drip system but
does not raise the RH as much as a microsprinkler or micromister system. Although fairly inexpensive, the
lay-flat tube irrigation system has a short lifespan, which requires its frequent replacement. It is not a good
choice for large greenhouses, because the water delivery rates vary significantly along the length of the line
(i.e., not pressure compensating). Irrigate the crop up to four times a day, and use the irrigation system to
apply fertilizer to the crop. Fertigation (the application of fertilizer through the irrigation system) is now a
popular method of fertilizing greenhouse vegetables. Fertilizers are either dissolved in a large holding tank
and the solution pumped to the crop or they are mixed in concentrated stock solutions, which are then
incorporated, using fertilizer injectors, into the irrigation water (Table 15P and Table 15aP). Several makes
and models of fertilizer injectors are available at varying costs and offer varying degrees of fertigation
control. A sophisticated fertilizer injection system capable of meeting the nutrient requirements of a series
of crops automatically from the same set of stock solutions was developed recently at the Agriculture
Canada Research Station in Harrow, Ont. (Plate II). The Harrow FM uses an IBM-compatible computer to
activate a series of dosimetric pumps at varying frequencies for the preprogrammed application of a desired
concentration of individual nutrients. It also automatically adjusts the supply of water and nutrients to the
crops in accordance with crop and environmental conditions. Introducing drip irrigation and fertigation has
made it necessary to consider the fertilizer needs of a crop in terms of the concentration of fertilizer (and
therefore the concentration of nutrients) in the irrigation water rather than on the basis of the cropped area.
Furthermore, the recommendations regarding the nutrient content of the fertigation solutions of drip-
irrigated crops are based mainly on the physiological responses and commercial productivity of the crops.
Most earlier recommendations for fertilizer application to traditionally grown crops in soil were based on
estimates of nutrient removal by the crop. Base fertilizers are not normally applied when drip irrigation is
used. The exceptions are peat and lime, which may be needed to improve soil structure and adjust soil pH.

Table 15

Fertigation schedule for drip-irrigated cucumbers grown in soil

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Fertilizer in stock Fertilizer in stock
solution A* solution B* Irrigation
(kg/1000 L) (kg/1000 L)
------------------- --------------------------- -----------
Week Cal- Potas- Ammo- Mono- Magne- Magne- Volume EC
from cium sium nium potas- sium sium (L/plant (#181S/
plant- nit- nit- nit- phos- sulfate nitrate /day) cm)
ing rate rate rate phate

47
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Spring crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 50 100 25 0.4 1300
2 50 35 15 25 0.6 1400
3 35 50 10 15 25 0.8 1500
4 35 50 15 15 25 1.0 1650
5 35 55 15 15 25 1.2 1700
6 35 60 15 15 25 1.6 1750
7 35 65 15 15 25 2.0 1800
8 35 70 15 15 25 2.2 1850
9 35 70 15 15 25 2.4 1850
10 35 70 15 15 25 2.6 1850
11 35 70 15 15 25 2.8 1850
12-17 35 60 15 15 35 4.0 1650
18-22 35 55 15 15 35 5.0 1600
23-end 35 50 15 15 35 4.0 1550

Fall crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 50 100 25 0.4 1300
2 50 35 15 25 0.8 1400
3 35 50 10 15 25 1.0 1500
4 35 50 15 15 25 1.2 1650
5-12 35 55 15 15 35 3.0 1650
13-end 35 55 15 15 35 2.0 1600
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

* Caution: If fertilizers are first mixed in thick stock solutions

before they are applied to the crop, group them as indicated. Do not
mix in the same concentrated solution a fertilizer containing calcium
and one containing sulfate or phosphate, as such a mixture results in a
thick suspension that can plug watering equipment.
Notes:
Trace elements must also be added to all the above fertilizer feeds; a
typical trace element mix (e.g., Plant Product Chelated Micronutrient
mix) contains 7.0% Fe, 2.0% Mn, 0.4% Zn, 0.1% Cu, 1.3% B, and 0.06% Mo;
when added to the stock solution at the rate of 1 kg/1000 L it
contributes to the final solution 0.7 ppm Fe, 0.2 ppm Mn, 0.04 ppm Zn,
0.01 ppm Cu, 0.13 ppm B,and 0.006 ppm Mo, with a 1:100 dilution ratio.

Dissolve the given amount of each fertilizer, including trace

elements, in 1000 L of water and add to the irrigation water in equal
doses, ideally with a multihead
fertilizer injector. Start injection at a very low rate and increase
the rate of injection progressively, and uniformly on all heads, until
the desired EC is achieved. Adjust the pH of the fertigation solution
to 5.5 by injecting a dilute solution of phosphoric, nitric, or
sulfuric acid. Alternatively, dissolve the prescribed fertilizers,
including the micronutrient mix, into 100 000 L of water, adjust the
pH, and apply directly to the crop.
The recommended strength of the stock solutions is within the
working range of a fertilizer injector with a 1:100 mixing ratio. If a
fertilizer injector with a 1:200 mixing ratio is used, double the
amount of each fertilizer. Make similar adjustments for fertilizer
injectors with other mixing ratios. If the solubility limit of a
fertilizer (e.g., potassium nitrate) is exceeded, prepare more than one

48
stock solution of the same fertilizer and divide the amount of the
fertilizer equally between the stocks.

Table 15a

Nutrient concentration in the final nutrient solution when one part of

each of stock solutions A and B, prepared as prescribed in Table 15P,
are mixed with 98 parts of water (i.e. 1:100 dilution ratio)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Nutrient concentration (ppm) Expected
------------------------------------------------------------------- EC*
N- N- (#181S/
Week NO3 NH4 P K Ca Mg Fe Mn Zn Cu B Mo cm)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Spring crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 72 3 235 300 95 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1300
2 117 5 35 175 95 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1400
3 140 15 35 233 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1500
4 145 25 35 233 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1650
5 151 25 35 251 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1700
6 158 25 35 270 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1750
7 164 25 35 289 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1800
8-11 170 25 35 308 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1850
12-17 196 25 35 270 67 32 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1650
18-22 189 25 35 251 67 32 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1600
23-end183 25 35 233 67 32 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1550
Fall crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 72 3 235 300 95 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1300
2 122 12 35 175 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1400
3 140 15 35 233 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1500
4 145 25 35 233 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1650
5-12 196 25 35 270 67 32 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1650
13-end189 25 35 251 67 32 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1600
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* The EC of the water has been assumed at 300 #181S/cm and is included.

Cropping in peat and other organic media

Peat is an abundant, readily available, lightweight Canadian resource. It provides good water-holding
capacity, drainage, aeration, and biological and chemical stability. Peat has been used alone or combined
with other materials such as vermiculite, perlite, turface, polystyrene beads, and other materials, in various
mixtures with diverse physical characteristics. Besides a high water-holding capacity, peat has a high
cation-exchange capacity and maintains an adequate structure during cropping. Horticultural-grade
vermiculite releases some potassium and magnesium during the crop season, which could be more
problematic than beneficial because of reduced control over the availability of those nutrients. However,
vermiculite has a high cation-exchange capacity, which increases the buffering capacity of the mix and thus
reduces the risk of over fertilization. On the other hand, perlite, turface, and styrofoam beads are
completely inert and do not affect the nutrient availability in the mix other than by improving the degree of
aeration. These materials are now preferred because they do not break down as quickly as vermiculite and
thus allow for more exact nutrition of the crop. Recent research has shown that the porosity of peat plus
perlite declines steadily over time, but the porosity of peat plus polystyrene does not. Although polystyrene
effectively increases the air content of the substrate, much of that air - in the polystyrene beads themselves -
is of no use to the plants. Perlite, vermiculite, turface, and styrofoam beads are sterile on delivery because
of the high temperatures used during their manufacture. Sand also behaves almost as an inert material and

49
has been used extensively in the past. Like any soil, it is not recommended unless sterilized. Sawdust is also
an important organic medium for cucumber cropping, especially in Canada. However, this system is
described only in general terms (under "Sawdust") because it has already been treated in detail in other
publications.

The trough system

After mixing the growing medium, place it in a container. When soilless mixes were first developed, a
wooden trough (15-20 cm deep and lined with polyethylene) was the most common container used. A
drainpipe laid along the centre of the trough drained the water and acted as a duct for steam during
sterilizing (Fig. 14). A layer of gravel provided general drainage and protected the polyethylene during
cultivation. Since soilless mixes are naturally low in nutrients, fertilizers must be added to promote
optimum plant growth. Two main methods have been used for supplying fertilizers to crops grown in peat
media. The simplest is to add all the nutrients required by the crop as you prepare the peat mix (Table 16P).
The success of this technique depends on slow-release fertilizers providing a continuous supply of nitrogen,
phosphorous, and potassium throughout the growing season. The calcium requirements of the crop are met
mostly by the calcitic limestone normally added to the peat for pH adjustment. Micronutrients are also
added as fritted trace elements, which ensures their slow release during the cropping season. Thus, regular
feeding throughout the cropping season is not required unless the presence of nutrient deficiencies indicates
a need. The most serious disadvantages of this method are - the low level of nutrition control - the potential
for crop failure caused by excessive salts resulting from rapid breakdown of the delayed-release fertilizer at
high to medium temperatures. A more popular approach to nutrition is to apply some of the fertilizer when
the peat is mixed (Table 17P) and to add soluble fertilizers at regular intervals through the irrigation system
(Table 18P). The crop's vigor, and the balance between vegetative growth and fruit development, can be
adjusted to some extent by the composition of the feed. For example, high-potash (1-0-3.5) feed is normally
used to control growth for a short time after planting, when light conditions are poor. Conversely, high-
nitrogen (1-0-1) feed is used to maintain adequate vigor throughout much of the summer, when light and
productivity are high. A major difference between the feeding requirements of peat- and soil-grown crops
is the need for a regular supply of phosphate; this nutrient readily leaches from peat and has to be replaced
to maintain adequate levels. Alternating a phosphate-containing feed (e.g., 1-0.5-2) with a standard feed,
such as 1-0-2, supplies phosphate throughout the season. Phosphorus can also be supplied continuously in
the form of a special phosphate-containing feed, but this system necessitates supplying calcium or
magnesium in separate feeds. Always remember that concentrated solutions containing calcium that come
in contact with phosphate- containing solutions can result in insoluble calcium phosphate, which blocks the
irrigation system. Likewise, magnesium sulfate should not be mixed in high concentrations with phosphate-
containing feeds. Minor elements are generally provided in peat substrates as glass-fritted mixes that
release their nutrients slowly over a cropping season. Correct trace- element deficiencies by applying
chelated trace element mixes. Apply chelates either continuously in the liquid feed or as a foliar spray for
corrective action. The rate used depends on the product. It is usually best to follow the manufacturer's
recommendations. In general, the feeding guidelines already given in this publication should suffice for
crops grown in peat substrate throughout the season. However, if nutrient levels in the substrate become too
high or too low, reduce or increase the strength of the liquid feed to compensate accordingly. Ideally, use a
multifertilizer injection system for supplying optimum water and nutrient to the substrate in accordance
with the needs of the crop (e.g., HFM#174, see Plate II). If an initial peat-substrate analysis shows nutrient
levels outside the acceptable ranges, the medium may still be suitable for vegetable growing, provided that
you modify the feeding program to bring the nutrient status back within acceptable limits. After attaining
an optimum analytical range for the peat substrate, devise a feeding program that maintains optimum
nutrient levels in the substrate. In general, apply the medium potash with phosphate feed (i.e., 175-85-350-
0-30), alternatively with the medium potash with magnesium (i.e., 175-0-350-0-30) and with the medium
potash with calcium (i.e., 175-0-350-70-0). This mixture will provide an average feed of 175 ppm N, 42
ppm P, and 350 ppm K, along with 35 ppm Ca and 15 ppm Mg.

Table 16

Ingredients for a complete soilless mix based on peat and vermiculite

(for trough culture)
---------------------------------------------------------------------

50
Medium Amount
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Peat 0.5 m#179 (2 bales of 0.17 m#179)*
Horticultural vermiculite 0.5 m#179 (4.5 bags of 0.11 m#179)
Ground limestone (dolomitic) 7.5 kg
Gypsum (calcium sulfate) 3.0 kg
Calcium nitrate 0.9 kg
Superphosphate 20% 1.5 kg
Epsom salts (magnesium sulfate) 0.3 kg
Osmocote#174 18-6-12 (9 months) 5-6 kg
Fritted trace elements (FTE 503) 225 g
Chelated iron (NaFe 138 or 330) 30 g
---------------------------------------------------------------------
* Expansion of compressed bales is estimated to be 50% above original
volume.

Fig. 14

Fig. 14 Trough culture of cucumbers.

Table 17

Ingredients for a base mixture of peat and vermiculite (1 m#179) (for

trough culture and peat bags)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Medium Amount
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Peat 0.5 m#179 (2 bales 0.17 m#179)*
Horticultural vermiculite 0.5 m#179 (4.5 bags of 0.11 m#179)
Limestone (pulverized FF) 5.9 kg
Superphosphate 20% 1.2 kg
Potassium nitrate 0.9 kg
Magnesium sulfate 0.3 kg
Chelated iron 10% 35 g
Fritted trace elements (FTE 503 or FTE 302) 110 g
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* Expansion of compressed bales is estimated to be 50% above original

51
volume.

Table 18

Fertilizer feedings for cucumbers grown in peat troughs (and peat bags)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Type of Ratio Amount N:P:K:Ca:Mg
feed (N:P:K) Fertilizer in stock (kg/1000 L) (ppm)
solution
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
High potash 1:0:3.5 potassium nitrate 110 145:0:500:0:0
potassium sulfate 20

Medium potash potassium nitrate 90

with magnesium 1:0:2 ammonium nitrate 20 175:0:350:0:30
magnesium sulfate 30

Medium potash potassium nitrate 90

with phosphate 1:0.5:2 monoammonium phosphate 30 175:85:350:0:0
ammonium nitrate 7

Medium potash 1:0:2 potassium nitrate 90 175:0:350:70:0

with calcium calcium nitrate 40

High nitrogen 1:0:1 potassium nitrate 65

with magnesium ammonium nitrate 50 250:0:250:0:30
magnesium sulfate 30

High nitrogen 1:0.5:1 potassium nitrate 65

with phosphate monoammonium phosphate 45 250:125:250:0:0
ammonium nitrate 33

High nitrogen 1:0:1

potassium nitrate 65
with calcium calcium nitrate 45 250:0:250:85:0
ammonium nitrate 28
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: Stock solutions have been formulated assuming that a fertilizer
injector with a feeding ratio of 1:100 (one part stock per 100 parts of
water) is used to incorporate one stock solution at a time into the
irrigation water. Alternatively, dissolve the recommended fertilizers
in each feed in 100 000 L of water for direct application to the crop.

Peat bags
Plastic bags filled with a peat-based medium are now generally available. Each peat bag, which measures
35 cm x 105 cm when flat and contains 42L of fertilized peat (or a mixture of peat with vermiculite, perlite,
or polystyrene). Each can support up to two cucumber plants as long as regular watering and fertilizing
through a drip irrigation system are provided. Cover the greenhouse floor with polyethylene film and lay
the bags on it. Some growers use a double-layered polyethylene material as a floor covering - a black
bottom layer to prevent weed growth and a white top layer to reflect sunlight into the crop canopy. Make
two or three 4-cm slits in the sides of the bags to provide drainage for the wet medium. The planting depth
in the peat substrate is an important factor that affects later growth. The shallower the depth of peat, the
more critical the planting depth becomes; a permanent reservoir of water makes part of the peat bag
unavailable for active root growth. This water reservoir develops below the level of the drainage holes. A
minimum substrate depth of about 10 cm, a planting depth of 2.5 cm, 5 cm of drained peat beneath the pot,
and a water reservoir of 2.5 cm below the drainage level are recommended. Research and practical

52
experience have shown that the upright bags are preferable because they provide a greater depth of useful
substrate, which translates into stronger root systems, less water stress, and higher productivity than the lay
flat (bolster type) peat bags. Upright bags can conveniently be made by cutting, and sealing one side of,
appropriate lengths from a 45-cm- wide (when flat) black (or coextruded black and white) polyethylene
tube. Two aspects of the general culture in peat bags differ from those of soil: watering and feeding.
Watering crops grown in peat is easy, provided you - follow some basic rules - examine the moisture
content of the peat substrate frequently, and - take appropriate action when necessary.

Watering (peat)
Crops in peat may be easier to water than crops grown in soil because the moisture content of the latter is
more difficult to assess; also the drainage characteristics of the soil and subsoil make decisions on watering
less certain. Because peat bags contain only a small volume of growth medium, they offer a much lower
water-holding capacity than most soils. Failure to apply water when needed can therefore have a more rapid
detrimental effect on the crop than with soil-grown crops. The following recommendations apply to
watering crops grown in peat bags: - Use a drained peat bag with a water reservoir beneath. - Provide
additional irrigation outlets to areas that need extra water. - Maintain an efficiently operating irrigation
system by preventing or clearing blockages as soon as they occur. - Check the moisture level of the
substrate frequently and modify the watering regime if necessary. - Vary the frequency of watering rather
than the quantity applied each time, so that the substrate aerates between waterings and the moisture
content remains uniform from one bag to another. A faulty watering program leads to waterlogging,
excessive drying back, and excessive variation of moisture from bag to bag. Waterlogging is easy to detect,
as it results in slow growth and thin plant heads. When this problem persists, the plants develop yellow
heads characteristic of iron deficiency. Waterlogging problems usually develop when the watering regime
does not allow enough time for proper soil aeration between applications. An excess amount of water
applied on one occasion may not matter, as the surplus drains to waste, but a second application made
before the substrate has dried to its normal minimum water content reduces root action and starts the cycle
of waterlogging. Regular and frequent checks to control water frequency help to avoid this problem. Once
waterlogging has occurred and the plants show symptoms, correcting the problem is a slow process; hold
back the water to the substrate until it has dried to its normal minimum level, however long this takes.
Invariably, crop yield declines while the problem is corrected. The problem of excessive dryness is equally
serious but just as easy to avoid, provided the irrigation system works effectively and you allocate
sufficient time to manage the watering program. If the medium often dries to below the normal minimum
water level, when water can no longer be squeezed out by hand, plant growth will be impaired, especially if
the salt content of the medium is high. Media that are frequently allowed to dry too much also cause a
general stunting of growth and considerable yield loss. The remedy is easy - apply more water by
increasing the frequency of irrigation. Initial recovery may take several days; nothing can be gained by
applying large volumes of water at every single irrigation, as most of it will run off to waste. The third
potential problem comes from excessive variation in water content within the crop. The application of
water can never be accurate enough to cover all variation within a crop, and extreme imbalances can
develop. In addition, fast-growing plants can produce their own localized water-deficiency problems, and
weak, diseased, or removed plants can precipitate local waterlogging. Where the problem is not extensive,
rebalance a crop by occasional hose watering to top up dry areas and by temporarily removing one or more
irrigation outlets from areas of waterlogging. Occasionally inducing waterlogging can prevent or correct
large-scale water imbalance, but use the technique only on an actively growing crop with a strong root
system. This practice is also valuable for leaching out excess salts from the substrate. As a general rule for
irrigation, apply water until the driest area of the crop has recovered its full water requirement at each
application. In this way, you can prevent water from building up, and areas of substrate with a lower water
requirement drain off any surplus without danger. Anyone considering peat substrate culture of greenhouse
cucumbers for the first time should be aware that watering requires considerable managerial effort and a
dependable irrigation system. You might decide that the risk of mistakes does not justify the change from
soil to peat substrates. However, the fact that water management errors in substrate culture quickly manifest
themselves into visible symptoms makes peat substrate and other soilless culture systems attractive. In soil
culture, incorrect watering usually becomes evident only after the crop has changed its growth habit
significantly. Consequently, although soil has a greater water-holding and buffering capacity, greater crop
losses can still be incurred without the grower's awareness of any mistakes having been made. A competent
grower using substrate culture can see potential errors in irrigation when they first appear in the peat

53
mixture and correct them before they have any effect on the plants. The recent development of
computerized irrigation controllers equipped with properly adapted soil water tensiometers has made the
scheduling of irrigation of crops grown in peat bags much simpler. Significant water and nutrient savings
haveresulted while minimizing excessive nutrient leaching into the environment.

Feeding
Nutrition is the other major area in which peat-grown cucumbers differ significantly from cucumbers
grown in soil. Peat substrates have a much lower buffering capacity than most soils in relation to both
major and minor elements. The grower therefore needs to monitor continually the nutrient availability in
the substrate and to adjust accordingly the composition of the feed applied to it. This work requires a rapid
and reliable analytical service, and a dependable and accurate technique for frequent application of
fertilizers. The results of peat substrate analysis enable you to take corrective action for an optimum root
environment before adverse symptoms appear in the crop. To depend on crop symptoms alone for
determining a necessary change in the feeding program greatly increases the risk of yield loss. As important
as the analytical service is the ability of the grower to interpret the results and take any corrective action
needed. Although the initial nutrient levels in peat substrates vary according to the supplier, the source, and
type of peat used, regard the ranges in Table 19P as normal and use them only as a guide. The results of
peat analysis vary according to sampling and analysis procedures. The comparability of any peat-sample
analytical results with the guidelines in Table 19P therefore depends on the following conditions: - Take a
peat sample from the full depth of substrate in the bag. - Locate the sampling point near a growing plant
and let it extend through the rooting zone. - Take several samples throughout the greenhouse area to be
tested and mix them together to supply at least 0.5 L of substrate for analysis. - Do not take samples
immediately after watering or from areas that are clearly wetter or drier than the average for the house. -
Bring peat substrate samples taken as described above to a uniform water content either by adding distilled
water to them or by allowing them to dry out as needed before proceeding with analysis; on squeezing
moderately a handful of peat, the release of a small amount of water indicates a desirable water content. -
Perform all analytical tests on an aqueous suspension of the peat substrate sample, at a peat-to-distilled-
water ratio of 1 : 1.5, by volume (Table 19P). The recommendations already given in Table 17P and Table
18P, for the composition of the peat mix and the liquid nutrient feeds, also apply to cucumber cropping in
peat bags.

Table 19

Desirable nutrient levels in the substrate of peat bags, based on a

substrate-to-water dilution of 1:1.5
----------------------------------------------------
Nutrient Concentration (ppm)
---------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (nitrate) 30-80
Phosphorus 20-50
Potassium 140-400
Calcium 140-200
Magnesium 25-35

Acidity (pH) 5.5-6.6

Electrical conductivity (#181S/cm) 1000-2500
---------------------------------------------------------

Recycling
Experimental and commercial evidence suggests that you can recycle the peat substrate without reducing
the crop yield. However, the following factors can influence the cropping potential of recycled peat
substrate: -

the level and uniformity of nutrients in the peat

54

- the salt level in the medium

- the pest and disease status of the substrate.
If you plan to reuse the bags, reduce the strength of the fertilizer feed by half, starting about 4 weeks before
the planned termination of the first crop; apply plain water during the last 1-2 weeks. This extended period
of gradual nutrient leaching reduces the nutrient levels in peat substrates. The degree to which the nutrient
levels fall varies depending on how easily they leach. For example, in a well-leached substrate the nitrate
level is very low, the phosphate and potassium levels are low, and the calcium and magnesium levels
remain high. To minimize the problems caused by a lack of uniformity in the nutrient content of reused
peat bags, sterilize the leached peat medium in bulk. After sterilization, analyze the peat medium and add
base fertilizers as needed before rebagging. The principles of steaming are similar for both soil and peat.
The objective is to destroy harmful organisms while preserving most of the beneficial organisms and
nutrients, without allowing salts to build up. Therefore, avoid excessive steaming. Raising the temperature
through the substrate to 82ºC for 20 min is all that is needed. As with soil, the peat should be neither too
wet nor too dry at steaming, otherwise the cost of the operation is unnecessarily high or its efficiency
unnecessarily low. Because of the small amount of peat substrate used in a greenhouse, compared with soil,
both the energy and labor expended in steaming peat are considerably less.

The Harrow peat-bag system

In the early 1980s, the Harrow Research Station developed a peat-bag system for producing greenhouse
cucumbers (Plate IV b). The recommendations for the peat-based growth medium and the corresponding
fertigation schedule and nutrient concentrations are presented in Table 20P, Table 21P, and Table 21aP,
respectively.

Table 20

Peat-bag growth medium recommended for cucumbers

------------------------------------------------------------------
Mixes Ingredients Quantities
------------------------------------------------------------------
A Peat (57% of total volume) 3.0 bales (0.17 m#179)
Vermiculite (25% of total volume) 3.0 bags (0.11 m#179, 7 kg)
Perlite (18% of total volume) 2.0 bags (0.11 m#179, 7 kg)
B Limestone (pulverized FF) 7.0 kg
Ground limestone (dolomitic) 5.0 kg
Ground superphosphate
(20% phosphorus) 1.5 kg
Potassium sulfate 1.0 kg
Fritted trace elements (FTE 302) 150.0 g

C 18-6-12 slow-release
(9-month) fertilizer 2.0 kg

D Potassium nitrate 0.6 kg

Magnesium sulfate 0.3 kg
Chelated iron
(iron EDTA, 13% iron) 35.0 g

E Wetting agent 0.1 L

------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: Mix ingredients of A and B separately; dissolve ingredients of D
and E in 20 L each of water; combine A, B, and C and wet with solutions
D and E, adding more water (if needed) as you mix. This mixture
provides enough medium for at least 32 peat bags measuring 0.35 m x
1.05 m, when flat.

55
Table 21

Fertigation schedule for cucumbers grown in Harrow peat bags.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Fertilizer in stock Fertilizer in stock
solution A* solution B* Irrigation
(kg/1000 L) (kg/1000 L)
------------------- --------------------------- --------------
Week Cal- Potas- Ammo- Mono- Magne- Magne- Volume EC
from cium sium nium potassium sium sium (L/plant (#181S/
plant- nit- nit- nit- phosphate sulfate nitrate /day) cm)
ing rate rate rate
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Spring crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 50 100 25 0.4 1300
2 50 35 30 25 0.6 1450
3 50 50 10 30 25 0.8 1750
4 50 50 15 30 25 1.0 1850
5 50 55 15 30 25 1.2 1900
6 50 60 15 30 25 1.4 1950
7 50 65 15 30 25 1.6 2000
8 50 70 15 30 25 1.6 2050
9 50 70 15 30 25 1.8 2050
10 50 70 15 30 25 2.0 2050
11 50 70 15 30 25 2.0 2050
12-17 50 60 15 30 35 2.0 1950
18-22 50 55 16 30 35 3.0 1900
23-end 50 50 15 30 35 2.6 1850
Fall crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 50 100 25 0.6 1300
2 50 35 30 25 0.8 1450
3 50 50 10 30 25 1.2 1750
4 50 50 15 30 25 1.6 1850
5-12 50 55 15 30 35 2.0 1900
13-end 50 55 15 30 35 1.4 1900
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* Caution: If you first mix fertilizers in thick stock solutions before
applying them to the crop, group them as indicated. Do not mix in the
same concentrated solution a fertilizer containing calcium and one
containing sulfate or phosphate, as such a mixture results in a
thick suspension that can plug watering equipment.
Notes:
Trace elements must also be added to all the above fertilizer feeds; a
typical trace element mix (e.g., Plant Product Chelated Micronutrient
mix) contains 7.0% Fe, 2.0% Mn, 0.4% Zn, 0.1% Cu, 1.3 B, and 0.06% Mo
and, when added to the stock solution at the rate of 2 kg/1000 L,
contributes to the final solution 1.4 ppm Fe, 0.4 ppm Mn, 0.08 ppm Zn,
0.02 ppm Cu, 0.26 ppm B, and 0.012 ppm Mo, with a 1:100 dilution ratio.
Dissolve the given amount of each fertilizer, including trace elements,
in 1000 L of water and add to the irrigation water in equal doses,
ideally with a multihead fertilizer injector. Start injecting at a very
low rate and increase the rate of injection progressively, and
uniformly on all heads, until the desired EC is achieved. Adjust the pH
of the fertigation solution to 5.5 by injecting a dilute solution of
phosphoric, nitric, or sulfuric acid. Alternatively, dissolve the

56
prescribed fertilizers, including the micronutrient mix, into 100 000 L
of water, adjust the pH, and apply directly to the crop.
The recommended strength of the stock solutions is within the
working range of a fertilizer injector with a 1:100 mixing ratio. If a
fertilizer injector with a 1:200 mixing ratio is used, double the
amount of each fertilizer. Similar adjustments can be made for
fertilizer injectors with other mixing ratios. If the solubility limit
of a fertilizer (e.g., potassium nitrate) is exceeded, more than one
stock solution of the same fertilizer can be prepared and the amount of
the fertilizer divided equally between the stocks.

Table 21a

Nutrient concentration in the final nutrient solution when one part of

each of stock solutions A and B, prepared as prescribed in Table 21P,
are mixed with 98 parts of water (i.e., 1:100 dilution ratio)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Nutrient concentration (ppm) Expected
------------------------------------------------------------------- EC*
Week N- N- #181S/
NO3 NH4 P K Ca Mg Fe Mn Zn Cu B Mo cm)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Spring crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 72 3 235 300 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1300
2 117 5 69 218 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1450
3 162 22 69 275 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1750
4 170 30 69 275 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1850
5 176 30 69 294 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1900
6 182 30 69 313 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1950
7 188 30 69 332 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 2000
8-11 194 30 69 351 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 2050
12-17 182 30 69 313 95 32 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1950
18-22 176 30 69 294 95 32 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1900
23-end170 30 69 275 95 32 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1850
Fall crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 72 3 235 300 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.04 0.26 0.012 1300
2 117 5 69 218 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.04 0.26 0.012 1450
3 162 22 69 275 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.04 0.26 0.012 1750
4 170 30 69 275 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.04 0.26 0.012 1850
5-end176 30 69 294 95 32 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.04 0.26 0.012 1900
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* The EC of the water has been assumed at 300 #181S/cm and is included.

Sawdust
In the 1950s and 1960s, the Saanichton and Agassiz research stations developed a method of cropping
greenhouse cucumbers in sawdust (Plate IV c). This method received general commercial acceptance in
British Columbia, and to some extent in Alberta, in the 1970s and 1980s, but it is now being replaced by
rock wool. Some advantages of sawdust culture are its low cost, light weight, and its wide availability.
Although rock wool also claims some of these qualities, sawdust could again receive renewed attention
because it is easier to dispose of than rock wool. The sawdust used as a growing medium in the past was
derived from Douglas-fir and western hemlock. Sawdust from western red cedar proved toxic, especially
when fresh, so avoid its use. Other organic or inorganic media can be mixed with sawdust to improve its

57
chemical and physical properties. However, the various substrate mixtures must be formulated and tested
on a small scale under well-controlled conditions. The uncontrolled distribution of a many organic media
mixtures with diverse chemical and physical characteristics confuses growers and detracts from the
profitable use of this valuable Canadian resource. Use only the horticultural-grade sawdust and ensure that
it is free from contaminants that are toxic to plants (e.g., antifungal chemicals used by the lumber industry).
If in doubt, have a sample of the sawdust analyzed and ensure that neither the EC nor any particular
element (e.g., manganese) are outside normal levels. Place the sawdust in troughs, beds, upright bags,
bolsters, or even large pots. Regardless of the container, use a minimum of 10 L of medium for each plant.
The practices followed in sawdust culture are similar to those described earlier for peat. Apply fertilizer in
two ways: either, supply all nutrients in solution at each irrigation (Table 22P and Table 22aP); or,
incorporate some of the fertilizer into the growth medium before planting and deliver the rest through the
irrigation system (Table 23P and Table 23aP). The fertilizer rates described in Table 22P are recommended
for cucumber production in unfertilized sawdust. Those described in Table 23P are recommended for
cucumber production in sawdust enriched with superphosphate (0-19-0) at 2.4 kg/m#179 and dolomitic
limestone at 4 kg/m#179. To ensure the long-term availability of calcium and magnesium, supply half the
limestone ground coarse and half ground fine. You can prepare the solutions described in Table 22aP and
Table 23aP in two ways. One is to dissolve the fertilizers at the prescribed rates in water and apply the
resulting nutrient solution directly to the crop. The other is to prepare concentrated stock solutions (e.g.,
100 times the prescribed rates) and incorporate these solutions into the irrigation water using a fertilizer
injector with a 1:100 mixing ratio. Table 24P outlines revised quantities both for making stock solutions for
dilution at a mixing ratio of 1:100 before application, and for preparing the final solution directly. Always
remember that calcium and sulfates cannot be mixed together at high concentrations without some
precipitation of calcium sulfate, and therefore at least two stock solutions must be prepared.

Table 22
Fertilizer application rates for cucumber production in unfertilized
sawdust
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen level in final solution
----------------------------------------
Stock* Fertilizer N at 126 ppm N at 168 ppm N at 210 ppm
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Amount of fertilizer in final solution
(g/1000 L)
----------------------------------------
A Potassium nitrate 160 500 550
Calcium nitrate 680 680 680
Ammonium nitrate --- --- 100
B Potassium sulfate 360 44 ---
Magnesium sulfate 500 500 500
Volume of stock added (mL/1000 L)
----------------------------------------
C Trace element stock** 220 220 220
Phosphoric acid (75%)*** 100 100 100
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
*#ri Caution: If you first mix fertilizers in thick stock solutions
before applying them to the crop, group them as indicated. Do not mix
in the same concentrated solution a fertilizer containing calcium and
one containing sulfate or phosphate, as such a mixture results in a
thick suspension that can plug watering equipment.
** The trace element stock solution is prepared by dissolving the
following elements in 1 L of warm water: 100 g iron chelate (7% Fe), 15
g manganese sulfate, 12 g boric acid, 2.2 g zinc sulfate, 0.6 g copper
sulfate, and 0.2 g molybdic acid. When this trace element stock
solution is added to the final nutrient solution at a rate of 220 mL/L,
the concentration of trace elements in the final nutrient solution is

58
as follows: 1.54 ppm Fe, 1.07 ppm Mn, 0.46 ppm B, 0.11 ppm Zn, 0.034
ppm Cu, and 0.023 ppm Mo.
*** Concentrated phosphoric acid (75%) can be carefully added directly
to the final nutrient solution without prior dilution.

Table 22a

Concentrations of nutrients provided by the final solution when

fertilizers are added at the rates prescribed in Table 22P
---------------------------------------------------------------
Nutrient level in final solution (ppm)
------------------------------------------
Nutrient N at 126 ppm N at 168 ppm N at 210 ppm
---------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (from N03) 119 162 189
Nitrogen (from NH4) 7 6 21
Phosphorus 47 47 47
Potassium 208 208 208
Calcium 129 129 129
Magnesium 50 50 50
Iron 1.54 1.54 1.54
Manganese 1.07 1.07 1.07
Boron 0.46 0.46 0.46
Zinc 0.11 0.11 0.11
Copper 0.034 0.034 0.034
Molybdenum 0.023 0.023 0.023
---------------------------------------------------------------

Table 23

Fertilizer application rates for cucumber production in fertilizer-

amended sawdust
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen level in final solution
------------------------------------------
Fertilizer N at 126 ppm N at 168 ppm N at 210 ppm
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Amount of fertilizer in final solution
(g/1000 L)
------------------------------------------
Potassium nitrate 550 550 550
Ammonium nitrate 160 280 410

Volume of stock added (mL/1000 L)

------------------------------------------
Trace element stock* 220 220 220
Phosphoric acid (75%)** 100 100 100
-------------------------------------------------------------------
* The trace element stock solution is prepared by dissolving the
following elements in 1 L of warm water: 100 g iron chelate (7% Fe), 15
g manganese sulfate, 12 g boric acid, 2.2 g zinc sulfate, 0.6 g copper
sulfate, and 0.2 g molybdic acid. When this trace element stock
solution is added to the final nutrient solution at a rate of 220 mL L
1, the concentration of trace elements in the final nutrient solution
is as follows: 1.54 ppm Fe, 1.07 ppm Mn, 0.46 ppm B, 0.11 ppm Zn, 0.034

59
ppm Cu, and 0.023 ppm Mo.
** Concentrated phosphoric acid (75%) can be carefully added directly
to the final nutrient solution without prior dilution.

Table 23a

Concentrations of nutrients provided by the final solution when

fertilizers are added at the rates prescribed in Table 23P
---------------------------------------------------------------
Nutrient level in final solution (ppm)
-------------------------------------------
Nutrient N at 126 ppm N at 168 ppm N at 210 ppm
---------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (from N03) 98 121 140
Nitrogen (from NH4) 27 47 70
Phosphorus 47 47 47
Potassium 209 209 209
Calcium 0 0 0
Magnesium 0 0 0
Iron 1.54 1.54 1.54
Manganese 1.07 1.07 1.07
Boron 0.46 0.46 0.46
Zinc 0.11 0.11 0.11
Copper 0.034 0.034 0.034
Cobalt 0.023 0.023 0.023
---------------------------------------------------------------

Table 24

Fertilizer application rates for cucumber cropping in sawdust

(according to the revised recommendations of the B.C. Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Fertilizer in stock
sol. (for 1:100 Fertilizer in final
dilution) solution
Stock Fertilizer (kg/1000 L) (g/1000 L)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
A Potassium nitrate 50.0 500.0
Calcium nitrate 75.0 750.0
Iron chelate (7% Fe) 1.4 14.0

B Monopotassium phosphate 20.0 200.0

Potassium sulfate 9.6 96.0
Magnesium sulfate 25.0 250.0
Manganese sulfate (28% Mn) 0.107 1.07
Boric acid (20.5% B) 0.243 2.43
Zinc sulfate (36% Zu) 0.027 0.276
Copper sulfate (25% Cu) 0.012 0.120
Molybdenum (54% Mo) 0.009 0.092
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: When the fertilizers are added at the prescribed rates, the final
solution will deliver nutrients at the following concentrations: 168
ppm N (N03), 7 ppm N (NH4), 46 ppm P, 286 ppm K, 142 ppm Ca, 25 ppm Mg,
1.0 ppm Fe, 0.3 ppm Mn, 0.5 ppm B, 0.1 ppm Zn, 0.03 ppm Cu, and 0.05
ppm Mo.

60
 Straw bales
The use of straw bales was popular a few decades ago in several countries, especially the United Kingdom,
as a soilless medium for cucumber production where soilborne diseases seriously limited productivity. The
universal availability and low cost of straw made it an attractive alternative to soil for several years, but as
new and better substrates became available it gradually lost its appeal. Today straw is used only by growers
using a low- input cropping system in old greenhouses. A brief description is given here both for historical
reasons and for the benefit of growers who may not have access to modern greenhouse technology. For
long-term crops, use bales of wheat straw (each bale contains about 20 kg of straw packed heavily in the
form of a brick and held together by polypropylene string). For short-term crops, use barley or oat straw,
which breaks down faster. The straw must be completely free of all traces of herbicide residue (especially
the plant hormone type), which can distort growth or totally destroy the crop. Place the bales end-to-end, in
rows, in either shallow trenches (5-10 cm) or on leveled ground, which has been first covered with white
polyethylene film; row spacing depends on the training system to be followed. Condition the straw bales
for 2-3 weeks before planting the crop. Conditioning entails: -

adding water to initiate fermentation of the straw

- fueling the fermentation with nitrogenous fertilizers

- leaching any excessive salts released by the fermentation process

- dressing the straw substrate with base fertilizers.

The day-by-day procedure for preparing the straw bales for planting follows:

Day 1: move straw bales into the greenhouse, raise greenhouse temperature to a minimum of 12-
13ºC to promote fermentation.

Days 2-5: apply water daily, in frequent small applications to thoroughly wet the straw; dry straw
is difficult to wet.

Days 4-5: apply (spread over) 120-150 g of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on each straw balee.

Days 6-8: apply more water daily in frequent small applications to prevent nitrogen leaching.

Day 9: apply more nitrogen (ammonium nitrate at 70-80 g per bale); by now the temperature of
the straw, internally, may have reached 50-60ºC.

Days 10-12: apply more water.

Day 13: test total salts in straw bale and leach, if necessary.

Day 14: apply base fertilizers at the rate (per bale) of 70-80 g ammonium nitrate, 200 g of triple
superphosphate, 100 g of magnesium sulfate, and 400 g of potassium nitrate.

Days 14-15: apply water to wet-in the base fertilizers.

Days 16-17: prepare soil or soilless mix and apply as a top cap (5-10 cm of growth medium
applied over the bales to facilitate planting and to assist in establishing a good conduct between
the root system of the transplants and straw substrate).

Days 18-20: plant crop, provided the temperature of the straw has subsided to below 35ºC.

As plants grow, twist them loosely around the crop support strings, which must be left slack to prevent the
roots from pulling out of place when later in the season the straw decomposes further and settles. After
planting the crop, limit fertilizer application to nitrogen feeding, as was done originally by the pioneers of
this production system. Table 25P outlines a simple schedule, and Table 25aP provides an analysis of the
nutrient concentration achieved using this method. The original straw-bale culture system as described
above was later improved by substituting the use of solid fertilizers with continuous liquid fertilizer
feeding. In this method, about 10-14 days are still needed for completely wetting the straw bales with a
nutrient solution of low EC (1600 #181S/cm) having a 2-1-2 analysis; the initial break-down (fermentation)
of the straw is minimized. After planting, continue liquid feeding for 2-5 weeks at a lower EC of 800
#181S/cm; then raise the EC again to 1600 #181S/cm. The main reasons for the recent decline in the use of
straw bales as a substrate for cucumber production are - the time needed to prepare the straw bales and
consequently the loss in time between crops - the difficulties in controlling the speed and timing of the
fermentation and, therefore, nutrient use or release by the straw - the bulkiness of the medium resulting in
loss of usable space for the vertical training of the plants - the high labor rquirement in handling the bales -

61
the availability of more convenient and inert media, conducive to much more accurate nutritional control.
Straw-bale culture offers many advantages and, if some of the disadvantages were minimized, this substrate
could become popular again. Some attractive features of the straw-bale culture system are - straw is an
inexpensive natural organic product, widely available, easily recyclable, and nonpolluting - the gradual
fermentation of straw, when controlled successfully, provides heat that helps maintain warm roots and
contributes to the overall energy needs of the greenhouse - the fermentation of straw provides carbon
dioxide which helps raise the C02 concentration in the greenhouse with beneficial effects on productivity -
straw provides excellent aeration for root growth and ample space for root development. Further research
could develop better methods for controlled straw fermentation using our vastly improved greenhouse
environment and fertigation controls. Developing better ways for continuously applying complete nutrient
solutions could remove the need for the 2-3 week waiting period before planting the crop. Quicker
turnaround would eliminate one of the most serious obstacles to the profitable use of straw bales in
cucumber production.

Table 25

Fertilizer application schedule for cucumbers grown in straw bales

------------------------------------------------------------------
Fertilizer*
-------------------------------
Ammonium Potassium Magnesium
Weeks nitrate nitrate sulfate
------------------------------------------
1-3 17
4-6 40
7-end 27 7 7
------------------------------------------------------------------
* Fertilizer in stock solution at kg/1000 L, to be applied with a
fertilizer injector with 1:100 ratio.

next topic: Cropping in rock wool and other inert media

Table 25a

Nutrient concentration in the final nutrient solution when fertilizers

are applied as prescribed in Table 25P
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Nutrient concentration in final solution (ppm)
----------------------------------------------
Weeks N-NO3 N-NH4 K Mg
--------------------------------------------------------
1-3 28 28
4-6 78 78
7-end 55 46 27 7
----------------------------------------------------------------------

Cropping in rock wool and other inert media

Rock wool consists of a fibrous material produced from a granitelike rock known as diabase, or basalt.
During manufacture the minerals are melted at about 1600 ºC and transformed into fibers bonded together
with resins. Initially made for the building trade as an insulator, this spongy material has recently become
available in cubes or slabs; an added wetting agent makes it water-absorbent for horticultural use (Plate IV
d). Other inert products that have been used as growing media, singly or combined, include perlite,
vermiculite, polyurethane (Oasis#174), expanded clay pellets, and polystyrene beads. All these inert
materials are made in the same way as rock wool and share physical and chemical characteristics. All are
sterile (free of pathogens and weed seeds). They offer a low cation-exchange capacity and a high water-
holding capacity. They permit adequate root aeration and a high degree of control over watering and

62
feeding. Furthermore, because of their light weight and ease of handling, the interval between crops can be
shorter than usual. Finally, they allow energy savings for two reasons: first they eliminate soil steaming;
second their use makes root heating practical. The latter allows for more precise control of air temperature
on the basis of minimum temperature requirements of the shoots rather than the roots. Vermiculite cannot
be considered entirely inert because it contains some potassium and magnesium, which gradually become
available to plants as it breaks down. Other not entirely inert media that have been used commercially as
growth substrates include various grades of sand and gravel. Rock wool is by far the most important inert
medium. It is used commercially around the world, and a wealth of information on its use is available from
experienced growers and plant scientists. However, with proper management, all the media mentioned have
similar yield potential. Because most of the technology used in producing greenhouse cucumbers in inert
media is similar, the detailed procedure described for rock wool also applies to managing the other media.
References are made to other media where necessary. The general guidelines on "Watering (peat)"
discussed under "Peat bags" apply also to other soilless media used in small quantities and must always be
kept in mind. Rock wool Perlite Vermiculite Oasis and other synthetics Expanded clay Sand and gravel

Rock wool
Horticultural-grade rock wool is manufactured in several countries (United Kingdom, Denmark, Holland,
Germany, France, United States, and recently, Canada) under various trademarks (e.g., Basalan, Capogro,
Grodan, Pargro). Although the chemical composition of rock wool varies with the manufacturer, the
ingredients making up the fibers are unavailable to the plants, so all nutrients must be added regularly to the
crop in solution. Rock wool is available in the form of slabs, blocks, or granules. The rectangular slabs vary
in length and width but are usually 7.5 cm deep for raising long-season crops such as tomatoes, cucumbers,
peppers, and eggplant, among others. Typical dimensions are 100 x 15 x 7.5 cm, 90 x 15 x 7.5 cm, 100 x 20
x 7.5 cm, 90 x 20 x 7.5 cm, and 90 x 30 x 7.5 cm. The blocks also come in various sizes and are used for
seed germination and transplant raising. The granular form is added to soil or used in a soilless mix; it can
also be used in bags as a partial or complete substitute for peat. The new rock wool has a pH of about 7.0-
8.5, which must be corrected to about 5.5 with a slightly acid fertilizer solution before use. The exact
concentration of acid required can be determined by trial and error tests on a small scale, or the necessary
information can be obtained from the manufacturer. The lack of a significant cation exchange capacity in
inert media makes adjusting their pH simple and inexpensive, because small amounts of chemicals are
required. Before the crop is started, water the growth medium thoroughly to allow for pH adjustment, to fill
the capillary tubes, and to ensure that the irrigation water added later will spread uniformly in the growth
medium. For example, each litre of rock wool needs about 0.8 L of water added to fully saturate it. Its high
water-holding capacity (80%) combines with adequate aeration (17%), even when fully wet. A crop both
propagated and grown in the same type of medium ensures that the capillary connections between the
transplant pot and cropping media establish quickly at transplanting. Also no excessive drying out or water
saturation occurs around the stems. Rock-wool blocks are available in many sizes; for cucumber
propagation the most commonly used size is the 10-cm cube, individually wrapped in polyethylene to
prevent excessive drying out. Raise seedlings in vermiculite or perlite and then prick them out into rock-
wool blocks with a cavity at the top. Alternatively, raise seedlings by placing individual seeds into tiny
rock-wool blocks (plugs), specially made to fit into the cavity of the transplant blocks, and cover them with
fine vermiculite. Before using the rock-wool blocks, place them on polyethylene and wet them with an
acidic nutrient solution, or better dip them into acidic nutrient solution, to adjust their pH. After pricking
out the seedlings, apply nutrient solution at each watering. Use some form of bottom heat to raise the
substrate temperature to 22-24ºC, which is beneficial and always holds some promise for energy savings
(see "Seedling transfer (transplanting)" under "General cultural practices"). When transplants are ready,
stand the plants on the rock-wool slabs through precut holes on the plastic liner, and ensure good contact
between the propagation blocks and the slabs. Place one or more drippers of the irrigation system on each
propagation block (Fig. 15). It may also be advisable to stand the transplants on the rock-wool slabs for
several days before cutting holes in the plastic liner. This procedure limits root growth to within the
transplant block and slows growth by holding back water at the early stage of the spring crop, while light is
limited. After the plants have established a good root system in the slabs, make slits for drainage on the
sides of the plastic wrapping near the bottom of the slabs. The distance of the slits from the bottom of the
rock-wool slabs determines the volume of nutrient solution on reserve and plays a major role in
establishing the specifications of the irrigation system and the irrigation regime: the lower the slits, the
smaller the size of the nutrient solution reservoir in each slab and the more frequent the irrigation needed.

63
However, the lower the location of the slits, the less the volume of saturated rock wool and therefore the
greater the efficiency in using the rock wool as a rooting substrate, which theoretically should result in
higher productivity. Growers inexperienced in using rock wool with drip irrigation systems of modest
performance should start by cutting drainage holes some distance (1-3 cm) up from the bottom of the slabs.
As these growers gain experience, they could progressively extend the slits downward to maximize the use
of the available rock wool. The general guidelines on "Watering (peat)" discussed under "Peat bags" are
also applicable to rock wool and must always be kept in mind (Fig. 16 and Fig. 17). Make the rows of rock-
wool slabs as level as possible and stand them on boards of polystyrene, which help level off small
imperfections in the soil surface. These boards form part of a substrate heating system, which circulates
warm water through polyethylene tubing set into grooves carved in the polystyrene. The polystyrene
insulates the warm rock- wool slabs from the cold soil underneath. The nutrient composition of the
fertilizer solution used in rock-wool culture depends on the chemical composition of the existing irrigation
water, the stage of plant growth, and the season. Once the original water has been analyzed, calculate
fertilizer and acid application rates based on the most desirable nutrient formula as determined by research
and experience (Table 26P and Table 26aP). Always consider the quality of the irrigation water when
establishing a feeding program; it is more important in rock-wool culture than in soil. For example, if the
water contains a large amount of calcium or magnesium, reduce the rates of calcium nitrate and magnesium
sulfate accordingly, and make up the nitrogen lost in these adjustments by increasing the amount of another
nitrogen- containing fertilizer. Other nutrients, such as potassium and nitrogen, rarely occur in significant
quantities in the water to require adjusting the nutrient formula. Sometimes the water supply contains a
large amount of certain trace elements such as iron, zinc, and manganese. If so, the fertilizer feed needs
some correction. Avoid saline water that contains more than 50 ppm sodium or 70 ppm chloride; when the
concentration of these two ions reaches 100 and 140 ppm, respectively, the water cannot be used easily in
rock-wool culture. When using rainwater, raise the usually low level of bicarbonate by adding potassium
bicarbonate to the final solution, not to the stock solutions, to increase the buffering capacity of the solution
for a more stable pH in the rock-wool slabs. On the other hand, when the bicarbonate in the water supply
exceeds 60 ppm, add phosphoric or nitric acid (or both) to neutralize it. For a proper solution to these
special problems, seek a second opinion, preferably that of a horticultural adviser or of an experienced
grower. Although rock-wool systems function well with either recirculating or nonrecirculating nutrient
solutions, the use of the latter system is simpler and more reliable. However, even a nonrecirculating, open-
ended system needs checking and repairing regularly. Check the pH and electrical conductivity (EC) of the
solution daily, given the inert nature of the substrate and the quick response of the crop to human error and
mechanical failure. A recirculated system (Fig. 18) results in less fertilizer run-off into the environment
and, in the future, its use might become mandatory. Make up at least two stock solutions from readily
available fertilizers, to avoid precipitation in the concentrate storage tank that results from the mixing of
calcium- or magnesium-containing fertilizers with those containing sulfates or phosphates. Dilute the stock
solutions and combine them in a mixing tank before applying them to the crop, thus providing a complete
nutrient solution at every watering. Monitor the total concentration of nutrients in the irrigation water
continually by a salt sensor (electrical conductivity cell) and, if necessary, adjust the mixing ratio of the
fertilizer diluter to achieve an optimum feeding strength for the crop; automatic adjustment is technically
available. Similarly, monitor, with a pH meter, the pH of the irrigation water after adding all fertilizers and
any acid. Adjust the rate of acid application to achieve a desirable pH for the nutrient solution; automatic
adjustment is technically available. Choose from many alternative feed recipes, depending on the cultivar
grown, the water source, the stage of crop growth, and the season. The fertigation recommendations in
Table 26P and Table 26aP rely on using rainwater. Treat them only as a starting point in the search for
finding the optimum for a given operation. Check daily the pH and salt concentration (EC) of the slab
solution, and run an analysis every 2 weeks for all essential nutrients. Correct serious nutrient imbalances
by making appropriate changes to the nutrient formula, but the changes should deviate as little as possible
from the normal solution. Have an experienced person double-check the contemplated changes to the
nutrient feed before implementation; then implement them only until the imbalance is corrected. Changes
in the nutrient formula based on crop growth and appearance are also possible, but allow only persons with
experience in rock-wool culture to make such changes. To reduce costs, use rock-wool slabs for more than
one season, provided they get effectively steam-sterilized in between crops. Thoroughly flush out
accumulated salts with plain water for 1-2 h before sterilization. Methyl bromide, if available, can also
function to sterilize rock wool between crops, but steaming is more effective over a greater variety of
pathogens and is preferred when available. Recommended fumigants, their use, and rates of application are

64
subject to government regulations, which can vary from province to province. Licensing is required before
certain fumigants (e.g., methyl bromide) can be used. Pay strict attention to regulations governing fumigant
use and take precautions during application. After sterilizing the slabs, rewrap them with polyethylene film
so that they are ready again for use. Reused slabs require no further pH adjustment and are easier to rewet
than new ones. Rock-wool slabs can be reused only a limited number of times, usually once. Some
breakdown in their fiber structure occurs with handling and sterilization, and as a result the air pore space
in the slabs decreases with every reuse. An interesting alternative to the reuse of rock-wool slabs for
reducing production cost is the recently introduced low-density, low-cost rock-wool slab that is used for a
single cropping season. The ideal micronutrient concentrations in the final solution are 0.6-1.2 ppm Fe, 0.3-
0.6 ppm Mn, 0.2-0.7 ppm Zn, 0.4-0.7 ppm B, 0.02-0.07 ppm Cu, and 0.01-0.02 ppm Mo. Fig. 15

Fig. 15 Typical layout of plants for rock-wool culture. Option 1: Plants are trained to the canopy system
giving each plant about 50 cm x 160 cm = 0.8 m#178. Option 2: Plants are trained to the vertical cordon
system giving each plant about 60 cm x 130 cm = 0.78 m#178. Fig. 16

Fig. 16 Methods of irrigation control in rock-wool culture. Fig. 17

65
Fig. 17 Typical set up for monitoring amounts of water delivered, and leached out, per plant, in rock-wool
culture.
Fig. 18

Fig. 18 Methods of nutrient solution recycling in rock-wool culture.

Table 26

Fertigation schedule for cucumber production in rock wool

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Stock A* Stock B* Recommended
(kg/1000 L) (kg/1000 L) irrigation**
------------------ --------------------------- --------------
Mono-
Cal- Potas- Ammo- potas- Potas- Magne- Magne-
Appli- cium sium nium sium sium sium sium Volume EC
cation ni- ni- ni- phos- sul- sul- ni- (L/plant (#181S/
time trate trate trate phate fate fate trate /day) cm)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Spring crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Saturation
of slabs 110 32 0 17 15 33 0 5 2200
Week 1 80 46 0 13 4 25 0 0.6 1800
2 90 50 0 14 5 27 0 0.8 2000

66
3-4 100 50 0 16 12 33 0 1.0-2.0 2200
5-6 100 78 0 20 0 37 0 2.0-3.0 2400
7-9 95 78 3 19 0 35 0 3.0-4.0 2400
10-12 83 73 6 16 0 30 0 3.0-4.0 2200
13-19 74 66 6 14 0 14 14 3.0-4.0 2000
20-end 66 60 4 10 0 0 27 3.0-5.0 1800
Fall crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Saturation
of slabs 110 32 0 17 15 33 0 5 2200
Week 1 80 46 0 13 4 25 0 0.8 1800
2 90 50 0 14 5 27 0 1.2 2000
3 100 50 0 16 12 33 0 1.0-2.0 2200
4-8 95 78 3 19 0 35 0 2.0-3.0 2400
9-end 83 73 6 16 0 30 0 1.0-2.0 2200
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
*#ri Caution: If fertilizers are first mixed in thick stock solutions
before they are applied to the crop, group them as indicated. Do not
mix in the same concentrated solution a fertilizer containing calcium
and one containing sulfate or phosphate, as such a mixture results in a
thick suspension that can plug watering equipment.
** Actual volume of irrigation water will be guided by the EC in the
slab and volume of the excess solution being leached out; the EC of the
slab is targeted at no higher than 20% of the EC of the applied
solution, and, the volume leached at no more than 20-30% of the
solution applied.
#ri Notes:
Trace elements must also be added to all the above fertilizer feeds;
a typical trace element mix (e.g., Plant Product Chelated Micronutrient
mix) contains 7.0% Fe, 2.0% Mn, 0.4% Zn, 0.1% Cu, 1.3% B, and 0.06% Mo;
when added to the stock solution at the rate of 1 kg/1000 L it
contributes to the final solution 0.7 ppm Fe, 0.2 ppm Mn, 0.04 ppm Zn,
0.01 ppm Cu, 0.13 ppm B, and 0.006 ppm Mo, with a 1:100 dilution ratio.
Dissolve given amount of each fertilizer, including trace elements,
in 1000 L of water and add to the irrigation water in equal doses,
ideally with a multihead fertilizer injector. Start injecting very
slowly and increase the rate of injection progressively, and
uniformly on all heads, until the desired EC is achieved. Adjust the pH
of the fertigation solution to 5.5 by injecting a dilute solution of
phosphoric, nitric, or sulfuric acid.
Alternatively, dissolve the prescribed fertilizers, including the
micronutrient mix, into 100 000 L of water, adjust the pH, and apply
directly to the crop.
The recommended strength of the stock solutions is within the
working range of a fertilizer injector with a 1:100 mixing ratio. If a
fertilizer injector with a 1:200 mixing ratio is used, double the
amount of each fertilizer. Similar adjustments can be made for
fertilizer injectors with other mixing ratios. If the solubility limit
of a fertilizer (e.g., potassium nitrate) is exceeded, prepare more
than one stock solution of the same fertilizer and divide the amount of
the fertilizer equally between the stocks.

Table 26a

67
Nutrient concentration in the final nutrient solution when one part of
each of stock solutions A and B, prepared as described in Table 26P,
are mixed with 98 parts of water (i.e., 1:100 dilution ratio)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Application Nutrient (ppm) EC*
time ------------------------------------------------------------#181S/
cm)
N- N- P K Ca Mg Fe Mn Zn B Cu Mo
NO3 NH4
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Spring crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Saturation
of slabs 201 11 39 231 209 33 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2200
Week 1 176 8 29 228 152 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 1800
2 195 9 32 250 171 27 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2000
3-4 210 10 37 284 190 33 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2200
5-6 246 10 46 353 190 37 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2400
7-9 244 15 44 350 180 35 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2400
10-12 226 18 37 323 158 30 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2200
13-19 230 17 32 291 141 27 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2000
23-end 211 13 23 256 125 24 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 1800
Fall crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Saturation
of slabs 201 11 39 231 209 33 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2200
Week 1 176 8 29 228 152 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 1800
2 195 9 32 250 171 27 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2000
3 210 10 37 284 190 33 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2200
4-8 244 15 44 350 180 35 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2400
9-end 226 18 37 323 158 30 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2200
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* The EC of the water has been assumed at zero (i.e., rain water).
Note: The ideal micronutrient concentrations (ppm) in the final
solution are 0.6 1.2 Fe, 0.3 0.6 Mn, 0.2 0.7 Zn, 0.4 0.7 B, 0.02 0.07
Cu, and 0.01-0.02 Mo.

Perlite
Perlite is volcanic glass. When this rock is crushed and heated (to about 1000ºC), the small quantity of
water trapped in it vaporises and puffs out the granules (just like popcorn) to form white foamy beads. This
product was used initially in the construction industry for insulation and the preparation of light weight
building components. The grain size of horticultural-grade perlite ranges between 1 and 5 mm. Expanded
perlite is light, physically stable, and chemically inert; it holds large quantities of readily available water,
has a strong capillary attraction to water, and, because it drains easily, is also well aerated (Table 2P). The
material has a closed cellular structure, and therefore most of the water retained after drainage is held
superficially. Two primary sources of perlite are the island of Milos in Greece and the island of Sardinia in
Italy. Although perlite has been used extensively worldwide in soil and peat mixes for plant raising, its use
as a substrate for soilless production of cucumbers received particular attention in Scotland, Greece, and
other European countries. The cropping techniques and fertilizer application schedules have been described
in specialized publications. Crop growth and productivity, which have been reported as encouraging,
compete with those of the widely used rock wool. Containers of various shapes and sizes can be used for
holding the growth medium. Most commonly used are large pots, upright plastic bags, troughs (similar to
those used for peat, Fig. 14), and bolster bags of various sizes. Extensive studies, reports, and practical
experience exist on the bag- and gulley-reservoir methods pioneered in Scotland. The bag-reservoir method

68
is based on 30-L polyethylene growing bags (bolsters) filled with perlite and supporting three plants each.
Its key feature is that horizontal slits are cut at about 3-4 cm up from the base of the bag. In this open
system, any excess nutrient solution applied collects to a depth of 3-4 cm in the bottom of the perlite in
each bag. Aided by the high capillary action of perlite, this reservoir ensures an uninterrupted water supply
to the plants with just a few irrigations per day and without placing a high demand on the irrigation system
for uniform water delivery. European recommendations for the nutrient concentration of the main season
feed of cucumbers grown in perlite call for 190 ppm N, 42 ppm P, 260 ppm K, 145 ppm Ca, 35 ppm Mg, 2
ppm Fe, 0.75 ppm Mn, 0.5 ppm Zn, 0.4 ppm B, 0.1 ppm Cu, and 0.05 ppm Mo. The gulley-reservoir
system is a closed system better suited to nutrient recirculation. The distinguishing feature of this system is
the use of an extra sheet of plastic wrapped around the growing bags. This plastic maintains an even larger
reservoir of nutrient solution or even allows for subirrigation to be practiced when the greenhouse floor is
reasonably level. The same schedule used for applying fertilizer to cucumbers grown in rock wool is
believed applicable to cucumber production in perlite. However, interested growers should proceed
cautiously because there is little experience with this approach in Canada.

Vermiculite
Vermiculite, a hydrated magnesium aluminium silicate, appears in nature as platelike crystals. Large
deposits of this mineral occur in the United States, South Africa, and elsewhere. When heated
appropriately, the water trapped in it vaporizes and causes the mineral to exfoliate (puff-out). The
exfoliated vermiculite is a lightweight material of alkaline reaction, with high cation-exchange and water-
holding capacities. Because of these qualities, vermiculite has become a popular ingredient insoil and peat-
based mixes for plant production. Vermiculite is rarely used as growth substrate by itself. When price
permits, it can be used to fill troughs, bags, or pots for growing cucumbers. The general cultural technique
described for peat and the fertilizer application schedule recommended for rock-wool culture can serve as a
basis in developing an appropriate strategy for crop management. The main reasons for the limited use of
vermiculite as a substrate for cucumber production are its initial alkaline reaction and its tendency to
collapse over time. Structural collapse leads to reduced aeration and drainage.

Oasis and other synthetics

Synthetic organic materials, such as expanded polystyrene, urea- formaldehyde, and polyurethane foams,
are inert. With proper treatment, they form useful substrates for cucumber production. Some of these
materials are available as slabs (e.g., polyurethane foam) and have been used commercially in a manner
similar to rock wool. Other materials come in granular form (e.g., Oasis#174) and have been used in place
of the peat-mix in peat-bag culture. Oasis#174, a phenolic-based foam, has stable structure, high porosity
(97-98%), good aeration, high water-holding capacity, light weight, and acidic pH. It is available in block
form, for transplant raising, and in granular form, for filling bags; it is not readily available as a slab. The
plastic bags used to contain oasis have been narrower than the peat-bags (typically about 15 cm in
diameter) and their length has varied between 80 and 120 cm. With two or three plants grown in each bag,
the volume of substrate available to each plant has been on the low side (e.g., 7 L), but results have been
satisfactory even when the same material was used for several crops (i.e., with proper sterilization of the
medium in between crops). Because the pH of new Oasis#174 is on the acid side (well below 7), use an
alkaline solution, usually of potassium bicarbonate in water at 1 g/L, to soak the material for 24 h before
slitting the bags. Then cut horizontal drainage slits at about 2-3 cm from the base. Once the bags have
drained, planting, drip irrigation, fertigation, and all other cultural practices resemble those described for
peat bags and rock wool. No specific schedule for fertilizer application has been described, but the
recommendations for rock-wool-grown crops should also apply to this medium.

Expanded clay
Expanded clay pellets, like rock wool, were initially designed as insulating building material. They are
produced by baking clay at 1100ºC at which temperature it expands into porous granules. The granules
have been marketed at various sizes for different horticultural uses. Intact granules have a closed-cell
structure; their low water-holding capacity, fast drainage, and high aeration make them an attractive
medium for closed (recirculated) systems and for systems using subirrigation. Crushing the granules
exposes the porous material, and the water-holding capacity of the medium increases significantly.
Commercial systems use large, drained pots to contain the medium, and drip irrigation for fertigation (Plate

69
IV e); rapid percolation makes spray nozzles preferable to drippers. Some growers use plastic troughs to
collect excess nutrient solution, but the management of a cucumber crop with nutrient solution recycling
requires some skill. Following management practices and the fertilizer application schedule for rock-wool,
crop performance in clay pellets, used as an open system, has been very satisfactory. The stable structure of
the clay granules, especially when intact, ensures the long-term use of the medium over several seasons,
provided that you sterilize it effectively between crops.
Sand and gravel
Other nearly inert media such as sand and gravel have also been used as growing substrates for greenhouse
vegetables. Information on sand and gravel culture comes mostly from other countries; a few Canadian
growers have experimented with them. These media are heavy, difficult to handle, difficult to sterilize
between crops, and usually require extensive and permanent modifications to the greenhouse floor. Like
most other media, sand and gravel have an equally high yield potential when managed properly and can
prove the best choice under certain conditions.
Section 5
Nutrient film technique and other hydroponic systems
WARNING: The NFT system is not recommended for long-term cucumber crops because of
frequent, and unresolved, crop losses from widespread root death; consult your local horticultural
crop adviser before using NFT (Plate IV f).
Of all the soilless methods, water culture, by definition, is a true hydroponic system. The nutrient film
technique (NFT) is a relatively new water-culture system based on the simple principle of circulating a
shallow stream, or film, of nutrient solution over the roots of growing plants to provide an adequate supply
of water, nutrients, and oxygen (Fig. 19). The concept of the nutrient film is credited to A.J. Cooper, who
while at the Glasshouse Crops Research Institute in Littlehampton, England, recognized its value and called
international attention to its commercial potential as early as 1973. Since then, NFT has undergone
intensive testing by scientists and commercial growers in many countries, including Canada, and is now
considered a commercially viable form of water culture for several crops, but not cucumbers.
Fig. 20 illustrates the general layout of an NFT installation, with its various components. Although many
versions of NFT are in current use, the basic components of a typical NFT installation are as follows:
- Parallel gullies, or troughs, in which to grow the plants are laid on a 1-2% slope, on which the nutrient
solution flows. Originally, producers grew the plants with their roots in lay-flat tubing, but this method
failed to provide maximum aeration of the roots. Later, they used gullies made from a strip of polyethylene
folded lengthwise (Fig. 21). The gullies may also be prefabricated from semirigid plastic.
- A catchment tank contains nutrient solution where fertilizers, water, and acid are added.
- A circulation pump draws solution from the catchment tank and delivers it to the upper ends of the
gullies.
- A catchment pipe collects solution discharged from the gullies.
- Fertilizer and acid supply tanks store concentrated fertilizer stock solutions and an acid solution.
- Monitoring and control equipment maintain nutrient concentrations (including total amount of salts), pH,
and water level. An electrical conductivity (EC) controller and a pH controller are commonly used to
regulate the operation of dosimetric pumps or solenoid valves. These pumps, or valves, control the transfer
of fertilizers and acid to the catchment tank. A mechanical floating valve or a variety of electronic controls
easily maintain a constant water level in the catchment tank.

NFT has many advantages over other systems of crop production. It has been designed for simplicity, low
cost, and dependability. In particular, it gives absolute control of the root environment; it greatly simplifies
watering, and ensures a uniform nutrient supply across the whole crop. Root temperature can be raised
easily whenever required merely by warming the nutrient solution, which can be circulated either
continuously or intermittently to further conserve energy and to control the vegetative growth of young
winter-grown plants.

Other advantages include a rapid turnaround between successive crops, the potential for more efficient use
of greenhouse space because of the possibility of plant mobility, and the potential for more efficient use of
water. NFT's high degree of control over nutrition, water availability, and root environment makes it the

70
most sophisticated of all commercial plant-culture systems in practice today. Theoretically it offers the
highest yield potential. However, many of the advantages of NFT are also offered, to some degree, by other
soilless methods, notably rock wool. Much scepticism therefore persists about the future of NFT, because it
is generally perceived as a technique that requires a high level of technical skill. Growers have some
concern about the possibility that the recirculating nutrient solution may amplify and spread diseases in the
system, resulting in disastrous crop losses. Unexplainable outbreaks of root death have repeatedly occurred,
which have fueled concern over potential spread of diseases in NFT cucumbers. The NFT method, the
deep-culture technique (pioneered in Japan), and other closed-loop hydroponic methods are now being
reexamined with renewed interest because of their potential for minimizing fertilizer waste and
environmental pollution. NFT was originally developed as a low-cost system using lightweight, disposable
gullies and simple salinity and pH controllers. However, as the system became a commercial reality, it
became inceasingly automated, standardized, and sophisticated, which made the capital cost of the initial
installation a major concern for growers contemplating its use. Fortunately, the original simple and low-
cost NFT system is nearly as good as the high-cost ready-to-use ones in the international market. It still
offers the best opportunity to the average grower who would like to try NFT on a small scale without
risking great losses. Many publications now describe the NFT technique in great detail. Also, several
Canadian companies are offering turn-key operations or are well stocked with all NFT-related instruments
and supplies. The following summary gives some general rules and recommendations for NFT use, for the
benefit of those who may not have access to more-detailed, specialized publications. It emphasizes
particularly aspects of NFT that proved problematic during its development.

Make the base of the gullies about 25-30 cm wide. A maximum length of 20 m works well for gullies set
on a nominal 1% slope; longer gullies can be used for the nutrient solution, but with higher slopes or with
several introduction points along the length of the gullies. For constructing the gullies, especially for the
fall crop, use coextruded polyethylene film (white on black) 0.1 mm thick, when available. Lay the plastic
film (a strip about 75 cm wide) in position, black side uppermost, on the prepared supporting surface (e.g.,
polystyrene sheets on graded soil or elevated tray-supports manufactured from galvanized metal and other
materials); raise the sides and staple them together between the plants to form a gully of triangular cross
section (Fig. 21). The inside black surface of the plastic serves to keep the light out of the gully, which
prevents algae from growing in the nutrient solution. The white outside surface of the plastic reflects the
incoming light, which enhances plant growth and prevents the plastic from getting too hot. Overheated
plastic gullies have burned the stems of transplants started in the summer. A thin plastic film, as
recommended previously, is preferred over a thicker film. Wrinkles in the former help to disperse the
nutrient solution while a crop becomes established and until enough roots grow outside the propagation
blocks.

Various approaches have been tried to prevent young transplants from drying out during the first few days
after transplanting. For a simple and effective solution to the problem, place the transplants on a narrow
strip of capillary matting at planting time. A second set of crop-supporting wires are usually necessary at a
low level to help lay down a crop without moving the plastic gullies out of place, which can lead to serious
losses of nutrient solution. Transfer the nutrient solution from the supply line into the gullies through at
least two small-bore (2-3 mm inside diameter) flexible tubes, to guard against blockage. Of the NFT
components that come in contact with the nutrient solution, have as many as possible made of plastic
because metal can release potentially toxic levels of certain micronutrients, such as zinc and copper, into
the solution.

Because of the widespread use of plastics, select only materials that are not phytotoxic. As a general
recommendation, PVC and low- and high-density polyethylene or polypropylene are acceptable, but do not
use plasticized PVC (used in the manufacture of flexible hose) or butyl rubber sheet lining (used for
waterproofing reservoirs) in NFT because they may be phytotoxic. Plastics are more likely to cause
phytotoxicity when new. Plastic surfaces quickly lose their potential phytotoxicity when exposed to
nutrient solution. Therefore, before planting a crop, flush out the new hydroponic installation entirely for 1
day with a dilute nutrient solution that is then discarded.

To ensure good root aeration, allow an adequate rate of flow in the gullies (e.g., 2 L/min) and a depth of
solution of no more than 1 cm, even when the root mat is well developed. To provide a suitable slope,

71
grade the surface carefully before laying the gullies to avoid localized areas of deeper, stagnant solution. In
planning the layout, take advantage of any natural slopes in the greenhouse. A second slope at right angles
to the flow in the gullies facilitates the return flow to the main (catchment) tank, which is most
conveniently located at the lowest corner of the greenhouse complex. Although NFT at first relied on
sloping soil surfaces, occasionally made of concrete, an increased interest is now evident in raised systems
using rigid platforms, which support the gullies, and in adjustable stands. Such systems eliminate pockets
of deeper solution resulting from poor soil leveling and allow for slope adjustment, even during cropping.
Furthermore, a raised NFT system can be installed and operated in an old greenhouse, where grading the
soil might be difficult or even impossible. Widely available fiber glass or plastic containers have been used
as catchment tanks, but because they are usually small their usefulness is limited to small NFT installations.
For larger installations, deep holes or pits in the soil lined with polyethylene film are sometimes used.
Avoid this system, however, because the film often develops leaks and can create other problems. A pit-
liner made of polyethylene film reinforced with fiber glass or nylon fiber is a much better alternative.

A concrete tank, properly sealed with resin, or a tank prefabricated in plastic with external reinforcement,
makes an excellent choice for a permanent catchment tank in most NFT installations. Cover the tank to
exclude light, to prevent algae growth, and to limit contamination of the solution by soil organisms.
Adequately insulate the catchment tank to prevent the solution from becoming too cold and to conserve
energy when the nutrient solution is heated. An NFT system that supports 1 ha of mature vine crop contains
about 50 m#179 of nutrient solution, of which only 5-8 m#179 is in the catchment tank; the rest circulates
in the gullies. When designing an NFT system, allow a minimum catchment tank capacity of 10 m#179 for
every hectare of greenhouse area; if you contemplate using an intermittent flow of nutrient solution, you
will need to increase the capacity substantially. Although larger tanks would increase the nutrient supply
and pH stability of the system, consider the tank's cost-to-benefit ratio also before you make your final
decision. Like all aspects of NFT, the design of catchment tanks is still being developed, with the objective
of improving mixing and aeration of the nutrient solution and ensuring optimum pH and EC control.

Various techniques have been developed to further increase oxygenation of the nutrient solution. Two
separate return pipes can be arranged to enter the catchment tank at right angles to each other so that the
nutrient solution streams converge well above the solution in the tank. Also, instead of discharging the
nutrient solution into the catchment tank through an open-ended pipe, a tee or other pipe modifications can
be used to encourage dispersion. A more deliberate attempt to increase mixing and aeration of the nutrient
solution in the catchment tank involves the direct return, under pressure, of some of the nutrient solution
pumped by the main circulation pump. As with every component in contact with the nutrient solution,
ensure that the main pump can handle corrosive solutions; therefore use stainless steel or plastic-bodied
pumps. Self-priming pumps are preferable, but avoid the submersible types because they eventually
corrode and can fail. By using several smaller pumps instead of a single large one, the solution continues to
flow even when one pump fails. Also, a pressure-sensitive switch can activate a spare pump if the main one
fails and the pressure in the system drops. To guard against total power failure, a stand-by generator is
essential for large installations and for areas that experience frequent and extended blackouts. A small
operator might avoid the extra cost of a stand-by generator by connecting the main water supply through a
one-way valve to the NFT system. Then at least the crop receives plain water during a power interruption;
but providing appropriate drainage is essential in this case. View this approach, however, only as an added
safety feature built into the NFT system rather than as a first line of defence against power and pump
failures.

Supply the catchment tank with an overflow of at least the same capacity as the maximum rate of the
nutrient solution being returned from the crop to the catchment tank. Although providing an overflow
might seem expensive and complicated, it is absolutely necessary as a last resort to avoid disastrous
floodings when all other safety measures to keep the nutrient solution flowing fail.

Fertilizers and acid are normally added into the catchment tank in the form of concentrated stock solutions.
The dosimetric pumps used to inject nutrients and acids into the catchment tank should be chemically
resistant at least in those parts that come in contact with the relatively concentrated solutions. Use two
pumps for fertilizer and one for acid; their size depends on the size of the operation, but most growers need
an average capacity of 10 L/h. The two nutrient pumps used for fertilizer injection should be adjustable so

72
that they can be set to deliver exactly the same volume of liquid. Regulate the operation of the fertilizer and
acid injection pumps by their respective controllers. In large installations it may be more economical to
replace the dosimetric pumps with solenoid valves that control the gravity-driven flow of stock solutions.
Several suppliers now have available complete nutrient and acid dosing sets in ready-to-use packages.
However, growers can easily assemble tailor-made systems that suit individual needs because most of the
needed components are widely available.

Salinity and pH controllers are also required. A salinity controller provides the best method for determining
the salt concentration by measuring and controlling the electrical conductivity (EC) of the solution. This
method uses the principle that the electricity conducted between two electrodes, immersed at a fixed
distance (usually 1 cm) in a solution, is proportional to the total ionic (salt) concentration in that solution.
The EC controller monitors and displays the conductivity of the nutrient solution and activates the metering
(dosimetric) pumps when the measured conductivity falls below a preset value and only until the measured
value regains the preset value. Electrical conductivity is usually reported in either microSiemens per
centimetre (#181S/cm) or micromho per centimetre (#181mho/cm). Other units and conventions are used
occasionally to express EC, but the relationships between them are straightforward: for example, 1
milliSiemen (mS) = 1 millimho (mmho) = 1000 microSiemens (#181S) = 1000 micromho (#181mho) = 10
conductivity factor (CF) units; reference to centimetres is usually omitted, but implied. The cells (sensors)
used in conductivity measurements are encased in plastic, which makes them sturdy, requiring only
minimal maintenance.

Two main types of conductivity cells are available: a dip cell suspended in the solution and suitable for
small installations, and a flow-through type cell incorporated in the pipeline. In the latter case a sampling
loop returns some of the main circulating pump's output solution directly back into the catchment tank after
it has passed through the conductivity cell. The electrical conductivity of a solution increases by about 2%
for every degree Celsius that the temperature increases. Therefore equip the conductivity controller with
automatic temperature compensation a standard option in most conductivity controllers. A general
recommendation for the optimum conductivity setting on the salinity controller is difficult to provide
because the setting varies according to the cultivar grown, the season, the stage of growth, and the quality
of the water. First measure the electrical conductivity of the water (assume an x reading is obtained) and
then set the salinity controller at x + 1500 #181S. A balanced nutrient solution suitable for the growth of
most plants has a conductivity of about 1500 #181S. Where the water supply contains nutrients in excess of
plant requirements, or where the fertilizers are not supplied in a ratio proportional to nutrient uptake by the
crop, a buildup of certain nutrients inevitably results. Nutrients that can accumulate over time include
calcium (from hard water), sulfate (from fertilizers), sodium and chloride (from saline water), and possibly
others. Under these conditions the background conductivity rises progressively, so proportionate increases
in the EC setting of the salinity controller are needed to maintain an adequate nutrient supply.
Unfortunately, no simple and practical procedure exists to determine the changes in background
conductivity. Therefore discard the nutrient solution periodically and add new solution into the system.

The frequency at which to renew the nutrient solution depends on the stage of crop growth and the season,
both of which affect the rate of nutrient and water uptake by the crop. Generally, renew the solution every
month at the beginning of a crop and twice a month later, when the crop is fully grown or whenever the
crop appears to have stopped growing. As the grower gains experience with the system, the solution may
need less frequent renewal.

While the NFT operation is being established, weekly chemical analysis of the nutrient solution is essential
for crop safety and for familiarizing the grower with the operation; as the grower gains experience, less
frequent analysis can be conducted, e.g., twice a month. The pH of the nutrient solution also influences
considerably crop growth, and therefore it is monitored and controlled continually within the range of 5.5-
6.5. Avoid values below 5; a pH below 4 damages most crops. At the other end of the pH range, the
availability of trace, or minor, elements (except molybdenum) decreases when the pH rises above about
6.5, establishing the upper limit of a desirable pH level in the solution. Where the main source of nitrogen
is nitrate or where the pH of the water is high (7.0), the pH of the solution rises during cropping; a control
system consists of a pH monitor- controller and a metering pump that adds an acid, usually phosphoric or
nitric. However, when a significant portion of the nitrogen is supplied as ammonia and the buffering

73
capacity of the water is low, the pH can drop below the lowest value acceptable and a base, such as sodium
hydroxide, may have to be added to raise the pH to within the acceptable range. Dilute the concentrated
acids as purchased at a ratio of 1:10 or preferably 1:20 before use; the exact concentration required varies
according to the capacity of the metering pump or solenoid and the size of the catchment tank. For large
installations seek the advice of a chemical engineer who specializes in designing the proper storage and
handling procedures for dangerous chemicals.

WARNING: Both acids and bases can cause serious burns to workers if handled carelessly; always
wear protective clothing, masks, and glasses when handling these chemicals. When diluting
concentrated chemicals, always add the acid or base to the water; never add water to a concentrated
acid or base because the solution could get overheated and explode, causing serious burns.

A great variety of safety devices and precautions are available to guard against failure of the pH and
salinity controllers. Timers are routinely installed that can override either of the two controllers and prevent
the continuous addition of fertilizer or acid to the solution for periods that exceed a normal, expected time
span. Also, small tanks for the stock and acid solutions can be used, so that the crop would not be damaged,
even if all their contents were added to the catchment tank; the disadvantage of this approach is that the
stock solution tanks must be topped up regularly. Experiments at the Glasshouse Crops Research Institute
(GCRI) in Littlehampton, England, have shown that plants grown with the NFT technique can tolerate a
wide range of nutrient concentrations. For example, in one study on tomatoes they found no significant loss
of yield when the nitrogen (as NO3-) concentration was reduced from 320 to 10 ppm, provided that the
concentrations were effectively maintained. In commercial practice, however, an average nutrient
concentration is preferred because it ensures an adequate reserve of nutrients within the system.
Some general recommendations, based on commercial experience and on research carried out at GCRI, are
available on the optimum concentration of nutrients in the NFT solution; they are summarized in Table
27P. On the basis of the nutrient content of the water supply, two major recommendations are available
regarding the composition of the NFT fertilizer and acid-concentrated stock solutions. The fertilizer
concentrations given in Table 28P apply to areas with a moderately hard water supply, with alkalinityin
excess of 100 ppm calcium carbonate equivalent.Where routine analysis of the nutrient solution shows that
calcium has accumulated in the solution, it might be necessary to reduce the amount of calcium nitrate in
stock solution A. For each kilogram of calcium nitrate omitted from solution A, increase the potassium
nitrate by 0.86 kg, to compensate for the NO3- lost in the reduction of calcium nitrate; and decrease the
potassium sulfate by 0.74 kg, to counterbalance the increase in potassium from the added potassium nitrate.
The water supply could contain enough calcium, i.e., more than 120 ppm, to preclude adding calcium
nitrate.

However, in areas where the water supply has an alkalinity of less than 100 ppm calcium carbonate
equivalent, increase the calcium nitrate in stock solution A. The fertilizer formula then takes a new form, as
shown in Table 29P. The grouping of fertilizers and acids in Table 28P and Table 29P can be altered to
include some or all of the potassium nitrate in stock solution A, which may be desirable when using little
calcium nitrate. Also, when you know the acid requirement from previous experience, include a portion of
it (but only as nitric) in stock solutions A and B. This practice has the dual benefit of preventing
precipitates in stocks A and B and allowing the nitrogen content of the nitric acid to be taken into account
when formulating stock solutions. In fact, fertilizers can be grouped into stock solutions in a variety of
ways, the only limitation being that calcium be kept apart from phosphate and sulfate.

The formulas in Table 28 and Table 29 are good examples of how to vary the composition of the nutrient
concentrates for particular purposes. Beginners who cannot or do not wish to prepare their own stock
solutions can buy various commercial nutrient formulations. These products, because they are made for
universal application, may not prove the ideal choice for every crop, but they have given good general
results. However, commercial growers with a significant part of their cucumber crop in NFT should make
every effort to obtain basic fertilizers and mix them to provide the plants with the best nutrient mix
according to the latest research findings. Table 30P constitutes the latest fertilizer feeding recommendations
for NFT cucumber cropping at the time of writing.

74
WARNING: The NFT system is not recommended for long-term cucumber crops because of
frequent, and unresolved, crop losses from widespread root death; consult your local horticultural
crop adviser before using NFT (Plate IV f).

Fig. 19

Fig. 19 The concept of NFT. Fig. 20

Fig. 20

Fig. 21

75
Fig. 21 Gully construction for NFT.

Table 27

Target nutrient levels in NFT solution

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Minimum* (pH 5.5, Optimum (pH 6.0, Maximum (pH 6.5,
Element EC 1800 #181S/cm) EC 2000-2500 #181S/cm) EC 3500 #181S/cm)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (N03) 50 150-200 300
Nitrogen (NH4) 5 10-15 20
Phosphorus 20 50 200
Potassium 100 300-500 800
Calcium 125 150-300 400
Magnesium 25 50 100
Iron 1.5 6 12
Manganese 0.5 1 2.5
Copper 0.05 0.1 1
Zinc 0.05 0.5 2.5
Boron 0.1 0.3-0.5 1.5
Molybdenum 0.01 0.05 0.1
Sodium ** ** 250
Chloride ** ** 400
Sulfur --- 50-200 ---
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* Regard concentrations listed as minimum as the approximate lower
limit of a preferred range; in general, these minimum values are above
those at which symptoms of deficiency develop.
** As little as possible.

WARNING: The NFT system is not recommended for long-term

cucumber crops because of frequent, and unresolved, crop
losses from widespread root death; consult your local
horticultural crop adviser before using NFT (Plate IV

76
f).

Table 28

Fertilizer formulation for NFT used with hard water*

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Stock A Stock B Stock C
(1000 L total volume) (1000 L total volume) (1000 L total volume)
-------------------- ------------------------ -------------------
Chemical Amount Chemical Amount Chemical Amount
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Calcium nitrate 50 kg Potassium nitrate 80 kg Nitric acid(67%) 54 L
Potassium sulfate 40 kg Phosphoric acid 24 L
Magnesium sulfate 60 kg (85%)
Ammonium nitrate 0.6 kg
Iron chelate (15% Fe) 3.0 kg
Manganese sulfate 0.4 kg
(25% Mn) 0.4 kg
Boric acid (14% B) 0.24 kg
Copper sulfate 80 g
(25% Cu)
Zinc sulfate (23% Zn)40 g
Ammonium molybdate 10 g
(57% Mo)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* No phosphatic fertilizer has been included other than the phosphoric
acid in stock solution C. Where the water is not particularly hard and
the acid requirement is correspondingly low, include 1.5 kg of
monopotassium phosphate in stock solution B while decreasing the amount
of potassium sulfate from 4.0 to 3.0 kg.
Note: Assuming a dilution ratio of 1:100 for stock solutions A and
B, the theoretical nutrient concentrations in the circulating diluted
NFT solution are as follows:

Nutrient (ppm)
------------------------------
Nitrogen* 192
Phosphorus** ---
Potassium 490
Magnesium 59
Calcium*** 85
Iron 4.5
Manganese 1
Boron 0.34
Copper 0.20
Zinc 0.09
Molybdenum 0.05
------------------------------
* The nitric acid of stock solution C supplies additional nitrogen.
** The phosphoric acid of stock solution C supplies some phosphorus.
*** The calcium content of the water supply has not been taken into
account.

WARNING: The NFT system is not recommended for long-term

cucumber crops because of frequent, and unresolved, crop
losses from widespread root death; consult your local
horticultural crop adviser before using NFT (Plate IV

77
f).

Table 29

Fertilizer formulation for use with NFT in soft water areas

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Stock A Stock B* Stock C
(1000 L total volume) (1000 L total volume) (1000 L total volume)
-------------------- ------------------------- ----------------------
Chemical Amount Chemical Amount Chemical Amount
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Calcium nitrate 75 kg Potassium nitrate 90.0 kg Nitric acid(85%)89 L
Monopotassium
phosphate 30.0 kg
Magnesium sulfate 60.0 kg
Iron chelate (15% Fe) 3.0 kg
Manganese sulfate 0.4 kg
(25% Mn)
Boric acid (14% B) 0.24kg
Copper sulfate 80 g
(25% Cu)
Zinc sulfate (23% Zn) 40 g
Ammonium molybdate 10 g
(57% Mo)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* It may be necessary to slightly acidify stock solution B with a small
amount of nitric acid (20 mL) to prevent salt precipitation, e.g.,
magnesium phosphate.
Note: Assuming a dilution ratio of 1:100 for stock solutions A and
B, the theoretical nutrient concentrations in the circulating diluted
NFT solution are as follows:

Nutrient (ppm)
-----------------------------
Nitrogen* 214
Phosphorus 68
Potassium 434
Magnesium 59
Calcium** 128
Iron 4.5
Manganese 1.0
Boron 0.34
Copper 0.20
Zinc 0.09
Molybdenum 0.05
-----------------------------
* The nitric acid of stock solution C supplies additional nitrogen;
however, the amount is small because the amount of acid needed to
control the pH of soft water is far less than that required for hard
water.
** The calcium content of the water supply has not been taken into
account.
WARNING: The NFT system is not recommended for long-term
cucumber crops because of frequent, and unresolved, crop
losses from widespread root death; consult your local
horticultural crop adviser before using NFT (Plate IV

78
f).

Table 30

Recommended nutrient levels for cucumbers in NFT solution

------------------------------------------------------------------
Stock solution A Stock solution B
(1000 L total volume) (1000 L total volume)
-------------------------- -------------------------------------
Chemical Amount Chemical Amount
------------------------------------------------------------------

Calcium nitrate 44.4 kg Monopotassium phosphate 22.0 kg

Potassium nitrate 62.7 kg Magnesium sulfate 50.0 kg
Ammonium nitrate 5.0 kg Iron chelate (13% iron)* 1.0 kg
Manganese sulfate (25% Mn)* 250.0 g
Boric acid (14% B)* 90.0 g
Copper sulfate (25% Cu)* 30.0 g
Zinc sulfate (23% Zn)* 35.0 g
Ammonium molybdate (57% Mo)* 8.0 g
------------------------------------------------------------------
Notes:
- Prepare the final solution by adding equal volumes of both stock
solutions in water until a recommended final solution EC of 2200
#181S/cm is achieved; adjust the pH to 6.2 by adding phosphoric (low-
light conditions) or nitric (high-light conditions) acid. Ideally,
stock solutions are mixed and pH is adjusted automatically by
electrical conductivity and pH controllers.
- When starting a new crop, begin with an EC of 1500 #181S/cm and
gradually increase to 2200 #181S/cm over 1 week.
- A background EC of 300 600 #181S/cm from the water supply is
assumed.

Nutrient (ppm)
--------------------------------
Nitrate (NO3-N) 156
Ammonium (NH4-N) 12
Phosphorus 50
Potassium 302
Calcium 84
Magnesium 50
Iron 1.3
Manganese 0.62
Boron 0.12
Copper 0.07
Zinc 0.08
Molybdenum 0.03
--------------------------------
* Alternatively, include 2.0 kg of Plant Product Chelated Micronutrient
mix; which provides the following micronutrient concentrations: 1.4 ppm
Fe, 0.4 ppm Mn, 0.08 ppm Zn, 0.26 ppm B, 0.02 ppm Cu, and 0.012 ppm Mo.

WARNING: The NFT system is not recommended for long-term

cucumber crops because of frequent, and unresolved, crop
losses from widespread root death; consult your local
horticultural crop adviser before using NFT (Plate IV

79
 Agricultural Extension Service
The University of Tennessee
PB1068

Hobby
Greenhouses
in Tennessee

1
Table of Contents

Introduction 3
Pros and Cons of a Hobby Greenhouse 3
Greenhouse Size 4
Greenhouse Type 5
Frame Materials 7
Foundations 7
Floors and Walks 7
Benches 7
Covering Materials 8
Utilities 8
Drives and Walkways 9
Aesthetic Value 9
Locating and Orienting 9
Heating Considerations 12
Size of Heaters 13
Type ofHeat 13
Ventilation 15
Cooling 15
Managing a Hobby Greenhouse 18
Organizations and Further Information 19
Appendix 19
Use Heated Growing Frames to Produce Early Plants 19
A Plastic-Covered Greenhouse, No. 5946 23
Plastic Covered Greenhouse, Coldframe, No. 5941 24

2
 Hobby Greenhouses
in Tennessee
Mary Lewnes Albrecht, Professor and Head
Originally developed by James L. Pointer, Professor Emeritus
Ornamental Horticulture and Landscape Design

Introduction
For the avid gardener or plant lover, a hobby greenhouse can be like the icing on the cake. A greenhouse
allows you to extend the gardening season by growing plants inside when outside weather conditions make plant
growing impossible. It will also provide many hours of pleasure and relaxation while growing your favorite plants.
There are other factors you should consider. Does your plant growing interest span the whole year, or do you
get excited about growing plants only during the spring gardening season? If you are only interested in growing
annual flowers and vegetable plants, you may want to consider a hot bed or a coldframe. They are cheaper to build
and maintain, yet a good quality plant can be grown with little difficulty.

Pros and Cons of a Hobby

Greenhouse
If you want to grow plants all year, consider the
following:
An adequate greenhouse structure may cost from a
few hundred up to several thousand dollars, depending
on the type of house, covering materials, heating,
cooling, ventilation and other equipment.
A greenhouse used for year-round production can
be time consuming. Plants should have daily attention.
Who will look after your plants when you are on
vacation and during other absences?
A hobby greenhouse, like many other hobbies,
can be expensive to operate, especially heating and
cooling.
A hobby greenhouse should have a minimum of
100 square feet (Fig. 1).
Can a greenhouse be added to your landscape
without detracting from the aesthetic value of your
property as well as your neighbors?
Will neighborhood covenants allow you to build a
greenhouse?
Will county and city building codes permit you to
build a greenhouse on your premises? Are there any
restrictions as to type of house, covering or materials?
Check with your insurance agent to determine the
impact on your home-owner’s insurance. Can you
afford the increase?
Will it affect the real estate appraisal upon which
taxes are based?
After considering all these factors, if you are still
enthusiastic about building a hobby greenhouse, look
at some other important factors and study how they
relate to your particular situation before you purchase
or build a greenhouse.

3
Greenhouse Size
The specific size of a hobby greenhouse
depends on each individual’s need. Most hobby
houses are arranged so that about 70 to 80 percent
of the total floor area is devoted to benches or
growing area. Most annuals can be grown in
bedding plant trays (about 11/2 square feet per tray)
or 3- or 4-inch pots (about three to five pots per
square foot). A larger area is needed for pot plants.
For chrysanthemums and poinsettias in 6-inch pots,
a space of about 11/2 square feet is needed to finish
the plant to full flower. Ten-inch hanging baskets
grown on a bench will need about 2 square feet.
Multiplying your desired volume of plants by
space required for each plant will give you the total
size house needed. A house of less than 100 square
feet would probably not be economical to build and
maintain. If you need less space, you should Figure 1. Lean-to greenhouse. A greenhouse may
consider a window greenhouse (Fig. 2) or a lighted be from 6 to 12 feet wide and suggested minimum
plant cart (Fig. 3). area of 100 square feet.

Figure 2. Window greenhouses

Figure 3. A lighted cart for plants.

Fluorescent lamps can supplement
indoor lighting to make an area of
the home an attractive greenhouse.

4
Greenhouse Type
The type of house that would be desirable for you
may not be suitable for someone else. Many
homeowners design and build their own greenhouses by
using materials that can be secured at bargain prices, Figure 4.
Straight side
such as old picture windows, sliding glass doors, etc.
lean-to
This is not the best way to build a greenhouse, especially greenhouse
if the aesthetic values are considered, but can be done if
planned properly.
The following designs or modifications are the
norm in greenhouse designs:
Lean-to or attached greenhouses (Figs. 4 and
5) suit many people, especially where space is limited.
They can be designed and built onto a new home or
added to older homes to fit into the landscape. If they are
attached to a wall with a doorway, entry into the green- Figure 5.
house can be made conveniently without going outside. Slant side
lean-to
Water, electricity and heating from the house greenhouse
usually can be shared at a moderate cost. The cost of
heating an attached house is cheaper than a free-standing
greenhouse of the same size due to the attachment of one
side of the greenhouse to an existing wall.
Pit houses (Fig. 6) are unusual in Tennessee, yet
have some very definite advantages. They are built
partially below ground (usually 3 to 4 feet), often Figure 6.
attached on the south side of another building and are Pit houses:
normally used like a coldframe with only bottom heat (a) gable design,
provided.They are less expensive to build and require (b) slant frame.
less heat if you want to maintain a constant temperature.
Pit houses require proper drainage for the pit or
trench. Ventilation needs can be taken care of by provid-
ing end windows or a roof that will open. If a pit house
can be connected with a doorway from the basement
into the pit or trench, it adds convenience and is easier to
heat by hooking into the existing heating system.
A-frame houses (Fig. 7) have too many disadvan-
tages, except in very unusual circumstances, to consider
for plant growing. If protection is desired for a special
plant such as camelias, gardenias, or hibiscus, an
A-frame house may be considered due to its simple
frame design, good head room and easy construction.
They are not unattractive, but do not readily blend
into the normal surroundings. The side walls are hard
Figure 7.
to reach, and the growing area in relation to the
A-frame greenhouses.
outside exposed surface is small.

5
 Free-standing greenhouses (Fig. 8) can be
purchased or built in many different dimensions and
designs. These houses allow more flexibility because
they can be of any size desired and placed where they
receive more sun, or be sheltered from the wind. They
can be screened off from the home and therefore will
not interfere with existing home landscaping.
There are several different designs of free-sanding
greenhouses: A-frame (Fig. 7), gable house (Fig. 9),
Figure 8. Slanted free-standing greenhouse.
slant leg (Figs. 8 and 10), quonset (Fig. 12) or combi-
nations of some of these.
Attached greenhouses (Fig. 11) can be of any
of the previously-mentioned designs or adaptation of
them.
Quonset greenhouses (Fig. 12) are popular as
hobby- or commercial-growing structures. They are
the cheapest per square foot to construct. They may be
covered with fiberglass or polyethylene. Double-
layered, air-inflated polyethylene is the covering most
used. A quonset greenhouse can be built to the size
that meets the need of the builder. A cheap-and-easy-
to-construct quonset plan may be found on page 26. Figure 9. Gable roof.

Figure 10. Slant leg.

Figure 11. Another version of attached greenhouse.

Figure 12. Quonset

6
Frame Materials
A few years ago, framing materials for green-
houses were exclusively wood. Now most green-
houses are framed with metal — aluminum, galva-
nized pipe or tubing — and PVC pipe. Any one of
these materials will make satisfactory frames if they
are built strong enough to withstand the wind, snow
and the weight of hanging plants which in many cases
are hung from the frame. The weight of hanging
baskets in many greenhouses exerts more load on the
frame than snow or wind. But when the forces of all
three are combined, damage or collapse of the green-
house might occur unless this is taken into consider-
ation in planning or selecting a greenhouse.
Foundations
Foundations for greenhouses covered with
fiberglass or plastic are usually unnecessary (see
anchor detail, page 27). However, a house attached to
an existing building or covered with glass requires a
good strong foundation. Concrete or concrete blocks
are the most commonly used. If the greenhouse is to be
attached to a brick home, then it is advisable to use
matching brick veneer for the foundation.
The foundation should extend below the frost line
and may extend up to 6 inches above the height of
inside benches. If plants are to be grown on the
ground, the foundation wall should be a minimum of 6
inches and not extend higher than 12 inches above
floor level (Fig. 13).
Greenhouses with low or no foundation provide
more growing space under the benches.
Figure 13. Typical masonry foundations
7
Floors and Walks
A solid floor in greenhouses is not necessary and
in many cases may be undesirable, unless attached to
the home and used as a sunroom or solarium.
A 2- to 4-inch layer of 3/4-inch crusher-run stone or
pea gravel up to 3/4-inch in diameter makes a very
desirable greenhouse floor. It does not hurt your feet to
walk on, yet allows excellent percolation of water.
Flat stone, concrete stepping stones or brick laid
on sand also makes a good floor but may eventually
become uneven due to water eroding the sand base.
The idea of having a surfacing material on top of the
soil is for sanitation purposes, and to keep the walk-
ways free of mud. Covering only the walk areas and
using gravel under the benches provides both conve-
nience and good drainage.
A solid concrete floor is very easy to keep clean,
helps reduce weeds, insects and disease problems and
is most desirable when the greenhouse is attached to
the residence or doubles as a living space. When a
poured concrete floor is selected, make sure floor
drains are installed before the concrete is poured. A
vapor barriar and insulation can be installed before
concrete is poured. This will help reduce heat demands
in the winter.
Benches
Many different types of benches can be used in a
hobby greenhouse as illustrated on page 25. The type
of bench to be built will depend on its use. Benches
are usually constructed of cypress, redwood or
recycled, preformed plastic board. Snow fence is being
used with very good results. The fencing is made of
redwood or treated wood laths about 1/2 inch thick and
11/2 inches wide and 4- or 6-foot lengths. These
wooden strips are spaced about 1 inch apart and
interwoven with wire, and come in 50-foot rolls. If
built according to recommendations, it is strong
enough to support pot plants. Very attractive benches
are made with pressure-treated lumber with welded 1
inch x 1 inch mesh or expanded metal used as bench
tops. There are bench tops made from recycled plastics
available.
Covering Materials
Glass is the preferred covering material for
greenhouses. Clear single, double or triple pane glass
provides high interior light level, long life, stability,
durability and strong aesthetic quality. Tempered glass
is strong enough to withstand most hail. The major
drawbacks are the weight and narrow widths that
necessitate more roof and side bars and a stronger,
more expensive structure. Single-pane glass has no
insulation value adding to the heat load. Double-pane
and triple-pane glass is available to reduce the heat
demand. Glass that has reflective properties to reduce
light infiltration also reduces cooling needs in the
summer, but might not provide enough light during
winter months.
Polyethylene films are less expensive than glass
and when used as an air-inflated, double layer can save
as much as 40 percent of heating costs in comparison
to glass. A major drawback is that they are not as
aesthetically pleasing for residential applications. If
ultra-violet light resistant (UVR) plastics are not used,
they will become brittle after one growing season and
will need to be replaced. Some of the newer materials
will last up to five years depending upon care, thick-
ness and the manufacturer. Greenhouses covered with
polyethylene films are less costly to build because the
support structure requires fewer members due to the
low weight of the films.
Rigid plastics are becoming more common.
Fiberglass has been available for several decades. It
comes in flat and corrugated sheets up to 4 feet wide.
The outer surface needs to be treated to prevent
degradation from ultra-violet light. Fiberglass does not
have any insulation value and loses heat at the same
rate as glass or single-layer polyethylene film. Fiber-
glass is also extremely flammable because of the
acrylic resin used to bind the glass fibers, thus increas-
ing the cost of insuring the structure. Check local
building codes and your homeowner’s insurance
carrier to find out if this is an acceptable covering
material.
Newer, structured rigid plastics are available.
The structured rigid plastics are double-layered and
ribbed for strength, creating an air pocket and reducing
heat loss. These come in thicknesses of 6 to 16 milli-
meters and panels that are up to 6 feet wide. Heat
savings are from 30 percent for the 6 mm-thick sheets
8
up to 50 percent for the 16 mm-thick sheets. They are
made from two types of plastic resins: polycarbonates
and acrylics. The polycarbonates are more resistant to
hail damage and are not flammable. Both are available
in bronze colors that reduce light intensity. Fewer
structural members are needed in greenhouse roofs and
side walls than if glass construction is used, helping to
reduce the cost of the structure. These materials are
very expensive in comparison to double-layer polyeth-
ylene but comparable to glass.
Utilities
Electricity may or may not be a problem, depend-
ing on where you live and strictness of local electrical
codes. In some areas, the utility company may request
that you have a separate meter for the greenhouse if
electricity is the main energy source. All wiring should
be done in accordance with the local electrical codes.
In some cases, a utility pole will be needed to extend
electrical services. Underground cable may be cheaper
or required by zoning codes.
Water can usually be taken from the home supply
line, provided it is large enough to give you the
volume and pressure needed. All lines should have a
backflow preventer valve installed to prevent contami-
nation of the household water supply. Install at least
two spigots to meet all needs.
Gas, if hooked onto natural gas from existing
lines, will save a considerable amount over having a
meter installed. If natural gas is not available, check
with your local propane gas company to see if it will
supply you a free storage tank, or if you will be
required to rent or purchase your own. If you purchase,
consider which size tank is the most economical for
your operation.
Unfortunately, plumbing for sinks and drains is
sometimes overlooked when planning for a hobby
greenhouse. After the house has been constructed,
installation costs may be several times more expen-
sive. These should be considered before beginning
construction.
Drives and Walkways Locating and Orienting
If a driveway is needed to receive supplies or haul One of the most important requirements for good
out plants, it should be considered in the overall plan plant growth is light. Therefore, be sure that you locate
of locating your greenhouse. Walks are also to be a greenhouse where you take advantage of the most
considered before building a greenhouse. Walks or desirable exposure. For a lean-to or a window green-
driveways in many cases can be built with simple house, an eastern, southern or western exposure is
materials. These could range from crushed stone to acceptable, but a southern exposure is preferred. A
blacktop to concrete. Plan in advance; know what you northern exposure may be used but due to limited
are going to build and how it fits into your landscape. light, especially in winter, the plant species grown
successfully will be somewhat limited and the number
Aesthetic Value of plants grown in a given area will be reduced unless
Will a greenhouse add or detract from the aes- supplemental light is used.
thetic value of your surroundings? A greenhouse can All greenhouses should be located to receive
be constructed from many different materials and direct sun; therefore, avoid shade cast by evergreen
shapes. If proper consideration is given to the existing trees. Light shade from deciduous trees is tolerated
surroundings, a greenhouse can be purchased or built because they cast very little shade during winter. You
that will add to the beauty of your surroundings and can figure whether a tree or a group of trees are too
blend into the existing landscape. Check local zoning close to your greenhouse by using the data shown in
codes prior to selecting and building the home Figure 14.
greenhouse. excellent
summer noon location
Solar Altitude Angle, B Shadow Length good
(see Fig. 18) location
poor
7.5 7.60 x H winter location
15 3.73 x H noon winter
20 2.75 x H sunset summer sunset
30 1.73 x H
45 1.00 x H
solar altitude (B)

winter
height sunrise summer
obstruction sunrise
(H)
Figure 15. Location of the greenhouse; a sunny area is best.

shadow length (L)

Figure 14. Ratio of shadow length and obstruction height

for selected solar altitudes.

9
 In Figure 15, the location priorities are shown. In As mentioned in Pros and Cons, the greenhouse
Figure 16, you can compare the horizontal angles of location, structure, material and design affect the
the sun on June 21 at latitude for Tennessee of 36°, and aesthetics of the landscape on both your property and
in Figure 17, you can compare the reduced horizontal your neighbors’ property. Use reason and care to select
angles of the sun on December 21 at the same latitude. a greenhouse that will not lower the aesthetic value of
By spending a little time studying these figures, and your landscape or your neighbors’.
with a compass, you can stake out the angles of the
sun to determine the need to remove trees and other
obstructions. Figure 18 shows the altitude angles of the
sun at different times of the day on June 21 and
December 21 at 36° latitude (Tennessee). Note that all
times are for local solar time. In Tennessee solar time
is approximately one-half hour earlier than Eastern
standard time and one-half hour later than Central
standard time.
Proximity and accessibility of roadways, walks,
water lines, gas and electrical utilities and drainage
pipes are important because an extension of any of
these can be costly. Gas, water, electrical and drainage
lines should be placed in separate trenches. The water
line should be below the frost line, usually 12 to 18
inches deep.

Figure 16. Horizontal angles of the

sun July 21; latitude 36°.

10
Figure 17. Horizontal angles of the sun December 21;latitude 36°.

Figure 18. Altitude angles of the sun, latitude 36°.

11
Heating Considerations
Greenhouses must be heated in Tennessee from about
October through April. Heating for a hobby greenhouse
does not usually present a big problem because of the
small area heated and the alternate sources of heat we
may use. The heat source may be from electricity, bottled
or natural gas, oil or kerosene, or by hooking into the
home heating system. Each has its advantages and
possible disadvantages.
Heat exchange with benches, floor and plants in a
greenhouse does occur when the temperature changes.
However, the heat released or absorbed is so small, when
compared to the heat loss through the outer surface of the
greenhouse, that this is ignored. Therefore, it is an ac-
cepted practice to figure the heat loss that occurs through
the outside exposed greenhouse surface to determine the
heat requirements.
As a general rule, a heat loss factor for glass or
fiberglass of 1.2 BTU’s per hour per square foot of
outside greenhouse surface times degree differential
desired (inside and outside temperature difference) should
provide maximum heat needed. In Figure 19 an 8-foot x
12-foot lean-to house covered with glass has an exposed
area of (A+B+2C) 283 square feet.
If you plan to grow plants that require warm tem-
peratures, such as African violet, begonia, Christmas
cactus, chrysanthemum and most foliage
plants, a 70 F daytime temperature and a 60
F night temperature should be maintained.
Therefore, if we expect the lowest outside
temperature to be 0, the night temperature
differential would be 60 F; heat require-
ments would be determined by the follow-
ing formula:
Heat loss per square foot X total exposed
area and temperature differential desired =
required BTU’s per hour.

Example: 1.2 BTU’s X 283 sq. ft. X 60 =

20,367 BTU’s or 6 KW of electricity
per hour.

Figure 19. A lean-to greenhouse

12
Comparing values of different fuels.
The cost of fuel will vary from area to area throughout Tennessee due to availability,
transportation charges and other factors. The cost of heat must be considered locally and
compared to determine the economics of alternative energy sources. The energy source you
choose will depend on the convenience, availability and cost. In Table 1, a comparison is
made of four energy sources that may be used in heating a hobby greenhouse.

Table 1. Comparing values of different fuels

Fuel units per
Heat capacity Percentage of average 100,000 BTU
Fuel Units BTU’s/unit burn efficiency heat output

Electricity KWH 3,413 100 29.3 KWH

Natural Gas Cu. Ft. 1,050 75 127.0 Cu. ft.

LP-Gas Gal. 92,000 75 1.45 Gal.

No. 2 Fuel Oil Gal. 138,000 70 1.04 Gal.

Heat Cost The best idea is to use known energy conservation

The cost to heat a hobby greenhouse depends
on many factors — covering material, location, how
well the house is sealed, insulation of flooring and
side walls, etc.
Size of Heaters
To make a positive statement that a greenhouse
would require a certain size heater would be errone-
ous. There are several factors to be considered, such as
type of building material, location, exposure to wind,
whether it is attached to a heated building, whether
heat-conserving practices are being used and the area
of the outside exposed surface. The heating system for
each house should be determined by using the formula
provided in the previous section.
Type of Heat
Solar. Solar heat has received considerable
publicity and interest as an alternative to conventional
energy heat sources for greenhouses. To date, there are
no economical, active solar systems that can be
recommended for a greenhouse.
methods in construction to reduce heating costs. Many
passive solar systems help to supplement conventional
heating systems.
Electric. Electric heaters (Fig. 20) are clean,
efficient and easier to install than other heating units.
They may be purchased in several different models,
sizes and for 115V or 220V current. Wall-mounted or
suspended units with a fan and built-in thermostat
usually meet all the expectations of the most discreet
hobbyist. The fan circulates the heat and at the same
time provides air circulation. They are easy to install
without the need for vents or
plumbed fuel lines. Electric heat
is safe and practically troublefree.
Cost is a disadvantage to the
use of electric heat. However, if
electricity costs more in the
future, other energy sources will
increase in proportion.
Figure 20. Wall-mounted electric heater.

13
 Kerosene. Small portable kerosene heaters (Fig. 21)
may be used only as emergency heaters in small green-
houses. If kept in proper condition and used for a short
period of time, a chimney vent is not required. However,
they do produce fumes that might injure plants, especially
those that are sensitive to low concentrations of ethylene
such as cucumbers, tomatoes, fuchsias and others.
These heaters do not have thermostatic controls or fans
to help regulate and distribute the heat; therefore, those
plants closest to the heater may be burned while those
farthest away may be chilled. Some of the heaters on the
Figure 21. Two types of kerosene heaters.
market do not have a UL label and may be unsafe.

Portable Oil. Oil-fueled portable space heaters

(Fig. 22), such as Salamanders used in the building trades,
should not be used in hobby greenhouses. They give off
vast amounts of harmful fumes and soot. Heat radiates
away from their surface and could damage plants nearest
the heaters.

Space (Natural or LP Gas). Space heaters (Fig. 23)

are used extensively to heat greenhouses. Some heaters are
completely self-contained units with a fan and heat ex-
changer.
Space heaters, like electrical heating units, should be
suspended overhead for space conservation if they cannot
be placed in the greenhouse wall. They must be vented to
the outside in accordance with local city and county build-
Figure 22. (a) Radiant heater, (b) hot-air heater.
ing codes. Heaters installed through the wall require no
additional venting, since the fumes are released to the
outside through special vents built into the heating unit.
The extension of the home heating system to a small
attached hobby house is sometimes possible. The feasibility
of extending the home heating system will depend on
whether or not adequate capacity exists and the proximity
of air ducts to the greenhouse. The company which services
your heating system can advise you about this alternative.

Figure 23. Gas heater.

14
Ventilation
Many people confuse greenhouse cooling with ventilation and vice versa, but look
upon these as two entirely different functions. Cooling is, as the name implies, for tempera-
ture reduction. This is not to deny that some decrease in temperature does occur during the
ventilation process in changing of the air.
Adequate ventilation is essential for healthy plant growth since the primary purpose is
to supply carbon dioxide and control humidity to some
extent. Ventilation should be given special attention in
tightly constructed greenhouses. The most convenient
way to ventilate a hobby greenhouse is by a thermostati-
cally controlled two-speed fan to change the inside air.

Selecting a fan. It is not always easy to find an

appropriate fan to install in a hobby greenhouse due to
fanhousing, motor size and fanspeed.
To determine the fan capacity of one air change per
minute for the house used in Figure 19, we use the
following formula:
width x length x height = cubic feet;
therefore 8' x 12' x 7' = 672 cu. ft. inside area.
A fan with a capacity to move 672 cubic feet of air
per minute (CFM) is needed. A two-speed fan is pre- Figure 24.
ferred. The fan would move 336 CFM on low speed and Exhaust fan
and Louver.
672 on high speed. Early in the morning and late afternoon when the temperature is too
cool for maximum cooling, the low speed would reduce cool shock on the plants.
Once you have determined the fan capacity, look for a fan (Fig. 24) with a housing
dimension that can be installed in your greenhouse with the least amount of trouble and
requiring the least amount of greenhouse frame alteration to install. In most cases, you will
need to alter the greenhouse frame so the fan housing fits appropriately.
Make sure the fans come with appropriate guards to avoid personal injury
during operation.

Cooling
Cooling takes over after the temperature cannot be controlled by the normal ventilation
process. Temperatures can be changed quickest by the positive action of appropriately sized
fans placed on the leeward side of the greenhouse, with appropriately sized louvers on the
opposite end. They may serve as ventilation fans on low speed and cooling fans at high
speed, or a combination of both. The temperature may be kept 5 to 10 degrees lower than
the outside air temperature. Two-speed fans are desirable because during the fall and
spring, the low speed reduces the air exchange rate to one-half the total fan capacity.
Fans cannot do an adequate job of cooling during the summer months without an assist
by shading or the use of an evaporative cooling system. The sun’s rays can add as much as
300 BTU’s per hour per square foot of surface area inside a greenhouse. Therefore, shading
reduces the heat load coming inside the greenhouse. Shade cloth with different percentages
of shading, or other adjustable shades made of wood, aluminum or fiberglass are most
commonly used on hobby greenhouses. The shading plus moisture evaporation from the
floor, benches and plants can lower greenhouse temperatures as much as 10 to 15 degrees.

15
Shading compounds (paint) are available from green- Table 2. Cooling capacity of 85 percent
house supply companies. However, they are not efficient evaporative coolers*
recommended due to their unattractiveness and the
difficulty in removing the paint to permit more light to Relative humidity (percent)
enter during fall and winter. If you decide on a green-
house shading compound, it must be compatible with Outside air 30 50 70 90
the type of greenhouse covering. They are not used on
polyethylene film plastics. Outside air temperature F Cooled air temperature F

100 79 86 91 97
Evaporative cooling. Cooling by pulling air 90 71 77 83 88
through wet pads is recommended in Tennessee since 80 63 69 74 78
summer temperatures rise above 90 F for several days 70 56 60 64 68
during the year. Evaporative cooling is most effective
when used with some type of greenhouse shade. *”Greenhouse — Heating, Cooling and Ventilation,” by Cecil Hammond
Cooling of the inside temperature to 10 or 15 degrees and Douglas Crater. Bull. 792, 1976, University of Georgia

below the outside air temperatures by evaporation may

be generally expected. In extremely hot weather, an
inside temperature equal to the outside air temperature
is considered good. The process of moving cool moist
air through the plants increases the humidity and
reduces the rate of plant transpiration (giving off
water), which reduces wilting.
The process of lowering the inside greenhouse
temperature is sometimes misunderstood. The heat that
enters a greenhouse on a bright, hot day is trapped
inside the greenhouse and causes the temperature to
increase as much as 25 to 30 F above the outside
temperature. By moving dry air through a wet pad,
water evaporates. It takes approximately1,000 BTU’s
of heat to evaporate one pound of water. When the
heat is removed from the air by evaporating the water,
the air is cooled. The lower the relative humidity of the

Figure 25. Evaporative cooling pad installation diagram.

16
Figure 26. Box cooler.
Figure 27. Louver.

Figure 28. Watering devices.

Figure 28b. Time clock.

Figure 28a. 180° spray watering system.

Figure 28c. Spaghetti Tube watering system.

Figure 28d. Mist-a-matic mister.

17
outside air, the greater the water evaporation from the Managing a Hobby
pad and the lower the air temperature. Greenhouse
A one-square-foot pad area should be provided for Now that you have decided to buy or build a
each 15 CFM of air circulation to provide a cooling
hobby greenhouse, give some consideration to man-
efficiency of 85 percent (Table 2).
agement. The following is a “Do and Don’t” list that
can help reduce your potential problems.
In Tennessee greenhouses, the relative humidity is
usually lowest in summer, except during a rain and a
DO
short time thereafter. Therefore, the evaporative 1. Keep greenhouse clean at all times.
cooling pad system for a hobby greenhouse should be
2. Spend enough time with your hobby to assure
correctly designed to give maximum cooling at one air
success in growing.
change per minute. A solar heat gain of 10 F can be
3. Read and learn how others have operated their
expected using one air change per minute. If the
hobby houses.
outside air was 90 F and the relative humidity 50
4. Keep your greenhouse in a good state of repair and
percent, the resultant temperature inside the green- keep all equipment working.
house would be about 87 F (77 F taken from Table 2 +
5. Discard weak and diseased plants.
10 F solar heat gain = 87 F).
6. Maintain a good disease-and-insect eradication
An efficient and properly installed evaporative
program.
cooling pad system shown in Figure 25 is made from a
cellulose material. It has a crossfluted configuration
DON’T
which gives maximum flow of air and water. It takes 1. Don’t run a sick-plant hospital for your friends. If
about one-third less pad area to give the equivalent
you do, you are asking for constant trouble.
cooling compared to Aspen Pad systems that have
2. Don’t try to grow many different plants, at least
been used for many years. The life expectancy for the
while you are an amateur grower.
new material is about five years. The complete pump
3. Don’t neglect your greenhouse. If you do, it will
kit can be purchased from any greenhouse supplier.
probably wind up a junk house for plants.
Packaged or box-type evaporative coolers are 4. Don’t think you can leave your plants without care;
practical for hobby greenhouses with 300 square feet
they need daily attention.
or less. The box cooler shown in Figure 26 has evapo-
5. Don’t overwater, overfertilize, overheat or overcool
rative pads on three sides. The water reservoir, pump
your plants.
and distribution lines are built into the unit. The fan is
6. Don’t think of the operational cost; think of the joy
located inside the box to draw the air through the pads
of growing your own plants.
and blow the cool air into the greenhouse. A louver
(Fig. 27) must be placed in the opposite end of the
greenhouse to permit an equal amount of air to move
outside as the fan is pulling air into the house.
This type of cooler is usually cheaper and easier
to install in a hobby greenhouse and the appearance is
better than the pad systems previously described.

18
Organizations and Further
Information
The Hobby Greenhouse Association is a non-
profit organization of gardeners in hobby greenhouses,
window greenhouses and other indoor areas. Member-
ship in HGA includes a subscription to Hobby Green-
house and HGA News. Other membership benefits
include round robin letters, help and advice on green-
house gardening, a seed exchange, videotape and book
libraries and access to certain print materials at dis-
count. They can be contacted at HGA, 8 Glen Ter-
race, Bedford, MA 01730-2048. They have a web site
at: http://www.hortsoft.com/HGA.html
There are numerous books and gardening maga-
zines available at your public library about hobby
greenhouses. Check the library catalog under the
following topics: indoor gardening, hobby green-
houses, foliage plants, horticulture. If you have an
interest in a specific group of plants, check the library
catalog using that name, such as cacti and succulents,
bromeliads or orchids. A basic reference to start with is
Greenhouse Gardener’s Companion: Growing Food &
Flowers in Your Greenhouse or Sunspace by Shane
Smith (1992, Fulcrum Publishing, Golden, Colorado).
Other places to start are the Time-Life gardening
series, Ortho gardening series and Sunset Books
gardening series. Two magazines to look for are
Horticulture and The American Gardener (formerly
American Horticulturist).
If you have access to the Internet, searches on
various key words including horticulture, specific
groups of plants (e.g., bromeliads), greenhouse gar-
dening, gardening and related terms will locate many
sites with useful information. Many states’ cooperative
and agricultural extension services also have publica-
tions posted on the Internet. Two sites to start your
Internet gardening library are:
1. The Virtual Garden
http://pathfinder.com/vg/
The Virtual Garden provides extensive, searchable
databases for gardening accessories (e.g., clothing,
tools and supplies, seeds, plants and heirloom variet-
ies), monthly gardening information by USDA,
hardiness zones and a search engine for gardening
information.
19
2. The National Gardening Association
http://www2.garden.org/nga/
This site includes information on “Kids & Class-
rooms” and other “Gardening Links” from alpine
plants to vegetables. It also accesses plant societies,
colleges and universities and cooperative extension
services. It includes searchable plant data bases
including the Time-Life® Electronic Encyclopedia.
Many state cooperative and agricultural extension
services have their publications posted on the Internet.
They are posted in various formats, most commonly
html or pdf formats. Just follow instructions for
viewing or downloading provided at the different web
sites.
APPENDIX
Use Heated Growing Frames to
Produce Early Plants
Let’s take a look at growing plants in heated
growing frames. They can be built to suit the needs of
the home gardener. Electrically heated growing areas
are relatively cheap to build and operate from an
energy standpoint. Temperature can be kept uniform
with positive controls. Therefore, more uniform plants
of the desired quality can be produced.
Heated growing frames can also help during those
few weeks before the plants are moved to the garden.
Plants can be hardened off or acclimated to withstand
the garden climate.
There are many different designs of growing
frames but the two offered should serve the needs of
most hobbyists, since they can be decreased or
increased in size to meet individual needs.
The frame is covered with 6 ml. Polyethylene
UVR film. The film is fastened permanently down the
ridge or top of the frame with lath strips (use double-
headed nails to make replacement easier) and roll each
side up from the bottom edge to the ridge as ventila-
tion is needed. The bottom edge of the polyethylene is
anchored to a 2" x 2" x 21' piece of redwood which
holds the cover down and is used to wind up the cover.
Flexible rubber straps nailed to the end of the frame
are stretched over the 2" x 2" at whatever point the
edges are raised. This firmly anchors the cover and
prevents wind damage.
 Thermostatically controlled electrical heaters may
be installed as needed.
The frame should be placed on a 2" x 8" x 16" solid
block at each corner and in the center of the side wall to
hold the wood off the ground to prevent decay. Cover
the inside floor with about 2 inches of 3/4-inch crusher-
run gravel for drainage and to prevent an accumulation
of mud.
To summarize, growing frames give us these
advantages:
1. Cheap to build and provide adequate conditions to
harden off plants
2. Allow additional space so plants will grow larger
before planting in the garden
3. Quality of plants can be improved by providing
adequate room to space plants farther apart
4. Plant quality is not affected if weather prevents
movement to the garden
Material List for Frame 1
CAUTION: use redwood or pressure-treated
lumber. Do not use material treated with creosote,
pentachlorophenol or similar preservatives.
Material List for Frame 2
CAUTION: Use redwood or pressure-treated
lumber. Do not use material treated with creosote,
pentachlorophenol or similar preservatives.
1 piece 20' x 21' 6 ml. UVR polyethylene cover
*6 pieces 3/ 8 " x 4' x 8' marine plywood
2 pieces 2" x 6" x 16' bottom rail
2 pieces 2" x 6" x 20' top rail
1 piece 2" x 4"x 20' side rail
10 pieces 2" x 4" x 10' end frame
2 pieces 1" x 3" x 10' anchor plastic or top rail
3 pieces 3/4" x 21' pipe bows
6 pieces 1" x 2' pipe anchor
8 pieces 2" x 8" x 16" solid concrete blocks
*Tongue-and-grooved lumber may be used instead
of the plywood.
All lumber should be painted white, inside and
outside the greenhouse.

1 piece 18' x 20' 6 ml UVR polyethylene cover

2 pieces 2" x 6" x 20' bottom rail
2 pieces 2" x 6" x 16' bottom rail
2 pieces 2" x 4" x 8' side post
6 pieces 2" x 4" x 8' end post
6 pieces 2" x 4" x 8' end frame
1 piece 2" x 4" x 20' top rail
12 pieces 2" x 4"x 9' top rafters
*6 pieces 3/ 8 " x 4' x 8' marine plywood ends and side
1 piece 2" x 4" x 22' polyethylene anchor
8 pieces 2" x 8" x 16" solid concrete blocks
2 pieces 1" x 3" x 10' plastic anchor — top rail

*Tongue-and-grooved lumber may be used instead of

the plywood.
All lumber should be painted white, inside and
outside the greenhouse.

20
21
22
Plastic-Covered
Greenhouse
This portable greenhouse is attractive, easily
constructed and inexpensive. Its roof slope approxi-
mates that of a gothic arch extending from the ground
to the ridge. This surface is steep enough to shed snow,
water and debris. However, a large accumulation of
snow may pile up against the sides and apply lateral
pressure to the plastic film.
The structure resists wind very well. A low-cost
polyethylene cover has a service life of three to eight
months. More expensive films last two to three years
or even longer. The film must be securely fastened to
the frame; and the house must be staked down to
prevent the wind from blowing it away.
In late summer, the house can be used as a propa-
gating frame by replacing the plastic film with a lath-
type snow fence.
23
Two small ventilators at the top of the door
provide limited ventilation. When more air is needed
on hot days, the doors can be opened or the house can
be raised off the ground.
The width (8 feet) allows space for a walkway
with a row of flats on each side, and the height (7 feet)
allows most people to stand without touching the top.
With doors in each end, several units of this green-
house can be placed in a series, and tools can be
moved from section to section.
Two persons can move the greenhouse short
distances, and three or four persons can lift it above
their heads. Construction is rather simple; only a little
experience with common tools is required. The most
complicated job — forming the ridge beam — is easy
if a table saw with an adjustable table or blade is
available to rip the board.
 Plastic-Covered
Greenhouse coldframe
This plan features a removable top that can be
used as a coldframe. For example, tomato plants may
be given a head start on the frost-free season.
To germinate seeds and grow starter plants, install
a heating cable in the assembled unit. When the plants
are about 3 inches high, they should be moved to a
coldframe.
Select a 5- by 7-foot plot of ground favorably
located in the corner of the garden. Remove the
coldframe portion from the top of the greenhouse.
Place it over the plants to protect them from the night
frost.
If everything is timed right, they will be of proper
size for field planting at the frost-free date.
The wooden parts for the frame should be pres-
sure treated to prevent rotting. All hardware, including
nails, should be galvanized.
The greenhouse should be anchored to the ground
with steel rods.

24
 PB1068- 3M-5/98(Rev)
E12-2015-00-031-98
A State Partner in the Cooperative Extension System
The Agricultural Extension Service offers its programs to all eligible persons regardless of race, color, age, national origin, sex or disability
and is an Equal Opportunity Employer.
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION WORK IN AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS
The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
and county governments cooperating in furtherance of Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914.
Agricultural Extension Service
Billy G. Hicks, Dean

25
 Agricultural Extension Service
The University of Tennessee
PB1616

Plant Nutrition
& Fertilizers
For
Greenhouse
Production

1
Table of Contents

Plant Nutrition: The Basics______________________________________________________________ 3

Fertilizer Salts ______________________________________________________________________ 3
pH__________________________________________________________________________________ 6
Factors Affecting Media Solution pH__________________________________________________ 5
Water Quality/Alkalinity__________________________________________________________ 6
Media Components _______________________________________________________________ 7
Fertilizers Applied________________________________________________________________ 7
Fertilization and Fertilizers______________________________________________________________ 7
Water-Soluble Fertilizers_____________________________________________________________ 7
Slow-Release Fertilizers______________________________________________________________ 7
Fertilizer Labels_____________________________________________________________________ 8
Nutrient Analysis_________________________________________________________________ 8
Nitrogen Form____________________________________________________________________ 8
Potential Acidity/Basicity_________________________________________________________ 8
Proper Dilution Rate______________________________________________________________ 9
Fertilizer Injectors____________________________________________________________________9
Multiple Injectors_________________________________________________________________ 10
Injector Accuracy and Calibration_________________________________________________ 10
Starting a Fertilization Program__________________________________________________________ 11
Pre-plant Nutrition Programs_________________________________________________________ 11
Post-plant Nutrition Programs________________________________________________________ 12
Nitrogen__________________________________________________________________________ 12
Phosphorus______________________________________________________________________ 13
Potassium________________________________________________________________________ 13
Calcium and Magnesium__________________________________________________________ 13
Micronutrients___________________________________________________________________ 13
Appendices:
Fertilizer Calculations_______________________________________________________________ 14
Conversion of Units__________________________________________________________________ 14

2
 Plant Nutrition & Fertilizers
For Greenhouse Production
James E. Faust, Assistant Professor
Elizabeth Will, Graduate Student
Ornamental Horticulture and Landscape Design

This publication is one of three in a series that covers the basics of developing a
nutritional program for producing container-grown plants in greenhouses. A complete
nutrition program encompasses the fertilizers, media and water used. The first section
in Plant Nutrition and Fertilizers for Greenhouse Production develops background
information about plant nutrition that growers need to understand before discussing
which fertilizers to use. The second section covers the range of fertilizers that growers
can choose from.
The second publication in the series, Irrigation Water Quality for Greenhouse
Production (PB 1617), examines the effect of water quality on a greenhouse nutritional
program. The third publication, Growing Media for Greenhouse Production (PB 1618),
describes the important physical and chemical properties of growing media, media
testing procedures and interpretation of test results. The objective of this series of publi-
cations is to provide basic information that will allow greenhouse operators to develop a
nutritional program for their specific business.

calcium nitrate, which contains one calcium

Plant Nutrition: The Basics
cation and a nitrate anion. Other ex-
amples include: ammonium phosphate,
Fertilizer Salts
magnesium sulfate, potassium nitrate
Fertilizers are salts. Salts are chemical
and ammonium nitrate.
compounds that contain one positively
Fertilizer concentration (or saltiness) of a
charged ion (cation) bonded to one nega-
solution can be determined by measuring
tively charged ion (anion). When a salt is
the ability of a solution to conduct an elec-
placed into water, the two ions separate and
trical signal (electrical conductivity). Electri-
dissolve. An example of a fertilizer salt is
cal conductivity meters, often called soluble

CALCIUM NITRATE
++
Ca NO3-

++ NO -
Ca 3

++
Ca
NO3-

3
salts meters, measure the concentration of
salts/ions in solution; therefore, a grower
can always measure the amount of fertilizer
being applied to a crop. However, electrical
conductivity meters do not specifically
measure which specific salts are in solution.
For example, an electrical conductivity
1 2
3
0
meter can not tell the difference between
table salt (sodium chloride), which is dan-
gerous to plants, and potassium nitrate,
which is useful for plants.
Ions dissolved in water are taken up
through the roots and distributed within the
plant. Plants actually expend energy to take
up most ions, however, calcium is thought
to only come along for the ride, i.e., plants
don’t actively take up calcium, it just comes
into the root with the water.
Once inside the plant, ions are recom-
bined into compounds useful for plant
4
growth. The most common example of plant
metabolism involves photosynthesis, during
which water (hydrogen and oxygen) is com-
bined with carbon dioxide (carbon and oxygen)
to form starch or sugars (carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen). Another example is the chlorophyll
molecule shown below that contains:
1 2
3
55 carbon atoms
60 hydrogen atoms
5 oxygen atoms
4 nitrogen atoms
1 magnesium atom
Therefore, for the plant to build one
chlorophyll molecule, the leaves must take
in carbon dioxide, for the carbon and oxy-
gen; the roots must take in water, for the
hydrogen and oxygen; and the roots must
take up nitrogen and magnesium provided
from the fertilizer applied.

Once inside the plant, some nutrients
can be mobilized to support new growing
tissues, while other nutrients are fixed in
older plant tissues. This fact helps us to
diagnose some plant nutrient deficiencies.
For example, if a plant is deficient in an
immobile nutrient, then deficiency symp-
toms (yellowing/chlorosis) occur in the new
growth, since the older tissues “hold” on to
the immobile nutrients. In contrast, defi-
ciencies of mobile nutrients typically occur
5
in the older leaves, since the mobile nutrients
move from the old leaves to the new leaves.
Plants require different amounts of each
nutrient. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are
required in the greatest amounts; however,
these are taken up by the plant in the form
of water and carbon dioxide. Nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magne-
sium and sulfur are required in large
Table 1. Mobility of individual nutrients
within plants.
Mobile Immobile
Nitrogen Calcium
Phosphorus Iron
Potassium Manganese
Magnesium Zinc
Sulfur Copper
Boron
Molybdenum
amounts, thus are called macronutrients.
Iron, manganese, copper, zinc, boron, chlo-
ride, molybdenum are required in relatively
small amounts, thus are called micronutri-
ents, or minors.
pH
pH is a measure of the concentration of
hydrogen (H+) ions, sometimes called pro-
tons. The greater the H+ ion concentration,
the more acid the solution, hence a lower pH.
pH controls the uptake of nutrients. If
the pH is not in the desired range, indi-
vidual nutrients can not be taken up, creat-
 100 5

4
Percentage of Plant Dry Weight

80

Percentage in Plant Tissue

60 3

40 2

20 1

0 0
C,H,O N,P,K, et al... N P K Ca Mg S Fe Mn B Zn Cu Mo

ing a nutrient deficiency, or the nutrient can from solution. This process effectively
be taken up too readily, resulting in a nutri- decreases the H+ ion concentration in
ent toxicity. These nutrient imbalances will the media and thus increases the media
occur even when proper amounts of nutri- solution pH.
ents are applied to the media, if the pH is The reverse situation can also occur.
too high or too low. The figure below demon- Very pure water (low bicarbonates) can
strates the availability of nutrients to plants cause media solution pH to decrease
at different media pH. Nitrogen and potas- over time. The pH drops, because there
sium are readily available at a wide pH may not be enough bicarbonates to
range. Although phosphorus is more readily absorb excess hydrogen ions. Thus, the
available at a low pH, phosphorus problems H+ concentration in the media increases.
are not commonly observed in greenhouse The most common solution for pure
crops. Calcium and magnesium are more water sources is to increase the amount
readily available at a higher pH. At a low pH, of pulverized dolomitic limestone incor-
the minor nutrients (iron, manganese, porated into the media prior to trans-
boron, zinc and copper) are readily avail- planting plants into the media. Another
able. Minor nutrient toxicities are relatively solution is to top-dress containers with
common at a low pH (<5.8), while deficien- the limestone. Finally, bicarbonate can
cies frequently occur at a high pH (>6.5) be added to irrigation water in the form
of potassium bicarbonate to improve the
Factors affecting media solution pH: buffering capacity of the media solution
1. Water Quality/Alkalinity: Alkalinity is (i.e., reduce pH fluctuation).
one measure of the quality of water Water quality issues are covered in
used for irrigation. Alkalinity is the measure more depth in Irrigation Water Quality for
of the concentration of bicarbonates and Greenhouse Production (PB 1617).
carbonates in water which determine the 2. Media Components. Peat tends to be
water’s capacity to neutralize acids. In other acidic. Pulverized dolomitic limestone
words, irrigating with bicarbonates in (CaMg(CO3)2) is incorporated into most
water is equivalent to applying lime with amended media to adjust the starting pH
each irrigation. The bicarbonates react to ~6.0. Coarser grades of dolomitic
with hydrogen ions and remove them

6
 Bicarbonate
H H
H H
H H
H H
+
H H
HH H H
H H
limestone change the media pH more
slowly, and thus are not often used in
peat-based media. A relatively new, but
popular media component, coconut coir,
is less acidic than peat, so less limestone
needs to be used.
The role of media in a greenhouse
nutritional program is covered in more
depth in Growing Media Quality for
Greenhouse Production (PB 1618).
3. Fertilizers Applied.Fertilizers are catego-
rized into one of two groups: acid-residue
or alkaline-residue. The fertilizers them-
selves are not acidic or alkaline, but they
react with microorganisms in the media
and plant roots to affect media solution
pH. Fertilizers with ample ammonium or
urea tend to acidify the media, i.e., lower
the pH. Fertilizers with ample nitrates tend
to raise the pH of the media solution slowly
over time.
Fertilizers and Fertilization
Water-Soluble Fertilizers
Most greenhouse fertilization programs
rely on water-soluble fertilizers to provide
most of the nutrients required for plant
growth. Water-soluble fertilizers are often
applied at each irrigation. This is referred to
7
H H
as a constant liquid fertilizer (CLF) program.
A specific fertilizer program must be devel-
oped around the irrigation water, media and
crops grown. Following is a typical CLF
program:
200 ppm N from 20-10-20 Peat-Lite
Special applied each irrigation for one week.
200 ppm N from 15-0-15 applied each
irrigation the following week.
100 ppm Mg from Epsom salts (magne-
sium sulfate) applied once.
Repeat.
The 20-10-20 Peat-Lite Special supplies
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and minor
nutrients. The 15-0-15 fertilizer supplies
nitrogen, potassium, calcium and minor
nutrients. The epsom salts supply magne-
sium and sulfur. Rotating these three prod-
ucts provides all essential nutrients re-
quired for plant growth. Recently available
are water-soluble fertilizers that supply all
essential nutrients in one fertilizer. Ex-
amples include 15-5-15 Cal-Mag Special
and 13-2-13 Plug Special.
Slow-Release Fertilizers
Slow-release, or controlled-release,
fertilizers are usually used when crops are
grown outdoors. Slow-release fertilizers are
beneficial because they create less environ-
mental pollution, e.g., fertilizer run-off,
when sprinker irrigation is used, and they
continue to supply nutrients during rainy
weather. Slow-release fertilizers are mar-
keted based on the time of release, for ex-
ample, 3- to 4-month longevity. The actual
fertilizer release rate is determined by the
temperature and water content of the media.
Therefore, the actual effective release time of
the fertilizer may vary from the labeled time.
Slow-release fertilizers can be incorpo-
rated into the media prior to filling the
containers or top-dressed after planting.
Slow-release fertilizers are often incorpo-
rated into the media for garden mum pro-
duction as an insurance policy against
rainy weather.
Fertilizer Labels
This section will discuss information that
is critical to understand as you develop a
nutritional program for containerized green-
house crops. A useful place to start when
discussing fertilizers is the fertilizer label
itself. These labels contain several very
useful pieces of important information for all
growers.
Nutrient Analysis. The fertilizer analy-
sis indicates the percentage of a particular
nutrient contained within the fertilizer (on a
percent weight basis). The fertilizer analysis
typically refers to the percentage of nitrogen
(N), phosphate (P2O5) and potash (K2O)
contained in a given fertilizer. A balanced
fertilizer should provide nutrients in
amounts relative to plant requirements.
Since nitrogen and potassium are used in
relatively similar amounts (on a weight
basis), a fertilizer should have a nitrogen to
potassium ratio of approximately 1:1. Phos-
phorus is required to a lesser degree, so the
nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratio should be
approximately 2:1 to 4:1. Therefore, a 2:1:2
(N-P2O5-K2O) is suitable for most green-
house crops. An example of this type of
fertilizer is 20-10-20. While 20-20-20 is still
commonly used, 20-10-20 is preferred, since
the N-P2O5-K2O ratio is closer to that
required by plants. The extra phosphorus
8
provided by 20-20-20 is usually wasted, thus
creating potential environmental concerns.
Nitrogen Form. Nitrogen is provided in
three different forms: nitrate-nitrogen (NO3),
ammoniacal-nitrogen (NH4) and urea-nitro-
gen. The nitrogen form affects plant growth
and media solution pH. Ammoniacal nitro-
gen, sometimes called ammonium, tends to
contribute to “lush” plant growth, for ex-
ample, greater leaf expansion and stem
elongation, whereas nitrate nitrogen pro-
duces a “hard” or well-toned and compact
plant. High ammonium can be toxic to
plants during cold, cloudy growing condi-
tions. Therefore, ammonium and urea
should make up <40 percent of the nitrogen
during winter months. “Dark-Weather” or
“Finisher” fertilizers tend to have high ni-
trate and low ammonium nitrogen.
The following equation demonstrates
how to calculate the percentage of the total
nitrogen that is in the ammoniacal form.
Note: When calculating the percentage
nitrate versus ammonium, assume urea will
break down to ammonium.
% N in ammonium form = (% Ammo-
nium + % Urea) ÷ % Total N X 100
For example, a 15-5-15 label indicates
the following nitrogen breakdown:
Total Nitrogen (N)……15%
1.20 % Ammoniacal Nitrogen
11.75 % Nitrate Nitrogen
2.05 % Urea Nitrogen
(2.05% Urea + 1.20% Ammonium) ÷
15% Total N X 100 = 21.7% N in ammonium
form
Potential Acidity or Basicity. The
potential acidity or basicity indicates how
the fertilizer will affect media solution pH. A
fertilizer label will indicate that the fertilizer
has either a potential acidity or a potential
basicity. The potential acidity refers to the
fertilizer’s tendency to cause the media pH
to decrease, while the potential basicity
refers to the fertilizer’s tendency to cause a
media pH increase. The larger the number,
the greater the tendency for the media pH to
be affected by the fertilizer (Table 2). Fertiliz-
ers high in ammonium cause the pH to
decrease (become more acidic), while fertiliz-
ers high in nitrate cause the pH to increase
(become more basic or alkaline).
Several trends are apparent in Table 2.
Fertilizers with a considerable percentage of
the nitrogen in the ammonium form tend to
leave an acid residue in the media, indicated
by the potential acidity. Fertilizers that have
low ammonium, and thus high nitrate form
of nitrogen, tend to leave an alkaline, resi-
due indicated by the potential basicity. The
high-ammonium fertilizers tend to have very
little or no calcium or magnesium, while the
low-ammonium, alkaline-residue fertilizers
contain higher levels of calcium or magnesium.
Proper Dilution Rate. The proper dilu-
tion rate is indicated on the fertilizer label
and can be tested with a soluble salts meter.
The soluble salts concentration of the fertil-
izer solution increases as the amount of
fertilizer increases. For example, 20-10-20
Peat Lite Special will have an electrical
conductivity (EC) of 0.33 mmhos/cm for
every 50 ppm of nitrogen. Therefore, a
fertilizer mixed to provide 250 ppm nitrogen
will have an EC of 1.65 mmhos/cm [(250 ÷
50) ¥ 0.33]. Note: Each fertilizer has a differ-
ent soluble salts to nitrogen relationship, so
the specific fertilizer label must be examined.
Fertilizer Injectors
Injectors mix precise volumes of concen-
trated fertilizer solution and water together.
Injectors or proportioners are commonly
available in a mixing range of 1:16 to 1:200.
For example, 1:100 injection ratio indicates
that one gallon of concentrated fertilizer will
produce 100 gallons of final fertilizer solu-
tion. Injectors allow growers to have a
smaller stock tank and mix their fertilizer
stock solutions less frequently. However, not
all fertilizers can be mixed together. Calcium
and magnesium fertilizers typically can not
be mixed with phosphate and sulfate fertiliz-
ers while concentrated. A solid precipitate
will form in the bottom of the stock tank if
the fertilizers are not compatible. Once the
individual fertilizers are diluted to their final
9
concentration, then all fertilizers are com-
patible and thus can be mixed together.
Multiple Injectors. Multiple injectors
or multiple-headed injectors can be used to
inject incompatible stock solutions. If sepa-
rate injectors are plumbed serially, i.e., one
after the other, then fertilizer stock solutions
can be mixed at the same concentration as
if one injector is being used. For example,
one head can inject calcium nitrate, while
the other head injects magnesium sulfate.
However, if two injector heads are placed
into one stock solution, then the final con-
centration delivered to the plants will be
twice the desired concentration, unless
proper dilution occurs, e.g., mix the stock
solution for 100 ppm N if 200 ppm is desired.
Injector Accuracy and Calibration.
It is very common for injectors to lose cali-
bration accuracy over time. Growers should
test the calibration accuracy with a soluble
salts meter every time a new batch of fertil-
izer is mixed. If a soluble salts meter is not
available, then Calibration Method #2 can
be performed.
Calibration Method 1. Use a soluble
salts/electrical conductivity (EC) meter to
determine concentration of fertilizer coming
from the end of the hose. The EC of the
water must be subtracted from the EC of
fertilizer solution. The correct EC for a
given concentration is usually found on
the fertilizer label.
Calibration Method 2. Place the siphon
into a known volume of solution, e.g., a
quart or a gallon. Turn the water on through
the injector and fill up a large container,
such as a 20- or 40-gallon garbage can.
When the siphon has removed all of the
solution from the small container, turn off
the water. If using a Hozon Injector (1:16),
then one gallon of stock solution should
empty into 16 gallons final solution. If a 1:100
injector is used, then one quart of stock
solution should fill 25 gallons of final solution.
 Table 2. The fertilizer analysis for the percentage (weight basis) of Ca, Mg, S and ammo-
nium (NH4) provided in several commercially-blended fertilizers. Also, the potential acidity or
basicity are listed for each fertilizer.
Potential Acidity Potential Basicity
Fertilizer Ca Mg S NH4 (lbs. Calcium (lbs. Calcium
(N-P2O5-K2O) (%) (%) (%) (%) carbonate equiva- carbonate equiva-
lent per ton) lent per ton)

21-7-7 acid 0 0 0 90 1700 -

24-9-9 0 0 10 50 822 -
20-2-20 0 0 0 69 800 -
20-18-18 0 0 1 73 710 -
24-7-15 0 1 1 58 612 -
20-18-20 0 0 1 69 610 -
20-20-20 0 0 0 69 583 -
20-9-20 0 0 1 42 510 -
20-20-20 0 0 0 69 474 -
16-17-17 0 1 1 44 440 -
20-10-20 0 0 0 40 422 -
21-5-20 0 0 0 40 418 -
20-10-20 0 0 0 38 393 -
20-8-70 0 1 1 39 379 -
15-15-15 0 0 0 52 261 -
17-17-17 0 0 0 51 218 -
15-16-17 0 0 0 47 215 -
15-16-17 0 0 0 30 165 -
20-5-30 0 0 0 56 153 -
17-5-24 0 2 3 31 125 -
20-5-30 0 1 0 54 118 -
17-4-28 0 1 2 31 105 -
20-5-30 0 0 0 54 100 -
15-11-29 0 0 0 43 91 -
15-5-25 0 1 0 28 76 -
15-10-30 0 0 0 39 76 -
20-0-20 5 0 0 25 40 -
21-0-20 6 0 0 48 15 -
20-0-20 7 0 0 69 0 -
16-4-12 0 0 0 38 - 73
17-0-17 4 2 0 20 - 75
15-5-15 5 2 0 28 - 135
13-2-13 6 3 0 11 - 200
14-0-14 6 3 0 8 - 220
15-0-15 11 0 0 13 - 319
15-0-15 11 0 0 13 - 420

10
 Table 3 provides assistance in calcu-
lating the amount of fertilizer to mix to make
different stock solutions using different
injection ratios.
To use this chart:
•Select your injector’s ratio setting across
the top of the columns.
•Select percentage of nitrogen (N) formula
used in left column.
•Read across and down to find ounce re-
quired per gallon of concentrate.
•Multiply this amount by the number of
gallons of concentrate used in your fertilizer
stock tank.
The table is based on 100 ppm N. For
150 ppm, multiply amounts to be used by
1.5; for 200 ppm, multiply amounts to be
used by 2, etc.
Starting a Fertilization Program
Nutrients can be placed into the media
prior to planting, i.e., a pre-plant nutrition
program, and during plant growth, i.e., a
post-plant nutrition program. Do not forget
that irrigation water can also be a signifi-
cant source of plant nutrients, especially
calcium and magnesium.
Despite considerable gardening advice to
the contrary, specific nutrients do not pro-
mote rooting or flowering! Specifically, phos-
phorus does not promote rooting and potas-
sium does not promote flowering. Excess
nitrogen can potentially reduce flowering
and produce excessive vegetative growth.
Pre-Plant Nutrition Programs
Nutrients can be supplied in limited
quantities, while the media components are
being mixed. Calcium and magnesium are
provided when dolomitic limestone is used
to adjust the starting pH. Phosphorus and
sulfur are provided with superphosphate
plus gypsum (calcium and sulfur). (Single
phosphate is 50 percent gypsum by weight).
Iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron and
molybdenum are provided with micronutri-
ent formulations (e.g., Micromax or
Esmigram). Nitrogen and potassium are
provided with potassium nitrate.
Typical pre-plant recipe for 1 cubic yard
of soilless media:
Dolomitic limestone 10 lbs.
Treble Superphosphate 2.25 lbs.
Gypsum 1.5 lbs.
Micromax 1.25 lbs.
Potassium Nitrate 1 lb.
(The additional nitrogen and potassium
will last ~1 to 2 weeks.)

Table 3. A quick chart to determine the number of ounces of fertilizer required per gallon
of stock tank solution based on the percentage of nitrogen in the fertilizer and the injection
ratio. See Appendix A for more specific calculations.
Ounces of fertilizer to make 100 ppm nitrogen
at an injector ratio of:
%N
1:16 1:50 1:100 1:200

10 2:16 6.75 13.5 27.0

15 1:44 4.5 9.0 18.0
20 1:08 3.38 6.75 13.5
25 0.86 2.7 5.4 10.8
30 0.72 2.25 4.5 9.0

Note: Acid injection is discussed in Irrigation Water

Quality for Greenhouse Production.

11
Post-Plant Nutrition Programs The concentration applied is determined by
Most small to medium-sized commercial the amount of leaching. For example, in a
greenhouses use commercially blended constant liquid feed program using a sub-
fertilizers for convenience and dependability; irrigation system (0 percent leaching) 100 ppm
however, for some growers it is economical N may produce adequate growth, while 300
to buy individual fertilizers and mix them ppm N may be needed if overhead irrigation
together. Table 4 shows some of the com- results in 25 percent leaching.
mon ingredients in a variety of different Crop requirements:
commercial fertilizers. Bedding Plants Light
Following are some important notes New Guinea Impatiens Light
about each of the essential plant nutrients: Geranium Moderate
Poinsettias Moderate
Nitrogen (N) to heavy
Sources: ammonium nitrate, urea, Chrysanthemums Heavy
calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate, magne-
sium nitrate.

Table 4. Some common ingredients found in a variety of commercially blended fertilizers.

Note: Each fertilizer may contain several other ingredients not listed below.

Commercial Urea Ammonium Calcium Potassium Magnesium Ammonium

Sources Nitrate Nitrate Nitrate Nitrate Phosphate

Plug Special X X X X
13-2-13
Cal-Mag Special X X X X
14-0-14
High Calcium Spec. X X X
15-0-15
Pansy Special X X X X X
15-2-20
Poinsettia Spec. X X X
22-8-20
Poinsettia Finish. X X X
15-11-29
Pot Mum Special 1 X X X
5-11-29
Geranium Spec.
15-15-15 X X X
Plant Starter X X
15-50-5
Fern Special X X X
18-24-18
General Purpose X X X
20-10-20
All Purpose X X X
20-20-20

12
12
Phosphorus (P)
Sources: Ammonium phosphate, urea
phosphate
A nitrogen-to-phosphate (P2O5) ratio of
2:1 is acceptable for most crops. Fertilizers
with high concentrations of ammonium
phosphate, such as 9-45-15, appear to
promote stem stretching.
Potassium (K)
Sources: Potassium nitrate, potassium
sulfate
A nitrogen-to-potash (K2O) ratio of 1:1 is
acceptable for most crops.
Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg)
Sources: Dolomitic limestone, irrigation
water, calcium nitrate, magnesium sulfate
(Epsom salts), magnesium nitrate.
Calcium and magnesium provided by
dolomitic limestone are released slowly over
several months. These two nutrients can
have an antagonistic relationship (i.e., they
compete within the plant), thus a Ca:Mg
ratio of 3:1 to 5:1 is desirable. Calcium and
magnesium are commonly found in irriga-
tion water, especially high alkalinity water.
Calcium and magnesium deficiencies are
most common when the pH is low (less than
5.8). Calcium and magnesium fertilizers can
not be mixed in the concentrated form with
phosphate or sulfate fertilizers, thus cal-
cium and magnesium are frequently omitted
from commercial fertilizers. A few relatively
new fertilizers contain calcium and magne-
sium along with the nitrogen, phosphorus
Table 5. The micronutrient concentration (ppm) to be applied with each 100 ppm nitrogen.
Micronutrient ppm at 100 ppm N liquid feed
Fertilizer Iron Manganese Zinc
(Fe) (Mn)
Soluble Trace 0.25 0.27
Element Mix (STEM)
Compound 111 0.25 0.13
13
and potassium. These fertilizers often list
five numbers in the analysis. These num-
bers represent N, P2O5, K2O, Ca and Mg,
respectively. For example, (15-5-15-5-2, 14-
0-14-6-3, 13-2-13-6-3). Note: Epsom salts
are 10 percent magnesium by weight.
Micronutrients
Micronutrients are sold in different
formulations; for example, Micromax,
Esmigran and Soluble Trace Element Mix
contain only inorganic sources, while Com-
pound 111 contains chelated sources. Che-
lated forms are superior in that the micro-
nutrients are more soluble, therefore more
readily available to the plant. Consequently,
chelated micronutrients are applied at lower
rates. Compound 111 and STEM are labeled
for use in constant liquid feed programs.
The rates are based on adding a certain
amount of micronutrient mix per 100 ppm
of N used in the fertilization program.
Micronutrient deficiencies are closely
related to media pH. High pH (greater than 6.5)
can produce deficiencies, while low pH (less
than 5.8) can cause toxicities. Adjusting the
media pH is the best solution to avoid micro-
nutrient toxicities or deficiencies.
Copper Boron Molybdenum
(Zn) (Cu) (B) (Mo)
0.15 0.11 0.05 0.001
0.012 0.019 0.04 0.004
 Appendices: Example 1: How many pounds of 21-5-20
fertilizer should one add to a 20 gallon stock
A. Fertilizer calculations tank in order to irrigate with 200 ppm N
1. Calculating the parts per million for using a 1:100 injector?
a fertilizer solution:
Actual ppm = pounds fertilizer X %N X 200 ppm N X 20 gal. X 100 (injector ratio)
Z ÷ gallons stock ÷ proportioner ratio ÷ 21%N ÷ 1200 = 15.9 pounds of fertilizer
(21-5-20) added to a 20-gallon stock tank
For N, Ca, Mg, Fe, Z=1200 will produce 200 ppm N when injected at a
For Phosphorus (P), Z= 528 1:100 ratio.
For Potassium (K), Z= 996
B: Conversion of Units
Example 1: Calculate the concentration Liquid
(ppm) of nitrogen applied when 1 pound of 1 ounces = 29.6 milliliters = 2 table
15-0-15 is mixed into a 5 gallonstock tank spoons
and a 1:16 proportioner is used. 8 ounces = 1 cup
2 cups = 1 pint
1 lb. Fert. X 15%N X 1200 ÷ 5 gal. stock ÷ 2 pints = 1 quart
16 proportioner = 225 ppm nitrogen. 4 quarts = 1 gallon
10 liters = 2.64 gallons
Example 2: Calculate the concentration 1 gallon= 128 ounces = 3.785 liters =
(ppm) of potassium applied when 1 pound of 8.34 pounds of water
15-0-15 is mixed into a 5 gallon stock tank 1 gallon concentrate per 100 gallons
and a 1:16 proportioner is used. of spray = 2.5 tablespoons per
gallon
1 lb. Fert X 15%K ¥ 996 ÷ 5 gal. stock ÷
16 proportioner = 187 ppm potassium Dry Weight
1 ounce = 28.35 grams
Example 3: Calculate the concentration 1 pound = 454 grams = 16 ounces
(ppm) of calcium applied when 1 pound of 1 tablespoon = 3 teaspoons
15-0-15 is mixed into a 5 gallon stock tank 1 ppm = 1 milligram per 1 kilogram
and a 1:16 proportioner is used. (Note from or 1 milliliter per liter or 1 milligram
Table 2, 15-0-15 contains 11% calcium). per liter
Also note that the irrigation water has 15
ppm calcium.

1 X 11 X 1200 ÷ 5 ÷ 16 = 165 ppm cal-

cium from fertilizer plus and additional 15
ppm calcium from the irrigation water = 180
ppm calcium applied

2. Calculating the amount of fertilizer

to add to a stock tank:
lbs. of fert. = desired ppm X gal. stock
soln. X proportioner ratio ÷ %N ÷ Z

14
15
 PB1616-1M-2/99 E12-2015-00-104-99
A State Partner in the Cooperative Extension System
The Agricultural Extension Service offers its programs to all eligible persons
regardless of race, color, national origin, sex or disability and is an Equal Opportunity Employer.
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION WORK IN AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS
The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
and county governments cooperating in furtherance of Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914.
Agricultural Extension Service
Billy G. Hicks, Dean

16