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 8107331

G o l e c , J u d it h A n n

AFIERMATH o f DISASTER: THE TETON DAM BREAK

The Ohio State University PH.D. 1980

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 AFTERi'IATH OF DISASTER:

THE TETON DAM BREAK

DISSERTATION

P re se n ted i n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f the Requirements for

th e Degree Doctor o f P h ilo s o p h y in th e G rad u a te

S c h o o l o f t h e Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

By

J u d i t h Ann G o l e c , B . A . , M.A.

* * * * *

The O hi o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

1980

Reading Committee: A p p r o v e d By

Dr. E n r i c o L. Q u a r a n t e l l i

Dr . Simon D i n i t z

Dr . C i s e l a J . Hinkle
Advisor
D epartm ent o f S o c io lo g y
 ACKNOWIEDGMENTS

I w a nt t o t h a n k t h e members o f my r e a d i n g commi tt ee * P r . E. L.
Q u a r a n t e l l i , my a d v i s o r . Dr. S. D i n i t z and Dr. (1. H i n k l e . In p a r t i c ­
u l a r , I w i s h t o e x p r e s s my o r e c i a t i o n fo r th e encouragement I
r e c e i v e d , f o r t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e i n m> a b i l i t y and f o r t h e f r ee d o m t o
pursue t h i s re s e a rc h as e m p ir ic a l circum stances d i c t a t e d .

W i t h o u t t h e c o o p e r a t i o n and a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e r e s i d e n t s o f t h e
Upper Snake R i v e r V a l l e y , who g a v e s o g e n e r o u s l y o f t h e i r t i m e , t h i s
r e s e a r c h would h a ve b e en i m p o s s i b l e . Promises o f c c n f i d e n t i a l i t y
p r e v e n t me from i d e n t i f y i n g , i n d i v i d u a l l y , t h e p e r s o n s t o wliom I am
indebted. The c o n t r i f a u t i o n s o f e v e r y p e r s o n , a l t h o u g h p u b l i c l y un­
named, a r e p r i v a t e l y remembered and d e e p l y a p p r e c i a t e d .

The o p p o r t u n i t i e s whi ch c u l m i n a t e d i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d
s t u d y w e r e made p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h a f e l l o w s h i p p r o g r a m s p o n s o r e d c o n ­
j o i n t l y by e me r ge nc y P l a n n i n g Ca na da and t h e D i s a s t e r R e s e a r c h
Center. I wa nt t o t h a n k Emergency P l a n n i n g C a na da f o r t h e g e n e r o u s
fin a n c ia l support. The m a t e r i a l a s s i s t a n c e , p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t and
e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f Burke Se a —'.ard war - a l w a y s a v a l u a b l e s o u r c e o f
s u p p o r t t h a t we nt beyoad t h e c a l l o f d u t y .

My a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h t h e D i s a s t e r R e s e a r c h C e n t e r h a s been a
r e w a r d i n g e x p e r i e n c e in c o u n t l e s s ways and [ h a v e a c c u m u l a t e d
d e b ts o v e r th e c o u rse of s i x y e a r s . I e s p e c i a l l y want t _< ciiank Ur.
Q u a r a n t e l l i and h i z W i l s o n f o r o r c h e s t r a t i n g t h e s p e c i a l a s s i s t a n c e
I r e c e i v e d in c o m p l e t i n g t h i s r e s e a r c h . Many o f my c o l l e a g u e s a t
t h e D i s a s t e r R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , i n t h e c o u r s e o f c o m p l e t i n g f i e l d work
for o t h e r p r o j e c t s , gathered a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f the secondary
d a t a w h i c h was a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s s t u d y . [ wish to thank Barbara
B a i s d e n , Karen O r t l i p p D a u g h e r t y , Tom F o r r e s t , H a r r i e t G an s o n ,
P a t r i c k Gurney, Joan Neff Gurney, V e r ta T a y l o r , K athleen T ie r n e y
and C a t h e r i n e Sm it h f o r g e n e r a t i n g d a t a o f s u c h h i g h q u a l i t y . Tim
B o u r d e s s and C l a r k La wr en ce s p e n t many h o u r s p a t i e n t l y l i s t e n i n g and
r e s p o n d i n g t o i d e a s a s t h e y eme rge d d u r i n g v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f a n a l y s i s .
I was a l s o f o r t u n a t e t o b e n e f i t From t h e e d i t o r i a l e x p e r t i s e o f B e t h
R i n a r d who p a i n s t a k i n g l y r e v i e w e d t h e f i n a l d r a f t o f t h i s d i s s e r t a ­
tion. I am e s p e c i a l l y g r a t e f u l t o T i n a Wren, Ruth O r r and Beth
R i n a r d f o r t y p i n g t l i i s m a n u s c r i p t w i t h s p e e d and c o m p e t e n c e w h i l e
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e m a i n i n g w a t c h f u l For l a s t - m i n u t e c h a n g e s .
 R i t a Haben t r a n s c r i b e d m o s t o f t h e t a p e - r e c o r d e d i n t e r v i e w s .
T h i s was do n e w i t h m e t i c u l o u s a t t e n t i o n t o d e t a i l . I a l s o wa nt t o
t h a n k L o r i M i n u t e l l i , C h a r I s a Norman, A n n e t t e Haben a nd B e t h R i n a r d
who s h a r e d some o f t h e b u r d e n o f t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n o p e r a t i o n . Their
c o l l e c t i v e e f f o r t s produced t r a n s c r i p t s of h ig h q u a l i t y .

The f r i e n d s h i p o f Diane Ewa ld , K e i t h Ewa ld , Kar en O r t l i p p

D a u g h e r t y , Dave D a u g h e r t y , M a r v i n H c r s h i s e r , Norman S m it h and G. P.
S c o u t h e l p e d i n b o t h t a n g i b l e and i n t a n g i b l e w ay s . My d e a r f r i e n d s
and r o o m - m a t e s , J o a n N e f f C u m e y and P a t r i c k J . Cu rn ey d e s e r v e
s p e c ia l thanks.

A l t h o u g h i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o e x p r e s s i n wo rd s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s
o f my F a m i l y , I do want t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e i r con­
t i n u i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g , e n c o u r a g e m e n t and s u p p o r t .

F un d in g f o r t h e r e s e a r c h was p r o v i d e d , i n p a r t , by a g r a n t
(ROl MH 2 66 19 ) w h i c h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f M e n t a l H e a l t h a wa rd ed
t o t h e D i s a s t e r R e s e a r c h Centre-. I wa nt t o t h a n k t h e NIMH For t h e i r
assistance. However, t h e a n a l y s i s , F i n d i n g s and c o n c l u s i o n s a r e
t h o s e o f t h e a u t h o r and do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t t h e v i e w s o r
p o l i c i e s o f NIMH.
 VITA

J u l y 27, 1941 ... Bom - Sault S te . Marie, O ntario

1 97 2 .................................. B . A . , The U n i v e r s i t y o£ W e s t e r n O n t a r i o ,
London, O n t a r i o

1972-1974 ................... T e a c h i n g A s s i s t a n t , The U n i v e r s i t y o f

W e s t e r n O n t a r i o , L o n do n, O n t a r i o

1974 (summer) .., L e c t u r e r , The U n i v e r s i t y o f W e s t e r n

O n t a r i o , L on do n, O n t a r i o

197 4.................................. M.A., The U n i v e r s i t y o f W e s t e r n O n t a r i o ,

L ondon, O n t a r i o

1 97 4- 1978 .................... Emergency P l a n n i n g Canada F e l l o w

1974- 1979 ................... R e s e a r c h A s s o c i a t e , The Ohio S t a t e

U n i v e r s i t y , C ol u m b u s , Ohio

1 97 9 - 1980 ................... T e aching A s s i s t a n t , Department of

S o c i o l o g y , The Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
C ol umbus, Ohio

PUBLICATIONS

"The P r o b l e m o f Needs A s s e s s m e n t i n t h e D e l i v e r y o f EMS", w i t h P a t r i c k

J . G u m e y , Mass E m e r g e n c i e s , v o l . 2 , n o . 3, 1 6 9 - 1 7 8 , 1977.

" R e v i e v o f R e sp o n s e o f t h e H e a l t h C a r e Worker t o Fa mi ly - Co mmu ni ty Ro l e

C o n f l i c t and t h e P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o n s e q u e n c e s o f R e s o l u t i o n , by J e r r i
M.D. L a u b e " , Mass E m e r g e n c i e s , v o l . 2, n o . 3, 1 2 9 - 1 3 0 , 1977.

"Revi ew o f a P r i m e r i n P h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l P s y c h o l o g y , b y E r n e s t K e e n " ,
P h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l S o c i o l o g y N e w s l e t t e r , v o l . 5 , n o . 2 , 3 - 4 , 1977.

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major F i e l d : Sociology

Sociology of D ev iance/S ocial P s y c h ia try . P r o f e s s o r Simon D i n i t z

S o c ia l Psychology. Professor C isela J . Hinkle

S o c i o l o g i c a l Theory. P r o f e s s o r Roscoe C. H i n k l e

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS........................................................................................................................... ü

V I T A ................................................................................................................................................... i v

LIST OF TABL ES.....................................................................................................................v i i i

LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................................... i x

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 1

The S t u d y ........................................................................................................... 1
F o r m u l a t i n g t h e P r o b l e m ......................................................................... 2
P r e s u m p t i o n o f I l l n e s s ..................................................................... 2
The M e d i c a l Model .............................................................................. 3
C r i t i q u e o f t h e M e d i c a l M o d e l ................................................. 12
R e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e P r o b l e m ............................................................ 16
O v e r v i e w o f t h e S t u d y ................................................................ . . 17

2. METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................. 30

R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n ..............................................................................................30
Q u a l i t a t i v e M e t h o d o l o g y ............................................................................... 31
R e s e a r c h S e t t i n g ........................................................................................ 35
F i e l d W o r k ............................................................................................................ 37
i n - d e p t h I n t e r v i e w i n g ..................................................................... 38
P a r t i c i p a n t - O b s e r v a t i o n ................................................................ 40
K n o w l e d g e a b l e I n f o r m a n t s ..................................................................... 42
H i s t o r i c a l D o cu me n ts ............................................................................... 42
O f f i c i a l S t a t i s t i c s ......................................................................... 43
I n t e r p r é t â t i o n and P r e s e n t a t i o n ............................................................44

3. SOCIAL CONTEXT............................................................................................................ 51

S o c i a l E c o l o g y ............................................................................................. 51
S o c i a l Demogr aphy..............................................................................................58
S o c i a l Orj'.an i z a t i o n .........................................................................................62
E c c l e s i a s t i c a l S t r u c t u r e ......................................................................65
A c t i v e i n v o l v e m e n t .................................................................................... 70
i m p o r t a n c e o f F a m i l y ............................................................................... 72
Churcii W e l f a r e P r o g r a m ...........................................................................73
Summary...................................................................................................................... 75
 Page
4. DISASTER..................................................................................................................... 82

H i s t o r y o f t h e T e t o n D a m .................................................................... 82
C h r o n o l o g y o f D i s a s t e r ......................................................................... 83
D e s t r u c t i o n i n i t s P a t h ............................................................................... 91
The Human C o s t ...................................................................................................99
Summary............................................ 102

5. AFTERMATH OF DISASTER: TRAUMA?................................................................109

E x p e c t e d M e n t a l H e a l t h E m e r g e n c i e s .............................................. 109
A c t u a l M e n t a l H e a l t h E m e r g e n c i e s ................................................. 113
P e r s o n a l D i s a b i l i t y ........................................................................... 118
A l c o h o l Abuse .......................................................................................... 117
F a m i l i a l D i s o r d e r ................................................................................ 117
L e g a l D e v i a n c e ............................................................................................170
D e t e c t e d C r i s e s ................................................................................... 123
C h a n g i n g E x p e c t a t i o n s .................................................................................. 125
Summary.................................................................................................................... 127

6. AFTERMATH OF DISASTER: REBUILDING ....................................................... 133

S o c i a l l y O r g a n i z e d D i s a s t e r R e sp o n s e .......................................... 133
L o c a l R e s p o n s e ............................................................................................ 134
F e d e r a l R e s p o n s e ....................................................................................... 136
O t h e r R e s p o n s e ............................................................................................ 139
The P r o c e s s o f R e b u i l d i n g ........................................................................ 139
U n c e r t a i n t y .................................................................................................139
O b s t a c l e s ......................................................................................................143
T r a n s c e n d e n c e ........................................................................................ 150
Summary.....................................................................................................................152

7. CONCLUSION......................................................................................................................157

Summary o f F i n d i n g s ....................................................................................... 157

(. 'cncral f s s i i e s ........................................................................ . . . . . i b i
fmpl i t; at i o n s o f t h e S t u d y ........................................................................ 163

APPENDICES

A. F i e l d Cuidc f o r I n - d e p t h I n t e r v i e w i n g .............................. . . . 169

B. V i t a l S t a t i s t i c s (Departm ent of Health

and W e l f a r e , S t a t e o f I d a h o ) f o r Ma di son
C o u n t y , 1 9 74 - 19 7 8 ............................................................................................. 171

C. S t a t i s t i c a l Summa ri es o f Rexbur g P o l i c e
D e p a r t m e n t o f R e p o r t s ................................................................................... 172

Vi
 Page
D. C o u r t F i l i n g s f o r M a di so n C o u n t y ,
1 9 7 4- 19 7 8 .......................................................................................................... , 175

E. D i s a s t e r R e l i e f by T y p e o f Agency,
T a s k , and F u n d i ng S o u r c e .................................................................................. 176

BIBLIOCRAPHY .......................................................................................................................... 178

V J-l
 LIST OF TABLES

T a b le Page

1. S t u d i e s A s s e s s i n g Damage by Community
D i s a s t e r , D i m e ns i o n M e a s u r e d , P r e - d i s a s t e r
C om pa r is o n a n d Time o f P o s t - D i s a s t e r
M e a s u r e m e n t .................................................................................................................27

2. Income G e n e r a t e d i n Ma di so n C o u n t y, 1974,
by Type o f Economic A c t i v i t y ..........................................................................57

3. P e r c e n t a g e o f P o p u l a t i o n o f Madison County
and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s by Age, 1970...................................................... 60

4. O c c u p a t i o n a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e Labor
F o r c e o f 16 Y e a r s and O l d e r f o r M a d i so n
C o u n t y , 1 97 0........................................................................................................... 61

5. F a m i l y Income f o r Ma dis on C o u n t y , 1970........................................... 63

6. Median Income o f Madi son Count y and t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s C i v i l i a n L a b o r F o r c e o f 16
Y e a r s and Ov e r by S e l e c t e d O c c u p a t i o n a l
C a t e g o r y and S e x , 1970................................................................................... 64

7. D i s a s t e r Los s by S e l e c t i v e P e r s o n a l and
P r o p e r t y C a t e g o r i e s f o r Ma di so n and
Fr emo n t Count i c s ....................................................................................................... 93

8. D e t e c t e d C r i s e s R e p o r t e d by P r o j e c t 413
by S e l e c t i v e Case D e s c r i p t i o n , by t h e
Month, A u g u s t 1976 - A p r i l 1977 .......................................................... 124

9. Summary o f A c t i v i t y f o r Rexburg P o l i c e
D e p a r t m e n t , 1 9 74- 1978 ................................................................................... 172

10. A r r e s t s , O f f e n s e s and C o m p l a i n t s Re cor de d

by Rexburg I’o l i c o D e p a r t m e n t , 1 9 74 -1 9 7 8 ....................................... 173

11. In d e x C r i me s and A r r e s t s R e p o r t e d by
Rexbur g P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t , 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 7 8 ................................................. 174
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. E l e m e n t a r y M e d i c a l Model o f D i s a s t e r ................................................ 6

2. M e d i c a l Model , E l a b o r a t i o n 1................................................................... 7

1. M e d i c a l Model, E l a b o r a t i o n IT .............................................................. 10

4. Map o f Idalio Showing Ma dis on C o u n t y ................................................52

5. Map o f Madison C o u n t y ..................................................................................53

6. Map u f Madison Co u n t y Showing T o po g r a p h y

a nd P o p u l a t i o n D i s t r i b u t i o n .................................................................... 55

7. The A r t i c l e s o f F a i t h o f The Ch u r ch o f
J e s u s C h r i s t o f T . a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s ............................................................66

8. E c c l e s i a s t i c a l S t r u c t u r e o f t h e Chur ch
o f J e s u s C l i r i s t o f t h e L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s ............................................. 67

9. T e t o n Flood P a t l i , J u n e 5, 1976............................................................... 86

10. T e t o n Flood P a t h , Madi son and Fr emont

C o u n t i e s ...........................................................................................................................92

11. A d m i s s i o n s (New and T o t a l ) t o P s y c h i a t r i c

H o s p i t a l f o r Ma dis on C o u n t y , S e m i - a n n u a l
R e p o r t s , 1 9 7 4 - 1 9 7 9 ............................................................................................... 114

12. C o m p l a i n t s o f S t r a n g e , b i z a r r e o r Me n t a l
B e h a v i o r R e c e i v e d by t h e Rexbur g P o l i c e
D e p a r t m e n t , by t h e Mo n th , 1974 ( A p r i l ) -
1 9 7 9.............................................................................................................................. 114

13. Com plaints o f S uspe c ted S u i c i d a l Behavior

R e c e i v e d by t h e Rexburg P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t ,
b y t h e Month, 1974 ( A p r i l ) - 1979 ...................................................... 114

14. Li cpior S a l e s ( d o l l a r s ) R e p o r t e d by S t a t e
L i q u o r D i s p e n s a r y f o r Ma dis on C o u n t y , by
t h e Mont h, 1 9 7 4 - 1 9 7 9 ........................................................................................ 118

ix
F ig u re Page

15. DWI A r r e s t s R e p o r t e d by Re xb ur g P o l i c e
D e p a r t m e n t , by t h e Mo nt h, 1 9 75 - 19 7 9 ................................................. 118

16. D o m e s t i c C a l l s R e p o r t e d by R e x b ur g P o l i c e
D e p a r t m e n t , by t h e Mo nt h , 1974 ( A p r i l ) -
1 9 7 9 ............................................................................................................................... 119

17. D i v o r c e F i l i n g s f o r Ma di son C o u n t y , by
t h e Month, 1974 ( J u n e ) - 1979 ( A p r i l ) ................................................... 119

18. A?1 A r r e s t s ( A d u l t a n d J u v e n i l e )
R e p o r t e d by t h e Re xbur g P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t ,
by t h e Month, 197 5- 19 7 8 .............................................................................. 121

19. A l c o h o l R e l a t e d A r r e s t s ( A d u l t and
J u v e n i l e ) R e p o r t e d by t h e R e xbur g P o l i c e
D e p a r t m e n t , by t h e Month, 1 97 5 - 1 97 8 ................................................. 121

2 0. Drug R e l a t e d A r r e s t s ( A d u l t and J u v e n i l e )
R e p o r t e d by t h e Re xbur g P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t ,
by t h e Month, 1 97 5- 197 8 .......................................................... 121

21. A f t e r m a t h o f D i s a s t e r : The R e b u i l d i n g
P r o c e s s .........................................................................................................................153
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The S t u d y

T h i s i s a s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f t h e e f f e c t s o f communi ty-
wi de d i s a s t e r . S p e c i f i c a l l y , i t i s a study of the d i s a s t e r experience
o f r e s i d e n t s o f t h e Upper S na ke R i v e r V a l l e y i n I d a h o . On J u n e 5,
1976, t h e T e t o n Dam c o l l a p s e d . When t h e embankment was b r e a c h e d , 80
b i l l i o n g a l l o n s o f w a t e r was r e l e a s e d f l o o d i n g t h e v a l l e y f l o o r b e l o w .
T ho u s a n d s o f v a l l e y r e s i d e n t s w e r e l e f t h o m e l e s s , c o m m u n i t i e s we re s e ­
v e r e l y d i s r u p t e d and p r o p e r t y da ma ge s w e r e i n t h e h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s
of d o l l a r s . This is a case study about the recovery e x perience follow ­
i n g t h e T e t o n Dam b r e a k .

T h i s i s n o t a c o l l e c t i o n o r s u m ma t io n o f i n d i v i d u a l d i s a s t e r s t o ­
ries. The o b j e c t i v e o f t h e r e s e a r c h i s t o g e t be yo n d t h e i d e o s n y c r a -
t i c and p r i v a t e a s p e c t s o f e x p e r i e n c e t o t h e g e n e r a l and common f e a ­
t u r e s o f t h e d i s a s t e r a f t e r m a t h a s a s o c i a l l y m e a n i n g f u l phenomenon.
S e v e r a l t y p e s o f d a t a w e re g a t h e r e d f o r t h i s p u r p o s e . The p r i m a r y
d a t a c o n s i s t s o f open-ended i n t e r v i e w s w ith a sample o f v a l l e y r e s i ­
d e n t s n e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r t h e dam c o l l a p s e d . These r e t r o s p e c t i v e
a c c o u n ts a r e used in c o n j u n c t i o n w ith p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n , h i s ­
t o r i c a l d o c u m e n t s , i n f o r m a n t r e p o r t s , and s t a t i s t i c a l r e c o r d s . The
p r o c e s s and p r o d u c t o f t h e d a t a g a t h e r i n g and f i e l d r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g y
i s an i n t e r p r e t i v e e n d e a v o u r i n w h i c h v a r i o u s t y p e s o f d a t a a r e s y n ­
t h e s i z e d i n t o a p o r t r a i t , i f y ou w i l l , o f t h e t y p i c a l d i s a s t e r e x p e r i ­
e n ce .

The m e t h o d o l o g i c a l s t r a t e g y , t h e n , i s i n f o r m e d by t h e q u a l i t a t i v e
tra d itio n of social s c i e n t i f i c inquiry. This approach i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
well s u ite d for ex p lo ra to ry re se a rc h . I t i s a l s o t h e p r e f e r r e d met ho d
f o r g a i n i n g k no w l e d g e a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g o f e v e n t s f r om t h e p e r s p e c t i v e
o f s o c i a l a c t o r s and f o r e x a m i n i n g t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t f rom w h i c h mean­
ing d e r i v e s . C o n s i s t e n t w ith t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f q u a l i t a t i v e methodo­
l o g y , t h e r e s e a r c h d e s i g n i s o p e n , f l e x i b l e and e m p i r i c a l l y g r o u n d e d .
The r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n w h i c h g u i d e s t h e i n q u i r y i s v e r y s i m p l y : What
a r e t h e e x p e r i e n c e s and a d j u s t m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i s a s t e r r e c o v e r y ?
 T h i s s t u d y d e p a r t s from t h e m a i n s t r e a m o f d i s a s t e r r e s e a r c h i n
b o t h s u b s t a n c e and m et h o d . D isaster research, of a social-psychologi­
c a l n a t u r e , h a s been overwhelm ingly concern ed w ith th e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n d i s a s t e r and p s y c h o l o g i c a l damage, a n d , t h e r e f o r e , mo st s t u d ­
i e s empl oy e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l s u r v e y m e t h o d s . The d e c i s i o n t o d e p a r t f r om
t h e c u r r e n t f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m r e s u l t e d from c a s u a l o b s e r v a ­
t i o n s b a s e d on p r i o r d i s a s t e r r e s e a r c h and fr om an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e
current lite ra tu re . The r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m i s b a s i c a l l y a
r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t th e dominant s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
d i s a s t e r phenomenon. I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , e s s e n t i a l to p ro v id e the
grounds f o r t h i s d e p a r t u r e .

F o r m u l a t i n g The P r o b l e m

My i n t e r e s t i n t h e s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f d i s a s t e r d a t e s
b a c k t o S e p t e m b e r 197& when I b eg a n as a r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t a t t h e Di­
s a s t e r Research C enter. D u r i n g my t e n u r e a t t h e C e n t e r , t h e r e we re
many o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o do f i e l d work i n d i s a s t e r - s t r i c k e n c o m m u n i t i e s
d u r i n g t h e f i r s t d a y s and weeks f o l l o w i n g i m p a c t . There were a ls o op­
p o r t u n i t i e s , a l t h o u g h l e s s f r e q u e n t , t o r e t u r n t o c o m m u n i t i e s mont hs o r
years l a t e r fo r follow-up study. I n more t h a n 35 s e p a r a t e f i e l d t r i p s ,
I n e v e r f a i l e d t o be i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e s e n s e o f humor and s e em i ng r e ­
s i l i e n c e and r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s t h a t v i c t i m s o t d i s a s t e r d i s p l a y i n t h e
face of a d v e r s it y . A d m i t t e d l y , my i m p r e s s i o n s w e r e b a s e d on c a s u a l o b ­
s e r v a tio n s , f o r the rese a rc h p r o j e c t s th a t I p a r t i c i p a t e d in during
t h i s pe riod were not s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y o r i e n t e d , b u t, r a t h e r , fo ­
c u s e d on t he o r g a n i z a t i o n a l ^nd community a s p e c t s o f d i s a s t e r p r e p a r e d ­
n e s s and r e s p o n s e .

T h e r e i s a v o l u m i n o u s amount o f m a t e r i a l w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e human
in t e r e s t aspects of d i s a s te r . Perhaps because d i r g n t e r r a i s e s funda­
m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s o f l i f e and d e a t h i t i s a n i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g
topic. One ne ed o n l y c o n s i d e r t h e n i g h t l y news b r o a d c a s t t o remind­
ed t h a t t he d r a m a and t r a g e d y o f d i s a s t e r r e g u l a r l y q u a l i f i e s as a
news wo rt hy i t e m . This g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t in d i s a s t e r i s c l e a r l y r e f l e c t ­
ed i n a v a s t a r r a y o f p o p u l a r and j o u r n a l i s t i c a c c o u n t s , a n e c d o t e s ,
c o n j e c t u r e , and p e r s o n a l r e f l e c t i o n s . In c o n t r a s t t o my own o b s e r v a ­
t i o n s , t h e o v e r a l l i m p r e s s i o n c o nv e ye d in t h i s l i t e r a t u r e p a i n t s an
image o f f r a g i l i t y by f o c u s i n g o u v i c t i m s who d e s p a i r and become d e ­
pendent a f t e r d i s a s t e r s t r i k e s . ^ I n a se n s e , the p h ra se " d i s a s t e r v i c ­
tim" c a p tu r e s r a t h e r n i c e l y a g e n e ra l expectancy t h a t c a ta s tr o p h e
causes adverse so cial-p sy ch o lo g ical e f f e c t s .

Presumption of I l l n e s s

A l t h o u g h t h e e m p i r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e on t h e s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s ­
p e c t s o f d i s a s t e r i s s u r p r i s i n g l y s p a r s e , w ha t d o e s e x i s t r e f l e c t s t h e
same g e n e r a l e x p e c t a n c y . S p e c if ic a lly , the expectancy for adverse p e r­
s o n a l and s o c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s i s g i v e n e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e p r e s u m p t i o n
o f mental i l l n e s s or psy ch o lo g ic al d is tu rb a n c e . To d a t e , t h e p a r a m o u n t
q u e s t i o n g u i d i n g r e s e a r c h and t h e o r y o f a s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l n a t u r e
c o n c e r n s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r and d i s a s t e r .
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e r e s e a r c h g e n e r a t e d by t h i s q u e s t i o n h a s p r o d u c e d am-
b i g o u s and c o n t r o v e r s i a l f i n d i n g s .

E s s e n t i a l l y , the co n tro v ersy is over long-term d i s a b i l i t y . Re­

s e a r c h e r s seem t o a g r e e t h a t i n t h e s h o r t - t e r m , a d i s t u r b a n c e commonly
r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e d i s a s t e r s yndr ome - - a d a z e d s t a t e o f s h o c k — t y p i ­
c a l l y occurs in d i s a s t e r v ic tim s. The d i s a g r e e m e n t r e v o l v e s a r o u n d t h e
t r a n s c i e n c e o r p e r s i s t e n c e o f t h e s o - c a l l e d d i s a s t e r s yn d ro me .

What i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g a b o u t t h i s c o n t r o v e r s y i s t h a t
t h e d e b a t e i s c a r r i e d on w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f t h e i l l n e s s p a r a ­
digm. D i s a s t e r s c h o l a r s who a r e c o n v i n c e d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l d i s a b i l i t y
does not c o n s t i t u t e a s e r i o u s problem i n th e a f t e r m a t h of r e c o v e r y have
s e e m i n g l y t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o s t u d i e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and com­
m u n i t y i s s u e s . 3 T h u s , i n q u i r y o f a s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l n a t u r e c on ­
t i n u e s t o be c o n s t r a i n e d by t h e m e d i c a l model and by a p r e s u m p t i o n o f
illn ess.

P e r r y and L i n d e l l h a v e a p t l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e s t a t e o f kn owl ed ge
i n t h i s a r e a as an " e m p i r i c a l s t a l e m a t e " . ^ I n my o p i n i o n , t h e t h e o r e ­
t i c a l m a l a i s e h a s more i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a n t h e e m p i r i c a l s t a l e ­
mate p e r s e . I n s p i t e o f more t h a n two d e c a d e s o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l f i n d ­
i n g s , t h e a s s u m p t i v e fr ame wo rk w h ic h f o l l o w s l o g i c a l l y f r om t h e m e d i c a l
m e t a p h o r h a s n o t b e e n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e x a m i n e d . 5 I t seems t o me t h a t
t h e mc st f r u i t f u l a p p r o a c h t o g e t t i n g beyond t h e e m p i r i c a l s t a l e m a t e
and t o t h e r o o t o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y i s t o e xa mi ne t h e u n d e r l y i n g t h e o ­
r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e t h a t l e a d s t o Che p r e s u m p t i o n o f i l l n e s s .

The M e d i c a l Model

The a d o p t i o n o f t h e m e d i c a l m e t a p h o r and i t s a c c e p t a n c e a s a g e n ­
e r a l a s s u m p t i v e f ra me wo rk a c r o s s d i v e r s e s c h o o l s o f t h o u g h t i s t r a c e ­
a b l e to t h r e e major works. L i n d em a nn ' s s e m i n a l s t u d y o f " m o r b i d g r i e f
r e a c tio n " ,^ T y h u r s t's d e s c r ip tio n of the " n a tu ra l h i s t o r y o f p sychia­
t r i c phenomenon i n c i v i l i a n d i s a s t e r s " , ^ and W a l l a c e ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s on
the " d i s a s t e r s y n d r o m e " , 8 arc a l I considered c l a s s i c s in d i s a s t e r l i t ­
erature. The work by L inde ma nn and h i s c o l l e a g u e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r
d i a g n o s i s o f m o r b i d g r i e f r e a c t i o n among h o s p i t a l i z e d v i c t i m s o f t h e
C o c o a n u t Gr ove n i g h t c l u b f i r e i n B o s t o n , h a s s e r v e d as a r e f e r e n t f o r
b o t h t r a d i t i o n a l l y o r i e n t e d p s y c h i a t r i c s c h o l a r s and f o r c r i s i s i n t e r ­
v e n t i o n t h e o r i s t s who, i n c i d e n t a l l y , c l a i m Lindemann a s t h e f o u n d i n g
f a th e r o f c r i s i s in te rv e n tio n thought. The c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f T y h u r s t
a nd W a l l a c e ha ve b e e n v i e w e d a s s o c i o l o g i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r m u l a ­
t i o n s , f o r b o t h r e s e a r c h e r s p l a c e d p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s on t h e s o c i a l
a nd c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s oC t h e d i s a s t e r s y n d r o me .

C e r t a i n l y , the ad o p tio n o f a b io -m e d ic a l metaphor to d e s c r i b e so­

c i a l phenomenon i s n o t a n i n v e n t i o n o f d i s a s t e r s c h o l a r s . Bio-medical
a n a l o g i e s h a v e a l o n g h e r i t a g e i n p s y c h i a t r y , p s y c h o l o g y , s o c i o l o g y and
a n th r o p o lo g y , and, i n f a c t , t h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y p r o b a b ly a c c o u n ts
fo r i t s unchallenged acceptance in the d i s a s t e r l i t e r a t u r e . What i s
p a r t i c u l a r t o t h e d i s a s t e r - r e l a t e d m e t a p h o r i s t h a t i t i s b o r r o w e d f ro m
tr a u m a o r emergency m e d i c i n e . The l e x i c o n o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a s s u m p ­
t i o n s , terms l ik e emotional shock, em otional s c a r s , psychic p a in , psy­
c h o l o g i c a l da ma ge , e m o t i o n a l w ou n d s , m o r a l t i s s u e , m o r b i d g r i e f , t r a u ­
m atic n e u r o s i s , mental h e a l t h em ergencies, p sy c h o lo g ic a l f i r s t a id ,
m e n d i n g m i n d s , and s o on, d e r i v e t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e f r om a s s o c i a t i o n
w i t h p h y s i c a l i n j u r y and a c c i d e n t a l v i o l e n c e . Terms b o r r o w e d f r om t h e
en g ineering vocabulary — s t r e s s o r , s t r e s s , s t r a i n , r e s i s t a n c e , te n ­
s i o n , and so f o r t h — a r e f u l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h i s s t r u c t u r e o f
t h o u g h t and u s ed a s i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e p r i m i t i v e t e r m s . T h i s i s n o t s u r ­
p r i s i n g s in c e p h ysical medicine a ls o u t i l i z e s these concepts. In f a c t ,
th e i n t e r c h a n g e a b i l i t y o f terms p o i n t s to a b a s i c s i m i l a r i t y between
e n g i n e e r i n g and p h y s i c a l m e d i c i n e . B o t h d i s c i p l i n e s d e a l w i t h mecha­
n i s t i c o r c l o s e d s y s t e m s , h o m e o s t a t i c p r i n c i p l e s and t e n s i o n - r e d u c i n g
mechanisms.

B e f o r e e x a m i n i n g t h e d i s a s t e r - s p e c i f i c a s s u m p t i o n s , a few comments
a r e in o r d e r c o n c e r n in g th e propo sed g e n e r a l i t y of t h e fundamental
s t r u c t u r e of thought. The c e n t r a l t e n e t s o f t h e a s s u m p t i v e f r a m e w o r k
a r e grounded p r i m a r i l y in p s y c h o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n s . In the d i s a s t e r
l i t e r a t u r e , two p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d s c h o o l s , p s y c h o a n a l y s i s and
c r i s i s i n t e r v e n t i o n , have been do m inant. Th is o b s e r v a t i o n a l o n e does
not deserve a t t e n t i o n except for th e fa ct t h a t c r i s i s in te r v e n t i o n de­
v e l o p e d a s an e x p l i c i t r e j e c t i o n o f t h e m e d i c a l m o d e l , t h e d i s e a s e a n a ­
l o g y , and t h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o r t h o d o x p s y c h i a t r y . ^
In d e e d , t h e r e are im p o r ta n t d i f f e r e n c e s in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i n t e l l e c ­
t u a l h e r i t a g e , and t r e a t m e n t m o d a l i t i e s . To some e x t e n t , t h e d i f f e r ­
ences are a lso r e f le c te d in a vocabulary of p re fe re n ce . Psychoanaly­
t i c s c h o l a r s t e n d t o u s e t h e t r a u m a gr ammar , a l t h o u g h n o t e x c l u s i v e l y ,
and c r i s i s i n t e r v e n t i o n s c h o l a r s t e n d t o u s e t h e s t r e s s g ra mm a r, a l ­
though not e x c l u s i v e l y . However, t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s s h o u l d n o t be a l ­
lowed t o o b s c u r e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s i m i l a r i t y i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h o u g h t
which le a d s to s i m i l a r e x p e c t a t i o n s about t h e s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l con­
sequences o f d i s a s t e r .

Both s c h o o l s a r e g r o u n d e d i n a c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e h e a l t h y p e r s o n ­
a l i t y a s a c l o s e d s y s t e m m a i n t a i n e d i n h o m e o s t a t i c b a l a n c e by t e n s i o n -
r e d u c in g mechanisms. T h i s u n d e r l y i n g b i o - m e d i c a l model p r o v i d e s a g e n ­
e r a l o r i e n t a t i o n which, in s p i t e o f the d i f f e r e n c e s , r e p r e s e n t s a
shared conceptual apparatus th a t b oth t r a d i t i o n s b rin g to a p a r t i c u l a r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f d i s a s t e r a s an a b n o r m a l and a c c i d e n t a l pheno me non . It
i s i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e f o r e , t o o u t l i n e t h e l o g i c o f t h i s model b r i e f l y .

I n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , t h e d e f e n s e m e c h an i s ms o f t h e
ego, and i n c r i s i s t h e o r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , t h e c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s o f t h e
c l i e n t , r e p r e s e n t the i n t e g r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s which m a i n t a i n i n t e r n a l
e q u i l i b r i u m . 10 An e x t e r n a l t h r e a t e n i n g f o r c e — a " s t i m u l i " o r " c h a l ­
l e n g e t o l i f e - g o a l s " - - over whel ms t h e i n t e g r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s u n d e r m i n ­
ing the s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l i n t e g r i t y o f the s y s te m , th e r e b y c r e a t i n g
a s t a t e o f im balance o r d i s o r d e r . The i n d i v i d u a l i s r e n d e r e d h e l p l e s s
by v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e " d e f e n s e m e c h a n i s m s " o r " c o p i n g s t r a t e ­
g ie s" are inadequate. The e x t e r n a l f o r c e c o n t i n u e s t o i n t r u d e and d e ­
mand r é s o l u t i o n . As t h e i n d i v i d u a l a t t e m p t s u n s u c c e s s f u l l y t o " i n ­
t e g r a t e " th e e x t e r n a l s t i m u l i , or "engage in p r o b le m - s o lv in g a c t i v i t y " ,
an i n t e r n a l s t a t e o f e x c i t a t i o n o r t e n s i o n — " a n x i e t y " o r " s t r e s s " —
heightens. This c r i t i c a l j u n c t u r e between th e p u l l o f e x t e r n a l fo rc e s
and i n t e r n a l t e n s i o n s r e p r e s e n t s " a c u t e t r a u m a t i c n e u r o s i s " o r " c r i s i s
r e a c t i o n " which m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f s u b j e c t i v e l y i n a f f e c t i v e , c o g n i t i v e ,
and s o m a t i c m a l f u n c t i o n s , and o b j e c t i v e l y i n s o c i a l m i s c o n d u c t . Ener­
g ie s are d ir e c te d p r im a r ily a t reducing the te n s io n . T o t a l b re a k do wn
may o c c u r , o r , mor e p r o b a b l y , " r e g r e s s i v e " d e f e n s e me ch a ni sm s o r " m a l ­
a d a p t i v e " c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s e mp l oy e d i n t h e c r i t i c a l p e r i o d s t a b i l i z e
i n t o a new h o m e o s t a t i c b a l a n c e w h i c h r e d u c e s t h e t e n s i o n b u t f i x a t e s
the d i s a b i l i t i e s i n t o a " c h r o n ic n e u r o s i s " o r " i r r e p a r a b l e e m otion al
and m e n t a l d a m a g e " . P e r s o n a l i t y g r o w t h r e p r e s e n t s a t h i r d a l t e r n a t i v e
in b o th i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h , t y p i c a l l y , t h e enhancement o f th e
" r e i n t e g r a t i v e wo r k" o r " p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g " a r e c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e r a ­
peutic assista n c e . The p o i n t t o b e e m p h a s i z e d h e r e i s t h a t b o t h
s c h o o l s o f t h o u g h t a d o p t a t e n s i o n - r e d u c i n g model o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y
w h ic h v i e w s t h e i n d i v i d u a l as a p a s s i v e r e a c t o r t o t h e p u s h and p u l l
of i n t e r n a l te n s i o n s and e x t e r n a l f o r c e s .

Below i s an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t h a v e
e v o l v e d t o e x p l a i n t h e d i s a s t e r s yndrome as a s p e c i a l c a s e o f e x t e r ­
n a lly induced, or a c c i d e n t a l , d i s o r d e r . B a s ic a lly , the bio-m edical
c o n c e p tio n o f the p e r s o n a l i t y is o v e r l a i d w ith a n o t h e r medical m eta­
p h o r drawn f rom t r a u m a m e d i c i n e o r a c c i d e n t a l v i o l e n c e . Figure 1 d i a ­
grams t h e c e n t r a l t e n e t w h i ch p o s t u l a t e s d i s a s t e r a s t h e n e c e s s a r y
and s u f f i c i e n t c a u s e o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r .

F i g u r e 1 shows t h a t t h e d i s a s t e r a g e n t — h u r r i c a n e , t o r n a d o ,
e a r t h q u a k e , e x p l o s i o n , dam b r e a k , f o r e xa mple - - as an e x t e r n a l f o r c e ,
i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as a bl ow o r a r t r e s s o r . D i s a s t e r impact or d i s a s t e r
e x p e r i e n c e i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s an i n t e r n a l t r a u m a o r s t r e s s . The d i ­
s a s t e r e f f e c t , a p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r t e r me d e i t h e r t r a u m a t i c n e u r o ­
s i s o r c r i s i s r e a c t i o n , r e p r e s e n t s t h e c l u s t e r o f s i g n s and symptoms
whi c h m a n i f e s t t h e u n d e r l y i n g damage. In t h i s d ia g ra m , th e d u a l i t y o f
vocabulary has been m a in ta in e d to emphasize the ir.tercl a n g e a b i l i t y of
p rim itiv e terms. H e r e a f t e r , t h e d u a l i t y w i l l n o t b e m a i n t a i n e d and any
t e r m s synonymous w i t h i n j u r y w i l l b e u s e d p r o v i d i n g t h e y r e t a i n t h e
connotation im p licit in the l i t e r a t u r e .

An e x a m p l e drawn from a c c i d e n t a l t r a u m a w i l l make t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s

of t h i s metaphor c l e a r . I n an i n d u s t r i a l a c c i d e n t , f o r e x a m p l e , a
s t e e l beam f a l l s on a w o r k e r ' s l e g a n d , upon i m p a c t , t h e blow c a u s e s an
i n j u r y t o t h e femur a n d s u r r o u n d i n g t i s s u e . The damage m a n i f e s t s
D i s a s t e r A gent D i s a s t e r Im pact D is a s te r E ffe c t

BLOW PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAUMATIC

TRAUMA ----------- > NEUROSIS
(Stressor) (Stress) (Stress/C risis
Reaction)

Figure I: E l e m e n t a r y M e d i c a l Model o f D i s a s t e r

i t s e l f i n s i g n s o f s h o c k , p a i n and s w e l l i n g , and i n symptoms o f im­

paired physical function. The b l o w , t h e n , i s v i e w e d a s t h e n e c e s s a r y
and s u f f i c i e n t c a u s e o f d i s a b i l i t y . S im ila rly , the d i s a s t e r f a l l s a
blow t o t h e m i n d . The i n j u r e d m i n d , l i k e t h e l e g , shows s i g n s o f p s y ­
c h i c s h o c k and e m o t i o n a l p a i n and symptoms o f i m p a i r e d m e n t a l f u n c t i o n .
I t s h o u l d b e c l e a r t h a t t h e e m o t i o n a l wound r e f e r s n o t t o t h e n e u r o ­
lo g ic a l substratum , but to th e in te r n a l o rg a n iz a tio n of the p e r s o n a lity
as o u t l i n e d above.

Figure 2 dem onstrates the f i r s t e l a b o r a tio n ! ! of the c e n tr a l te n e t

by f o c u s i n g on t h e a s s u m p t i o n s w h i c h a r e made c o n c e r n i n g t h e o n s e t ,
c o u r s e , and p r o g n o s i s o f t h e d i s a s t e r s y n d r o me . Researchers t y p i c a l l y
a ss u me t h a t d i s a s t e r s t r i k e s a commu ni ty o f n o r m a l o r m e n t a l l y h e a l t h y
persons. When d i s a s t e r s t r i k e s , damage t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l
i n t e g r i t y o f t h e mind o c c u r s i n s t a n t l y . iTi is p s y c h i c wound m a n i f e s t s
i t s e l f in th re e d i s t i n c t s ta g e s .

The f i r s t s t a g e , s h o c k , o c c u r s i m m e d i a t e l y upon i m p a c t and l a s t s

f rom a few m i n u t e s t o s e v e r a l d a y s . I n t h i s s t a g e , sig n s of d i s b e l i e f ,
n u m b n e s s , h e l p l e s s n e s s , f l a t a f f e c t and s h o c k a r e s u b j e c t i v e l y e x p e r ­
ienced. To o b s e r v e r s , d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s a p p e a r i n a d a z e , i n a s t u p o r ,
zom bie-like, c a ta to n ic o r, p o ssib ly , h y s t e r i c a l .

D u r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e f i r s t a nd s e c o n d s t a g e s , t h e
i n d i v i d u a l f e e l s a n x i o u s and c o n t i n u e s t o e x p e r i e n c e an e x t r e m e s e n s e
o f h e l p l e s s n e s s as h e / s h e a t t e m p t s u n s u c c e s s f u l l y to d e a l w ith t h i s
overwhelming e x p e r i e n c e . A n x i e t y h e i g h t e n s , b e g i n n i n g a downward slump
into a s ta te of d iso rg an izatio n .

The s e c o n d s t a g e , d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , d e p e n d i n g upon o n e ' s t h e o r e t i ­

c a l p e r s u a s i o n , i s p r e s u m e d t o l a s t up t o s i x o r t w e n t y - f o u r m o n t h s ! ^
o r up t o s i x o r e i g h t w e e k s . ! 3 D u r i n g t h i s s t a g e , t h e m e n t a l wound e n ­
c a p s u l a t e s t h e l o s s and d a n g e r o f t h e d i s a s t e r e x p e r i e n c e i n t o t h e f orm
o f p a i n f u l " t o r m e n t i n g " a nd " i n t r u s i v e " ! ^ m e m o r i e s w h i c h c o n t i n u e t o
p r o d u c e a c c u m u l a t i v e t e n s i o n and a f f e c t i v e d i s c o m f o r t . A number o f
s i g n s o f s u b j e c t i v e d i s t r e s s have b e e n s u g g e s te d a s t y p i c a l , i n c l u d i n g
a n x ie ty , f e a r , p a in , a nguish, h o s t i l i t y , impotent rage, g u i l t , g r i e f ,
d esp air, d i s t r u s t , hopelessness, h elp lessn ess, a lie n a tio n , loss, b i t ­
t e r n e s s , c o n f u s i o n , d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , u n c e r t a i n t y and i n s e c u r i t y . In
 D isaster
I Blow '

Improved
f IHealth Scatus
■i

Mental | Shock Pre-disaster

H e a l t h S t a t u s *— - -- * —— — — — - —^ H e a l t h s t a t u s

:D i m i n i s h e d !
Health S tatu s |

' ----- T h e r a p y

Disorganization R e o r g a nization

F i g u r e 2: M e d ic a l Model, E laboration I
 8

a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e a f f e c t i v e and c o g n i t i v e s i g n s o f da ma ge , w h i c h a r e
p r o b a b l y b e s t s u mma ri ze d a s d e p r e s s i o n , t h e o t h e r e s s e n t i a l d i m e n s i o n
o f i n j u r y , m a n i f e s t in s o c i a l m isco ndu c t, i s lo s s o f c o n t r o l .

I n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t e r m s t h i s s e c o n d d i m e n s i o n h a s b e en e x p r e s s e d
a s " p a t h o g e n i c l i b e r a t i o n " l ^ from t e n s i o n v i a l o o t i n g , r a p e , and h ea vy
drinking. A s i m i l a r m e s s a g e i s c o nv e y e d by c r i s i s i n t e r v e n t i o n t h e o ­
rists. Fo r e x a m p l e , o ne s c h o l a r e x p r e s s e s t h e i d e a a s f e l l o w s .

. . . a b e r r a n t c h a r a c t e r o l o g i c a l a c t s , such as l o o t i n g , a l c o ­
h o l i s m , and t h e l i k e , do become p a r t o f t h e v i c t i m ' s b e h a ­
v i o r in major d i s a s t e r . L i t t l e thought is given to the f a c t
t h a t d e v i a n t a c t s , such as Looting, o f t e n a re d i r e c t e d a-
g a i n s t o n e ' s own n e i g h b o r s . I t i s s e e n t o some d e g r e e a s a n
a c t o f a g g r e s s i o n a u t h o r i t y , and, t h e r e f o r e , as a symb olic
a c t a g a in s t the impersonal a g g r e s s o r.

Many d i v e r s e forms o f s o c i a l d e v i a n c e , s y m p t o m a t i c o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g
d amage, a r e p r e su me d t o o c c u r . These in c lu d e s u i c i d e , h om icide, d i ­
v o r c e , a l c o h o l i s m , u ne mp l o y me n t, h ig h wa y a c c i d e n t s , d r u g a b u s e , c h i l d
a b u s e , s o c i a l w i t h d r a w a l , c r i m e and j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n c y .

The t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e c o n d and t h i r d s t a g e s h a s b e e n c h a r ­
a c te r iz e d as follow s.

. . . t h e t e n s i o n becomes s o g r e a t ( d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d s t a g e ) t h a t
t h e i n d i v i d u a l may e x p e r i e n c e a c u t e d e p r e s s i o n b e c a u s e he f e e l s
s o h e l p l e s s and l o s t . As h e e n t e r s t h e f i n a l s t a g e . . . h e w i l l
e i t h e r e x p e r i e n c e a m a j o r e m o t i o n a l o r m e n t a l b r ea k do wn o r he
may r e s o l v e t h e c r i s i s by u s i n g m a l a d a p t i v e b e h a v i o r s t h a t de ­
c r e a s e t e n s i o n b u t i m p a i r h i s f u t u r e s o c i a l f u n c t i o n i n g . 17

I f the second s ta g e does not t e r m i n a t e a b r u p t l y in breakdown, t h e t h i r d

s t a g e o f t h e d i s a s t e r s y n dr o me , r e o r g a n i z a t i o n , f o l l o w s .

E s s e n t i a l l y , r e o r g a n i z a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e t u r n t o a new s t a t e
o f h o m e o s t a t i c b a l a n c e w h i c h , compar ed t o o n e ' s p r e - d i s a s t e r m e n t a l
h e a l t h , may b e d i m i n i s h e d , t h e same, o r i m p r o v e d . The g e n e r a l a ssump­
t i o n i s t h a t time a lo n e h e a l s a l l wounds, althe ug :., l i k e u n t r e a t e d phy­
s i c a l i n j u r y , u n t r e a t e d m e n t a l i n j u r y mends i m p e r f e c t l y . W it h s p o n ­
t a n e o u s r e o r g a n i z a t i o n t h e s i g n s and symptoms o f t h e d i s o r g a n i z e d s t a g e
t e n d t o become c r y s t a l l i z e d and f i x a t e d i n t o an e n d u r i n g p a t t e r n o f
s u b j c c L i v c d i s t r e s s and s o c i a l m i s c o n d u c t . This p a t t e r n r e f l e c t s th e
c l a s s i c a l p i c t u r e of n e u r o s is , o r , to use c r i s i s i n t e r v e n t i o n term in­
o l o g y , i t s i m p l y r e f l e c t s " i r r e p a r a b l e e m o t i o n a l and m e n t a l d a m a g e " .
L i k e a l l w ou n d s, e m o t i o n a l s c a r s may for m w hi ch p r o d u c e l o n g - t e r m d i s ­
a b i l i t y in s p i t e o f t h e r a p y , a lth o u g h , g e n e r a l l y , th e achievement o f
p r e - d i s a s t e r o r i mpr oved m e n t a l h e a l t h s t a t u s i s b e l i e v e d t o r e s u l t
with th e ra p e u tic in te rv e n tio n .

I n i d e a l - t y p i c a l f or m, t h e l o g i c i n v o l v e d i n t h e pr es umed c o u r s e
o f d i s a s t e r t r a u m a s u g g e s t s c h r o n i c a nd , p o s s i b l y , p e r m a n e n t p e r s o n a l
and s o c i a l d i s a b i l i t y . Most s c h o l a r s , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e o r e t i c a l p e r ­
s u a s i o n , s u g g e s t t h a t p r o m pt t r e a t m e n t r e v e r s e s t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e d i s ­
o r g a n i z a t i o n s t a g e w i t h good p r o g n o s i s . T h e r e i s , o f c o u r s e , some s u g ­
g e s t i o n t h a t m e n t a l i l l n e s s w hi ch was l a t e n t p r e - d i s a s t e r may become
a g g r a v a t e d and o v e r t a f t e r t h e e m o t i o n a l s e q u e l a e r e l a t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y
t o t h e d i s a s t e r syndrome a r e r e s o l v e d .

F i g u r e 3 d i a g r a m s t h e s e c o n d and f i n a l e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e m e d i c a l
model. The c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f s o c i o l o g y a r e e v i d e n t i n t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s
which have e v o lv ed , a lth o u g h the c e n t r a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l assum p tions a re
b a s i c a l l y unchanged. The d o m i n a n t s o c i o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e d i ­
s a s t e r l i t e r a t u r e , a s t r e s s - a d a p t a t i o n model o f s o c i e t y , 19 makes a s ­
sumptions which, a lth o u g h not always e x p l i c i t , a r e f u l l y c o n s i s t e n t
w i t h t h e a b o ve a s s u m p t i o n s a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l . In f a c t , the theo­
r e t i c a l t e r m s o f t h e s t r e s s - a d a p t a t i o n model - - s y s t e m , s t r a i n , s t r e s s ,
i n p u t , o u t p u t , demand, c a p a b i l i t y and s o on - - a l s o owe an i n t e l l e c t u a l
d e b t to the org an ism ic o r medical an alogy.

I n t h i s e l a b o r a t i o n , the d i s a s t e r impact remains th e u l t i m a t e , bu t

n o t S u f f i c i e n t , c a u s e i n a m u l t i - c a u s a l model o f f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t
o n s e t , s e ' r i t y , and c o u r s e o f t h e d i s a s t e r s y n d r o m e . 20 T h r e e s e t s o f
f a c t o r s , in c lu d in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the d i s a s t e r agen t, the i n d i v i ­
d u a l , and t h e c ommuni ty, a r e added t o f i g u r e 2 . Each f a c t o r h a s s e v e r ­
a l dimensions t h a t have re c e iv e d a t t e n t i o n in the d i s a s t e r l i t e r a t u r e .

D i s a s t e r a g e n t s may be n a t u r a l o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l . G enerally, i t
i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t e c h n o l o g i c a l o r man-made d i s a s t e r s i n t r o d u c e t h e a d d ­
ed p r o b l e m o f c u l p a b i l i t y a nd , t h e r e f o r e , make t h e e x p e r i e n c e mo re dam­
aging. A d d i t i o n a l l y , d i s a s t e r a g e n ts vary alon g s e v e r a l d im en sio ns:
s p e e d o f o n s e t , p r e d i c t a b i l i t y , n o v e l t y , s e v e r i t y , s c o p e , and d u r a t i o n .
D i s a s t e r a g e n ts t h a t a re sudden, u n e x p e c te d , n ove l, s e v e r e , d i f f u s e ,
and o f l o ng d u r a t i o n h a v e b e en a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i m m e d i a t e o n s e t and i n ­
c r e a s e d s e v e r i t y and i n c i d e n c e o f d i s a s t e r t r a u m a . However, d i s a s t e r
a g e n t s w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p o l a r o p p o s i t e s may i n f l i c t a more
i n s i d i o u s p a t t e r n o f o n s e t r e f e r r e d to as " s t r a i n traum a" r a t h e r th an
" s h o c k t r a u m a " . 21 A l t h o u g h t h e o r i g i n a l blo w o f d i s a s t e r i m p a c t may be
l e s s m a s s i v e , an i n d u c e d m e n t a l s t r a i n may c o n t i n u e t o b e a g g r a v a t e d by
o t h e r bl ows and s t r e s s o r s w hi ch f o l l o w a s i n d i r e c t e f f e c t s o f d i s a s t e r
s u c h as t e m p o r a r y h o u s i n g a c c o m m o d a t i o n s , s e p a r a t i o n from f a m i l y , d i s ­
l o c a t i o n f rom n e i g h b o r s , o r u n e mp l o y m e n t. D isasters of a less serio u s
n a t u r e , t h e r e f o r e , may h a ve a d e l a y e d o n s e t c a u s e d by t h e " a c c u m u l a t i v e
traumas"22 o f d i s a s t e r a f t e r m a t h . An a l m o s t i n s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s u c h
a s a q u a r r e l may p r e c i p i t a t e a b r e a k r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e p r o v e r b i a l
s t r a w t h a t b r o k e t h e c a m e l ' s b a c k . 23 [ r a l s o f o l l o w s t h a c t h e s e accum­
u l a t i v e t r a u m a s o f t h e d i s a s t e r a f t e r m a t h may c o n f o u n d and l e n g t h e n t h e
period of d iso rg a n iz a tio n .

I n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may a l s o a f f e c t t h e e x t e n t and n a t u r e
o f t h e d i s a s t e r s y n d r o m e . 24 Some i n d i v i d u a l s a r e p r es um e d t o h a v e a
h ig h e r to le ra n c e level or r e s i s t a n c e to s t r e s s . I n d i v i d u a l s who a r e
b e t t e r i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e communi ty by f a m i l i a l , f r i e n d s h i p , and
n e i g h b o r h o o d t i e s a r e t h o u g h t t o be embedded i n s o c i a l l y s u p p o r t i v e
A ge nt
Speed o f o n s e t
P redictability
Novelty
Severity D isaster
Sc op e B low
D uration
Man-made/natural

[Improved
[Health S ta tu s
Community
Warning ;
V
Preparedness j__ > jM ental i Sh o ck P re-disaster
D isaster experience { H ealth S ta tu s ’ Heroism Health S tatu s
D is a s te r ideology A , ' ' , Honeymoon
organization
Dis i l l u s io n m e n t
/N '
4. Diminished I
Ind i v i d u a l H e a l t h S t a tusj
Tolerance
Social integration — Therapy
Sex
Age
In co me D isorganization Reorganization
Education
Occupation

F i g u r e 3: M e d ic a l Model. E laboration II
 11

n e t w o r k s t h a t s e r v e a s a b u f f e r w h i c h h e l p s t o c u s h i o n t h e bl ow and i t s
e f f e c t s . 25 As i t w i l l be n o t e d l a t e r , n o t a l l t h e o r i s t s a g r e e on t h e
b u ffe rin g p o te n tia l of s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s in the d i s a s t e r co n tex t. Addi­
t i o n a l l y , c e r t a i n s o c i a l d e m o g r a p h i c f a c t o r s — a g e , s e x , i nc ome , e d u ­
c a t i o n and o c c u p a t i o n - - a r e p r e s u m e d t o p l a c e i n d i v i d u a l s i n c a t e ­
gories of d if f e r e n tia l risk . The a g e d , y o u t h , f e m a l e s , low i n c ome , low
e d u c a t i o n , and low o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e c a t e g o r i e s a r e s u g g e s t e d a s
high r i s k groups.

S e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e communit y h a v e a l s o b e e n i d e n t i f i e d
a s h a v i n g r e l e v a n c e f o r t h e n a t u r e and e x t e n t o f d i s a s t e r t r a u m a . Com­
m u n itie s v a ry p r e - d i s a s t e r in terms of the p resen ce o f warning s y s ­
t e m s , p r e p a r e d n e s s , d i s a s t e r - r e l a t e d i d e o l o g y and o r g a n i z a t i o n . Com­
m u n i t i e s t h a t are forewarned, p r e p a r e d , have p r i o r d i s a s t e r e x p e r i e n c e ,
a d i s a s t e r - r e l a t e d i d e o l o g y , a nd e f f e c t i v e l y o r g a n i z e d r e s o u r c e s a r e
a s su me d t o be a b l e t o t a k e p r e v e n t i v e m e a s u r e s t o r e d u c e t h e l o s s o f
d i s a s t e r and t h e r e b y r e d u c e t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e b low. A l s o , a f t e r im­
p a c t , t h e y a r e more l i k e l y t o b e c a p a b l e o f m o b i l i z i n g an e m e r g e n c y r e ­
sponse t h a t reduces d is o r d e r through c o l l e c t i v e su pport. A ctually,
w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e c o l l e c t i v e s u p p o r t t h e s i s and i t s e f f e c t on t h e d i ­
s a s t e r s yndrome t h e r e a r e two c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .

F r i t z i n i t i a l l y in tr o d u c e d th e c o l l e c t i v e su p p o r t t h e s i s to e x ­
p l a i n why p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r d o e s n o t i n c r e a s e o v e r t h e l o n g - t e r m .
He s u g g e s t e d t h a t d i s a s t e r p r o d u c e s a " co mm u ni t y o f s u f f e r e r s " 2 ° and
t h i s t h e r a p e u t i c c o m m u n i t y , 27 a s i t h a s s i n c e b e e n c a l l e d , s p o n t a n e o u s ­
l y " h e l p s t o c o m p e n s a . e f o r t h e s o r r o w and s t r e s s . . . w i t h a n u n e x p e c t e d
a b u n d a n c e o f p e r s o n a l warmth and d i r e c t h e l p " . 28 The c e n t r a l i d e a c o n ­
tain ed in the so c ia l support t h e s i s is th a t a f t e r d i s a s t e r , s o c ia l b a r­
r i e r s s u c h a s c l a s s o r r e l i g i o n a r e l e v e l e d and p e o p l e v i e w e a c h o t h e r
as e q u a ls . T h i s r e s u l t s in g r o u p s o l i d a r i t y , c o o p e r a t i o n and p a r t i ­
c i p a t i o n w h i ch i n c r e a s e s m o r a l e , p r o v i d e s t h e g r o u n d s f o r h o p e , and
s e r v e s as a b u f f e r o r c r u t c h t o redu ce th e i n i t i a l trauma. Therefore,
c o l l e c t i v e s u p p o r t i n t e r v e n e s a f t e r t h e s t a g e o f s h o c k and m i t i g a t e s
a g a in s t the p e r s is te n c e of p sy c h o lo g ic a l d is o r d e r .

W hi l e t h i s was t h e o r i g i n a t o r s ' i n t e n d e d m e a n i n g , t h e t h e r a p e u t i c
c ommuni ty n o t i o n h a s b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e m e d i c a l model a l o n g
d iffe re n t lines. The a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d e f f e c t s - - i n c r e a s e d m o r a l e ,
h o p e , and t e n s ! o n - r e d u c t i o n - - a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e d i s o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n s t a g e a s e a r l y p h a s e s w h i c h f o l l o w s h o c k and p r o c e e d t h e downward
s lump i n t o d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t o r d e p r e s s i o n and l o s s o f c o n t r o l . The
h e r o i c p h a s e , 29 l a s t i n g from a few h o u r s t o a few d a y s , r e p r e s e n t s a
p e r i o d i n w hi c h t e n s i o n i s s u b j e c t i v e l y e x p e r i e n c e d as e u p h o r i a and
o b j e c t i v e l y c h a n n e l e d i n t o s o c i a l l y a p p r o v e d and c o n s t r u c t i v e a c t s o f
altruism . The honeymoon p h a s e , l a s t i n g from a few d a y s t o a few
m o n t h s , i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s e n s e o f h o p e and c e a s e l e s s a c t i v i t y
w h i c h may be v e r y i n e f f e c t i v e . U n r e a l i s t i c e x p e c ta tio n s of the honey­
moon p h a s e g i v e way t o a d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t p h a s e w h i c h h a s t h e c h a r a c ­
t e r i s t i c s dei.crlb ed e a r l i e r as t h e d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n s t a g e .
 12

E r i k s o n i n t r o d u c e d t h e n o t i o n o f c o l l e c t i v e trauma,^® as opposed
t o c o l l e c t i v e s u p p o r t , t o s u g g e s t t h a t d i s a s t e r s a l s o c a u s e damage t o
t h e community and t h i s damage p r e v e n t s a n i n d u g e n o u s t h e r a p e u t i c r e ­
s p o n s e , t h e r e b y e x p l a i n i n g why p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e p e r s i s t s f o r
'years and, p o s s i b l y , a l i f e - t i m e . By c o l l e c t i v e t r a u m a h e means " a
b l o w t o t h e b a s i c t i s s u e s o f s o c i a l l i f e t h a t da ma ge s t h e bonds a t t a c h ­
i n g p e o p l e t o g e t h e r and i m p a i r s t h e p r e v a i l i n g s e n s e o f c o m m u n a l i t y . "31
I n t h i s v i e w , p r i m a r y r e l a t i o n s a r e d e s t r o y e d and c o o p e r a t i o n , p a r t i ­
c i p a t i o n , and n e i g h b o r l i n e s s f a i l t o r e - e m e r g e a f t e r i m p a c t . C o l l e c ­
t i v e trauma, t h e r e f o r e , s e r v e s to r e i n f o r c e the p s y c h i c trauma i n f l i c t ­
ed on i m p a c t . C l e a r l y , i n t h i s v i e w , t h e h e r o i s m a nd honeymoon p h a s e s
do n o t o c c u r e v e n i n t h e s h o r t - t e r m .

C r i t i q u e oC t h e M e d i c a l Model

The c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g any s t r u c t u r e o f t h o u g h t c o n c e r n
i t s e m p i r i c a l a d e q u a c y and t h e o r e t i c a l u t i l i t y . Do t h e e m p i r i c a l o b ­
s e r v a t i o n s g e n e r a l l y s u p p o r t t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s p r e d i c a t e d on t h e a s s um p­
t i v e framewor k? Rocs t h e m e t a p h o r s h e d l i g h t o n t h e i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s
in a given fie ld of inquiry? Both q u e s t i o n s w i l l b e a d d r e s s e d i n t u r n .

A f i r m a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e e m p i r i c a l a d e q u a c y o f t h e m e d i c a l model
i s h a z a r d o u s d ue t o t h e l i m i t e d amount and u n e v e n q u a l i t y o f t h e r e ­
s e a r c h . 32 T h i s d i s c l a i m e r n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , my own r e a d i n g o f t h e em­
p i r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s t s t h a t th e w e ig h t of th e e v id e n c e does n o t
s u p p o r t t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e m e d i c a l m o de l a s a g e n e r a l fr amewor k f o r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g d i s a s t e r a s a s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l phenomenon.

The a s s u m p t i o n s o f t h e m e d i c a l model h a v e n o t b e e n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y
o u t l i n e d and t e s t e d , b u t , a l t h o u g h t h e model a s a w h o l e c a n n o t be e x ­
amined, a v a i l a b l e d a t a does a l l o w an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c r i t i c a l
claim s. I f t h e m e d i c a l model i s b a s i c a l l y c o r r e c t , we would e x p e c t
t h a t 1) d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s s u f f e r f rom e m o t i o n a l d i s t r e s s ; 2) t h e d i s ­
t r e s s i s s e v e r e e no ug h t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h o n e ' s a b i l i t y t o m a i n t a i n s o ­
c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and t o p e r f o r m d a i l y r o u t i n e s c o m p e t e n t l y ; 3) t h e
c o n d u c t o f d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s v i o l a t e s s o c i e t a l norms o f p r o p r i e t y ; and
4) t h e a d d i t i v e e f f e c t o f p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l d i s a b i l i t i e s i s m a n i f e s t
i n s o c i a l d i s o r d e r a t t h e communit y l e v e l . Onl y o ne communi ty d i s a s ­
t e r , a dam b r e a k i n West V i r g i n i a , h a s g e n e r a t e d r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s
which a r e s u p p o r t i v e o f t h e s e c l a im s . In view o f t h e a p p a r e n t u n iq u e ­
n e s s o f t h e e v e n t , i t i s p r u d e n t t o d e v o t e some a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c o n ­
c l u s i o n s d r awn a b o u t t h e e f f e c t s o f t h i s d i s a s t e r .

S e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s w e r e c o mm i s s i o n e d by a law f i r m t o s t u d y , f o r
t h e p u r p o s e o f l e g a l a c t i o n , t h e p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f
t h e c o l l a p s e o f a c o a l dam w h i c h f l o o d e d s e v e n t e e n c o m m u n i t i e s a l o n g
t h e h o l l o w o f B u f f a l o C r e e k i n West V i r g i n i a i n 1 9 7 2 . 3 3 P s y c h i a t r i s t s
r e p o r t t h a t more t h a n 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e 625 l i t i g a n t s e x a m i ne d s u f f e r e d
f rom s e v e r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l damage f o r a t l e a s t two y e a r s . 34 A l t h o u g h
 13

t h e m e n t a l h e a l t h o f t h e n o n - l i t i g a n t s was n o t e v a l u a t e d , r e s e a r c h e r s
s u g g e s t , on t h e b a s i s o f c a s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n , t h a t t h i s phenomenon was
u n i v e r s a l and not lim ite d t o l i t i g a n t s a l o n e . V i c t i m s o f t h i s d i ­
s a s t e r r e p o r t e d l y e x p e r ie n c e d s e v e r e e m o tio n a l d e p r e s s i o n which i n t e r ­
f e r e d w i t h t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n i n g , mundane t a s k s ,
and s o c i a l o b l i g a t i o n s , a nd i t p r o h i b i t e d t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f f a m i l i a l
a nd n e i g h b o r h o o d r e l a t i o n s . S o c i a l d e v i a n c e was n o t i n d e p e n d e n t l y
m e a s u r e d a l t h o u g h commu ni ty r e s i d e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y b e l i e v e d t h a t
a l c o h o l i s m , d r u g a b u s e , p r o m i s c u i t y , d i v o r c e , c r i m e , and j u v e n i l e d e ­
linquency d r a m a tic a lly inc rea se d a f t e r the d i s a s t e r .

R e s e a r c h e r s a l s o r e p o r t t h a t t h e m a g n i t u d e o f e m o t i o n a l damage had
i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r c o n m u n i t y d i s o r d e r f o r , two y e a r s l a t e r , t h e
d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s s t i l l "c ou ld not m o b i l i z e t h e i r e ne rgy o r th e c o n v i c ­
t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o s t a b i l i z e t h e i r own l i v e s o r t o r e b u i l d t h e commu­
n i t i e s i n w h i c h t h e y h ad i n v e s t e d s o m u c h " . 37 x he communit y l e v e l e f ­
fects are not subtle. On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e y a r e o v e r t eno u g h t h a t o n e
y e a r a f t e r t h e d i s a s t e r a t l e a s t o ne r e s e a r c h e r l e f t h i s f i r s t m e e t i n g
i n B u f f a l o C r e e k "awed and d e p r e s s c d " 3 8 a t wh at h e o b s e r v e d . His ob­
s e r v a t i o n s o f t h a t meeting a r e worth repeating:

T a b l e s had b e e n s p a c e d a t i n t e r v a l s a c r o s s a gymnasium f l o o r
and t h e room was f i l l e d w i t h p e o p l e a w a i t i n g t h e i r t u r n , l i n e d
alo ng t h e w a l l s on benches o r s t a n d i n g around i n q u i e t fam ily
clusters. The w h o l e s c e n e l o o k e d a s i f i t h a d b e e n p a i n t e d i n
shades o f gray. The c h i l d r e n n e i t h e r l a u g h e d n o r p l a y e d . The
a d u l t s a c t e d a s i f t h e y w e r e s u r r o u n d e d by a s h e a t h o f h e a v y
a i r t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e y c o u l d move and r e s p o n d o n l y a t t h e c o s t
of a delib erate e ffo rt. E v e r y t h i n g seemed mut ed and d u l l e d .
I f e l t f o r a moment a s t h o u g h I w e r e i n t h e company o f p e o p l e
s o wounded i n s p i r i t t h a t t h e y a l m o s t c o n s t i t u t e d a d i f f e r e n t
c u l t u r e , a s t h o u g h t h e l a n g u a g e we s h a r e d i n common was s i m p l y
n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o o v e r c om e t h e e no rmo us gap i n e x p e r i e n c e
th at separated us. I got over t h a t f e e l i n g b e fo re long, but
t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f d e e p and numbing p a i n
r e m a i n e d an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e e m o t i o n a l c l i m a t e i n w h i c h
t h i s s t u d y was d o n e . 39

This i s th e s i n g l e d i s a s t e r t h a t p ro vides su p p o rt fo r a l l four

claim s. O t h e r d i s a s t e r s o f f e r s u p p o r t f o r t h e f i r s t c l a i m , b u t no
o t h e r d i s a s t e r s j u s t i f y th e remaining th r e e claim s of the medical
model.

I n r e v i e w i n g t h e d a t a g e n e r a t e d from o t h e r d i s a s t e r - s t r i c k e n com­
m u n i t i e s , t h e f i r s t c la im o f th e m e d ic a l model, t h a t i s , t h a t d i s a s t e r
v i c t i m s e x p e r i e n c e e m o t i o n a l d i s t r e s s , seems t o b e s u p p o r t e d . R e ­
s e a r c h f r om t e n communit y d i s a s t e r s i n a d d i t i o n t o B u f f a l o C r e e k h a v e
d o c u m e n t e d t h i s p henomenon. Bet ween 50 and 80 p e r c e n t o f d i s a s t e r v i c ­
t i m s i n t e r v i e w e d a d m i t t h a t t h e y , p e r s o n a l l y , o r someone i n t h e i r fam­
i l y , h a d e x p e r i e n c e d a n e m o t i o n a l u p s e t a t some t i m e d u r i n g t h e a f t e r -
m a th o f t h e d i s a s t e r . I t i s f a i r l y common, a l t h o u g h n o t u n i v e r s a l .
 14

t h a t v i c t i m s o f d i s a s t e r r e p o r t e x p e r i e n c i n g worry, f r u s t r a t i o n , anx­
i o u s n e s s , n e r v o u s n e s s , e m o tio n a l u p s e t and, p o s s i b l y , f e a r of a d v e r s e
weather c o n d itio n s . The i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n , o f c o u r s e , i s w h e t h e r
t h e s e f e e l i n g s a r e s e v e r e e n ou gh and l a s t l o n g en ou gh t o be d e b i l i t a ­
t i n g i n any s e n s e . B e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h i s i s s u e , on e o t h e r o b s e r v a ­
t i o n c o n c e r n in g the emotions a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i s a s t e r is n ote w orthy.
I t i s n o t uncommon f o r a s many a s 60 t o 80 p e r c e n t o f d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s
t o a l s o r e p o r t e x p e r i e n c i n g o p t o mi s m . s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , and s e l f - r e ­
l i a n c e a f t e r a d i s a s t e r , when a s k e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s q u e s t i o n
i s not o f t e n a sked.

The i s s u e o f w h e t h e r o r n o t e m o t i o n a l d i s t r e s s i s i n c a p a c i t a t i n g
I s a d i f f i c u l t q u e s t i o n t o a n s w e r d e f i n i t i v e l y , f o r few r e s e a r c h e r ?
h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o m e a s u r e t h i s d i r e c t l y . ^ 2 The g e n e r a l c o n c e n s u s
seems t o b e t h a t e v e n among t h o s e who h a v e c o n t a c t w i t h m e n t a l h e a l t h
p r o f e s s i o n a l s , l e s s t h a n 10 p e r c e n t and a s few as two p e r c e n t demon­
s t r a t e any d i f f i c u l t y p e r f o r m i n g r o u t i n e f u n c t i o n s and " mos t do n o t
t y p i c a l l y e x p e r i e n c e s e r i o u s e m o tio n a l problems which a re i n c a p a c i t a ­
t i n g " . 43 In c o n t r a s t to B u f f a lo Creek, where s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s
seem t o be i m p a i r e d , v i c t i m s o f some d i s a s t e r s r e p o r t t h a t m a r i t a l h a p ­
p i n e s s and f a m i l i a l r e l a t i o n s imp r ov e d f o r a s lo ng a s t h r e e y e a r s
a f t e r d i s a s t e r ^ ^ and t h a t t h e i r n e i g h b o r h o o d s w e r e a c t u a l l y b e t t e r
p l a c e s in w h i c h t o l i v e . 45 The g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n i s t h a t , a l t h o u g h
d i s a s t e r c r e a t e s w o r r y and f r u s t r a t i o n , i t d o e s n o t p r o d u c e d i s a b i l i t y .

The t h i r d c l a i m i s t h a t d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s s u f f e r from a l o s s o f
c o n t r o l a n d , t h e r e f o r e , s o c i a l l y d e v i a n t c o n d u c t becomes p e r v a s i v e .
S t u d i e s , i n c l u d i n g a t o t a l o f 13 c o m m u n i t i e s , h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o t a p
t h i s a s p e c t u s i n g communi ty i n f o r m a n t s and a g g r e g a t e l e v e l s t a t i s t i c a l
data. V a r io u s o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s have been used to measure s o c i a l d e ­
v i a n c e i n c l u d i n g a d m i s s i o n t o p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l , t r e a t m e n t b y com­
m u n i t y m e n t a l h e a l t h a g e n c i e s , d i v o r c e , c r i m e , u n e mp l oy m en t , a r r e s t s
f o r d r i v i n g w h i l e i n t o x i c a t e d , s u i c i d e and t r a f f i c v i o l a t i o n s . I n no
community was any i n c r e a s e r e c o r d e d f o r a s l o ng a s f i v e y e a r s f o l l o w ­
i n g d i s a s t e r . 46

The f i n a l c l a i m c o n c e r n s t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l
d i s a b i l i t y f o r communit y d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n . Samuel P r i n c e o b s e r v e d t h a t
t h e c i t y o f H a l i f a x , w h i c h had s u f f e r e d fr om an e x p l o s i o n t h a t k i l l e d
2 , 0 0 0 and i n j u r e d 6 , 0 0 0 , h a d , i n t h e s p a c e o f two y e a r s , " u n d e r g o n e a
c i v i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , such as co u ld h a r d l y o th e r w i s e have happened in
f i f t y y e a r s " . 47 T h i s was t h e f i r s t e m p i r i c a l s t u d y t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t
d i s a s t e r s may p a r a d o x i c a l l y c r e a t e new o p p o r t u n i t i e s and p r o m o t e s o ­
c i a l p r o c e s s e s t h a t enhance th e lo n g -te r m v i a b i l i t y o f a community.
P r i n c e ' s c o n c l u s i o n s , w ith th e e x c e p t i o n o f th e B u ffa lo Creek d i s a s t e r ,
have been r e p e a t e d l y documented in the U nited S t a t e s . T h i s f i n d i n g was
r e p e a t e d i n t h r o e c a s e s t u d i e s , 48 a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f f o u r commu­
n i t i e s , 49 a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f t h r e e U. S. c i t i e s and one f o r e i g n
c i t y , 50 and a s u r v e y o f 1 , 1 4 0 c o u n t i e s . 51 On t h e b a s i s o f t h e a v a i l ­
a b l e e v i d e n c e , l o n g - t e r m communit y d i s o r d e r d o e s n o t seem t o b e a g e n ­
e r a l phenomenon a s p r e d i c t e d by t h e m e d i c a l m o d e l .
 15

I f my r e a d i n g o f t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a i s c o r r e c t , t h e s u b s t a n t i v e
c l a i m s o f t h e m e d i c a l model a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y s u p p o r t e d by e m p i r i c a l
observations. The e x t e n t a nd s e v e r i t y o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r seems
to be g r e a t l y o v erex a g g e ra te d . Even i f we c o n s i d e r t h o s e who m e n t a l
h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n a l s i d e n t i f y a s h a v in g "e m o tio n a l" o r " s e v e r e emotion­
a l " d i s t r e s s a s c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l damage, we a r e s t i l l
t a l k i n g a b o u t l e s s t h a n 20 p e r c e n t o f a t r e a t e d c a s e l o a d and l e s s t h a n
two p e r c e n t o f t h e commu ni t y a t l a r g e . That le a v e s a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e
o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w ho se e x p e r i e n c e l i e s o u t s i d e t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l f r am e wo r k o f t h e m e d i c a l m o d e l . Given the o r i e n t a t i o n o f
t h e m e d i c a l m o d e l , i l l n e s s o r damage c o n s t i t u t e s t h e phenomenon o f t h e ­
o r e t i c a l i n t e r e s t a n d , p r e s u m a b l y , h e a l t h i s t h e a b s e n c e o f i l l n e s s and
therefore, u n in terestin g . T h u s , t h e m e d i c a l model f a i l s t o p r o v i d e
a n y d i r e c t i o n f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d i s a s t e r phenom­
e n o n as a g e n e r a l s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l phenomenon.

T h e r e i s a mor e b a s i c p r o b l e m t h a n t h i s , h o w e v e r . The m e d i c a l
m o d e l may n o t o n l y h a v e l i m i t e d u t i l i t y i n a p o s i t i v e s e n s e : i t may
a c t u a l l y o b s c u r e t h e i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s t h a t a r e i n need o f t h e o r e t i c a l
and e m p i r i c a l c l a r i f i c a t i o n i f we a r e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d i s a s t e r e x p e r ­
i e n c e and a c t t o remedy d i s a s t e r - r e l a t e d p r o b l e m s i n a p r a c t i c a l s e n s e .
My s u s p i c i o n i s t h a t t h e m e d i c a l m e t a p h o r o b f u s c a t e s t h e e s s e n t i a l
a s p e c t s o f d i s a s t e r phenomenon by l o o k i n g f o r t h e wrong p r o b l e m s a t
t h e wrong t i m e , i n t h e w r on g p l a c e , w i t h t h e wr on g r e me d y .

The d i s a s t e r e x p e r i e n c e o f m e n t a l h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n a l s i s p a r t i ­
c u la r ly in s tr u c tiv e in th is regard. I n the c o u rse of p ro v id in g mental
h e a lth s e rv ic e s to d i s a s t e r v ic tim s, h e a lth p r o f e s s io n a ls ty p ic a lly
f i n d them selves " t r e a t i n g " non-m edical problems w i t h "u n o rtho dox " non­
m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e s . 52 xhe v a s t m a j o r i t y o f t h e " m e n t a l - h e a l t h " c a s e ­
l o a d i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f d i s a s t e r i s made up o f i n d i v i d u a l s and f a m i ­
l i e s whose p r i m a r y p r o b l e m i s i n a d e q u a t e h o u s i n g a c co m m o d a t i o n , c o n ­
sumer f r a u d , la c k o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , m i s i n f o r m a t i o n , c o n f u s i o n o v e r
how t o o b t a i n d i s a s t e r r e l i e f , l e g a l d i s p u t e s , o r o t h e r p r o b l e m s a l o n g
these lines.

From t h e e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n , i t w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e m e d i c a l
m e t a p h o r i d e n t i f i e s t h e e s s e n t i a l p r o b l e m o f d i s a s t e r as e m o t i o n a l
t u r m o i l i n t h e form o f t o r m e n t i n g me m or i es w h i c h come a s a r e s u l t o f an
u n c o n t r o l l a b l e com pulsion t o c o n t i n u a l l y r e l i v e th e impact e x p e r ie n c e .
The p r o b l e m s , t h e r e f o r e , a r e s y m b o l i c and e m o t i o n a l ; t h e y o c c u r on im­
p a c t o r in t h e e a r l y a f t e r m a t h of d i s a s t e r ; th e y a r c l o c a t e d in the
p s y c h e o f d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s ; t h e y a r e e x p l a i n a b l e by r e f e r e n c e t o i n t e r ­
n a l damage; and t h e y a r c r e m e d i e d by t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l wo rk o f r e i n ­
tegration, From t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e a f t e r m a t h o f d i s a s t e r i s t h e o r e ­
t i c a l l y u n i n t e r e s t i n g e x c e p t f o r an a c c u m u la tio n o f " s t r e s s o r s " or
" t r a u m a s " t h a t may e x a c e r b a t e t h e damage and c a u s e s e r i o u s p s y c h o l o g i ­
c a l d i s o r d e r at a delayed p o i n t in time.

Even a c u r s o r y r e v i e w o f t h e l i s t o f p r o b l e m s w h i c h come t o t h e
a t t e n t i o n o f h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n a l s in th e a f t e r m a t h o f d i s a s t e r r a i s e s
 16

s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n s about th e t h e o r e t i c a l u t i l i t y o f th e m ed ic al meta­
phor. My s u s p i c i o n i s t h a t t h e s e p r o b l e m s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y p r a c t i c a l ,
n o t s y m b o l i c ; t h e y o c c u r a f t e r i m p a c t a nd l a t e r i n t h e r e c o v e r y p e r i ­
od; t h e y a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e s o c i a l w o r l d o f d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s ; t h e y a r e
e x p l a i n a b l e by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t ; and t h e y may b e r e me ­
d i e d more e f f e c t i v e l y by c h a n g e s i n p u b l i c p o l i c y .

I d e n t i f y i n g d i s a s t e r problems as p r a c t i c a l problems o r "problems

i n l i v i n g " , 53 t o u s e t h e p h r a s e m o s t c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Thomas
Szasz,54 a llu d e s to the f a r - r e a c h i n g c r i t i q u e o f the medical metaphor.
T h e r e a r e m u l t i p l e i s s u e s and p r o b l e m s i n h e r e n t i n t r a n s l a t i n g a f i g ­
u r a t i v e d e v i c e l i t e r a l l y , t h a t i s , i n d r o p p i n g t h e " a s i f " when one
a s s u m e s t h a t s o c i a l c o n d u c t i s e x p l a i n a b l e by m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s " a s i f "
t h e r e was a s u b s t a n t i v e mind t h a t f u n c t i o n s " a s i f " i t was a b o d i l y o r ­
gan. But, e s s e n t i a l l y , the t h r u s t o f th e argument i s t h a t th e a d o p tio n
o f t h e m e d i c a l m e t a p h o r t o d e s c r i b e s o c i a l c o n d u c t i n any c o n t e x t , n o t
o n l y t h e d i s a s t e r c o n t e x t , i s f u t i l e , f o r i t m y s t i f i e s and o b s c u r e s t h e
f u n d a m e n t a l n a t u r e o f human e x p e r i e n c e . This c r i t i q u e p e n e tr a te s to
t h e two f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p t i o n s o f t h e m e d i c a l m o d e l , n a m - l y , t h e c o n ­
c e p t i o n o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y a s a c l o s e d s y s t e m and c o n u u c t a s h e a l t h y
or sick .

The o b j e c t i o n r a i s e d i s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s a r e n o t p a s s i v e r e a c t o r s
t o i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l f o r c e s and a b s t r a c t s t r e s s o r s and s t r a i n s . They
a r e , on t h e c o n t r a r y , op en t o t h e w o r l d , i . e . , r e f l e x i v e a c t o r s who c o l ­
l e c t i v e l y c r e a t e a s o c i a l l y meaningful w orld t h a t a c t s back to con­
s t r a i n in d iv id u a l conduct. An u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c o n s t r a i n t s and
r u l e s o f c o n d u c t , t h e r e f o r e , i s n o t p o s s i b l e by r e f e r e n c e t o a u n i v e r ­
s a l t y p o l o g y o f h e a l t h and i l l n e s s c o n s t r u c t s . A l l c o n s t r a i n t s and
r u l e s f o r e v a l u a t i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g s o c i a l c o n d u c t a r e h i s t o r i c a l l y
and s i t u a t i o n a l l y s p e c i f i c and n e c e s s a r i l y g r o u n d e d i n s o c i a l , e t h i c a l ,
p o l i t i c a l , l e g a l , and e c on o mi c c o n c e r n s .

The i m p o r t a n t p o i n t , a s I u n d e r s t a n d i t , i s n o t t h a t m e d i c a l c o n ­
s t r u c t s a r e m y t h s and s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , b e a u t o m a t i c a l l y d i s m i s s e d .
The p o i n t i s t h a t m e d i c a l c o n s t r u c t s , l i k e a l l c o n s t r u c t s , a r e s o c i a l
inventions. What i s a t i s s u e i s w h e t h e r a c o n s t r u c t a d v a n c e s o u r u n ­
d e r s t a n d i n g o f a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l p henomenon. My s u s p i c i o n i s t h a t
the m ed ic al m etaphor does not d i r e c t i n q u i r y i n t o the im p o rta n t i s s u e s
o f d i s a s t e r phenomenon.

R e form u latio n o f th e Problem

I f my r e a d i n g i s c o r r e c t , i t i s u n n e c e s s a r y , and p o s s i b l y m i s l e a d ­
in g , t o c o n t i n u e to f o r m u la te r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s o f a s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o ­
g i c a l n a t u r e w h o l e l y w i t h i n t h e c o n s t r a i n t s d i c t a t e d by t h e m e d i c a l
model. D i s a s t e r s r e p e a t e d l y o c c u r as h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts t h a t c r e a t e s o ­
c i a l c h a n g e and a l t e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s and r u l e s w h i c h g i v e o r d e r and
p r e d i c t a b i l i t y t o d a i l y l i f e . 55 %t i s s e l f - e v i d e n t t h a t m a j o r
 17

d i s a s t e r s d i s r u p t t h e e v e r y d a y r o u t i n e o f c o m m u n itie s and o f i n d i v i ­
d u a ls. T h is may h a v e a d v e r s e a n d / o r b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s . S u f f e r i n g and
a d v e r s i t y may r e s u l t from t h e e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f im p a c t a n d / o r
from e v e n t s w h ic h o c c u r i n t h e p e r i o d o f a f t e r m a t h . D i s a s t e r p r o b le m s
may b e s y m b o l ic a n d / o r p r a c t i c a l i n n a t u r e . T h e se a r e e m p i r i c a l q u e s ­
t i o n s t h a t s h o u l d n o t be a n s w e re d by t h e o r e t i c a l f i a t .

I t seems t h a t t h e m o st e f f i c a c i o u s a p p r o a c h i s a d i s c r i p t i v e and
e x p l o r a t o r y a p p r o a c h w h ic h f o c u s e s e x p l i c i t l y o n t h e d i s a s t e r and i t s
a f t e r m a t h as a s o c i a l l y m e a n i n g f u l phenom enon. The q u e s t i o n w h ic h
g u i d e s th e r e s e a r c h , t h e r e f o r e , i s v e r y s i m p l y ; w h a t a r e t h e e x p e r ­
i e n c e s and a d j u s t m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i s a s t e r r e c o v e r y ? The i n q u i r y
f o c u s e s a t t e n t i o n on t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t , t h e r u l e s and c o n s t r a i n t s
w h ic h o p e r a t e t o s h a p e e x p e r i e n c e , and on t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f e v e n t s
from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f com m unity r e s i d e n t s . The r e s e a r c h p r o b l e m i s
d e l i b e r a t e l y o p e n - e n d e d i n o r d e r t o e x p l o i t t h e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f an
e x p l o r a t o r y d e s i g n and t o a l l o w t h e s u b s t a n t i v e i s s u e s d e f i n i n g o f t h e
d i s a s t e r e x p e r i e n c e t o em erge from t h e r e s e a r c h s e t t i n g .

Even •'hough t h e r e s e a r c h com m itm ent i s t o d e s c r i b e t h e phenomenon

as i t e x i s t s , no r e s e a r c h e r e n t e r s t h e f i e l d w i t h a b l a n k m ind . The
l i t e r a t u r e review ed e a r l i e r s e r v e s as a s e t o f s e n s i t i z i n g c o n c e p ts , to
u s e B l u m e r 's p h r a s e , 56 t h a t p r o v i d e some d i r e c t i o n t o t h e c o n d u c t o f
in q u iry . The l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s t s t h a t s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s o f t h e d i s a s ­
t e r a g e n t , t h e c om m unity, and i n d i v i d u a l s may h a v e r e l e v a n c e f o r t h e
recovery p ro c e ss. C o n c e p ts s u c h as t h e t h e r a p e u t i c com m unity o r c o l ­
l e c t i v e tr a u m a s u g g e s t t h a t s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s w h ic h e m erg e o r f a i l t o
em erg e i n t h e a f t e r m a t h may a l s o h a v e i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s . W h ile
t h i s r e s e a r c h i s n o t a t e s t o f t h e m e d i c a l m o d e l, a t l e a s t some o f t h e
i d e a s and i s s u e s r a i s e d by t h i s a p p r o a c h c a n b e r e f l e x i v e l y r e e x a m in e d
in l i g h t o f t h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s g e n e r a t e d by t h i s c a s e s t u d y .

O v e rv ie w o f t h e S tu d y

The r e p o r t w hich f o l l o w s i s d i v i d e d i n t o s i x c h a p t e r s . C hapter

two d i s c u s s e s t h e g e n e r a l i s s u e s in v o l v e d i n q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h , t h e
f i e l d m e th o d s e m p lo y e d , and t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e p r o c e d u r e s u sed in a n a ­
ly z in g the d a ta . The r a t i o n a l e u se d f o r s e l e c t i n g t h e T e to n Dam b r e a k
f o r t h e c a s e s t u d y i s a l s o d i s c u s s e d , b u t i n v ie w o f t h e e a r l i e r e x a ­
m i n a t i o n and c r i t i q u e o f t h e m e d ic a l m e t a p h o r , t h i s i s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
p l a c e t o u n d e r s c o r e one s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f t h e T e to n s e t t i n g . Ex­
p e c t a t i o n s f o r i n c r e a s e d p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r became an i n t r i n s i c and
d e b a t e d i s s u e i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e Te "-on f l o o d . T h is s i t u a t i o n r e ­
s u l t e d from an amendment ( s e c t i o n 413) t o t h e D i s a s t e r R e l i e f Act (P u b ­
l i c Law 9 3 -2 8 8 ) w hich was e n a c t e d by t h e U. S. C o n g r e s s i n 1 9 7 4 .5 7 In
e f f e c t , t h i s law o f f i c i a l l y e x t e n d e d t h e m e d i c a l m e t a p h o r i n t o t h e d i ­
s a s t e r c o n t e x t by g i v i n g t h e m e n ta l h e a l t h c a r e s y s t e m b o t h t h e man­
d a t e and money to o r g a n i z e m e n t a l h e a l t h s e r v i c e s f o r d i s a s t e r - s t r i c k e n
c o m m u n ities. The T e t o n f l o o d s e r v e d a s one o f t h e f i r s t " e x p e r i m e n t s "
in im p lem en tin g t h i s ! e g i s l a t i o n . 5 8 C o n s e q u e n t l y , manv o f t h e i s s u e s
 18

r a is e d e a r l i e r a re a h ig h ly v i s i b l e f e a tu r e o f th e s e t t i n g .

C h a p t e r t h r e e d e s c r i b e s t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t o f com m unity L if e i n
t h e U pper S n a k e R i v e r V a l l e y . T h e r e a r e two d o m in a n t f e a t u r e s , an
a g r i c u l t u r a l l y - b c s e d economy/ and t h e Mormon r e l i g i o n , w h ich g i v e o r d e r
and m e a n in g t o e v e r y d a y l i f e i n t h e Upper V a l l e y . A lth o u g h t h e dam
b r e a k was a n u n e x p e c t e d o c c u r e n c e , t h e Mormon C h urch d o e s h a v e an e f ­
f e c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n a b u n d a n c e o f r e s o u r c e s , and a r e l i g i o u s i d e o ­
l o g y t h a t i s e a s i l y a d a p t e d to t h e f l o o d c o n t e x t .

I n c h a p t e r f o u r , a n a c c o u n t i n g o f t h e e v e n t s o f J u n e 5 . 1976, i s
g iv e n . The dam b r e a k i s d e s c r i b e d as b o t h a t e c h n o l o g i c a l f a i l u r e and
a s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l phenomenon. The a c c o u n t i s o r g a n i z e d by l a n ­
g u a g e w hic h a t t e m p t s t o r e t a i n and e x p r e s s t h e e s s e n t i a l e m o t i o n a l u n ­
d e r c u r r e n t s w h ic h i n f u s e d t h e e v e n t and i t s r e t e l l i n g a s a s o c i a l l y
m eanin g fu l h ap p en in g . A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e dam ages i n m a t e r i a l and s o ­
c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l term s fo llo w s . L ik e t h e B u f f a l o C r e e k d i s a s t e r , t h e
T e t o n d i s a s t e r r e s u l t e d from a dam f a i l u r e . U n l ik e t h e B u f f a l o C r e e k
d i s a s t e r , r e s i d e n t s o f t h e T e t o n Dam b r e a k h ad some w a r n i n g , and t h e r e
w e re r e l a t i v e l y few d e a t h s . I t was p r i m a r i l y a d i s a s t e r o f p r o p e r t y
l o s s and s o c i a l d i s r u p t i o n .

C h a p t e r f i v e d e a l s w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l damage
and w i d e - s p r e a d s o c i a l d e v i a n c e in t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e f l o o d . T h is
d i s c u s s i o n r e l i e s h e a v i l y on s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a , h i s t o r i c a l docum ents and
in fo rm a n ts' re p o rts . A lth o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t i s a n o v e r s i m ­
p l i f i c a t i o n and r e q u i r e s some q u a l i f i c a t i o n , t h i s c h a p t e r i s b a s i c a l l y
a b o u t w hat d i d n o t o c c u r .

C h a p te r s i x a tte m p ts to d e s c r i b e w hat d i d o c c u r in th e n e a rly

t h r e e y e a r s f o l l o w i n g t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e dam. W h ile t h i s p r e s e n t a ­
t i o n r e l i e s m ost h e a v i l y on t h e r e t r o s p e c t i v e a c c o u n t s g a t h e r e d in t h e
i n t e r v i e w c o n t e x t , f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s , s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a and i n f o r ­
m a n ts' r e p o r ts are a ls o u t i l i z e d . The r e t r o s p e c t i v e a c c o u n t s a r e n o t
t r e a t e d a s r e p l i c a t i o n s o f e v e n t s i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l t i m e and p h y s i c a l
space. R a t h e r , t h e a c c o u n t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t a s them es o r m eaning s e t s
i n s o c i a l s p a c e and s o c i a l tim e . I f one them e s t a n d s o u t a s t h e m o s t
s a l i e n t f e a t u r e o f t h e r e c o v e r y e x p e r i e n c e , t h a t theme i s g o v e r n m e n t
in te rv e n tio n .

The f i n a l c h a p t e r , c h a p t e r s e v e n , su m m a riz e s t h e f i n d i n g s and

d i s c u s s e s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a t c a n be draw n from t h e s t u d y . The
i s s u e s r a i s e d i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r a r e r e e x a m in e d i n l i g h t o f t h e f i n d ­
i n g s g e n e r a t e d from t h e T e to n c a s e s t u d y .
 19

NOTES TO CHAPTER 1

1. The f o l l o w i n g a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f human i n t e r e s t a c c o u n t s w h ic h
r e f l e c t t h i s g e n e ra l e x p ectan cy . A lan D. H a a s , "M ending M inds a t
F lo o d T i d e " , I n f o r m a t i o n B u l l e t i n , V o l. 2 8 2 , 1 9 7 3 : 1 - 4 ; Tom
N u g e n t, D eath a t B u f f a l o C r e e k : The S t o r y B e h in d t h e West
V i r g i n i a F lo o d D i s a s t e r o f 1 9 7 2 , New Y o rk : W.W. N o r to n and C o .,
I n c . , 1 9 73 ; C l a i r e S a f r a n , "How M e n t a l F i r s t A id Can P u l l You
T hrou gh a C r i s i s " , T o d a y 's H e a l t h , V o l . 5 1 , No. 9 , 1 97 3: 4 4 - 4 5 ,
67-68; J a c k H. M o r r i s , " S u r v i v a l Syndrom e: M e n ta l A n g u is h B e s e t s
Many V i c t i m s o f D i s a s t e r " , W a ll S t r e e t J o u r n a l , V o l. 183, No. 3 ,
1 97 4: 1 and 13; P e t e r V e r n e y , The E a r t h q u a k e H andbook, New Y o rk :
P a d d i n g t o n P r e s s L t d . , 1 979 .

2. The c o n t r o v e r s y i s d r a m a t i c a l l y e x p r e s s e d i n a j o u r n a l i n t e r / i e w ,
"A fter D is a s te r: Wliat A bout S u r v i v o r s ? " , M o dem M e d i c i n e , Decem­
b e r 1, 1 9 7 5 : 6 3 - 6 6 . See t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r r e v i e w s t h a t c o n c l u d e
th a t d i s a s t e r c au ses lo n g -te rm p s y c h o lo g ic a l d is tu r b a n c e .
H enry K r y s t a l ( E d . ) , M a s s iv e P s y c h i c T r a u m a , New Y o rk : I n t e r n a ­
t i o n a l U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1968; James C. Coleman and W i l l i a m E.
B ro e n , J r . , " R e a c t i o n s t o C i v i l i a n C a t a s t r o p h e s " , A bnorm al
P s y c h o lo g y and Modern L i f e , 4 t h e d i t i o n , G r e e n v ie w , 1 1 1 . : S c o t t ,
Foresm an & C o . , 1 9 7 2 ; W arren K i n s t o n and R a c h a e l R o s s e r ,
" D i s a s t e r E f f e c t s on M e n t a l an d P h y s i c a l S t a t e " , J o u r n a l o f
P s y c h o s o m a t i c R e s e a r c h , V o l. 18: 4 3 7 - 4 5 6 ; Thomas A. Long,
" D i s a s t e r S y n d ro m e ", C i n c i n n a t i H o r i z o n s , V o l . 7, No. I : 6 - 1 0 .
See t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r r e v i e w s t h a t c o n c l u d e d i s a s t e r d o e s n o t
cause lo n g -te rm p s y c h o lo g ic a l d is tu rb a n c e . C a l v i n S. D r a y e r ,
" P s y c h o l o g i c a l F a c t o r s an d P r o b l e m s , E m ergency and L on g-T erm ",
A n n a ls o f t h e A m e rica n Academy o f P o l i t i c a l a n d S o c i a l S c i e n c e s ,
V o l. 3 0 9 : 1 5 1 - 1 5 9 ; R o b e r t N. W ils o n , " D i s a s t e r a n d M e n t a l H e a l t h " ,
Man and S o c i e t y i n D i s a s t e r , G eorg e B a k e r an d Dw ight Chapman ( E d s . ) ,
New Y o rk : B a s i c B o o k s: 1 2 4 - 1 5 0 ; A m e r ic a n P s y c h i a t r i c A s s o c i a t i o n ' s
C o m m itte e on C i v i l D e f e n s e , F i r s t A id f o r P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e a c t i o n s
i n D i s a s t e r s , Secon d E d i t i o n , W a s h in g to n D . C . : A m e ric a n P s y c h i a t r i c
A s s o c i a t i o n , 1966; E .L . Q u a r a n t e l l i a n d R u s s e l R. D y nes, "R es­
p o n s e t o S o c i a l C r i s i s and D i s a s t e r " , A n n u a l Review o f S o c i o l o g y ,
V o l. 3 , 1977: 2 3 - 4 9 .

3. The e a r l i e r d i s a s t e r r e s e a r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s . N a t i o n a l O p in io n
R e s e a r c h C e n t e r and D i s a s t e r R e s e a r c h Group o f t h e N a t i o n a l
Academy o f S c i e n c e , w ere i n d i v i d u a l l y o r i e n t e d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 's .
The l a t e r r e s e a r c h o f The D i s a s t e r R e s e a r c h C e n t e r h a s b e e n
o r i e n t e d t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d com m unity s t u d i e s from 1963
to th e p r e s e n t . See f o r c x a r . p l e , E .L . Q u a r a n t e l l i , D i s a s t e r s :
T h e o ry and R e s e a r c h , London, U .K .: Sage P u b l i c a t i o n s L t d . , 1978.

4. R onald W. P e r r y and M ic h a e l K. L i n d e l l , "The P s y c h o l o g i c a l

Consequences o f N a tu r a l D is a s t e r : A R ev ie w o f R e s e a r c h on
A m e ric a n C o m m u n i tie s " , Mass E m e r g e n c i e s , v o l . 3, 1978: 1 0 5 -1 1 5 .
 20

5. The f i r s t e m p i r i c a l s t u d y t o r e p o r t n e g a t i v e f i n d i n g s a p p e a r e d
a s e a r l y a s 1954. In f a c t , t h i s s tu d y r a i s e d s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n s
a b o u t t h e s e v e r i t y a n d m a g n i t u d e o f t h e d i s a s t e r sy n d ro m e i n
th e s h o rt-te rm a ls o . C h a r l e s E. F r i t z a n d E l i S . M a rk s , "The
NORC S t u d i e s o f Human B e h a v i o r i n D i s a s t e r " , The J o u r n a l o f
S o c i a l I s s u e s , v o l . 10, 1954: 2 6 - 4 1 .

6. E r i c h L ind e m a nn, " S y m p to m a to lo g y and Management o f A c u te G r i e f " ,

A m e ric a n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , v o l . 1 0 1 , 1944: 141—148; S. Cobb
an d E. L in de m a nn , " N e u r o p s y c h i a t r i e O b s e r v a t i o n s A f t e r t h e Coco­
n u t G rove F i r e " , A n n a ls o f S u r g e r y , v o l . 11 7, n o . 6 , 1 94 3: 8 1 4 -
824.

7. J . S . T y h u r s t , " I n d i v i d u a l R e a c t i o n s t o Community D i s a s t e r : The

N a t u r a l H i s t o r y ' o f P s y c h i a t r i c P heno m en a", A m e ric a n J o u r n a l o f
P s y c h i a t r y , v o l . 107, 1 9 5 0 -1 9 5 1 : 7 6 4 - 7 6 9 ; " P s y c h o l o g i c a l and
S o c i a l A s p e c t s o f C i v i l i a n D i s a s t e r " , C a n a d ia n M e d i c a l A s s o c i a ­
t i o n J o u r n a l , v o l . 7 6 , 1 9 57 : 3 8 5 - 3 9 3 ; "The R ole o f T r a n s i t i o n
S t a t e s - I n c l u d i n g D i s a s t e r s - I n M e n t a l I l l n e s s " , Symposium on
P r e v e n t i v e and S o c i a l P s y c h i a t r y , W a l t e r Reed Army I n s t i t u t e
o f R e s e a r c h , W a s h i n g to n , D . C . , A p r i l 1 5 - 1 7 , 1957: 1 4 9 - 1 6 9 .

8. A nth o n y W a l l a c e , T o r n a d o i n W o r c e s t e r : An E x p l o r a t o r y S t u a y o f
I n d i v i d u a l and Community B e h a v i o r i n a n E x tre m e S i t u a t i o n ,
N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l : C om m ittee on D i s a s t e r S t u d i e s , D i s a s ­
t e r S tu d y 3, n o . 39 2, 1 - 1 6 6 , 1956; "Mazeway D i s e n t e g r a t i o n :
The I n d i v i d u a l ' s P e r c e p t i o n o f S o c i o - C u l t u r a l D i s o r g a n i z a t i o n "
Human O r g a n i z a t i o n , v o l 16, n o . 2 ( s u m m e r ) , 1956: 2 3 - 2 7 .

9. F o r a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e o r i g i n s and d e v e l o p m e n t o f C r i s i s I n t e r ­
v e n tio n s e e , G erald C apIan, P r i n c i p l e s o f P r e v e n t i v e P s y c h i a t r y ,
New Y o rk : B a s i c B o oks, 1 9 6 4 ; Howard J . P a r a d , " C r i s i s I n t e r v e n ­
t i o n " , E n c y c l o p e d i a o f S o c i a l Work, 1 6 t h e d i t i o n , v o l . 1 , p p .
1 9 6 -2 0 2 , New Y o r k : N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f S o c i a l W o r k e r s , 1971.
B e r n a r d L. Bloom, Community M e n ta l H e a l t h : A H i s t o r i c a l and
C r i t i c a l A n a l y s i s , New J e r s e y : G e n e r a l L e a r n i n g C o r p o r a t i o n ,
1973; L a r r y L. S m i t h , "A Review o f C r i s i s I n t e r v e n t i o n T h e o r y " ,
S o c i a l C a s e w o rk , v o l . 5 9 , n o . 7, 1978: 3 9 6 - 4 0 5 .

10. T h is d i s c u s s i o n r e l i e s h e a v i l y on th e s o u rc e s l i s t e d in fo o tn o te
9 and on Hans S e l y e , The S t r e s s Of L i f e , New Y ork: M c G r a w - H ill:
1956; K r y s t a l , o p . c i t . ; A r n o ld G o l d s t e i n , " R e a c t i o n s t o D i s a s ­
t e r " , P s y c h i a t r i c C o m m u n ic a tio n s , v o l . 3, 1960: 47—5 8 ; H .C ,
M o d iin , " H ie Trauma i n ' T r a u m a t i c N e u r o s i s ' " , B u l l e t i n o f t h e
M e n n in g e r C l i n i c , v o l . 2 4 , 1960: 4 9 - 5 6 ; M . J . H o r o w i t z , " P s y c h i c
T ra u m a ", A r c h i v e s o f G e n e r a l P s y c h i a t r y , v o l . 2 0 , 1 9 6 9 : 5 5 2 -
5 5 9 ; J . T i t c h n e r , "M anagem ent and S tu d y o f P s y c h o l o g i c a l Re­
s p o n s e t o T ra u m a " , J o u r n a l o f Traum a, v o l . 10, 1 970: 9 7 4 - 9 8 0 ;
I r v i n g L. J a n i s , S t r e s s and F r u s t r a t i o n , New Y o rk : H a r c o u r t
B r a c e J o v a n o v i c h , 1971; M. H o r o w i t z , " S t r e s s R e s p o n s e S y n d r o m e s " ,
A r c h i v e s o f G e n e r a l P s y c h i a t r y , v o l . 3 1 , 1974: 768—78 1.
 21

The p a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n i s s e t up w i t h t h e
f i r s t term o r p h r a s e i l l u s t r a t i v e o f th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic t r a ­
d i t i o n and t h e s e c o n d , c r i s i s i n t e r v e n t i o n . A lt h o u g h t h e i n t e r ­
p r e t i v e c o n te x t v a r i e s , th e b a s ic s t r u c t u r e o f th o u g h t i s th e
Same.

11. The e l a b o r a t i o n s o f t h e m e d i c a l m e t a p h o r a r e l o g i c a l a n d n o t
c o n t r i b u t i o n s added in c h r o n o lo g ic a l tim e . F ig u re 2 i s an
a d a p t a t i o n from t h e c r i s i s i n t e r v e n t i o n l i t e r a t u r e . S m ith , op.
c i t . , p. 399. The c l e a r e s t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s t a g e s o f t h e
d i s a s t e r sy n d ro m e from a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s
J . L . T i t c h e n e r and R .T . K app , " F a m i l y a n d C h a r a c t e r Change a t
B u f f a l o C r e e k " , A m e ric a n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , v o l . 133: 2 9 5 -
299.

12. The p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a d i t i o n i s more l i k e l y t o assum e a l o n g e r

phase o f d i s o r g a n iz a tio n a lth o u g h th e p e rio d i s v a r i a b l e .

13. The c r i s i s i n t e r v e n t i o n t r a d i t i o n shows a h i g h d e g r e e o f c o n ­

s e n s u s on t h e s e l f - l i m i t i n g a s p e c t o f c r i s i s d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n .
S m ith , op. c i t . , p p . 3 9 7 - 3 9 9 .

14. M o d l i n , o p . c i t . , p . 49; a n d M a r d i J . H o r o w i t z , " P s y c h i c Trauma:

R e tu rn of Im ages A f t e r A S t r e s s F ilm " , A rc h iv e s o f G e n e ra l
P s y c h i a t r y , v o l . 2 0 , 19 69: 5 5 2 - 5 5 9 .

15. K in sto n and R o sser, op. c i t . , p. 443.

16. C a l v i n J . F r e d e r i c k , " E f f e c t s o f N a t u r a l v s . Human—I n d u c e d

V io le n c e upon V ic tim s " , E v a lu a tio n and Change, S p e c i a l I s s u e ,
p. 75, M i n n e a p o l i s , M i n n e s o t a : P r o g r a m E v a l u a t i o n R e s o u r c e
C e n t e r , M i n n e a p o l i s M e d i c a l R e s e a r c h F o u n d a t i o n , I n c . , 1980.

17. S m ith , op. c it., p. 398.

18. Many t a k e t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t i n d i v i d u a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s a r e
i r r e l e v a n t to th e o n s e t o r d e v elo p m en t o f th e trau m a. R.L.
L e o p o l d a n d H. D i l l o n , " P s y c h o - a n a t o m y o f a D i s a s t e r : A Long­
te r m S t u d y o f P a s t - t r a u m a t i c N e u r o s e s i n S u r v i v o r s o f a M arine
E x p l o s i o n " , A m e r ic a n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , v o l . 120, 1963:
9 1 3 - 9 1 7 ; E. K o r a n y i , " P s y c h o d y n a m ic T h e o r i e s o f t h e ' S u r v i v o r
S y n d r o m e '" , C a n a d i a n P s y c h i a t r y J o u r n a l , v o l . 14, 1 9 69: 165-
16 9; F . H o c k in g , " P s y c h i a t r i c A s p e c t s o f E x trem e E n v i r o n m e n t a l
S t r e s s " , D i s e a s e o f N e rv o u s S y s te m , v o l . 31, 1970: 5 4 2 - 5 4 4 .

19. A l l e n H. B a r t o n , C o m m u n itie s i n D i s a s t e r : A S o c i o l o g i c a l
A n a l y s i s o f C o l l e c t i v e S t r e s s S i t u a t i o n s , New Y o rk : A n ch o r
B o o k s , 1970; R u s s e l l D y n e s, O r g a n i z e d B e h a v i o r i n D i s a s t e r ,
L e x i n g t o n , M a s s . : D .C . H e a th & C o . , 1 9 7 0 ; J . E ugene H aas and
Thomas E. D r a b e k , "C om m unity D i s a s t e r a n d S y s te m S t r e s s : A
S o c i o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e " , p p . 2 6 4 - 2 8 6 , i n J o s e p h M cG rath ( e d ) ,
 22

S o c i a l and P s y c h o l o g i c a l F a c t o r s i n S t r e s s , New Y o r k : H o l t ,
R i n e h a r t a n d W i n s t o n , 1 97 0.

20. T h is f i g u r e i s a m o d ifie d a d a p ta t i o n o f th e m a tr ix o f d i s a s t e r
v a r i a b l e s w h ic h w e re p o s t u l a t e d a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e t h e r ­
a p e u t i c c o m m u n ity . See B a r t o n , op . c i t . , p p . 2 0 5 - 2 7 9 . See
a l s o P e rry & L i n d e l l , op. c i t . fo r th e m ost r e c e n t sta te m e n t
o f th e s o c i a l c a u s a tio n o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l d is o r d e r .

21. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s h o c k t r a u m a and
s t r a i n tr a u m a s e e K i n s t o n a n d R o s s e r , o p . c i t . , p . 4 5 2 .

22. Leo R a n g e l l , " D i s c u s s i o n o f t h e B u f f a l o C r e e k D i s a s t e r : The

C o u r s e o f P s y c h i c T ra u m a ", A m e ric a n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y ,
v o l . 133, no. 3, 1976: 314.

23. Some t h e o r i s t s i n c r i s i s i n t e r v e n t i o n make t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n

e x p l i c i t b y s e p a r a t i n g t h e h a z a r d o u s e v e n t w h ic h c a u s e s v u l ­
n e r a b i l i t y from t h e p r e c i p i t a t i n g e v e n t w h ic h i m m e d i a t e l y p r o ­
ceeds th e c r i s i s r e a c tio n . S m ith, op . c i t . , p. 398.

24. T h is d is a g re e m e n t i s t i e d to th e e a r l i e r d e b a te o f w h eth er i n d i ­
v i d u a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s v a r y t h e o n s e t and c o u r s e o f tr a u m a .
F o r e x a m p le , H o c k in g , o p . c i t . , s u g g e s t s t h e t r a u m a r e s p o n s e
may be u n i v e r s a l ; K i n s t o n and R o s s e r , o p . c i t . , a r g u e t h a t t h e
r a t e o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r may i n c r e a s e by 1100% i n a
c o m m un ity, b u t i t i s n o t u n i v e r s a l .

25. T h is i s t h e s ta n d a r d n o tio n o f th e s t r e s s - b u f f e r i n g r o l e o f
s o c ia l su p p o rt. A l f r e d Dean and Nan L i n , "The S t r e s s - B u f f e r ­
i n g R o le o f S o c i a l S u p p o r t " , J o u r n a l o f N e rv o u s a n d M e n ta l
D i s e a s e , v o l . 165, 1977: 4 0 3 - 4 1 7 .

26. C h a r l e s E. F r i t z , " D i s a s t e r " , p p . 6 5 1 - 6 9 4 , i n R.K. M erton and

R.A. N i s b e t ( e d . ) . C o n te m p o r a r y S o c i a l P r o b l e m s , New Y ork:
H a r c o u r t , 1961.

27. B a rto n , o p . c i t . , p . 207. T h i s same i d e a h a s b e e n d i f f e r e n ­

t i a l l y r e f e r r e d to a s a " c i t y o f c o m r a d e s " by Sam uel P r i n c e ,
C a t a s t r o p h e and S o c i a l C h a n g e , New Y ork: C olum b ia U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1920; " d e m o c r a c y o f d i s t r e s s " by R . I . K u ta k , " S o c i o l o g y
o f C r i s i s : The L o u i s v i l l e F lo o d o f 1 9 3 7 " , S o c i a l F o r c e s , v o l .
X VII, 1 9 3 8 , 6 6 - 7 2 ; and " p o s t - d i s a s t e r u t o p i a " by M a r th a
W o lf e n s te in , D i s a s t e r : A P s y c h o lo g ic a l E s s a y , G len co e, 1 1 1 .:
F r e e P r e s s , 1 957.

28. B arto n , op. c i t . , p . 207.

29. F r e d e ric k , op. c i t . , p . 72.

 23

30. K ai T. E r ic k s o n , " E v e r y th in g In I t s P a t h ; D e s t r u c t i o n o f
Community i n t h e B u f f a l o C r e e k F l o o d , New Y o rk : Simon a n d
S c h u s t e r , 1976.

31. E rick so n , I b i d . , p. 154.

32. The s u p p o r t f o r t h i s g e n e r a l p o s i t i o n i s s t i l l b a s e d l a r g e l y on
s p e c u l a t i o n and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s d raw n fro m r e s e a r c h on com bat
f a t i g u e , c o n c e n t r a t i o n camp d e p r i v a t i o n and t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e
e x p l o s i o n o f t h e A bomb i n H i r o s h i m a an d N a g a s a k i . For a g en e ra l
r e v i e w o f t h e p r o b l e m s i n d i s a s t e r r e s e a r c h , s e e , G .F . W hite
a n d J . E . H a a s , A s s e s s m e n t o f R e s e a r c h on N a t u r a l H a z a r d s ,
C a m b r id g e , M a s s . : MIT P r e s s , 1975.

33 . R e f e r t o J u n e C h u r c h , "The B u f f a l o C r e e k D i s a s t e r : E x t e n t and
Range o f E m o ti o n a l a n d / o r B r h a v i o r a l P r o b l e m s " , Omega, v o l .
5 , 1974: 6 1 - 6 4 ; Dwight H a r s h b a r g e r , " P i c k i n g Up t h e P i e c e s :
D i s a s t e r I n t e r v e n t i o n a n d Human E c o l o g y " , Omega, v o l . 5 , n o . 1,
19 74 : 5 5 - 5 9 ; Vaughn M i c h a e l , " G r i e f R e a c t i o n s R e l a t e d t o L o s t
P o s s e s s i o n s " , U n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r , 1 9 74 ; E r i c k s o n , o p . c i t . ;
L o s s o f C o m m u nality a t B u f f a l o C r e e k " , A m e ric a n J o u r n a l o f
P s y c h i a t r y , v o l . 1 3 3 , n o . 3 . 1976 b: 3 0 2 - 3 0 5 ; R o b e r t J a y
L i f t o n and E r i c O l s e n , "The Human M eaning o f T o t a l D i s a s t e r :
The B u f f a l o C r e e k E x p e r i e n c e " , P s y c h i a t r y , v o l . 3 4 , 1976:
1 - 1 8 ; R a n g e l l , o p . c i t . ; G e r a l d S t e m , The B u f f a l o C re e k D i s a s ­
t e r , New Y ork: V i n t a g e B o ok s, 1976; "From C haos t o R e s p o n s i b i l ­
i t y " , A m e ric a n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , v o l . 13 3, n o . 3 , 1976:
3 0 0 - 3 0 1 ; T i t c h e n e r and R a p p , o p . c i t .

34 . T i t c h e n e r and Kapp, o p . c i t .

35. L i f t o n and O l s e n , o p . c i t . , p . 17; a n d E r i c k s o n , o p . c i t . , p.

134.

36 . E rick so n , I b id ., pp. 1 8 7 -2 4 5 .

37. E rick so n , Ib id ., p. 146.

38. E ric k so n , Ib id ., p. 10.

39. E rick so n , Ib id ., p. 11.

40. Ac f i r s t g l a n c e i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e e m p i r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e on
connnunity d i s a s t e r and p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r i s v o l u m in o u s .
I n a c t u a l i t y , t h e r e a r e o n l y 12 com m unity d i s a s t e r s i n t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s in w h ic h some a t t e m p t h a s b e e n made t o a s s e s s p s y c h o l o g i ­
c a l damage in t h e a f t e r m a t h o f d i s a s t e r . The d i s a s t e r and
c o r r e s p o n d i n g p u b l i c a t i o n s a r e l i s t e d b e lo w .
San A ngelo an d Waco, T e x a s ( t o r n a d o , 1 9 5 3 ) : H a r r y E s t i l l
M oore, "Some E m o tio n a l C o n c o m i t a n t s o f D i s a s t e r : , M e n ta l
H y g i e n e , v o l . 4 2 , 1958 ( J a n u a r y ) : 45—50; T o r n a d o e s o v e r
 24

T e x a s ; A S tu d y o f Waco and San A n g e lo i n D i s a s t e r , A u s t i n :

U n i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s P r e s s , 19 58 ; H a r r y E s t i l l Moore and H . J .
F ried sam , " R e p o rte d E m o tio n al S t r e s s F o llo w in g A D i s a s t e r " ,
S o c i a l F o r c e s , v o l . 38 (D e c e m b e r) , 1959: 1 3 5 -1 3 9 .

Cameron P a r i s h , L o u i s i a n n a ( h u r r i c a n e , 1 9 5 7 ) : F . L , B a t e s , C.W.
F o glera a n, V . J . P a r e n t o n , R.H . P i t t m a n a n d G .S . T r a c y , The S o c i a l
an d P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o n s e q u e n c e s o f a N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r : A L o n g i­
t u d i n a l Stud y o f H u r r i c a n e A u d r e y , P u b l i c a t i o n n o . 1081,
N a t i o n a l Academy o f S c i e n c e s - N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l ,
W a s h in g to n , D .C ., 1 963 .

T o p e k a , K a n sas ( t o r n a d o , 1 9 6 6 ) : J u a n i t a L. Crow e, W i l l i a m H.
Key, Thomas E. D r a b e k , and P a t r i c i a E. E r i c k s o n , "T he L on g-
Range S u b j e c t i v e I m p a c t o f a D i s a s t e r " , P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e
a n n u a l m e e t i n g s o f t h e Rocky M o u n ta in S o c i a l S c i e n c e A s s o c i a ­
t i o n , A p r i l 2 7 - 2 8 , L a r a m i e , Wyoming, 1973; T .E . D r a b e k , W.H.
K ey, P . E . E r i c k s o n an d J . L . C row e, " L o n g i t u d i n a l Im p a c t o f
D i s a s t e r on F a m ily F u n c t i o n i n g " , F i n a l P r o g r e s s R e p o r t t o NIMH
f o r g r a n t n o . ROI MHI 5 4 2 5 , 1973; Thomas E. D ra b e k and W i l l i a m
H. Key, "The I m p a c t o f D i s a s t e r o n P r i m a r y Group L i n k a g e s : ,
Mass E m e r g e n c i e s , v o l . I , n o . 2 , 1976: 8 9 - 1 0 5 .

San F e r n a n d o , C a l i f o r n i a ( e a r t h q u a k e , 1 9 7 1 ) : H. B l a u f a r b and
J . L ev in e, " C r i s i s I n t e r v e n t i o n i n an E a rth q u a k e " , S o c ia l
Work, v o l . 17, n o . 4 , 1972: 1 6 - 1 9 ; S t e p h e n J . Howard and Norma
S . G ordo n, M e n ta l H e a l t h I n t e r v e n t i o n i n a M a jo r D i s a s t e r ,
F i n a l P r o g r e s s R e p o r t , S m a ll R e s e a r c h G r a n t , MH21649-01, 1972;
L e o n a r d M. Murphy, San F e r n a n d o , C a l i f o r n i a , E a r t h q u a k e o f
F e b r u a r y 9 , 1971, V ol I I , U t i l i t i e s , T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and S o c i o ­
l o g i c a l A s p e c t s , W a s h in g t o n , D . C . : U .S . D e p a r tm e n t o f Commerce,
N a t i o n a l O c e a n ic a n d A t m o s p h e r i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , an d E n v i r o n ­
m e n t a l R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r i e s , 1973.

B u f f a l o C r e e k , West V i r g i n i a (dam b r e a k , 1 9 7 2 ): R e f e r b a c k t o
f o o t n o t e 33.

R a p id C i t y , S o u th D a k o ta ( f l a s h f l o o d , 1 9 7 2 ) : P h i l i p S. H a l l
and P a t r i c k W. L a n d r e t h , " A s s e s s i n g Some Long Terra C o n s e q u e n c e s
o f a N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r " , Mass E m e r g e n c i e s , v o l . 1, n o . 1, 1975:
55-61.

Wyoming V a l l e y , P e n n s y l v a n i a ( f l o o d , 1 9 7 2 ) : Edward M. W halen,

" O b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e J u n e 1972 F lo o d i n t h e Wyoming V a l l e y A re a
o f P e n n s y l v a n i a " , U n p u b lis h e d P a p e r , 1972; F r e d a B im b a u m ,
J e n n i f e r C o p lo n an d I r a S c h a r f f , " C r i s i s I n t e r v e n t i o n A f t e r A
N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r " , S o c i a l C a s e w o r k , v o l . 5 4 , 1973: 5 4 5 - 5 5 1 ;
A l l e n F e l d , " R e f l e c t i o n s on t h e A gnes F l o o d " , J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l
Work, S e p te m b e r , 1973: 4 6 - 5 1 ; R i c h a r d K. McGee, "T he R o le o f
C r i s i s I n te r v e n tio n S e rv ic e s In D is a s te r R ecovery", Paper p re ­
s e n t e d a t t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f M e n t a l H e a l t h M e e t i n g , 1973;
 25

J a c k Zusraan, " P r o j e c t O u t r e a c h ; Luzern-W yom ing C o un ty M e n t a l

H e a lth /M e n ta l R e ta r d a tio n J o in d e r " , F in a l r e p o r t to N a tio n a l
I n s t i t u t e o f M e n t a l H e a l t h , B u f f a l o : Community M e n ta l H e a l t h
R e s e a r c h and D e v e lo p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n , 1973; W.E. R i c h a r d , C r i s i s
I n t e r v e n t i o n S e r v i c e s f o l l o w i n g N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r : The P e n n s y l v a n i a
r e c o v e r y p r o j e c t " . J o u r n a l o f Community P s y c h o l o g y , v o l . 2 , 1974:
1 1 - 2 1 9 ; Edward F. I l e f f r o n , P r o j e c t D i r e c t o r , P r o j e c t O u t r e a c h ,
F i n a l R eport S u b m itted t o th e N a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e o f M en tal H e a lth ,
C o n t r a c t n o . l-M H -4 -0 0 8 , J u n e , 1975; R o n a ld L. K n au s, " C r i s i s
I n t e r v e n t i o n in a D i s a s t e r A r e a : The P e n n s y l v a n i a F lo o d i n
W i l k e s - B a r r e " , J o u r n a l o f O s t e o p a t h i c A s s o c i a t i o n , v o l . 7 5 , 1975:
2 9 7 - 3 0 1 ; S.W. P o u l s h o c k and E . S . C oh en, "T he E l d e r l y i n t h e
A f t e r m a t h o f a D i s a s t e r " , G e r o n t o l o g i s t , v o l . 15, 1975: 3 5 7 - 3 6 1 ;
Ja m e s N. L og ue, H o lg e r H ansen and Elm er S t r u c n i n g , " E m o t i o n a l
and P h y s i c a l D i s t r e s s F o l l o w i n g H u r r i c a n e Agnes i n Wyoming
V a lle y o f P e n n s y lv a n ia " , P u b lic H e a lth R e p o r ts , v o l . 94, no. 6,
1979: 4 9 5 -5 0 2 .

J o p l i n and S t . C h a r l e s , M i s s o u r i ( t o r n a d o and f l o o d , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
1 9 7 3 ) : E l i z a b e t h C. P e n i c k , S t e p h e n W. L a r s o n and B a r b a r a J .
P w e ll, F in a l R e p o r t: L t. G o v e rn o r’ s T ask F o rc e , M ental H e a lth
S y s te m s i n Time o f D i s a s t e r , S t . L o u i s , M i s s o u r i : S t . L o u i s S t a t e
H o s p i t a l , 1974; E l i z a b e t h C. P e n i c k , S t e p h e n W. L a r s o n , J a n e E.
B r o n s t o n e , Ann F. Nord and B a r b a r a J . P o w e l l , L e a d e r s M a n u a l:
M e n ta l H e a l t h and D i s a s t e r R e l i e f , A W orkshop by t h e J e f f e r s o n
M i s s o u r i D e p a r tm e n t o f M e n ta l H e a l t h i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e
A m e ric a n Red C r o s s M i d w e s te r n A r e a , S t . L o u i s , M i s s o u r i ,
J e f f e r s o n , M i s s o u r i : M i s s o u r i D e p a r tm e n t o f M e n ta l H e a l t h , 1974
( b ) ; E l i z a b e t h C. P e n i c k , B a r b a r a J . P o w e l l and W i l l i a m S i e c k ,
" M e n t a l H e a l t h P r o b le m s and N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r : T o r n a d o V i c t i m s " ,
J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , v o l . 4 , n o . 4 , 1 976 : 6 4 - 6 7 .

X e n i a , Ohio ( t o r n a d o , 1 9 7 4 ): V e r t a A. T a y l o r , C. A l e x a n d e r Ross
and E . L . O i i a r a n t c l l i , D e l i v e r y o f HeiiLal H e a l t h S e r v i c e s in
D i s a s t e r s : The X e n ia T o r n a d o and Some I m p l i c a t i o n s , The D i s a s t e r
R e s e a r c h C e n t e r Book an d M onograph S e r i e s , 1 1 , The Ohio S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y , 19 76 ; V e r t a T a y l o r , "Good News A bout D i s a s t e r " ,
P s y c h o l o g y T o - D a y , O c t o b e r , 1977.

Omaha, N e b r a s k a ( t o r n a d o , 1 9 7 5 ) : G e r o n t o l o g y P r o g r a m , S e r v i c e
P r i o r i t i e s For t h e E l d e r l y i n N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r s , A R e s e a r c h
R e p o r t , U n i v e r s i t y o f N e b r a s k a , Omaiia, N e b r a s k a , 1976; Omaha
T o r n a d o P r o j e c t , Omaha T o rn a d o P r o j " ^ ^ , P i n a l R e p o r t , p r e p a r e d
f o r F e d e r a l D i s a s t e r A s s i s t a n c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , NIMH, by E a s t e r n
N e b r a s k a Human S e r v i c e s A g en c y , 1976.

I t w i l l be o b s e r v e d t h a t a num ber o f r e p o r t s and e m p i r i c a l

s t u d i e s whicli Iiavc some b e a r i n g on m e n t a l h e a l t h ha v e b e e n o m i t t e d
from t h e a lio v c . Some a d d r e s s t h e i s s u e o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r
d u r i n g t h e e a r l y lio u r s an d d a y s o f t h e p o s t - i m p a c t p e r i o d ; o t h e r s
a r e concerned w ith h i g h l y l o c a l i z e d e v e n t s such a s a bus a c c i d e n t ;
o t h e r s a r e c o n d u c t e d in c o u n t r i e s o t h e r t h a n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ;
 26

o t h e r s a t t e n d p r i m a r i ly to th e p ro b lem s i n h e r e n t in s e r v ic e
d e l i v e r y ; and some f o c u s on s e l e c t i v e a s p e c t s s u c h a s p e r c e p t i o n ,
p a n ic o r th e s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l re s p o n s e to w arning. The a b o v e
w e re s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e y i n v o l v e s y s t e m a t i c o r a t l e a s t q u a s i -
s y s te m a tic a tte m p ts to m easure p s y c h o lo g ic a l s t a t u s (a s a g lo b a l
c o n c e p t ) a t a p o i n t i n t i m e w h ic h i s d i s t a l t o t h e im m e d ia te
p o s t - i m p a c t p e r i o d o f c o m m u n ity - w id e d i s a s t e r i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

T h e r e a r e a number o f d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a s s e s s i n g t h i s r e s e a r c h .
F i r s t , th e m easures used a re n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t i v e of
p sy ch o lo g ical d is o rd e r. C o n c e p t u a l l y p s y c h o l o g i c a l damage i n ­
c l u d e s two s e p a r a t e b u t i n t e r r e l a t e d d i m e n s i o n s : a s u b j e c t
d im e n s i o n o f e m o t i o n a l d i s t r e s s and an o b j e c t i v e m e a s u r e of
s o c ia l d ev ian ce. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , m o st r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e f o c u s e d
e x c l u s i v e l y o n t h e s u b j e c t i v e d i m e n s i o n a n d t h e i m p l i c i t assum p­
t i o n , e r r o n e o u s a s i t may b e , i s t h a t a m e a s u r e o f one a u t o m a t ­
i c a l l y in c lu d e s a m easure of th e o t h e r . S e c o n d , e v e n among t h e
s t u d i e s t h a t f o c u s on s u b j e c t i v e d i s t r e s s , i t i s n o t a t a l l c l e a r
t h a t th e m easures — c l i n i c a l e v a l u a t i o n , s e l f - r e p o r t s , o t h e r -
r e p o r t s and o b j e c t i v e s c a l e s — a r e c o m p a ra b le . T h ir d , th e
a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t t h e am ount o f d i s o r d e r i n c r e a s e s , b u t w i t h few
e x c e p t i o n s (a n d t h e s e u s e s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a t o m e a s u r e o b j e c t i v e
s o c i a l d e v i a n c e ) , t h e r e i s no p r e - d i s a s t e r m e a s u r e to w a r r a n t
such a s t a te m e n t . F o u rth , th e assu m p tio n i s t h a t p s y c h o lo g ic a l
dam age p e r s i s t s o v e r t h e l o n g - t e r m . P ost d i s a s t e r o b se rv a tio n s
a r e f r e q u e n t l y made a r o u n d 6 t o 12 m o n th s a f t e r i m p a c t . The
t a b l e b e lo w i n d i c a t e s , by com m unity d i s a s t e r , t h e s t a t u s o f t h e
r e s e a r c h fin d in g s a lo n g th re e o f th e s e d im en sio n s.
 T ab le I

S t u d i e s A s s e s s i n g P s y c h o l o g i c a l Damage
by Community D i s a s t e r , D im en sion M e a s u r e d ,
P r e - d i s a s t e r C o m p a ris o n a n d Time o£ P o s t - D i s a s t e r M easu re m e n t

M e a su re m e n t o f Time o f
P s y c h o l o g i c a l Damage
P re- P o st­
S u b je c tiv e O b jectiv e d isa ste r d isa ste r
Community D i s a s t e r D istre ss D e v ia n c e C o m pa rison O b serv atio n

San A n g e lo , TX X 6 -1 3 mos.
( t o r n a d o , 1953)
Waco, TX X 9-11 mos.
( t o r n a d o , 1953)
Cameron P a r i s h , Ij\ X 4 years
( h u r r i c a n e , 1957)
T o p e k a , KS X 4 years
( t o r n a d o , 1966)
San F e r n a n d o , CA X 1 year
( e a r t h q u a k e , 1971)
B u f f a l o C r e e k , W. VA X 2 years
(dam b r e a k , 1972)
R a p i d C i t y , SD X X l!j years
( f l a s h f l o o d , 1972)
Wyoming V a l l e y , PA X 5 years
( f l o o d , 1972)
X X 6 mos.
J o p l i n , MO X X 3 - 5 mos.
( t o r n a d o , 1973)
S t . C h a r l e s , MO X X 3-5 mos.
( f l o o d , 1973)
X e n i a , Oil X X X 6 mos.
( t o r n a d o , 1974)
Omaha, NE X X 11%-7% mos.
( t o r n a d o , 1975)

41. Bowman, o p . c i t . ; M o ore, o p . c i t . ; T a y l o r a t a l , o p . c i t . , ; T a y l o r ,

op . c i t . ; and I’a y c C . , H u e r t a , R o b e r t b. H o r to n and L e o n a rd K o v i t ,
O ld e r A m e r ic a n s And t h e N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r , R e s e a r c h R e p o r t , T i t l e
I I I Model P r o j e c t , C a s t e r n Id a h o S p e c i a l S e r v i c e s A gency, I n c . ,
I d a h o F a l l s , I d a h o , 1977.

42. The g e n e r a l f a i l u r e see m s t o r e f l e c t t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t e m o t i o n a l

s t r e s s and p e r f o r m a n c e a r c s t r o n g l y and i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d and t h a t
a m e a s u r e o f o n e a u t o m a t i c a l l y i n c l u d e s t h e m e a s u r e o f tlie o t l i e r .
M o r e o v e r , i t i s g e n e r a l l y assum ed t l i a t e m o t i o n a l d i s t r e s s c a u s e s
o r i n t e r f e r e s w itli s o c i a l p e r f o r m a n c e and i s tlie more i m p o r t a n t
d im e n s i o n to m e a s u r e .

43 . P en ick e t a l , op. c i t . , p. 67.

 28

44. Drabek. a n d Key, o p . c i t .

45. M oo re, o p . c i t .

46. B a t e s e t a l , o p . c i t . ; H a l l and L a n d r e t h , op. c i t . ; T ay lo r e t a l,

o p . c i t . ; and K a t h l e e n J . T i e r n e y and B a r b a r a B a i s d e n , C r i s i s
I n t e r v e n t i o n P ro g ra m s Fo r D i s a s t e r V i c t i m s ; A S o u r c e Book a n d
M anual F o r S m a l l e r C o m m u n itie s , W a s h in g to n , D .C .: U .S . G o vernm ent
P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , DHEW P u b l i c a t i o n No (ADM) 7 9 - 6 7 5 , 1979. One
e x c e p tio n to t h i s f in d in g i s a r e p o r te d i n c r e a s e in s u i c i d e , d e a th
du e t o h e a r t d i s e a s e an d a d m i s s i o n t o p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l i n t h e
Wyoming V a l l e y f o l l o w i n g t h e Agnes f l o o d s , 1972. J a c k Susm an,
" M e e t i n g M e n t a l H e a l t h Needs In A D i s a s t e r ; A P u b l i c H e a l t h V iew ",
p . 2 5 6 , i n Howard J . P a r a d , H .L . R e s n ic k a n d L i b b i e G. P a r a d ( e d s . ) ,
Em ergency and D i s a s t e r M anagem ent: A M e n t a l H e a l t h S o u r c e Book,
B o w ie, M a r y la n d : C h a r l e s P r e s s P u b l i s h e r s , I n c . , 1975.

47. P rin c e , op. c i t . , p. 139.

48. B a t e s e t a l , o p . c i t . ; M oo re, o p . c i t . ; Howard K u n r e u t h e r ,

R e c o v e r y from N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r s , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : A m erican
E n t e r p r i s e I n s t i t u t e f o r P u b l i c P o l i c y R e s e a r c h , 1973; H.C.
C o chrane, N a tu ra l H azard s: T h e ir D i s t r i b u t e d E f f e c t s , B ou ld er:
U n i v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o I n s t i t u t e o f B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e , 1975.

49. H. P a u l I 'r i e s c m a , J a m e s C a p o r a s o , G e r a ld G o l d s t e i n , R o b e rt
L i n e b e r r y and R ic h a r d M c C le a r y , A f t e r m a t h : C om m unities a f t e r
N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r s , B e v e r l y H i l l s , C a l i f o r n i a : Sage P u b l i c a t i o n s ,
1979.

50. J . Eugene H a a s , R o b e r t W. K a t e s , M artyn J . Bowden ( e d s . ) .

R e c o n s t r u c t i o n f o l l o w i n g D i s a s t e r , C a m b r id g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s :
The MIT P r e s s , 1977.

51. P e t e r H. R o s s i , Jam e s D. W r i g h t , S o n ia R. W r ig h t and E l e a n o r

W e b e r - B u r d i n , "A re T h e r e Long Term E f f e c t s o f A m erican N a t u r a l
D i s a s t e r s ? E s t i m a t i o n s o f E f f e c t s o f F l o o d s , H u r r i c a n e s , and
T o r n a d o e s O c c u r i n g I9 6 0 t o 1970 on U .S . C o u n t i e s and C e n su s
T r a c t s i n 1 9 7 0 " , Mass E m e r g e n c i e s , v o l . 3 , 1978: 1 1 7 -1 3 2 ; Jam es
D. W r i g h t , P e t e r H. R o s s i , S o n i a R. W r i g h t and E l e a n o r W eber-
B u r d i n , A f t e r The C le a n - U p : Long Range E f f e c t s o f N a t u r a l
D i s a s t e r s , B e v e r l y H i l l s , C a l i f n o r i a : S a g e P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1979.

52. S e e i n p a r t i c u l a r , from f o o t n o t e 4 0 , H e f f r o n ; Omaha T o rn a do

P r o j e c t ; P e n n i c k , 1974 ( b ) ; R i c h a r d ; W ha le n; Z a r l e e t a l ; and
Zusman, See a l s o , Ann S. K lim a n , "The C o m i n g F lo o d P r o j e c t :
P s y c h o l o g i c a l F i r s t Aid F o l l o w i n g a N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r " , u n p u b l i s h e d
p a p e r , 1 973; S t e v e n P. K i r n , "Community M e n t a l H e a l t h C e n t e r s and
D i s a s t e r : C o n s i d e r a t i o n s R e g a r d in g R e s p o n s e D u r in g t h e P o s t - I m p a c t
P e rio d " , Paper p re se n te d a t th e S o u th e a ste rn P sy ch o lo g ical
A s s o c i a t i o n , A t l a n t a , G e o r g i a , March 2 8 , 1975; M a r t i n S u n d e l ,
" P r o b l e m s F a c in g a Community M e n ta l H e a l t h C e n t e r i n D e l i v e r y o f
 29

M e n ta l H e a l t h S e r v i c e s t o a D i s a s t e r A r e a " , P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t
t h e a n n u a l m e e tin K o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f Community M e n t a l
H e a l t h C e n t e r s , W a s liin g to n , D . C . , 1975-

53. T h is p h ra s e has been u se d e a r l i e r in t h e c o n t e x t o f d e l i v e r i n g

d is a s te r se rv ic e s. Omaha T o rn a d o P r o j e c t , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 0 - 3 1 ;
and T a y lo r e t a l , o p . c i t . , p p . 276-280.

54. Thomas S . S z a s z , T he Myth o f M e n t a l I l l n e s s : F o u n d a t i o n s o f a

T h e o r y o f I ' e r s o n a l C o n d u c t , New Y ork: H a r p e r & Row, 1 9 7 4 . For
a m ore e x t e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s u b s t a n t i v e p r o b le m s w h ic h
r e s u l t from t r e a t i n g t h e i l l n e s s m e ta p h o r a s a l i t e r a l d e s c r i p ­
t i o n s e e T h e o d o re R. S a r b i n , "On t h e F u t i l i t y o f t h e P r o p o s i t i o n
t h a t Some P e o p l e Be L a b e le d ' M e n t a l l y 1 1 1 ' " , J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g
P sy c h o lo g y , v o l . 31, 1967, 4 4 7 -4 5 3 .

55. T h is c o n cep tio n of d i s a s t e r fo llo w s th e s o c i o l o g i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s

of d isa ste r. S e e f o r e x a m p l e , t h e d e f i n i t i o n by F r i t z , o p . c i t . ,
p . 7 8 , wliicli i d e n t i f i e s d i s a s t e r a s :

an e v e n t , c o n c e n t r a t e d i n ti m e a n d s p a c e , i n w h ich a
s o c ie ty , o r a r e la tiv e ly s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t su b d iv isio n
o f a s o c i e t y , u n d erg o es s e v e r e d a n g e r and i n c u r s such
l o s s e s t o i t s members a n d p h y s i c a l a p p u r t e n a n c e s t h a t
t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i s d i s r u p t e d and t h e f u l f i l m e n t
o f a l l o r some o f t h e e s s e n t i a l f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s o c i e t y
i s p re v en ted .

56. H e r b e r t B lu m er, S y m b o lic i n t e r a c t i o n i s m : P e r s p e c t i v e and M e th o d ,

Englew ood C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e - I I a l l , I n c . , 1969.

57. D i s a s t e r A s s i s t a n c e f o r C r i s i s C o u n se lin g and T r a i n i n g , P u b lic

Law 9 3 - 2 3 8 , s e c t i o n 4 1 3 , p a r t 3 8 , F e d e r a l R e g i s t e r , v o l . 4 1 ,
n o . 75, A p r i l 16, 1976. For c u r r e n t p h i l o s o p h i e s r e l a t e d t o t h e
s e c t i o n 413 ammendment s e e , i n p a r t i c u l a r , P a t r i c k K. O 'K u r a ,
" M o b i l i z i n g in R e sp o n se To A M a jo r D i s a s t e r " , Community M e n ta l
H e a l t h J o u r n a l , v o l . I I , 1975: 1 3 6 - 1 4 4 ; Howard J . P a r a d , J . L . P .
R e s n l c k and L i b b i e C. P a r a d , Emergency a n d D i s a s t e r M anagem ent:
A M e n t a l H e a l t h S o u r c e b o o k , Bow ie, M a r y l a n d : The C h a r l e s P r e s s
P u b l i s h e r s , i n c . , 1976, C a l v i n J . F r e d e r i c k , " C u r r e n t T h i n k i n g
ab o u t C r i s i s o r P s y c h o lo g ic a l I n t e r v e n t i o n in th e U n ite d S t a t e s " ,
Mass E m e r g e n c i e s , v o l . 2 , 1977: 4 3 - 5 0 .

58. The T e to n d i s a s t e r a l s o s e r v e d a s o n e o f two d i s a s t e r s t h a t s e r v e d

a s t h e b a s e s f o r a T r a i n i n g M anual f o r Human S e r v i c e W o rk e rs in
M a jo r D i s a s t e r s , p r e p a r e d by t h e i n s t i t u t e f o r t h e S t u d i e s o f
D e s t r u c t i v e B e h a v i o r s a n d t h e Los A n g e l e s S u i c i d e P r e v e n t i o n
C e n t e r , u n d e r c o n t r a c t n o . 2 7 8 - 7 5 - 0 0 1 8 (SM) from t h e N a t i o n a l
I n s t i t u t e o f M en tal H e a lth .
 CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGY

M e th o d o lo g ic a l is s u e s r e l a t e d to th e case stu d y approach a r e d i s ­

c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r . The c h a p t e r b e g i n s w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e
r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n w h ic h g u i d e s t h e e m p i r i c a l i n q u i r y . Second, a t t e n ­
t i o n i s g i v e n t o q u a l i t a t i v e m e th o d o lo g y a s a r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g y , i t s
i n t e l l e c t u a l r o o t s in t h e h u m a n i s t i c t r a d i t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s
a n d t h e p r o b le m s t h i s r a i s e s f o r o b j e c t i v i t y a n d t r u t h . T h i r d , t h e
d i s c u s s i o n f o c u s e s on s e l e c t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e r e s e a r c h s e t t i n g c h o s e n
f o r s tu d y . T h is i s fo llo w e d by a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s f i e l d
m e th o d s t h a t w e re u t i l i z e d i n g a t h e r i n g d a t a . F i n a l l y , th e c h a p te r
c o n c lu d e s w ith a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
fin d in g s.

R esearch Q u estio n

T he m ain o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s r e s e a r c h i s to f u r t h e r o u r u n d e r s t a n d ­
i n g o f t h e l o n g - t e r m p e r s o n a l an d s o c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f c o m m u n ity -w id e
d isa ste r. The m a j o r f o c u s o f i n t e r e s t i s d i r e c t e d to w a r d d e s c r i b i n g
a n d e x p l a i n i n g t h e e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e r e c o v e r y e x p e r i e n c e . W ith
t h i s o b j e c t i v e i n m in d , t h e q u e s t i o n w h ic h g u i d e s t h e e m p i r i c a l i n q u i r y
i s v e r y s i m p l y ; w h a t a r e t h e e x o e r i e n c e s and a d j u s t m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h d i s a s t e r r e c o v e r y ? T h i s q u e s t i o n i s e x p l i c i t l y aim ed a t d i s c o v e r ­
i n g how t h o s e who l i v e t h r o u g h a m a j o r d i s a s t e r a n d i t s a f t e r m a t h c h a r ­
a c t e r i z e t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s a n d a d a p t t h e i r l i v e s t o m eet t h e s i t u a t i o n s
w h ic h f o l l o w in t h e wake o f l a r g e - s c a l e d i s a s t e r .

R e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s s e r v e a s a g u i d e to t h e c o n d u c t o f i n q u i r y a n d
t h e above q u e s t i o n i s d e l i b e r a t e l y an d c o n s c i o u s l y f o r m u la te d in an
open -en d ed fa sh io n to a v o id c a s t i n g th e r e s e a r c h f in d in g s in a p re ­
d e t e r m i n e d m old. T h i s a l l o w s f o r t h e d i s c o v e r y a n d e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e
c a t e g o r i e s t h a t p e r s o n s " n a t u r a l l y " u s e i n m a k in g s e n s e o f t h e i r own
e x p e r i e n c e . The q u e s t i o n i s b r o a d l y f o r m u l a t e d t o a l l o w f o r a f l e x i b l e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n w hose d i r e c t i o n i s d i c t a t e d by t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e
research s e ttin g .

T he f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n i n t h i s f a s h i o n a l r e a d y
i m p l i e s t h e p a r t i c u l a r r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g y to b e e m p lo y e d . In s h o rt,
t h e s t r a t e g y o f c h o i c e c a l l s f o r q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h b a s e d on f i e l d
m e th o d s a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e n a t u r a l s e t t i n g .

30
 31

Q u a l i t a t i v e M e th o d o lo g y

Q u a l i t a t i v e m e th o d o l o g y i s f r e q u e n t l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d w i t h v a r y i n g
degrees o f d is d a in as e x p l o r a t o r y , u n s y s t e m a t i c , i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c ,
u n s o p h is tic a te d o r slo p p y . T y p i c a l l y , such c la im s s u g g e s t t h a t q u a l i ­
t a t i v e r e s e a r c h is e i t h e r u n s c i e n t i f i c or m erely p re lim in a ry to r e a l
scien ce. T h is c r i t i q u e o f q u a l i t a t i v e m eth o d o lo g y , i n d i c a t i v e o f a
p o s i t i v i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n , s te m s from a l o n g - s t a n d i n g m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
c o n t r o v e r s y in s o c i o l o g y b e tw e e n p o s i t i v i s m a n d h u m a n is m .^

Q u a l i t a t i v e m e th o d o lo g y a n d t h e h u m a n i s t i c t r a d i t i o n g e n e r a l l y a r e
c h a l l e n g e d m o s t v o c i f e r o u s l y f o r a l a c k o f o b j e c t i v i t y a n d f a i l u r e to
m eet t h e s c i e n t i f i c c r i t e r i a o f t r u t h o r v a l i d i t y . T h is c r i t i q u e is
a l r e a d y fr a m e d w i t h i n t h e t e r m i n o l o g y o f t h e p o s i t i v i s t i c t r a d i t i o n and
i n a s e n s e , t h e c h a r g e i s t h a t hum anism f a i l s b e c a u s e i t f a i l s t o be
p o sitiv istic . H o w ev er, t h e c r i t i c i s m c a n n o t b e d i s m i s s e d so e a s i l y f o r
t h e s e a r e c r i t i c a l i s s u e s w h ic h n e e d t o b e a d d r e s s e d b y a q u a l i t a t i v e
w o rk . P e r h a p s t h e b e s t way t o s h a r p e n a n d c l a r i f y t h e i s s u e s i s t o
c o m p a re , i n b r i e f f o r m , t h e way i n w h ic h t h e c e n t r a l p r o b le m s a r e
h a n d l e d w i t h i n t h e p o s i t i v i s t i c an d h u m a n i s t i c t r a d i t i o n s .

I t i s u s e f u l t o d i g r e s s f o r a moment t o e s t a b l i s h t h e g e n e r a l f e a ­
t u r e s o f t h e two o r i e n t a t i o n s a s a p o i n t o f m u t u a l r e f e r e n c e . P o sitiv ­
ism e m p h a s i z e s t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l u n i t y o f t h e n a t u r a l a n d s o c i a l
sc ie n c e s. Humanism, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , s t r e s s e s t h e s u b j e c t i v e q u a l i t y
o f s o c i a l phenom ena a n d a r g u e s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s
r e q u i r e q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t m e th o d s from t h o s e u s e d i n n a t u r a l
sc ie n c e in v e s tig a tio n s . P o s i t i v i s m r e s t s on two e s s e n t i a l a s s u m p t i o n s
c o n c e rn in g f i r s t , a s u b j e c t - o b j e c t d u a lism and seco n d , a b e l i e f t h a t
s o c i a l r e g u l a r i t i e s conform to n a t u r a l - l i k e la w s . I n c o n t r a s t , human­
ism a s s u m e s a s u b j c c t - o b j e c t r e l a t e d n e s s . I t a l s o r e j e c t s the p o s i t i v ­
i s t i c a s s u m p t i o n o f n a t u r a l - l i k e la w s in f a v o r o f a n a s s u m p t i o n t h a t
th e s o c i a l w o rld i s a s u b j e c t i v e l y m e a n in g fu l and s o c i a l l y c o n s tr u c te d
w o rld . T h e se a s s u m p tio n s p r o v id e th e grounds f o r f u n d a m e n ta lly d i f f e r ­
e n t c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y , o f t h e o r y and
o f m e th o d . P o s i t i v i s m i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e x p l a n a t i o n ,2 a c o v e r i n g -
law o r h y p o t h e t i c o - d e d u c t i v e model o f t h e o r y ^ a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e o r c o n ­
t r o l l e d r e s e a r c h . 4 Humanism i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g , ^
grounded o r s u b s t a n t i v e th e o ry ^ and q u a l i t a t i v e o r f i e l d r e s e a r c h . '
T h e s e b r o a d l y d e l i n e a t e d f e a t u r e s o f t h e two o r i e n t a t i o n s s e t t h e s t a g e
f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g th e c o n tr o v e r s y o v er o b j e c t i v i t y and t r u t h .

The i s s u e o f o b j e c t i v i t y r a i s e d w i t h i n t h e p o s i t i v i s t i c o r i e n t a ­
t i o n s te m s e s s e n t i a l l y from a f a i t h i n s u b j e c t - o b j e c t d u a l i s m . The
u ltim a te g o a l o f in q u ir y i s to p ro v id e a v e r i d i c a l e x p la n a tio n o f
e v e n ts by r e f e r e n c e to th e la w - li k e r e g u l a r i t i e s o r c a u s e s o f th e
phenomenon from an o u t s i d e p o s i t i o n o f s u b j e c t i v e d e t a c h m e n t . Sub­
j e c t i v i t y r e p r e s e n t s a s o u r c e o f e r r o r w h ic h c o n f o u n d s o r b i a s e s t h e
re su lts. C o n tro llin g th e b i a s , o r s u b j e c t i v i t y , o f th e re s e a rc h e r
o c c u p ie s a m a jo r c o n c e rn i n m e th o d o lo g ic a l t r e a t i s e s a s e v id e n c e d by
th e lan g u a g e and p ro c e d u re s o f q u a n t i t a t i v e m a n ip u la tio n . In a d d itio n
 32

t o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o c e d u r e , t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n m e th o d and t h e o r y
a ls o s e rv e s to g u aran tee o b j e c t i v i t y . B a s i c a l l y , r e s e a r c h i s v ie w e d
a s a p r o c e s s o f t e s t i n g and v e r i f y i n g f o r m a l t h e o r y w i t h t h e h y p o t h e s i s
d e d u c e d a c c o r d i n g to some l o g i c a l o r m a t h e m a t i c a l r u l e s o f c a l c u l u s .

B o th t h e o r y and m ethod a r e v iew ed a s m e a s u r e s t o r e d u c e s u b j e c t i v ­

i t y in th e s e r v i c e o f g u a r a n te e in g o b j e c t i v e r e s u l t s . P erhaps th e d i s ­
t r u s t o f s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e o r y and m ethod i n i t s
c o n t r o l a r e no w h ere more e v i d e n t t h a n i n t h e n o t i o n o f s e r e n d i p i d y . 8
S e r e n d i p i d o u s f i n d i n g s , s u r p r i s e s t h a t e m e rg e u n e x p e c t e d l y i n a n o t h e r ­
w i s e c o n t r o l l e d r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m , may o f f e r i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o
k n o w le d g e , b u t t h e y r e m a i n t a n g e n t i a l t o t h e r e s e a r c h a t h a n d . They
a r e f r e q u e n t l y n o t r e p o r t e d and when t h e y a r e r e p o r t e d i t i s as an
a f t e r t h o u g h t i n t h e c o n c l u s i o n o r f o o t n o t e s o f a w o rk . T y p ic a lly , th e
a c k n o w le d g e d v a l u e o f s u c h f i n d i n g s r e s t on t h e i r p o t e n t i a l f o r g e n e r ­
a tin g h y p o th eses as th e s u b je c t o f f u tu r e c o n tr o lle d re s e a r c h .

O b j e c t i v i t y t h u s c o n c e i v e d and t h e s u b j e c t - o b j e c t d u a l i s m o n w h ic h
i t r e s t s a r e r e j e c t e d by t h e h u m a n i s t i c t r a d i t i o n a s a n a i v e form o f
ep istem o lo g y . S u b j e c t i v i t y , tr e a te d as a so u rce o f e r r o r in p o s i t i v i s ­
t i c t h o u g h t , i s v ie w e d w i t h i n t h e h u m a n i s t i c t r a d i t i o n a s t h e e s s e n t i a l
p r e c o n d i t i o n o f a l l k n o w le d g e . T h e r e f o r e , s u b j e c t i v i t y i s g i v e n a c e n ­
t r a l m e t h o d o l o g i c a l r o l e i n hum anism . The a s s u m p t i o n o f s u b j e c t - o b j e c t
r e l a t e d n e s s means t h a t k n o w l e d g e , l i k e a l l s o c i a l p r o d u c t s , i s a s o c i a l
c o n s t r u c t i o n w h ic h r e s t s u l t i m a t e l y on s o c i a l c o n v e n t i o n o r form o f
l i f e , t o u s e W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s te r m . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n r a d i c a l l y a l t e r s t h e
p o s i t i v i s t i c c o n c e p tio n o f o b j e c t i v i t y by s h i f t i n g th e fo cus o f a t t e n ­
t i o n from o b j e c t i v i t y ( w h ic h i s u n o b t a i n a b l e ) t o i n t e r s u b j e c t i v i t y .

G iv e n t h e c r i t e r i a o f i n t e r s u b j e c t i v i t y , p o s i t i v i s m ' s s o l u t i o n s t o
t h e p r o b l e m s o f o b j e c t i v i t y a r e t u r n e d u p s i d e - d o w n , so t o s p e a k , and
p o s i t i v i s m ' s s o l u t i o n s ( f o r m a l t h e o r y and c o n t r o l l e d r e s e a r c h ) a r e r e ­
g ard ed as p r o b l e m a t i c , i n f a c t , as a n t i t h e t i c a l to u n d e r s ta n d in g .
U n d erstan d in g , th e goal o f h u m a n istic in q u iry , r e q u ir e s t h a t s o c i a l
phenom ena b e a n a l y z e d by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e m e a n in g f r a m e w o rk , o r form o f
l i f e , i n d i g e n o u s t o t h e s o c i a l g r o u p i n w h ic h t h e phenom enon o c c u r s .
M e e t in g t h i s r e s e a r c h o b j e c t i v e r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r become im­
m e rs e d o r e x p e r i e n t i a l l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e r e l e v a n t s o c i a l s e t t i n g , t h a t
th e stu d y be c o n d u cted i n s i t u , i . e . , in th e n a t u r a l l y o rg a n iz e d s e t ­
t i n g , and t h a t t h e a n a l y t i c w ork p r o c e e d s by way o f " l o c a l " c o n c e p t s
d raw n from t h e i n d i g e n o u s fram e o f r e f e r e n c e . In o t h e r w ords, th e
t h e o r e t i c a l p r o b le m and t h e c o n c r e t e phenom enon b e i n g r e s e a r c h e d g u i d e s
m e th o d and t h e o r y r a t h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r way a r o u n d .

I n q u a l i t a t i v e m e th o d o lo g y , t h e r e f o r e , th e s u b j e c t i v e e x p e rie n c e
o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r i s made i n t o a c o n s c i o u s and s y s t e m a t i c p r o c e d u r e
w h ic h i n t e r m e s h e s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g d a t a g a t h e r i n g
w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s e s i n an o n g o in g an d c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s . ^ The
i m p o r t a n t t h i n g i s t h a t t h e c o n c e p t s n o t b e a r b i t r a r i l y t a k e n from p r e -
e s t a b l i s h e d t h e o r y , b u t t h a t t h e y b e g e n e r a t e d from t h e d a t a - g a t h e r i n g
p r o c e s s . The r o l e o f t h o u g h t o r s u b j e c t i v i t y i n q u a l i t a t i v e
 33

m e th o d o l o g y h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d i n v a r i o u s ways a s s o c i o l o g i c a l i m a g i n a ­
t i o n . 10 r e f l e x i v i t y , 11 e x p e r i e n t i a l a n a l y s i s , 12 t h e o r e t i c a l s e n s i t i v ­
i t y , 1^ d o c u m e n t a r y m ethod o r i n d e x i c a l i t y , 14 and h e r m e n e u t i c . 1^ T h e se
t e r m s a r e s i m i l a r i n t h e i r e m p h a s is o n t h e n e c e s s i t y o f t h e s e l f - c o n ­
s c i o u s i n t e r p r e t i v e w o rk t h a t r e l a t e s a p a r t i c u l a r e v e n t o r h a p p e n i n g
t o a g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e fro m w h ic h m e a n in g d e r i v e s . S i n c e t h e m e a n in g
o f l o c a l c o n c e p t s i s embedded i n t h i s a p r i o r i , b u t m u t u a l l y s h a r e d ,
s t r u c t u r e , and s i n c e t h i s b a c k g r o u n d k n o w le d g e i s t y p i c a l l y t a k e n f o r
g r a n t e d by t h o s e who l i v e i n t h e s o c i a l s e t t i n g , i t s e x p l i c a t i o n r e ­
q u ir e s eh a t th e r e s e a r c h e r e n te r in to th e s e t t i n g as a p a r t i c i p a n t -
observer. The r e s e a r c h e r , t h e r e f o r e , s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y a t t e m p t s t o
e x p l o i t r a t h e r th an c o n tr o l fo r s u b j e c t i v e e x p e rie n c e s in th e conduct
o f in q u iry .

A lth o u g h t h e r e s e a r c h e r e n t e r s t h e f i e l d w i t h a c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n
and a l o o s e fram ew ork o f c o n c e p t s w h ic h s e r v e a s p o s s i b l e c u e s t o
u n d e r s ta n d in g , th e s y s te m a tic o r d e r in g o f th e d a t a i n t o a c o h e re n t
fram ew o rk i s b o t h t h e p r o c e s s and p r o d u c t o f f i e l d r e s e a r c h . C le a rly ,
t h e q u a l i t a t i v e e n t e r p r i s e i s n o t as n e a t and t i d y a s t h a t recommended
by i t s p o s i t i v i s t i c c o u n t e r p a r t , b u t t h e r e i n l i e s i t s m a jo r s t r e n g t h .
The r i g o r o f q u a l i t a t i v e w o r k , t h e n , d e r i v e s n o t from a d o c t r i n a i r e
a d h e r e n c e t o a p p r o v e d p r o c e d u r e s , b u t from a s u s t a i n e d a t t i t u d e o f
d o u b t ; from a dogged p u r s u i t o f i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s , e x c e p t i o n s and c o n t r a ­
d i c t i o n s ; and from a com mitment t o d e s c r i b e t h e phenomenon on i t s own
te rm s.

The s e c o n d b u t r e l a t e d i s s u e i s t h e p r o b le m o f t r u t h . As a c o n ­
s e q u e n c e o f s u b j e c t - o b j e c t d u a l i s m and a d h e r e n c e t o t h e c a n o n s o f
s c i e n c e , p o s i t i v i s m d e f i n e s t r u t h by r e f e r e n c e t o s c i e n t i f i c t e s t s o f
v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y . T h e s e t e s t s r e s t on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t
t r u t h , o r c e r t a i n t y , i s d i r e c t l y and im m e d i a t e l y d i s c e r n i b l e t h r o u g h
t h e s e n s e s and t h e v a r i o u s forms o f m e a s u r e m e n t w h ic h c o n s t i t u t e
o b se rv a tio n .

I n c o n t r a s t , humanism v ie w s t r u t h i n t e r m s o f m e a n in g a d e q u a c y ,
t h a t i s , i n te r m s o f p l a u s i b i l i t y .16 is th e r e s e a r c h e r 's i n t e r p r e t i v e
schem a a c r e d i b l e a c c o u n t o f t h e e v e n t o r s i t u a t i o n ? The i s s u e i s n o t
w h e th e r th e a n a l y t i c - d e s c r i p t i v e ac c o u n t i s th e o n ly i n t e r p r e t a t i o n fo r
t h e r e i s no a s s u m p t i o n o f c e r t a i n t y g u a r a n t e e d by t h e p resum ed e x i s ­
t e n c e o f n a t u r a l - l i k e la w s . The i s s u e i s w h e t h e r t h e a c c o u n t i s a
p la u s ib le o r c r e d ib le r e n d itio n o f th e s i tu a t io n .

T h e r e a r e two g e n e r a l m e th o d s by w h ic h t h e r e s e a r c h e r may c h e c k
th is out in th e conduct of in q u iry . The f i r s t , s o m e tim e s r e f e r r e d t o
a s "m a k in g o u t " r e f e r s to t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g a c c o u n t b e in g
c h e c k e d by h i s / h e r i n c r e a s i n g a b i l i t y to l i v e w i t h i n t h e s e t t i n g and
" p a s s " a s a k n o w le d g e a b l e p a r t i c i p a n t , i f n o t a s a k n o w l e d g e a b l e i n ­
sid e r. The s e c o n d t e s t , so m e tim e s r e f e r r e d t o a s " s a t u r a t i o n " , r e f e r s
t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g a n a l y t i c fram ew ork to
a c c o u n t f o r o b s e r v a t i o n s . When t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e a c c o u n t r e p e a t e d l y
"makes s e n s e " o f now o b s e r v a t i o n s , and when a d d i t i o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n s o f
 34

v a r i o u s ty p e s m e re ly r e c o n f ir m r a t h e r th an m o d ify th e em erging fra m e ­

w ork, th e r e s e a r c h e r b e g in s to have c o n f id e n c e t h a t th e a c c o u n t o f f e r s
a n a d e q u a t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l phenom enon.

O th e r t e s t s o f adequacy o c c u r in th e p u b lic realm w ith th e p u b l i ­

c a tio n of fin d in g s. U l t i m a t e l y , t h i s t e s t r e l i e s on t h e r e l a t i o n b e ­
tw een t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s a c c o u n t a n d t h e a u d i e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e l o c a l
a u d i e n c e from w h ic h t h e r e s e a r c h was g e n e r a t e d . The e s s e n t i a l q u e s t i o n
i n t h i s i n s t a n c e i s , d o e s t h e a n a l y t i c - d e s c r i p t i v e a c c o u n t "make s e n s e "
t o o t h e r s who h a v e a k n o w le d g e a b le b a s i s from w h ic h t o make ju d g m e n ts ?
I s th e a c c o u n t d o c u m en ted w i t h eno ug h d e t a i l t o be c r e d i b l e ? A re t h e
i n f e r e n t i a l g r o u n d s f o r m aking i n t e r l i n k a g e s an d s y n t h e s i s o f t h e o r e t i ­
c a l com p o n e n ts e x p l i c i t enough t o be t r u s t w o r t h y ? A g a in , t h e i s s u e i s
n o t w h eth er t h i s is th e o n ly p o s s ib le a c c o u n t, b u t w h e th e r, g iv en th e
c o n t e x t u a l background in th e r e p o r t , t h a t i s , th e b ack g ro u n d in fo rm a ­
t i o n w h ic h p r o v i d e s t h e g r o u n d s f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h i s i s a c r e d ­
i b l e and c o n v i n c i n g a c c o u n t .

F i n a l l y , t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n may b e c h e c k e d by
prag m etic c r i t e r i a . In t h e p o s i t i v i s t i c t r a d i t i o n , o n e p r a c t i c a l t e s t
o f a t h e o r y ' s t r u t h v a l u e c o n c e r n s i t s p r e d i c t i v e pow er a n d t h e r e s u l ­
t a n t a b i l i t y to e x e r t c o n tro l over s i t u a t i o n s . The u l t i m a t e p ra g m a tic
t e s t o f c r e d i b i l i t y w ith in th e h u m a n is tic t r a d i t i o n i s w h eth er th e r e ­
s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s o r o t h e r s in s i m i l a r s o c i a l s e t t i n g s c o u l d u s e th e
i n t e r p r e t i v e a c c o u n t jri th e s e t t i n g to enhance t h e i - u n d e rs ta n d in g o f
e v e n t s a n d to a c t w i t h im p ro v ed e f f i c a c y .

The e m p h a s is on i n t e r s u b j a c t i v i t y r a t h e r t h a n o b j e c t i v i t y a s t h e
c e n t r a l m e th o d o l o g y i s s u e i n q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h h a s many f a r - r e a c h i n g
i m p l i c a t i o n s . T h i s d i s c u s s i o n was n o t i n t e n d e d a s an e x h a u s t i v e t r e a t ­
m e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t an d a l l o f i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s . 1 7 O nly t h e i s s u e s
w hic h b e a r d i r e c t l y an d im m e d i a t e l y on t h e c o n d u c t o f i n q u i r y w e re d i s ­
cussed. B e f o r e t u r n i n g to a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e s e a r c h s e t t i n g w h e re
t h e f i e l d work was c o n d u c t e d , p e r h a p s a few comments s h o u l d b e made
c o n c e r n i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o t h e r c r e d i b l e a c c o u n t s o f t h e same
s o c i a l phenom enon.

T h e r e a r e e x t r e m e s t a t e m e n t s in t h e h u m a n i s t i c t r a d i t i o n w hic h
seem t o im p ly a s e e m i n g l y i n f i n i t e num ber o f p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ,
a l l o f w h ic h h a v e e q u a l c r e d i b i l i t y . I n f a c t , Mehan and Wood im ply
t h a t t h e r e a r e a s many i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a s t h e r e a r e i n t e r p r e t e r s . T h i s
seems to b e a n i h i l i s t p o s i t i o n w h ic h d e n i e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p u b l i c
know ledg e a n d , i n d e e d , th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d a n d
s o c i a l l y m e a n in g fu l w o rld .

The h u m a n i s t i c a s s u m p t i o n o f a s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d a n d s o c i a l l y
m e a n i n g f u l w o r ld means t h a t s o c i a l l i f e i s h u m a n ly c r e a t e d and p a t t e r n ­
e d in an o r d e r l y f a s h i o n . P a r t i c u l a r e x p e r i e n c e s and e v e n t s a r e o r g a n ­
iz e d by and r e f l e c t th e u n d e rly in g s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . P a r t i c u l a r ev en ts
a r e d i r e c t l y o b s e rv a b le . The u n d e rly in g s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e is n o t.
I n t e r p r e t i v e w ork, o f c o u r s e , e n t a i l s a p e n e t r a t i o n and a n a l y t i c
 35

d e s c r i p t i o n o£ t h e u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r a l a s p e c t s t h r o u g h o b s e r v a t i o n
an d e x a m i n a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r o c c u r e n c e s . I n te r p r e tiv e a c c o u n ts,
t h e r e f o r e , v a r y in t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r s , in t h e s e l e c ­
t i v i t y o f p a r t i c u l a r s d e p e n d i n g upon t h e r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t an d on t h e
b re a d th or narrow ness o f scope. H ow ever, i f a c c o u n t s s u c c e s s f u l l y
p e n e t r a t e t h e e s s e n t i a l s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e s o c i a l phenomenon
in q u e s tio n , th ey w i l l n o t be fu n d a m e n ta lly c o n tr a d ic to r y . S in ce
s o c i a l phenomena u n d e r g o s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e o v e r t i m e , two r e s e a r c h
a c c o u n t s p r o d u c e d i n t h e same s o c i a l s e t t i n g a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s may
d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y b e c a u se in a c t u a l i t y th e y a r e d e s c r i p t i v e a c c o u n ts
o f d i f f e r e n t phenom ena.

R esearch S e t t i n g

T he c h o i c e o f a r e s e a r c h s e t t i n g i s a l w a y s w e ig h e d by t h e o r e t i c a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and p r a c t i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s . In t h e s p r i n g o f 1 97 7, I ha d
t h o u g h t t h a t t h e i d e a l s t r a t e g y f o r s e l e c t i n g a s e t t i n g was t o w a i t f o r
a m a j o r d i s a s t e r t o o c c u r , t o go to t h e a r e a i m m e d i a t e l y , t o r e m a in
d u r i n g t h e e m e r g e n c y p e r i o d a n d t o r e t u r n a t a l a t e r p o i n t when t h e
r e c o v e r y p r o c e s s was w e l l a d v a n c e d . F o rtu n a te ly fo r th e p o t e n t i a l
v i c t i m s o f t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l d i s a s t e r , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r my p u r ­
p o s e s , f i f t e e n m on th s h a d p a s s e d w i t h o u t a ' s u i t a b l e ' e v e n t to s t u d y .
I t seem ed t h a t w h i l e t h i s s t r a t e g y h a d many q u a l i t i e s t o recommend i t
as an i d e a l , i t sim p ly w a s n 't f e a s i b l e .

G iv e n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , I was f o r c e d t o a b an d o n t h e i d e a l and
l o s e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f c o n d u c t i n g f i e l d w o rk d u r i n g t h e e m e r g e n c y
p e r io d im m e d ia te ly fo llo w in g a d i s a s t e r . The b e s t a l t e r n a t i v e a v a i l ­
a b l e was t o s e l e c t a c o m m u n ity -w id e d i s a s t e r t h a t had o c c u r r e d p r e ­
v i o u s l y , b u t one w h e r e I h a d r e s e a r c h e x p e r i e n c e , a l b e i t w i t h d i f f e r e n t
r e s e a r c h o b j e c t i v e s , d u r i n g t h e e a r l y d a v s o f t h e a f t e r m a t h . My
c h o i c e s w e re n a r r o w e d t o f o u r p o s s i b i l i t i e s a n d I f i n a l l y s e l e c t e d t h e
a r e a i n I d a h o w h e re two and a h a l f y e a r s e a r l i e r t h e T e t o n Dam h a d
c o lla p se d . By t h e ti m e t h e f i e l d w ork w as c o m p l e t e d , n e a r l y t h r e e
y e a r s h a d p a s s e d . T h i s was an o p t i m a l , i f n o t i d e a l , s e t t i n g fo r th e
f i e l d stu d y fo r s e v e r a l re a s o n s .

A c c o r d i n g t o m o s t c r i t e r i a , t h e dam b r e a k w h ic h o c c u r r e d in t h e
U pp er S na k e R i v e r V a l l e y on J u n e 5 , 1976, was a m a j o r d i s a s t e r . The
a r e a was d e s i g n a t e d a m a jo r d i s a s t e r by P r e s i d e n t i a l d e c l a r a t i o n . More
t h a n 6 ,0 0 0 p e r s o n s w e re h o m e l e s s , 11 d e a t h s w e r e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e
d i s a s t e r , a n d p r o p e r t y damage w as e s t i m a t e d a t o v e r one b i l l i o n d o l ­
la rs. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e c o m m e r c i a l a n d b u s i n e s s d i s t r i c t w h ic h s e r v i c e d
more t h a n 1 6 ,0 0 0 p e r s o n s was t o t a l l y d e s t r o y e d . G ive n t h e m a g n itu d e o f
t h i s e v e n t , one c o u ld e x p e c t to o b se rv e a b ro a d ra n g e o f d i s a s t e r ex ­
p e rie n c e s th ro u g h o u t th e re c o v e ry p e rio d .

I h a d d o n e f i e l d w o rk i n t h e U pper S n a k e R i v e r V a l l e y on f o u r
e a r l i e r o c c a sio n s: f o r te n d a y s b e g i n n i n g on t h e s e c o n d d a y a f t e r t h e
 36

dam c o l l a p s e d , f o r a w e ek s i x m on th s l a t e r , f o r a s e c o n d w e ek e l e v e n
m o n th s a f t e r t h e dam b r e a k a n d f o r a f i n a l week tw o y e a r s l a t e r . In
a d d i t i o n , I h a d m a i n t a i n e d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e a n d t e l e p h o n e c o m m u n ic a tio n
w i t h some members o f t h e com m unity o v e r a p e r i o d o f two y e a r s . Due
t o b u d g e t a r y c o n s t r a i n t s , I was l i m i t e d t o t e n w e e k s o f f i e l d s t u d y ,
b u t my g e n e r a l k n o w le d g e o f t h e s e t t i n g a n d c o n t a c t s i n t h e a r e a w e re
e x t e n s i v e e n o u g h t h a t I f e l t I c o u l d make maximum u s e o f t h e t e n w eek s
in in te n s iv e stu d y . I a ls o f e l t c o n f id e n t t h a t g a in in g th e c o o p e ra tio n
o f r e s i d e n t s i n t h e a r e a w o u ld n o t b e p r o b l e m a t i c . I n December o f
1 979 , I made a b r i e f r e c o n n a i s s a n c e t r i p t o r e e s t a b l i s h e n t r e e , s e c u r e
t h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f com m unity l e a d e r s a n d make p r e l i m i n a r y p l a n s f o r t h e
f i e l d w o rk a n d i n t e r v i e w i n g .

I n some r e s p e c t s , t h e t i m i n g o f t h e r e s e a r c h was a d v a n t a g e o u s .
T he r e c o v e r y p r o c e s s , in m a t e r i a l - f i n a n c i a l t e r m s , h a d s e e m i n g l y b e e n
a lm o st co m p lete. By D e c e m b er, 1 9 7 9 , a n a i v e v i s i t o r n e e d e d a t o u r
g u id e in o rd e r to se e any v i s i b l e e f f e c t s o f th e d i s a s t e r . The o n ly
c l u e w h ic h m i g h t h a v e r a i s e d s u s p i c i o n s w as t h e f a c t t h a t e v e r y t h i n g
a p p e a r e d " n e w " , a s i f t h e w h o le a r e a h a d j u s t had a f a c e - l i f t . More
t h a n 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e h o u s i n g i n v e n t o r y h a d b e e n r e p l a c e d , t h e p r i v a t e
a n d p u b l i c s e c t o r s o f commerce h a d b e e n r e e s t a b l i s h e n a n d r o u g h l y 95
p e r c e n t o f a l l c la im s f o r co m p en satio n h ad been p r o c e s s e d . I t was r e a ­
s o n a b l e t o as su m e t h a t m o st p r o b le m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
w o u ld h a v e b e e n m a n i f e s t by t h i s t i m e .

T he m e n t a l h e a l t h s e c t o r o f t h e c o m m u n ity h a d a l s o r e c e i v e d fu n d s
u n d e r S e c t i o n 413 o f t h e F e d e r a l D i s a s t e r R e l i e f A c t . E x te n siv e o u t­
r e a c h w ork h a d b e e n don e in a n e f f o r t t o i d e n t i f y m e n t a l i l l n e s s an d
p ro v id e p r e v e n tiv e m en tal h e a l t h s e r v i c e s . S in c e th e m e d ic a l i n t e r ­
p r e t a t i o n i s o n e o f two c o n c e p t i o n s c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e t o d e s c r i b e
d i s a s t e r e x p e r i e n c e s , i t seemed b e n e f i c i a l t h a t m e d i c a l i s s u e s b e a
fe a tu re of th e lo c a l s e ttin g . In a d d i t i o n , t h e e x t e n s i v e n e s s o f th e
c a s e f i n d i n g p r o c e d u r e s u n d e r t a k e n b y t h e S e c t i o n 413 p r o j e c t l e d me t o
a ssu m e t h a t i f m e n t a l h e a l t h o r i l l n e s s p r o b l e m s e x i s t e d , t h e r e was a
good c h a n c e t h a t t h e y h a d b e e n r e c o g n i z e d . S i n c e i t was a c t u a l l y a
d o u b t c o n c e r n i n g t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e m e d i c a l c o n c e p t i o n t h a t p ro m p te d
my r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t , i t was i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h i s phenomenon be h i g h l y
v isib le .

T h e r e a r e some u n i q u e a s p e c t s o f t h i s s e t t i n g t h a t , t a k e n t o g e t h ­
e r , m i g h t make t h e d i s a s t e r a n d r e c o v e r y e x p e r i e n c e s o f a s ' i g h t l y d i f ­
f e r e n t n a t u r e t h a n m ig h t o c c u r e l s e w h e r e . T h e a r e a i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y
Mormon a n d r e l i g i o n i n f u s e s e v e r y a s p e c t o f l i f e . T h i s was made p e r ­
f e c t l y c l e a r t o me on my f i r s t d a y i n t h e a r e a . My o b j e c t i v e was t o
l e a r n a b o u t t h e d e l i v e r y o f em ergency m e d ic a l s e r v i c e s and t h e f i r s t
t h r e e i n t e r v i e w e e s s u r p r i s i n g l y g a v e me m ore i n s t r u c t i o n s on t h e
Mormon f a i t h t h a n i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t m e d i c a l e m e r g e n c i e s . W h ile t h i s
i n f o r m a t i o n w as o f some i n t e r e s t , i t was a l s o a l i t t l e a n n o y i n g , f o r I
h a d a j o b t o do a n d l i m i t e d ti m e i n w h ic h t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e t a s k . As
so f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r s i n r e s e a r c h , one d o e s n o t a l w a y s r e c o g n i z e t h e
c e n t r a l i t y o r re le v a n c e o f c e r t a i n in fo rm a tio n sim p ly b eca u se i t s
 37

s ig n if ic a n c e had n o t be a n t i c i p a t e d . At any r a t e , t h e r e l i g i o u s b e ­
l i e f s , c o h e s i o n and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e Mormon
C h u r c h a r e a p r o m in e n t f e a t u r e o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n in t h i s p a r t i c u ­
l a r a r e a , b u t a t y p i c a l o f m ost d i s a s t e r a r e a s .

A l s o , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e t o n Dam was a f e d e r a l l y f u n d e d
p ro je c t. A lth o u g h th e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t d i d n o t a c c e p t l i a b i l i t y f o r
i t s f a i l u r e , i t d i d a c k n o w le d g e a m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n t o t h o s e who s u f ­
f e r e d l o s s e s a n d f o u r h u n d r e d m i l l i o n d o l l a r s was a p p r o p r i a t e d b y
C ongress fo r f u l l r e s t i t u t i o n . M o n e ta ry r e l i e f t y p i c a l l y a c c r u e s t o
v i c t i m s o f d i s a s t e r , b u t w h a t makes t h i s d i s a s t e r d i f f e r e n t i s t h e
w h o le i s s u e o f f e d e r a l c u l p a b i l i t y a n d t h e e x p e c t a t i o n f o r r e s t i t u t i o n .

F i n a l l y , t h i s d i s a s t e r was e s s e n t i a l l y a d i s a s t e r o f p r o p e r t y l o s s
and s o c i a l d i s r u p t i o n . T h e r e w e r e r e l a t i v e l y few d e a t h s o r i n j u r i e s .
A lth o u g h e l e v e n d e a t h s w e re r e p o r t e d , o n l y s i x w e re d u e t o d r o w n in g .
T h o u s a n d s o f i n j u r i e s w e re r e p o r t e d , b u t o n l y o n e was a c t u a l l y s u s t a i n ­
ed d u r i n g t h e im p a c t p h a s e . T he r e p o r t s o f t h e r e m a i n i n g i n j u r i e s a r e
p r i m a r i l y b a s e d on r e c o r d s o f t e t a n u s s h o t s g i v e n f o r s c r a p e s a n d c u t s
re c e iv e d a f t e r th e flo o d and d u r in g c le a n - u p .

H av in g s e l e c t e d t h e g e n e r a l a r e a to c o n d u c t a f i e l d s t u d y , i t was
c l e a r t h a t t h e s p a t i a l p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e d i s a s t e r w e r e f a r to o g r e a t t o
b e managed b y a s i n g l e r e s e a r c h e r . T h e f l o o d p a t h was e l e v e n m i l e s a t
i t s w i d e s t p o i n t ; i t s t r e t c h e d a l m o s t n i n e t y m i l e s from t h e dam s i t e t o
America:! F a l l s R e s e r v o i r ; an d i t i n c l u d e d f i v e s e p a r a t e c o u n t i e s . L o s s ­
e s w e r e m o s t h e a v i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d in M ad iso n C o u n ty w i t h more t h a n
75 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d . I n i t i a l l y , I d rew t h e
p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e r e s e a r c h s e t t i n g c o i n c i d e n t a l t o M a d iso n C o u n ty b o u n ­
d a r i e s . T h i s was a t i d y p a c k a g e b e c a u s e c o u n ty j u r i s d i c t i o n s h a v e
r e l e v a n c e f o r s o many f e a t u r e s o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . How ever,
many o f my h o s t s s u g g e s t e d t h a t i t w as a n e r r o r t o e x c l u d e t h e commu­
n i t y o f W i l f o r d b e c a u s e i t was t h e f i r s t p o p u l a t i o n i m p a c t e d , t h e m o st
d e v a s t a t e d , and th e e f f e c t s o f t h e d i s a s t e r w ere " d i f f e r e n t " . I was
p e r s u a d e d by my h o s t s and a d d e d W i l f o r d , a s m a l l r u r a l a r e a t h a t b e g i n s
i m m e d i a t e l y b e lo w t h e dam a n d e x t e n d s down t o m e e t t h e n o r t h b o u n d a r y
o f M ad ison C o u n ty .

F i e l d Work

In t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , a t t e n t i o n i s g iv e n t o t h o s e a s p e c t s o f f i e l d
w o rk w h ic h a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r a s s e s s i n g t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e f i n d i n g s .
T h e d i s c u s s i o n i s l i m i t e d to a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t y p e s o f d a t a
g a t h e r e d w h i l e c o n d u c t i n g f i e l d w ork in t h e U p per Snake R i v e r V a l l e y .
T he p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n i s b e tw e e n F e b r u a r y a n d May, 1 9 7 9 . The p r i m a r y
d a ta b a se f o r th e r e s e a r c h f in d in g s i s in -d e p th in te r v ie w in g and th e
i s s u e s i n v o l v e d in i n t e r v i e w i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d f i r s t . T h is is fo llo w ed
b y a d i s c u s s i o n o f f o u r o t h e r ty p e s o f s u p p l e m e n t a r y d a t a : p a rtic ip a n t
o b s e r v a t i o n , k n o w l e d g e a b l e i n f o r m a n t s , h i s t o r i c a l d o c u m e n ts a n d o f f i ­
c ia l s ta tis tic s .
 38

In -d e p th In te rv ie w in g

The a n s w e r t o t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n c a l l s f o r e x a m in i n g p e r s o n a l
a c c o u n t s o f p e r s o n s who h a d l i v e d t h r o u g h t h e d i s a s t e r r e c o v e r y p e r i o d .
O b v i o u s l y , e v e r y o n e i n t h e v a l l e y c o u l d n o t be i n t e r v i e w e d a n d some
t y p e o f s a m p l i n g was r e q u i r e d . I n i t i a l l y , I co n sid e re d s e le c tin g
r e s i d e n t s o f th e v a l l e y u s in g a v a r i a n t o f th e sn o w b all te c h n iq u e .
T h i s m etho d a l l o w s f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f r e s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s on t h e
b a s i s o f t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s an d i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d o n p r e ­
v i o u s i n t e r v i e w s . T i iis seemed l i k e a so u n d s t r a t e g y a n d one t h a t
G la s e r and S t r a u s s r e c o m m e n d f o r grounded r e s e a r c h . I t has th e d i s ­
t i n c t a d v a n t a g e o f e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l schema d e v e l o p s a n d
f i l l s o u t i n t h e n a t u r a l s e t t i n g f o r , i d e a l l y , t h e r e s e a r c h e r r e m a in s
in t h e f i e l d u n t i l t h i s o c c u r s , I was c o n s c i o u s t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
e l a b o r a t i o n m ig h t n o t be c o m p le te d i n t e n w e e k s , b u t I r e j e c t e d t h e
i d e a , f i n a l l y , on more s e r i o u s g r o u n d s . Community r e s i d e n t s ha d a n
i d e a o f my r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s t h a t was d i f f e r e n t fro m my ow n .20 I t
was common t o h e a r , "You r e a l l y h a v e t o t a l k t o J a n e Doe. W hat h a p ­
p e n e d t o h e r y o u ' l l NEVER b e l i e v e . I t was a m i r a c l e ! " T h e r e was a
g e n e ra l a t t i t u d e t h a t I w as, o r sh o u ld b e , i n t e r e s t e d in th e b i z a r r e
a nd u n u s u a l o c c u r e n c e . " I d o n 't have a n y th in g i n t e r e s t i n g to t e l l you.
Now, some p e o p l e i n t h e V a l l e y h a v e a r e a l s t o r y t o t e l l . You s h o u l d
t a l k t o them ' c a u s e y o u ' l l n e v e r r e a d t h a t i n a b o o k . " Of c o u r s e , my
r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t was f o c u s e d on t h e t y p i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , a l t h o u g h ,
c l e a r l y , t h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s m u st b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f b o t h th e
t y p i c a l and a t y p i c a l . The s a m p l in g s t r a t e g y , t h e r e f o r e , was d e s i g n e d
to a c h iev e t h i s . In a c t u a l i t y , t h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e d u r e y i e l d e d a
b r e a d t h o f k n o w le d g e t h a t was a s i m p o r t a n t o r more i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e
sa m p le o f r e s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s t h a t w e re p r o d u c e d .

U n l i k e m ost d i s a s t e r s i t u a t i o n s , t h i s com m unity h a d a c o m p le te

l i s t i n g o f d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s t h a t was c o l l e c t e d when t h e f l o o d w a t e r s
h a d r e c e d e d . 21 in a d d i t i o n , e a c h w a rd k e e p s c u r r e n t r e c o r d s o f a l l
p e r s o n s , members an d n o n -m e m b e rs , t h a t r e s i d e w i t h i n i t s g e o g r a p h i c a l
b o u n d a rie s. I t was p o s s i b l e , t h e r e f o r e , t o i d e n t i f y e v e r y r e s i d e n t a t
t h e p e r i o d o f d i s a s t e r im p a c t a s w e l l a s t h e i r c u r r e n t s t a t u s . The
b i s h o p s o f e v e r y w a rd a g r e e d to c o o p e r a t e b y a s s i s t i n g me i n i d e n t i f y ­
in g p o t e n t i a l r e s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s . I s a t down w i t h e v e r y b i s h o p o r
h i s d e l e g a t e and c o n s t r u c t e d a p o p u l a t i o n fr a m e f o r e a c h w ard t h a t f e l l
w i t h i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f tfie f i e l d s e t t i n g . In t h e c o u r s e o f two to
f o u r h o u r s , a n enorm ous am ount o f i n f o r m a t i o n was c o n v e y e d a b o u t t h e
c i r c u m s t a n c e s and l i f e s i t u a t i o n o f w a rd m e m b e r s .22 i h a d s u s p e c t e d
t h a t two f e a t u r e s o f s o c i a l l i f e w e re p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t in t h e
recovery p ro cess: r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n and w h e th e r o n e 's l i v e l i h o o d
was d e p e n d e n t on f a r m i n g o r o t h e r m e an s. My m e e t i n g s w i t h t h e b i s h o p s
c o n firm ed t h a t th e s e s i t u a t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n s d id have l o c a l s i g n i f i ­
cance.

U sin g t h e fram e t h u s c o n s t r u c t e d , t h e p o p u l a t i o n was s t r a t i f i e d

a l o n g t h e s e s i t u a t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n s a n d a sa m p le o f s i x t y - f o u r p e r s o n s
 39

w as dra w n . T h i s s t r a t e g y seemed t o g u a r d a g a i n s t t h e e a r l i e r p ro b le m
o f h a v i n g a sa m p le w h ic h r e p r e s e n t e d o n l y " u n u s u a l " s i t u a t i o n s . B ased
upon t h e k n o w ledg e a c q u i r e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a p o p u l a t i o n f r a m e ,
i t was p o s s i b l e t o c h e c k t h a t t y p i c a l a n d a t y p i c a l c a s e s h a d b e e n i n ­
c l u d e d . The s a m p l e , a s d r a w n , o m i t t e d two t y p e s o f s i t u a t i o n s t h a t
m ig h t r e a s o n a b l y a l t e r t h e c o u r s e o f t h e r e c o v e r y e f f o r t . S itu a tio n s
i n v o l v i n g a d i s a s t e r - r e l a t e d d e a t h and s i t u a t i o n s i n w h ich t h e r e s i ­
d e n t s " j u s t n e v e r b o u n c e d b a c k " h a d b e e n e x c l u d e d . To rem edy t h i s ,
two h o u s e h o l d s r e p r e s e n t i n g e a c h s i t u a t i o n a l t y p e w e r e a d d e d .

F o u r p e r s o n s r e f u s e d t o be i n t e r v i e w e d . T h r e e o f t h e f o u r r e f u s ­
a l s w e re a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i s a s t e r - r e l a t e d p r o b le m s — l e g a l c o m p l i c a ­
t i o n s a n d c o n su m e r f r a u d - - t h a t c o n t i n u e d t o p e r s i s t i n t o t h e p r e s e n t .
G iv e n t h e p r i o r kn o w le d g e t h a t I h a d r e g a r d i n g t h e l i f e s i t u a t i o n s o f
w a rd members, I s e l e c t e d r e p l a c e m e n t s w i t h s i m i l a r e x p e r i e n c e s . G iv en
th e s e n s i t i v i t y s u rro u n d in g th e s e ty p es o f s i t u a t i o n s , I a r r a n g e d fo r
a l o c a l r e s i d e n t t o e x p l a i n t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e r e s e a r c h in a d v a n c e .
Once t h e c o n c e r n e d p e r s o n s a g r e e d t o c o o p e r a t e a s a p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e
r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t , a p e r s o n a l i n t r o d u c t i o n w as a r r a n g e d b e f o r e t h e i n ­
t e r v i e w was s e t u p .

I n t e r v i e w i n g t o o k p l a c e i n t h e home o r b u s i n e s s o f t h e r e s e a r c h
p a r t i c i p a n t . On some o c c a s i o n s , t h e s p o u s e o r e n t i r e f a m i l y was p r e ­
s e n t and a c t i v e l y in v o lv e d in th e i n t e r v i e w . I n i t i a l l y , t h i s was
a l a r m i n g b e c a u s e I h a d p l a n n e d on a t w o - p e r s o n d i a l o g u e t o s t r u c t u r e
th e in te rv ie w s e t t i n g . H ow e ve r, t h e f a m i l y u n i t , a s a w h o l e , p l a y s a
p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e in t h e s o c i a l l i f e o f t h e v a l l e y , so
t h i s s i t u a t i o n seemed " n a t u r a l . " In many r e s p e c t s , i t was a l s o b e n e ­
f i c i a l f o r th e purpose o f th e r e s e a r c h . I t h i g h l i g h t e d f e a t u r e s of
s o c i a l l i f e t h a t w e re o t h e r w i s e h i d d e n a n d p r o v i d e d a c o n t e x t i n w hich
some a s p e c t s o f t h e a c c o u n t b e i n g o f f e r e d w e r e c o r r e c t e d , e l a b o r a t e d ,
r e i n f o r c e d and c l a r i f i e d .

I n a l l i n s t a n c e s , t h e g o a l o f t h e i n t e r v i e w was t o a c h i e v e and
m ain tain a c a s u a l c o n v e rs â ti o n - l ik e s e t t i n g . O p e n -e n d e d q u e s t i o n s
asked g e n e r a l l y f o r th e p a r t i c i p a n t to p la c e th e d i s a s t e r w i t h i n th e
b i o g r a p h i c a l and f a m ily c o n t e x t , to r e c o u n t th e e x p e r i e n c e s s u rr o u n d in g
J u n e 5 , 1976, a n d to e l a b o r a t e t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e b y d e s c r i b i n g t h e
l a t e r h a p p e n i n g s u s i n g a c h r o n o l o g y , 23 T h e q u e s t i o n s w e re d e l i b e r a t e l y
op en -en d ed to a llo w f o r an u n i n t e r r u p t e d r e c o n s t r u c t i o n in th e p a r t i ­
c i p a n t s own w o r d s . The r o l e o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r may b e b e s t d e s c r i b e d
a s an a c t i v e l i s t e n e r . I t was n e v e r d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n a p o s t u r e
o f a t t e n t i v e n e s s and i n t e r e s t , u n l e s s by u n a v o i d a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e I h a d
s c h e d u l e d more t h a n two i n t e r v i e w s on a s i n g l e d a y , f o r t h e a c c o u n t s
w ere i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g . The g o v e rn in g r u l e a d a p te d f o r th e
r e s e a r c h e r ' s r o l e was t o r e m a i n s i l e n t an d when n e c e s s a r y t o u s e p r o b e s
o f a s i l e n t n a t u r e . T ow ard t h e e n d o f t h e i n t e r v i e w , t h e r e s e a r c h e r
a ssu m e d a m ore a c t i v e r o l e in t h e d i a l o g u e a n d a s k e d s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n s
t o c l e a r up c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a n d i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s , t o a s k f o r e l a b o r a t i o n
a n d c l a r i t y , a n d t o i n t r o d u c e new t o p i c s t h a t on t h e b a s e s o f o t h e r
s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n , see m e d t o h a v e g e n e r a l r e l e v a n c e .
 40

O c c a s io n a lly , a re se a rc h p a r tic ip a n t d e fin e d th e in te rv ie w s i t u a ­

t i o n i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r was e x p e c t e d to a s k a s e r i e s o f
s p e c ific q u estio n s. I t was d i f f i c u l t t o r e v e r s e a q u e s t i o n - a n s w e r
s i t u a t i o n on c e i t h a d b e e n i n i t i a t e d . The m o st e f f e c t i v e s t r a t e g y i n
t r a n s f e r r i n g c o n t r o l o f t h e d i a l o g u e o v e r t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t was by
means o f p o s i n g a c h a l l e n g i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n . T h a t i s , I w o u ld s e l e c t a
c o n t r a d i c t i o n from t h e p a r t i c i p a n t ' s a n s w e r s , o n e t h a t s e e m i n g l y had
c o n s i d e r a b l e r e l e v a n c e from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t , a n d
expose i t a s p ro b le m a tic o r in c o m p re h e n sib le . T h is t y p i c a l l y r e s u l t e d
w i t h a s p e c i f i c c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n f o l l o w e d by r e i n ­
t e g r a t i o n o f t h e p a r a d o x i n t o t h e l a r g e r a c c o u n t w h ic h h a s a s y e t n o t
been conveyed. U nder t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , i t was p o s s i b l e f o r t h e r e ­
s e a r c h e r t o a ssu m e t h e m ore p a s s i v e r o l e i n t h e d i a l o g u e a n d p l a y t h e
ro le o f a c tiv e lis te n e r .

To p r e s e r v e t h e i n t e r v i e w s f o r c l o s e r s c r u t i n y a n d a n a i y s i s a f t e r
I l e f t t h e f i e l d s e t t i n g , t h e i n t e r v i e w s , w i t h few e x c e p t i o n s , w ere
ta p e -re co rd e d . T he t a p e r e c o r d e r was s m a l l and p l a c e d o u t s i d e t h e
im m e d ia te v i s u a l f i e l d . M ost p a r t i c i p a n t s seem ed t o be u n a w a re o r a t
L e a s t n o t n o t i c e a b l y a f f e c t e d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e t a p e r e c o r d e r
a f t e r t h e f i r s t few m i n u t e s o f c o n v e r s a t i o n . Due t o t h e p h y s i c a l c o n ­
s t r a i n t s o f some s i t u a t i o n s , h a n d w r i t t e n n o t e s r a t h e r t h a n a t a p e r e ­
c o r d i n g was t h e p r e f e r r e d n o t a t i o n a l d e v i c e . I n two i n s t a n c e s , t h e t a p e
r e c o r d e r was v i s i b l y d i s r u p t i v e t o t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n a l f lo w a n d i t was
tu rn e d o f f . F ou r p a r t i c i p a n t s r e f u s e d to h a v e t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n t a p e -
r e c o r d e d b e c a u s e o f l e g a l i m p l i c a t i o n s an d t h e a c c o u n t was p r e s e r v e d
b y way o f f i e l d n o t e s .

T h e s e o p e n - e n d e d i n - d e p t h i n t e r v i e w s , l a s t i n g on t h e a v e r a g e
one a n d o n e - h a l f t o two h o u r s , fo rm ed t h e p r i m a r y d a t a b a s e f o r t h i s
s t u d y . A lth o u g h e v e r y e f f o r t was made t o a c h i e v e a c a s u a l a n d c o n v e r ­
s a t i o n a l a tm o sp h e re , th e in te r v ie w c o n te x t i s b a s i c a l l y an a r t i f i c i a l
s e t t i n g i n w h ic h " d i s a s t e r s t o r i e s " w e re s o l i c i t e d by a n o u t s i d e r . The
g e n e r a l e t h o s o f t h e Mormon f a i t h an d o f t h e com munity u n d e r s t u d y
em p h asizes a p o s i t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n to l i f e . I f t h e r e i s a b i a s in th e
a c c o u n ts , i t i s p ro b a b ly in th e d i r e c t i o n o f m in im izin g th e n e g a tiv e
a sp e c ts o f d is a s te r ex p erien ce. However, t h e i n t e r v i e w a c c o u n t s a r e ,
w i t h v e r y few e x c e p t i o n s , s u r p r i s i n g l y open and c a n d i d .

P a rtic ip a n t-O b se rv atio n

O t h e r m e th o d s t y p i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d a s p a r t i c i p a n t - o b s e r v a t i o n w e r e
u t i l i z e d to g a in a c c e s s to th e ta k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d and r o u ti n e a s p e c ts o f
n o r m a l d a y - t o - d a y l i v i n g . T h e o v e r a l l o b j e c t i v e was t o g r a s p t h e r o u ­
t i n e f e a t u r e s o f s o c i a l l i f e in a d d itio n to th e consequences t h a t th e
d i s a s t e r h a d f o r t h e n o r m a l a n d e x p e c t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s o f com m unity
l i v i n g . T h e v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s a n d s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h ic h c o n s t i ­
t u t e p a r t i c i p a n t - o b s e r v a t i o n in t h i s s tu d y v a r y in t h e i r r e l a t i v e
e m p h a s is on p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d o b s e r v a t i o n .
 41

L i v i n g i n t h e com m unity a s a t e m p o r a r y r e s i d e n t r e q u i r e s , b y i t s
v e r y n a t u r e , p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n many d a i l y r o u t i n e s . Such mundane
a c t i v i t i e s a s r e n t i n g an a p a r t m e n t , a r r a n g i n g f o r u t i l i t i e s , g r o c e r y
sh o p p in g , b a n k in g , la u n d r y , pay in g b i l l s and s e e k in g l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s
e x p o s e d me t o a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f c o m m u n ity s i t u a t i o n s . In p a r t i c u l a r ,
t h i s s e t o f e x p e r i e n c e s a l l o w e d me t o e x p e r i e n c e t h e s o c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s
a n d e l e m e n t s o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a t t e n d a n t on b e i n g b o t h an o u t s i d e r a n d
a non-Mormon i n a r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e d a n d hom ogenous c o m m u n ity . In a
c o n c r e t e a n d d i r e c t way I a l s o r e a l i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f h a v i n g g a i n e d
c o o p e r a t i o n fro m c om m u nity l e a d e r s . T h e re w are s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s in
w h ic h s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p l e t i n g mundane t a s k s d e p e n d e d on d i s c r e t e l y
d r o p p i n g t h e names o f my s p o n s o r s . In a d d i t i o n , t h e s e o c c a s io n s se rv e d
to i n d i r e c t l y c o n f i r m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l o c a l pow er s t r u c t u r e h a d ,
in d eed , been i d e n t i f i e d .

Many a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o l i v i n g i n t h e f i e l d s e t t i n g a r e b e s t
d e s c r i b e d s i m p l y a s h a n g i n g a r o u n d . H a n g in g a r o u n d r e f e r s t o m e r e l y
b e i n g p r e s e n t i n d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p u b l i c s e t t i n g s a t d i f f e r e n t t im e s
o f th e day w here s o c i a l c u sto m s and l o c a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s can be unob­
t r u s i v e l y o b s e r v e d . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t o b s e r v a t i o n 1 made
w h i l e h a n g i n g a r o u n d was t h e a b s e n c e o f d i s a s t e r a s a t o p i c o f l o c a l
c o n v e r s a t i o n . T h i s was in m a rk e d c o n t r a s t t o o b s e r v a t i o n s made s i x an d
tw e l v e m o nths f o l l o w i n g t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e dam. A t t h a t t i m e , t a l k o f
th e d i s a s t e r even to o k p re c e d e n c e o v e r th e u s u a l and cu sto m ary g r e e t ­
in g s o f p o l i t e d i s c o u r s e . S o c i a l o c c a s io n s w ere f r e q u e n t l y o b s e rv e d
t o b e g i n im m u d ia L e ly wiLl; a r e p o r t o r i n q u i r y o f t h e l a t e s t d i s a s t e r -
r e l a t e d d e v e l o p m e n t s . T h i s f i n d i n g was a n i m p o r t a n t d i s c o v e r y , f o r my
p r e s e n c e , o r t h e k n o w le d g e o f my r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t , a lw a y s e l i c i t e d
d i s a s t e r t a l k a n d i t was p o s s i b l e , t h e r e f o r e , t o o v e r e m p h a s i z e t h e
c u r r e n t re le v a n c e o f th e d i s a s t e r as a s i g n i f i c a n t s o c i a l i s s u e .

W h enever p o s s i b l e . 1 a c c e p t e d i n v i t a t i o n s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n f a m i l y
a n d s o c i a l g a t h e r i n g s . T h i s t y p e o f g a t h e r i n g , f r e e d fro m t h e
c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w c o n t e x t , p r o v i d e d me w i t h many a n d v a r i e d
o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o o b s e r v e some o f t h e m ore p r i v a t e a n d l e s s o b v i o u s f e a ­
tu re s of s o c ia l l i f e . T h e y w e r e a l s o o c c a s i o n s i n w h ic h I c o u l d t e s t
o u t s p e c i f i c i d e a s a n d my g e n e r a l k n o w le d g e o f t h e a r e a . In more p r i ­
v a te s e t t i n g s a l s o , th e d i s a s t e r w as, fo r th e m a jo r ity , n o t a to p ic of
im m e d ia te d a i l y c o n c e r n . H ow ever, t h e d i s a s t e r d i d r e p e a t e d l y c r o p up
a s a d i m e n s i o n o f s o c i a l t i m e . T he sm ooth f lo w o f c o n v e r s a t i o n was
f r e q u e n t l y p u n c t u a t e d w i t h , "Oh, 1 f o r g o t , t h a t was B . F . " B .F . and
A .F . h a d become co m m u n ity s y m b o ls i n d i c a t i v e o f s u b t l e c h a n g e s w h ic h
o ccu rred as a r e s u l t o f th e flo o d . I t i s a l s o i n d i c a t i v e o f th e
B ib lic a l p ro p o rtio n s o f th e c a ta s tro p h e .

I t h a d becom e a p p a r e n t t h a t a f a i r l y e x t e n s i v e k n o w le d g e o f Mormon
t h e o l o g y was r e q u i r e d , f o r e v e n t h e s o c i o - g e o g r a p h i c a l b o u n d a r i e s h a v e a
re lig io u s b a sis. C o n s e q u e n tly , 1 c o n s e n te d t o a llo w m i s s i o n a r i e s to
i n s t r u c t me i n t h e f o r m a l a s p e c t s o f r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e . In itia lly ,
1 r e s i s t e d t h i s c o u r s e b e c a u s e 1 f o u n d t h e p r o s e l y t i z i n g , w h ic h i s so
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e Mormons, t o b e b u r d e n s o m e . In t h e l o n g r u n , t h i s
 42

t u r n e d o u t t o b e a c o n g e n i a l and f r u i t f u l a r r a n g e m e n t . S e e m in g ly , my
w i l l i n g n e s s to h e a r t h e w ord o f God fro m a u t h o r i t a t i v e s o u r c e s was a
sig n o f p o te n tia l c o n v e rsio n . I n many r e s p e c t s , t h i s m in im iz e d my r o l e
a s a n o u t s i d e r and o p e n e d up o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a t w e r e p r e v i o u s l y c o n ­
c e a le d and g e n e r a l l y u n a v a ila b le f o r o b s e r v a tio n .

D u rin g t h e l a s t f i v e weeks o f f i e l d w o r k , I c u l t i v a t e d t h r e e c l o s e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t w e r e more s o c i a b l e and s p o n t a n e o u s . The f i r s t was
w i t h a f a m i l y t h a t was a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e Mormon C h u r c h . The
s e c o n d was w i t h a non-Mormon f a m i l y . T h i s f a m i l y h a d l i v e d i n t h e
com m unity f o r a b o u t t w e n t y y e a r s a n d t h e y c o n s i d e r e d t h i s a r e a home.
The t h i r d was w i t h an o l d e r man who h a d owned and o p e r a t e d a l o c a l
b u sin ess fo r y e a rs. A lt h o u g h he was a Mormon, h e was c u r r e n t l y i n ­
a c t i v e in church a c t i v i t i e s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s , in a l l c a s e s , were
f r i e n d l y and c a s u a l a n d i n many r e s p e c t s , t h e s e p e r s o n s f u n c t i o n e d a s
co -research ers. The t r u s t w hich d e v e l o p s w i t h c o n t i n u i n g s o c i a l i n t e r ­
a c t i o n a l l o w e d me t o e x p l o r e s e n s i t i v e and g u a r d e d i s s u e s in a more
open a t m o s p h e r e . In a d d i t i o n , I was a b l e to t e s t o u t t h e o r e t i c a l i d e a s
w i t h i n t e r e s t e d r e s i d e n t s who w e re k n o w le d g e a b le enough to r e s p o n d w i t h
en lig h te n e d c r itic is m s .

K n o w le d g e a b le I n f o r m a n t s

I n th e c o u r s e o f i n t e r v i e w i n g a n d o b s e r v a t i o n , a v a r i e t y o f t o p i c s
and t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e r e c o v e r y p r o c e s s f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e d
more d e t a i l e d a n d f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n t h a n c o u l d be o b t a i n e d u s i n g t h e
a b o v e m e th o d s . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n was s o u g h t from o t h e r s whose t r a i n i n g
a n d / o r o c c u p a t i o n made them e x p e r t s on a p a r t i c u l a r t o p i c . Knowledge­
a b l e p e r s o n s , r e p r e s e n t i n g many a r e a s o f e x p e r t i s e , w e re c o n t a c t e d f o r
s p e c i f i c ty p es o f in f o r m a tio n . In fo rm an ts s e le c te d f o r t h i s purpose
i n c l u d e d home b u i l d e r , t a x a s s e s s o r , a g r i c u l t u r a l a g e n t , l o c a l h i s ­
t o r i a n , la w y e r , c h u r c h o f f i c i a l s , p s y c h o l o g i s t s , s o c i a l w o r k e r s , r e l i e f
v o l u n t e e r s , c o u n t y o f f i c i a l s and c i t y o f f i c i a l s .

h i s t o r i c a l Documents

H un d re d s o f d o c u m e n ts w ere g a t h e r e d d u r i n g t h e s e v e r a l f i e l d t r i p s
made o v e r t h e t h r e e y e a r p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e T e to n
Dam. Some m a t e r i a l s , o f a g e n e r a l n a t u r e , d e s c r i b e t h e h i s t o r i c a l
o r i g i n s and d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e Mormons as a s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s g r o u p ,
t h e i r t r a i l w e s tw a r d t o t h e G r e a t S a l t Lake B a s i n a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t
c o l o n i z a t i o n o f t h e U p p e r Snake R i v e r V a l l e y . M a t e r i a l s d e s c r i b i n g t h e
g e o g r a p h y , dem ography a n d com m unity o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e a r e a u n d e r
s t u d y a r e d raw n p r i m a r i l y from l o c a l l i i s t o r i c a l r e p o r t s , c e n s u s d a t a ,
m ap s, c i t y and c o u n t y p l a n s , l a b o r a n d commerce s t a t i s t i c s a n d D e p a r t ­
m ent o f Commerce b r o c h u r e s . T e c h n i c a l r e p o r t s i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e
c o l l a p s e o f th-r T e t o n Dam w e re a l s o r e v i e w e d . Documents t h a t r e c o r d e d
 43

t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s r e l a t e d to t h e dam b r e a k and i t s a f t e r m a t h w ere

co lle c te d . P a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n was a s c r a p b o o k k e p t
by t h e C i v i l D e f e n s e o f f i c e o f M a d iso n C o u n ty and a r c h i v a l d a t a c o l ­
l e c t e d f o r t h e A r c h i v e s o f R ic k s C o l l e g e L i b r a r y . Many d o c u m e n ts o f a
more s p e c i f i c n a t u r e w e re k e p t by p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s r e c o r d s o f
t h e i r in v o l v e m e n t and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e r e c o v e r y p r o c e s s . Some o f
t h e s e w e r e e n d o g e n o u s com m unity o r g a n i z a t i o n s and o t h e r s w e re s t a t e ,
r e g i o n a l , and f e d e r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Some o r g a n i z a t i o n s , f o r e x a m p le .
Red C r o s s , C i v i l D e f e n s e , and The F e d e r a l D i s a s t e r A s s i s t a n c e A d m inis­
t r a t i o n , h a v e a s p e c i f i c m a n da te t o p e r f o r m d i s a s t e r - r e l a t e d t a s k s and
re sp o n sib ilitie s. O t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , f o r e x a m p le , s c h o o l s and
c h u r c h e s , h a v e no s p e c i f i c d i s a s t e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , b u t , u n d e r t h e
c irc u m sta n c e s , p ro v id e im p o rtan t s e r v i c e s . T h e se d o c u m e n ts i n c l u d e
such item s as h e a r i n g s , a f t e r - a c t i o n r e p o r t s , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t s ,
memos, l o g s , m i n u t e s o f m e e t i n g s , w r i t t e n a n n o u n c e m e n ts , p l a n s , s u r ­
v e y s , and f i n a n c i a l s t a t e m e n t s . F i n a l l y , some s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y
o r i e n t e d d o c u m e n ts w e re a v a i l a b l e from o t h e r r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s . T his
ty p e o f d a t a was p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r c o m p a r a t i v e p u r p o s e s . Examin­
ing o t h e r s o u r c e s f o r b o t h c o n s i s t e n c i e s and i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s s e r v e d as
a c h e c k on t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e f i n d i n g s g e n e r a t e d from t h e p r e s e n t
stu d y .

O ffic ia l S ta tis tic s

Many s c h o l a r s a n t i c i p a t e s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s i n b e h a v i o r i n d i c a ­
t i v e o f m o r a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l , and s o c i a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n . S o c ia l de­
v i a n c e f o l l o w i n g d i s a s t e r i s t h o u g h t t o be m a n i f e s t i n a r a n g e o f be­
h a v i o r s , s u c h a s m e n t a l i l l n e s s , a l c o h o l i s m , u n e m p lo ym en t, t r a f f i c v i o ­
la tio n s , fe lo n ie s and m i s d e m e a n o r s , s u i c i d e , d i v o r c e , and w i t h d r a w a l
from comm unity l i f e . V io la tio n s o f n o rm ativ e s ta n d a r d s a re s e n s i t i v e
i s s u e s , and one m ig h t r e a s o n a b l y e x p e c t t h a t t h i s t y p e o f i n f o r m a t i o n
m i g h t b e ta b o o i n p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n s and t h a t i t m i g h t a l s o be c o n ­
c e a l e d i n an i n t e r v i e w c o n t e x t . T h erefo re, s t a t i s t i c a l d a ta in d ic a ­
t i v e o f d e v i a n t b e h a v i o r s presum ed t o b e s e r i o u s en oug h t o come t o t h e
a t t e n t i o n o f o f f i c i a l a g e n t s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l w ere c o l l e c t e d . S ta tis­
t i c a l d a t a w e r e g a t h e r e d from c o m p l a i n t s r e c e i v e d by p o l i c e c o n c e r n i n g
s u s p i c i o u s b e h a v i o r , b i z a r r e o r s t r a n g e b e h a v i o r , and s u s p e c t e d s u i ­
c i d e . P o l i c e s t a t i s t i c s r e c o r d i n g t r a f f i c v i o l a t i o n s and a r r e s t s f o r
f e l o n i e s and m is d e m e a n o u r s w e re a l s o c o l l e c t e d . C ou nty r e c o r d s p e r ­
t a i n i n g to v o t e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n , e m e rg e n c y w e l f a r e , d i v o r c e , m a r r i a g e ,
and c i v i l , c r i m i n a l and j u v e n i l e t r i a l s w e re c o l l e c t e d . T reated cases
o f m e n t a l i l l n e s s w e re c o u n t e d by a d m i s s i o n t o t h e l o c a l m e n t a l h o s p i ­
ta l. The c a s e l o a d d a t a g e n e r a t e d by t h e s p e c i a l d i s a s t e r m e n ta l
h e a l t h p r o j e c t w e re o b t a i n e d . A v a r i e t y o f m i s c e l l a n e o u s s o u r c e s w ere
a l s o u t i l i z e d t o g a i n o t h e r t y p e s o f s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a su c h as a l c o h o l
s a l e s , u n e m p lo y m e n t, w e l f a r e , food s t a m p s , and s c h o o l p e r f o r m a n c e .
 44

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n and P r e s e n t a t i o n

The g o a l o f q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s i n t h i s s t u d y i s t o r e c o n s t r u c t ,
u sin g th e v a rio u s ty p es o f d a ta g a th e re d , a g e n e ra l p o r t r a i t o f th e r e ­
c o v e r y e x p e r i e n c e by f o c u s i n g on t h e t h e m a t i c and s t r u c t u r a l d i m e n s i o n s
w h ic h o r g a n i z e e x p e r i e n c e . S i n c e i n t e r p r e t i v e work i s t h e m ain o b j e c ­
t i v e and t h e e n d p r o d u c t o f t h i s q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s , t h e c e n t r a l
p r o b le m i n a n a l y s i s i s d e r i v i n g t h e s p e c i f i c th e m e s and d e s c r i p t i v e
c a te g o rie s from t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s o f d a t a , b u t in p a r t i c u l a r , from t h e
tap e-reco rd ed in te rv ie w s. The f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e was u t i l i z e d i n an
e f f o r t t o make t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e p r o c e s s s y s t e m a t i c and r i g o r o u s .

The i n t e r v i e w s w e re c a t e g o r i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o w h e t h e r t h e d i s a s t e r
r e c o v e r y e x p e r i e n c e had b e e n s u b j e c t i v e l y e v a l u a t e d , i n a g l o b a l s e n s e ,
a s p o s i t i v e , m ix e d , o r n e g a t i v e . E v a l u a t i o n s o f t h i s n a t u r e w e re g i v e n
i n a f a i r l y d i r e c t a n d s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d m an ner. I l l u s t r a t i o n s of g lo ­
b a l e v a l u a t i o n s t h a t w e r e c a t e g o r i z e d a s p o s i t i v e , m ix e d , and n e g a t i v e ,
in th a t o rd e r, fo llo w .

Not many p e o p l e w i l l a d m i t t h i s b u t , w e l l , w e l l , t h e d i s a s ­
t e r i s th e b e s t ( la u g h t e r ) th in g t h a t happened. Ya, I , w e l l ,
t h i n g s h a v e j u s t t u r n e d a r o u n d f o r u s , you know; th e break
we n e e d e d . Look a t o u r h o u s e , a n an j u s t , j u s t l o o k a r o u n d ,
t h e w hole t o w n 's s o r t o f h a d , s o r t o f a f a c e l i f t I g u e s s
y o u 'd c a l l i t .

T h e r e ' s b e e n some r e a l fu nny t h i n g s , l i k e j o k e s t h a t h a p ­

p e n e d , you know. I t not a l l , w e ll, i t ' s not a l l bad. B ro u g h t
us c lo s e r to g e th e r — l i k e th e fam ily i s c l o s e r ( s i l e n c e ) .
A i n ' t no am ount o f money c o u l d make me w a n t t o go t h r o u g h i t
a g ain though. The p l a c e s t i l l i s n ' t r i g h t . An a n w e l l , maybe
I 'm t h i n k i n maybe i t n e v e r w i l l .

I t ' s a w fu l. I can j u s t h a r d l y t a l k a b o u t i t . (S ilen ce)

Some so m e tim e s I j u s t , w e l l , I j u s t , you know, t h i n k n o t h i n g
w i l l e v e r he t h e same a g a i n . T h e r e ' s n o t h i n good h a p p en e d
sin ce.

The i n t e r v i e w s w ere t h e n s o r t e d by g l o b a l e v a l u a t i o n a n d a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e s a m p li n g d i m e n s i o n s o f u r b a n - r u r a l l i v i n g and r e l i g i o u s a f f i ­
lia tio n . Two i n t e r v i e w s from e a c h o f t h e r e s u l t a n t c a t e g o r i e s w e re
s e l e c t e d and r e p r o d u c e d i n v e r b a t i m t r a n s c r i p t s .

Tape r e c o r d e d m a t e r i a l s a r e i d e a l in t h e s e n s e t h a t tiie i n t e g r i t y
and a c c u ra c y o f th e a c c o u n t i s p r e s e r v e d . W ith r e s p e c t t o a n a l y s i s ,
h o w e v e r , t a p e r e c o r d e d m a t e r i a l s a r e a v a i l a b l e to t h e a u d i t o r y s e n s e s
 45

o n ly . T h u s , t h e r e c o r d i n g s a r e t o o i n t a n g i b l e and t h e i r o b j e c t i v i t y
to o f l e e t i n g f o r r ig o r o u s m a n ip u la tio n . I t was e s s e n t i a l , t h e r e f o r e ,
to have v e r b a tim t r a n s c r i p t i o n s o f th e i n t e r v i e w s . I t w o uld h a v e b e e n
i d e a l to have a l l o f th e t a p e - r e c o r d e d i n te r v ie w s t r a n s c r i b e d , b u t t h e
c o s t was p r o h i b i t i v e . A t o t a l o f r o u g h l y 106 i n t e r v i e w h o u r s was t r a n ­
scrib ed .

Each t r a n s c r i p t was r e a d a n d r e r e a d i n s e a r c h o f t h e th e m es and

d e s c r i p t i v e c a t e g o r i e s w h ic h p r o v i d e d i n t e r n a l o r d e r t o t h e a c c o u n t .
The th e m e s o f e a c h i n t e r v i e w w e re c o m p a r e d . f o r s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f ­
ferences. Tlien, t h e r e m a i n i n g u n t r a n s c r i b e d i n t e r v i e w s w e r e p l a y e d a n d
t h e r e s e a r c h e r l i s t e n e d f o r new v a r i a t i o n s . F in a lly , a general or
t y p i c a l p o r t r a i t o f th e r e c o v e r y e x p e r i e n c e was t h e n s y n t h e s i z e d from
th e d im en sio n s d is c o v e r e d in th e i n d i v i d u a l a c c o u n ts .

E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e a n a l y s i s i n c l u d e d two a n a l y t i c a l l y s e p a r a t e , b u t
e m p i r i c a l l y c o n t i n u o u s , form s o f i n t e r p r e t i v e w ork. The m a j o r f o c u s o f
a n a l y s i s c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e t r a n s c r i b e d i n t e r v i e w s a s o u t l i n e d a b o v e .
A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e s u p p l e m e n t a r y a n d s u p p o r t i n g t y p e s o f d a t a w ere b e i n g
r e v ie w e d a n d c a t e g o r i z e d f o r t h e m a t i c c o n t e n t and s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s .
The i n t e r p r e t i v e w o rk , t h u s , i n v o l v e d a w o r k i n g b a c k an d f o r t h b e tw e e n
t h e v a r i o u s fo rm s o f d a t a w h ich had b ee n g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g f i e l d w o rk .
T h i s r e p o r t , an a n a l y t i c - d e s c r i p t i v e a c c o u n t o f t h e T e to n r e c o v e r y
e x p e r i e n c e , i s t h e p r o d u c t o f t h a t i n t e r p r e t i v e w ork.

A n a l y t i c d e s c r i p t i o n d o e s n o t r e a d i l y l e n d i t s e l f to a p r o p o s i -
t i o n a l fo r m o f p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h e re fo re , th e fin d in g s o f t h i s re s e a rc h
a r e p r e s e n t e d b a s i c a l l y in a n a r r a t i v e o r e x p o s i t o r y f o r m a t . The b r o a d
o u t l i n e s and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t t a k e s i t s c u e from t h e r e s e a r c h
se ttin g .

W h ile d o in g r e s e a r c h i n t h e v a l l e y , I was r e p e a t e d l y a s k e d , "A re

you a Mormon? Are you from a r o u n d h e r e ? W e l l , do you u n d e r s t a n d a b o u t
Mormons?" From a n i n s i d e r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e , a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o n e ' s
p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e d e p e n d e d upon a p r i o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f com munity
l i f e in g e n e ra l. The o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e e x p o s i t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , r e ­
f l e c t s t h i s p r i n c i p l e and p r o c e e d s from t h e b r o a d e r c o n t e x t o f commu­
n ity to e x p e rie n c e. C h a p t e r t h r e e now t u r n s t o a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i f e i n
t h e v a l l e y b e f o r e t h e T e to n Dam c o l l a p s e d .
 46

NOTES TO CHAPTER 2

1. The N a t u r w i s s e n s c h a f t e n - G e i s t e s w i s s e n s c h a f t e n d e b a t e i n Germany
was i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e m a i n s t r e a m o f s o c i o l o g i c a l t h o u g h t t h r o u g h
t h e w r i t i n g s o f Max W eb e r. Weber a r g u e d t h a t t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r
o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s was f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t fro m t h e n a t u r ­
a l s c i e n c e s a n d , t h e r e f o r e , r e q u i r e d a d i f f e r e n t m e th o d o l o g y . In
The T h e o r y o f S o c i a l and Economic O r g a n i z a t i o n , New Y ork: O x fo rd
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 7 , p p . 9 9 - 1 0 0 , W eber a r g u e d a s f o l l o w s . "If
a d e q u a c y i n r e s p e c t t o m e a n in g i s l a c k i n g t h e n no m a t t e r how h i g h
t h e d e g r e e o f u n i f o r m i t y and how p r e c i s e l y i t s p r o b a b i l i t y c a n be
n u m e r ic a lly d e te r m in e d i t i s s t i l l an in c o m p r e h e n s ib le s t a t i s t i c a l
p r o b a b i l i t y w h eth er d e a lin g w ith o v e rt o r s u b je c tiv e p r o c e s s e s ."
S o cial sc ie n c e s, th e re fo re , re q u ire v e rste h e n , p a r tic u la r ly ak-
t u e l l e s v e r s t e h e n , as a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d e v i c e t o u n d e r s t a n d mean­
in g fu l s o c ia l a c tio n . V e r s t e h e n h a s b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f many d e ­
b a te s. F o r a c o l l e c t i o n o f e s s a y s d e v o t e d t o t h i s d e b a t e s e e Mar­
c e l l a T ru zzi ( E d .), V e rsteh en : S u b je c tiv e U n d e rstan d in g in th e
S o c i a l S c i e n c e s . R e a d i n g , M a s s .: A d d is o n -W e s le y P u b l i s h i n g C o .,
1974.

The " s o c i o l o g i e s " e m e r g i n g i n t h e s i x t i e s and s e v e n t i e s h a v e g i v e n

new d i r e c t i o n and a r e s u r g e n c e o f i n t e r e s t i n t h i s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
c o n tro v ersy . S e e , f o r e x a m p le , t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e i n
s o c i o l o g y r e p r e s e n t e d by J o h n F. L o f l a n d , " N o te s o n N a t u r a l i s m i n
S o c i o l o g y " . K a n s a s J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y , V o l . 3, No. 2, 1967:
4 5 - 6 1 , and David M a tz a , Becoming D e v i a n t , Englewood C l i f f s , New
Jersey: P r e n t i c e - H a l 1 , 1969; t h e h u m a n i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e r e p r e ­
s e n t e d by P e t e r L. B e r g e r , I n v i t a t i o n t o S o c i o l o g y : A H u m an istic
P e r s p e c t i v e , New York: D o u b le d a y and C o . , L t d . , 1 9 6 3 , and S e v e r y n
T. B ru y n , The Human P e r s p e c t i v e i n S o c i o l o g y : The M e th o d o lo g y o f
P a r t i c i p a n t O b s e r v a t i o n . Englewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y : P re n tic e -
H al 1, 1966; t h e c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e r e p r e s e n t e d by J u r g e n Ha­
b e r m a s , Knowledge and Human I n t e r e s t s , B o s to n : Beacon P r e s s ,
1 97 1, and A l b r e c h t W e ll m e r , C r i t i c a l T h e o ry o f S o c i e t y , New York:
The S e a P r e s s , 1974; p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l s o c i o l o g y r e p r e s e n t e d by
G e o rg e P s a t h a s , P h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l S o c i o l o g y : I s s u e s and A p p l i c a ­
t i o n s . New York: J o h n W ile y and S o n s , 1 9 7 3 , and A l f r e d S c h ü t z ,
The Ph eno m e n o lo g y o f t h e S o c i a l W o r l d , C h i c a g o : N o r t h w e s t e r n U ni­
v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1967; e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y r e p r e s e n t e d by H a r o ld G a r -
f i n k e l , S t u d i e s in E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y , Englew ood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y :
P r e n t i c e - H a l I , I n c . , 1 967, and J o h n Mehan and H o u s to n Wood, The
R e a l i t y o f E th n o m e t h o d o l o g y , New Y ork: J o h n W ile y and S o n s , 1 975;
e x i s t e n t i a l s o c i o l o g y r e p r e s e n t e d by J a c k D. D o u g l a s , U n d e r s t a n d ­
i n g E v e ry d a y L i f e , C h ic a g o : A l d i n e P u b l i s h i n g C o . , 1970; t h e
s o c i o l o g y o f t h e a b s u r d r e p r e s e n t e d by S t a n f o r d Lyman and M a rv in
B. S c o t t , A S o c i o l o g y o f t h e A b s u r d , New York: A p p leto n -C en tu ry -
C r o f t s , 1970; r e f l e x i v e s o c i o l o g y r e p r e s e n t e d by A l v i n W. G o u ld -
n e r . The Coming C r i s i s o f W e s t e r n S o c i o l o g y , New Y o rk : Avon
B o ok s, 1 9 7 0 , and J o h n O ' N e i l l , S o c i o l o g y a s a S k i n T r a d e : Essays
 47

Toward a R e f l e x i v e S o c io L o g y . New York: H a r p e r and Row P u b l i s h ­

e r s , 1972; p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l M a rx ism r e p r e s e n t e d by F r e d R. D a l l -
m a y r , "P h eno m en olog y and M arxism: A S a l u t e to Enzo P a c i " i n
P s a t h a s , o p . c i t . and B a rr y S m a r t , S o c i o l o g y , P h en om eno lo gy and
M arx ian A n a ly s is : A C r i t i c a l D i s c u s s i o n o f t h e T h e o r y and P r a c ­
t i c e o f a S c i e n c e o£ S o c i e t y , London: R o u t l e d g e and Kegan P a u l ,
1976; and s o c i o l o g y a s a form o f l i f e r e p r e s e n t e d by D erek L.
P h i l l i p s , A band on in g M eth o d , London: Jossey-B ass P u b lis h e rs ,
1973. As t h e names o f t h e d i f f e r e n t s o c i o l o g i e s s u g g e s t , t h e r e
a r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n e m p h a s is and d i r e c t i o n . They a r e ,
h o w e v e r , s i m i l a r in t h e i r r e j e c t i o n o f a p o s i t i v i s t i c e p i s t e m o -
lo g y -m eth o d o lo g y .

2- F o r a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n s e e C. G. Hem-
p e l and K. Oppenheim," T h e o ry o f S c i e n t i f i c E x p l a n a t i o n in H. F i e -
g e l and M. B ro d b e c k ( E d s . ) , R e a d in g s in t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f S c i e n c e ,
New York: M a c M illa n , 1953; Abraham K a p l a n , The C o n d u c t o f I n ­
q u i r y , S cran to n , P a .: C h a n d l e r P u b l i s h i n g C o ., 1 964; E r n e s t Na­
g e l , The S t r u c t u r e o f S c i e n c e : P r o b le m s i n t h e L o g i c o f S c i e n t i ­
f i c E x p l a n a t i o n , New Y ork: H a r c o u r t , B r a c e and W o rld , I n c . , 1961.

3. F o r a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s model o f t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n i n s o c i o l o g y
s e e H u b e r t M. B l a l o c k , J r . , T h e o r y C o n s t r u c t i o n : From V e r b a l to
M a t h e m a t i c a l F o r m u l a t i o n s , New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1969;
J a c k P . G ib b s , S o c i o l o g i c a l T h e o r y C o n s t r u c t i o n , I l l i n o i s : The
D ryden P r e s s , I n c . , 1 972; Hans L. Z e t t e r b e r g , On T h e o r y and V e r i ­
f i c a t i o n i n S o c i o l o g y , 3 r d e n l a r g e d e d i t i o n . New J e r s e y : The Bed-
m i n s t e r P r e s s , I n c . . 1965.

4. See a n y s t a n d a r d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l t e x t b o o k i n s o c i o l o g y , f o r ex a m p le ,
H u b e r t M. B l a l o c k , J r . and Ann B. B l a l o c k , M e th o d o lo g y in S o c i a l
R e s e a r c h . New York: M c G r a w -H ill, I n c . , 1 968; o r D e l b e r t C. M i l ­
l e r , Handbook o f R e s e a r c h D e s ig n and S o c i a l M e a s u r e m e n t, 2nd e d i ­
t i o n , New Y ork: David McKay C o . , I n c . , 1970.

5. F o r d i s c u s s i o n s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g s e e any o f t h e r e f e r e n c e s i n
fo o tn o te 1 above.

6. F o r r e l e v a n t d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e o r y s e e , in p a r t i c u l a r , H e r b e r t
B lu m e r , S y m b o lic I n t e r a c t i o n i s m , Englewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y ;
P r e n t i c e - H a l 1, I n c . , 1969; B a r n e y G. G l a s e r and Anselm L. S t r a u s s ,
The D i s c o v e r y o f G rounded T h e o r y : S t r a t e g i e s f o r Q u a l i t a t i v e Re­
s e a r c h , C h ic a g o : A ld in e P u b l i s h i n g C o ., 1967; and Thomas P. W i l ­
s o n , " N o r m a ti v e and I n t e r p r e t i v e P a r a d ig m s in S o c i o l o g y " , p p . 57-
7 9 , i n D o u g la s , op. c i t .

7. T h e r e a r e a num ber o f s t a n d a r d t e x t s on q u a l i t a t i v e m e t h o d o lo g y .
S e e , f o r e x a m p le , R o b e r t Bogdan an d S t e v e n J . T a y l o r , I n t r o d u c t i o n
t o Q u a l i t a t i v e R e s e a r c h M e th o d s: A P h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l A p pro ach t o
t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , New Y ork: J o h n W ile y and S o n s , 1975; L o f -
la n d , John, A nalyzing S o c ia l S e t t i n g s : A G u id e t o Q u a l i t a t i v e
 48

O b s e r v a t i o n and A n a l y s i s , B e lm o n t, C a l i f o r n i a ; W adsw orth Pub­

l i s h i n g C o . , 197 1; L e o n a r d S c h a tz m a n and Anselm L. S t r a u s s , F i e l d
R esearch: S t r a t e g i e s For a N a t u r a l S o c i o l o g y , Englewood C l i f f s ,
New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 197 3.

8. R o b e r t K. M e r to n , S o c i a l T h e o r y and S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e , e n l a r g e d
e d i t i o n . New Y ork: The F r e e P r e s s , 19 68, p p . 1 5 8 -1 6 2 .

9. I t s h o u ld b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t n o t a l l a u t h o r s who u s e q u a l i t a t i v e
d a t a r e j e c t t h e p o s i t i v i s t i c p a r a d ig m . S e e , f o r e x a m p le , A. E.
M a xw e ll, A n a l y z i n g Q u a l i t a t i v e D a t a , London: Chapman and H a l l ,
19 6 1 . M a x w e l l 's r e s e a r c h p r o c e d u r e s a r e g u i d e d by a p o s i t i v i s t i c
c o n c e p t i o n and h i s m a j o r p r o b l e m c o n c e r n s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f
q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a i n t o q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a as a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o s c i ­
e n tif ic an a ly sis.

10. C. W rig h t M i l l s , The S o c i o l o g i c a l I m a g i n a t i o n , New York: O x fo rd

U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1959.

11. G o u ld n er, op. c i t . , p p . 4 8 1 - 5 1 3 ; Mehan and Wood, o p . c i t . , pp.

137-175.

12. S h u l a m i t R e i n h a r z , On Becoming a S o c i a l S c i e n t i s t : From S u rv e y

R e s e a r c h and P a r t i c i p a n t O b s e r v a t i o n t o E x p e r i e n t i a l A n a l y s i s , San
F ra n c isc o : J o s s e y - B o s s , I n c . , P u b l i s h e r s , 1979.

13. G l a s e r and S t r a u s s , o p . c i t .

14. G arfin k el, op. c i t .

15. F o r a r e v i e w o f t h e h e r m e n e u t i c t r a d i t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s e e
Anthon> G i d d e n s , New R u le s o f S o c i o l o g i c a l Method: A P o sitiv e
C r i t i q u e o f I n t e r p r e t i v e S o c i o l o g i e s , New Y ork: B a s i c Books,
I n c . , 1 97 6 , and Mehan and Wood, o p . c i t .

16. T h i s d i s c u s s i o n on t r u t h c r i t e r i a h a s b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u e n c e d
by G i d d e n s , o p . c i t . , G l a s e r and S t r a u s s , o p . c i t . , P h i l l i p s , op.
c i t . , and A l f r e d S c h ü t z , C o l l e c t e d P a p e r s I , The Hague: M a r t i n u s
N ijh o f f , 1973, pp. 43-44.

17. F o r a more e x t e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e c o m p le x i s s u e s in v o l v e d i n a
c r i t i q u e o f t h e p o s i t i v i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s e e , i n p a r t i c u l a r , Aaron
V. C i c o u r e l , Method and M e a su rem e n t i n S o c i o l o g y , New York: The
F r e e P r e s s , 196 4, and The S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n o f J u v e n i l e J u s t i c e ,
New York: J o h n W ile y and S o n s , 196 8; G i d d e n s , o p . c i t . ; J o h n M.
J o h n s o n , D oing F i e l d R e s e a r c h , New Y ork: The F r e e P r e s s , 1975;
D e r e k L. P h i l l i p s ; K nowledge From What? T h e o r i e s and M ethods i n
S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , C h ic a g o : Rand M cN ally and Company, 1971 and
P h i l l i p s , 197 3 , o p . c i t .

18. Mehan and Wood, o p . c i t . T h e i r d i s c u s s i o n on t h e p r o b le m o f i n f i ­

n i t e r e g r e s s r c f l ' c t s t h i s e x t r e m i s t p o s i t i o n w h ic h l e a d s them to
 49

ig n o re th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t s e l f - r e f l e c t i o n e n t a i l s r e f l e c t i o n s o f
t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d and n o t s i m p l y o r m e r e l y r e f l e c t i o n s o f o n e ' s
k n o w le d g e a b o u t t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d . T his l a t t e r f o r m u la tio n be­
comes an i n f i n i t e c i r c u l a r i t y o f r e f l e c t i o n s o f r e f l e c t i o n s .

19. G l a s e r and S t r a u s s , o p . c i t . , p p . 4 5 - 7 7 .

20. T h i s o c c u r r e d i n s p i t e o f e f f o r t s t o m a i n t a i n a p u b l i c and h i g h l y
v i s i b l e im ag e. The l o c a l n e w s p a p e r r a n a n a r t i c l e d e s c r i b i n g t h e
o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t and I c o n t a c t e d many com m unity
l e a d e r s t o e x p l a i n t h e r e s e a r c h . Many r e s i d e n t s s e l e c t e d i n t h e
s a m p le w e r e a l r e a d y aw a re o f my p r e s e n c e and r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s
b e f o r e b e i n g c o n t a c t e d by t e l e p h o n e , b u t n o n e t h e l e s s , t h e r e was a
d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f w hat was i n t e r e s t i n g .

21. The s u c c e s s o f t h i s com m unity i n h a v i n g a c o m p l e t e l i s t o f d i s a s ­

t e r v i c t i m s u n d e r s c o r e s t h e u n i q u e n e s s and e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e Mer­
m a n 's s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . In t h e y e a r s b e tw e e n t h e dam b r e a k and
t h e r e s e a r c h , t h e o r i g i n a l l i s t s f o r 3 w a r d s ha d b e e n m i s p l a c e d .
The d i s a s t e r p o p u l a t i o n , i n t h e s e w a r d s , was r e c o n s t r u c t e d from
c h u r c h r e c o r d s and t h e memory o f t h e p r e s i d i n g b i s h o p . A lth o u g h
c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e i s p l a c e d on h a v i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on e v e r y
p e r s o n w i t h i n w a rd b o u n d a r i e s , e r r o r s o f o m i s s i o n a r e m o st l i k e l y
in t h e c a s e o f non-Mormons and g e o g r a p h i c a l l y m o b i l e p e r s o n s .

22. Forms w e re u s e d c o n t a i n i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n : fam ily

name, number i n t h e h o u s e h o l d , r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n , p r i n c i p a l
incom e from f a r m i n g / n o n - f a r m i n g , c u r r e n t w ard r e s i d e n c e , and
w h e t h e r o r n o t l o s s e s w e re i n c u r r e d . A d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n was
co n v e y e d a b o u t i l l n e s s , f a i l u r e to r e c o v e r from t h e d i s a s t e r , p r o ­
b le m s r e l a t e d t o r e c o v e r y , d e a t h and so o n .

23 . See A pp end ix A, F i e l d G u id e F o r In - D e p th I n t e r v i e w i n g .

24. Many p u b l i c s e t t i n g s w e re o b s e r v e d . I w ent to d i f f e r e n t c h u rc h e s

and t o a w e d d in g . I a te in exp en siv e r e s t a u r a n t s , a tr u c k s to p ,
f a s t food c h a i n s , and a s e n i o r c i t i z e n ' s a c t i v i t y c e n t e r . I
sho p p e d in d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f s t o r e s . I s a t in th e p a rk , sch o o l
p l a y g r o u n d s , and t h e h o s p i t a l w a i t i n g room. I w a lk e d th o u g h r e ­
s i d e n t i a l a r e a s o f v a ry in g d e g re e s o f a f f l u e n c e , to u re d m obile
home p a r k s , and d r o v e a r o u n d t h e r u r a l c o u n t r y s i d e . I w ent to
t h e l i b r a r y , b e a u t y s a l o n , l o c a l p u b , and fa rm e q u i p m e n t r e t a i l
o u tle t. In a d d i t i o n , c o l l e c t i n g d o c u m e n ts and s t a t i s t i c s a t v a r ­
i o u s p u b l i c and p r i v a t e a g e n c i e s o f f e r e d many o c c a s i o n s t o o b ­
serve u n o b tru siv ely .

25. Among t h e t y p e s o f i n v i t a t i o n s I a c c e p t e d w e re f a m i l y d i n n e r s ,
l u n c h e o n s , home m o v i e s , a boy s c o u t b a n q u e t , c o f f e e b r e a k s , l o c a l
c h u r c h s e r v i c e s , and a v a r i e t y o f w om en's c h u r c h a s s o c i a t i o n m e e t­
in g s.
 50

26. T h e s e c o nL acL s I a s L e d , on t h e a v e r a g e , two t o f i v e m i n u t e s , a l ­

th o u g h t h e r e w as e o n s : d e r a h l e r a n g e . The l o n g e s t l a s t e d a b o u t one
hour. Some c o n t a c t s w e r e made by t e l e p h o n e and o t h e r s w e re £ a c e -
to -fa c e c o n ta c ts. One c o n t a c t was t a p e r e c o r d e d b e c a u s e o f t h e
t e c h n i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e m a t e r i a l an d my i g n o r a n c e on t h e t o p i c .

27. T h r e e s o u r c e s w e r e o f p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e in t h i s r e s p e c t . A
s u r v e y o f t h e n e e d s o f e l d e r l y v i c t i m s was a n a l y z e d by t h e D e p a r t ­
m ent o f S o c i o l o g y , I d a h o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , a n d p u b l i s h e d i n t h e
fo llo w in g re s e a rc h r e p o r t. F ay e C. H u e r t a , R o b e r t L. H o r t o n a n d
L e o n a r d K o v i t , O l d e r A m e ric a n s and t h e N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r , T i t l e I I I
Model P r o j e c t , E a s t e r n I d a h o S p e c i a l S e r v i c e s Agency, I n c . , I d a h o
F a l l s , I d a h o , 1 9 7 7 . N e a r l y 300 p e r s o n a l a c c o u n t s w e re v o l u n t a r i l y
s u b m i t t e d by r e s i d e n t s o f t h e T e t o n V a l l e y f o r p u b l i c a t i o n i n a
l o c a lly p u b lish e d book. J a n e t T hom as, B e r n i c e Me C ow in, Mary T i n -
ge y a n d M a r g a r e t Thomas ( E d s . ) , T h a t Day i n J u n e : R e f l e c t i o n s on
t h e T e t o n Dam D i s a s t e r . R e x b u r g , I d a h o : R i c k s C o l l e g e P r e s s ,
1977. N e a r l y 4 00 o r a l h i s t o r i e s w e r e c o l l e c t e d i n a j o i n t r e ­
s e a r c h p r o j e c t by t h e D e p a r tm e n ts o f H i s t o r y o f U ta h S t a t e Uni­
v e r s i t y and R ic k s C o l l e g e d u r i n g t h e summer o f 1 9 7 7 . A p p ro x i­
m a t e l y 71 o f t h e s e w e r e t r a n s c r i b e d an d a v a i l a b l e f o r r e v i e w i n
t h e A r c h i v e s o f R ic k s C o l l e g e .
 CHAPTER 3

SOCIAL CONTEXT

T h e r e i s a g e n e r a l f e e l i n g among r e s i d e n t s o f t h e U p per S n a ke R iv ­
e r V a l l e y t h a t t h e p e o p l e who l i v e i n t h e v a l l e y a r e u n i q u e and C h a t
t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n w r o u g h t i n t h e wake o f t h e d i s a s t e r
was a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e i r s p e c i a l c o u r a g e and d e t e r m i n a t i o n . Typ­
i c a l l y , t h i s i s s u e i s i n t r o d u c e d by r e f e r e n c e t o s t o r i e s o f t h e am aze­
m ent o f o u t s i d e r s who came t o t h e v a l l e y a f t e r t h e dam b r o k e and won­
d e r e d "why i t i s t h a t t h e s e p e o p l e o f t h e U pper S na ke R i v e r V a l l e y
c o u l d r e a c t a s t h e y d i d — w i t h o p t i m i s m , h a r d w ork and c o u r a g e — i n
th e face o f such u t t e r d e s t r u c t i o n " . And t h e v a l l e y p e o p l e h a v e a
ready e x p la n a tio n . "T h e a n s w e r , o f c o u r s e , l i e s l a r g e l y i n t h e i r
b a c k g r o u n d , w h ic h i s s e r a i - r u r a l and w e s t e r n . B u t , o f e v e n more s i g ­
n i f i c a n c e i n t h e e y e s o f many, i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a r e a i s p r e d o m i­
n a n t l y Mormon — and Mormons h a v e a lo n g h i s t o r y o f h a r d s h i p and a d ­
v e r s i t y . "1 T h i s a n s w e r u n d e r s c o r e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b o t h a g r i c u l t u r e
and Mormonism a s o r g a n i z i n g them es i n t h e l i f e o f v a l l e y r e s i d e n t s .

T h i s c h a p t e r f o c u s e s on t h e s e two th e m e s and p r o v i d e s a g e n e r a l
s k e t c h o f t h e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h i n f l u e n c e d t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e
in M a d iso n C o u n ty b e f o r e t h e n o rm a l r o u t i n e o f d a i l y l i f e was d i s ­
r u p t e d by t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e T e to n Dam. The d i s c u s s i o n f o c u s e s f i r s t
on t h e s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l a s p e c t s w h ic h d e t e r m i n e t h e m a t e r i a l c o n ­
d itio n s of su rv iv a l. T h e n , t h e d e m o g r a p h ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
p o p u latio n are d e sc rib e d . The c h a p t e r c o n c l u d e s w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f
t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f com m unity l i f e , t h e u n i q u e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e
Mormon C h u rc h on t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n and i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r d a i l y l i v ­
in g .

S o c i a l E c o lo g y

M ad ison C o u n ty , f o r m e r l y t h e s o u t h e a s - c o r n e r o f F r e m o n t C o u n ty ,
was c r e a t e d by t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e on F e b r u a r y 18, 1 9 1 3 . 2 M adison
C o u n ty ( f i g u r e /» and 5 ) , s h a p e d in nn i r r e g u l a r r e c t a n g l e , i s s i t ­
u a t e d i n t h e e a s t end o f s o u t h e a s t Id a lio . The l a n d a r e a o f 473 s q u a r e
m i l e s i s bo u n d e d on t h e n o r t h by Frem o nt C o u n ty ; on t h e w e s t and
s o u t h w e s t by J e f f e r s o n C o u n t y ; on t h e s o u t h by B o n n e v i l l e C o u n ty ; and

51
 52

^ ftÜ N P tfR S > E R H T

C O E IW O'

n orth

Me CALL

F i g u r e 4: Map o f Id ah o sh o w in g M adison C o u n ty
 Dam

ui
w
F i g u r e 5: Map o f M a d i s o n C o u n ty
 54

on t h e e a s t by T e t o n C o u n ty .

T h e r e a r e two i n c o r p o r a t e d a r e a s i n M adiso n C o u n ty . R ex b u rg i s
t h e c o u n t y s e a t and S u g a r C i t y , a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i v e m i l e s n o r t h , f u n c ­
t i o n s as a bedroom com munity o f R e x b u r g . R ou gh ly t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e
c o u n t y ' s p o p u l a t i o n r e s i d e s i n t h e s e two c o m m u n i t i e s . R exb urg s e r v e s
a s t h e c e n t e r f o r g o v e r n m e n t a l s e r v i c e s , l i g h t i n d u s t r i a l d e v e lo p m e n t
and c o m m e rc ia l t r a d e . S in ce th e e n t i r e s o u t h e a s t re g io n o f t h i s p r e ­
d o m i n a n t l y r u r a l s t a t e i s s p a r s e l y p o p u l a t e d , R e x b u r g 's b u s i n e s s and
s e r v i c e s e c t o r s o f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l c o m p e t i t i o n t o I d a h o F a l l s w h ic h
l i e s tw e n t y - f i v e m ile s to th e s o u th . T h u s , R ex b u rg i s an i m p o r t a n t
s e r v i c e c e n t e r f o r t h e f i v e a d j a c e n t and n o r t h e r l y c o u n t i e s . U. S.
Highway 20 and 191 c u t t h r o u g h t h e w e s t e r l y o n e - t h i r d o f t h e c o u n t y
c o n n e c t i n g R ex burg w i t h I d a h o F a l l s t o t h e s o u t h and S t . A nthony ( t h e
c o u n t y s e a t o f F rem ont C o u nty) t w e l v e m i l e s t o t h e n o r t h .

A lth o u g h t o u r i s m d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e a m a jo r f a c t o r i n t h e e c o n o ­
my, t h e t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y d o e s p r o d u c e some i m p o r t a n t s e a s o n a l r e v ­
enues. R ex b u rg i s one o f t h e l a s t m a j o r s t o p s on Highway 20 an d 191
w h ic h t a k e s t o u r i s t t r a f f i c n o r t h e a s t t o t h e famous Y e l l o w s t o n e Na­
tio n a l Park. S t a t e Highway 8S r u n s from R exburg w e s t t h r o u g h J e f f e r ­
s o n C o u n ty t o t h e C h a l l i s N a t i o n a l P a r k and S t a t e Highway 33 r u n s e a s t
from S u g a r C i t y t h r o u g h T e t o n and N ew dale t o t h e T e t o n C ou nty l i n e and
s o u t h e a s t t o J a c k s o n H ole and t h e G ran d T e t o n N a t i o n a l P a r k .

Numerous c r e e k s and two m a j o r r i v e r s s u p p l y t h e c o u n t y w i t h a n a -

bundance o f w a te r. The N o r th and S o u t h F o r k s o f t h e T e to n R i v e r c r o s s
t h e n o r t h w e s t s e c t i o n o f t h e c o u n t y and empty i n t o t h e n o r t h f o r k o f
t h e Snake R i v e r . T h i s f o r k , c a l l e d H e n r y 's F o r k , j o i n s w i t h t h e m a in
b r a n c h o f t h e S n ak e R i v e r on t h e s o u t h w e s t e r l y c o r n e r o f t h e c o u n t y .

The t o p o g r a p h i c a l c o n t o u r s o f t h e la n d r a n g e from f o r e s t e d moun­

t a i n s and r o l l i n g h i l l s t o f e r t i l e p l a i n s , b a r r e n l a v a r o c k , an d s a n d y
d e se rt. T h i s g c o p h y s i o I c g i c a I d i v e r s i t y i s r e f l e c t e d on t h e map l a ­
b e l e d f i g u r e 6 . ^ Big H o le M o u n ta in s e x t e n d from Wyoming i n t h e s o u t h ­
e a s t c o r n e r f o r m in g p a r t o f t h e T a r g h e e N a t i o n a l F o r e s t . The f o r e s t
and p a r k a r e a i s b o r d e r e d w i t h r a n g e la n d e x t e n d i n g w e s tw a r d t o a
s t r e t c h o f b e n c h Iand w h ic h i s u s e d f o r d r y f a r m i n g . The b e n c h l a n d
( s h a d e d w h i t e ) i s a b o u t t e n m i l e s w i d e and r u n s t w e n t y m i l e s i n a
n o r t h e a s t d i r e c t i o n th ro u g h th e m id d le o f th e c o u n ty . W e stw a rd , a l ­
m o s t to R e x b u rg and t h e S o u t h F o r k o f t h e T e t o n R i v e r , l i e i r r i g a t e d
r o l l i n g h i l l s w i t h an e l e v a t i o n t h a t a v e r a g e s a l i t t l e more t h a n a
m i l e a b ov e s e a l e v e l . T h i s i r r i g a t e d b e n c h l a n d s l o p e s w e s tw a r d o n t o
th e f e r t i l e p la in s of th e v a lle y f l o o r . In th e n o rth w e s t c o r n e r
(shaded w h ite ) i s a s t r e t c h o f la n d t h a t i s a l m o s t p u r e s a n d . R isin g
o u t o f t h e l a v a r o c k i n t h e s o u t h e a s t c o r n e r a r e two b u t t e s , c a l l e d
t h e Menan o r Twin B u t t e s .

I n a d d i t i o n to t h e t o p o g r a p h y , f i g u r e 6 a l s o i n c l u d e s a d i s t r i b u ­
t i o n o f r e s i d e n t i a l and m i s c e l l a n e o u s s t r u c t u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n ­
ty . Even a c u r s o r y g l a n c e r e v e a l s t h e u n e v e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
 Ul
Ln

Figure 6: Map of M a d i s o n County S h o w i n g T o p o g r a p h y and P o pu la t i o n Distribution

 56

d e v e lo p m e n t i n t h e w e s t e r l y o n e - t h i r d o f t h e c o u n t y . T h is p a t t e r n r e ­
f l e c t s t h e e a r l y c o n s t r u c t i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s and t h e d e v e l o p ­
ment and g r o w th o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l i n d u s t r y .

I n s p i t e o f t h e a b u n d a n c e o f w a te r w a y s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t y ,
t h e r e i s a c h r o n i c s h o r t a g e o f w a t e r f o r farm u s a g e . The c l i m a t e i s
d r y a n d a r i d w i t h a n a n n u a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n t h a t r a n g e s from 1C i n c h e s
i n t h e w e s t e r l y r e g i o n t o 23 i n c h e s i n t h e s o u t h e a s t c o r n e r . W i n t e r s
a r e lo n g and c o l d . T h i s h a s two i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s . F i r s t , t h e
g ro w in g s e a s o n i s s h o r t , r a n g i n g fro m 90 t o 110 d a y s , a n d , s e c o n d ,
w i n t e r s w i t h heavy s n o w f a ll h ave th e p o t e n t i a l f o r p r o d u c in g f l o o d s
d u rin g sp rin g ru n o ff. P a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e t o p o g r a p h i c a l and c l i m a t o -
l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s c o m b in e t o p r o d u c e a c y c l e o f f l o o d i n g i n l a t e
s p r i n g and d r o u g h t i n l a t e summer. B o th p h a s e s o f t h e c y c l e h a v e r e ­
p e a t e d l y damaged c r o p s and p r o d u c e d s e r i o u s e c o n o m ic l o s s e s .

More t h a n t h i r t y s e p a r a t e c a n a l s y s t e m s h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d f o r
i r r i g a t i o n p u r p o s e s . The p r o p o s e d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e t o n Dam i n
1963 was j u s t i f i e d , among o t h e r r e a s o n s , f o r i t s b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s i n
c o n t r o l l i n g f l o o d i n g and a l l e v i a t i n g t h e w a t e r s h o r t a g e c a u s e d by
d ro u g h t. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 56 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l la n d i n M a d is o n C o u n ty
i s u t i l i z e d i n c r o p l a n d a n d t h e c e n t r a l 1 7 8 ,0 0 0 a c r e s o f f a r m l a n d ( i n ­
d ic a te d by dark sh ad in g on f ig u r e 6) is under i r r i g a t i o n . I f t h e T e­
t o n Dam, l o c a t e d 3 m i l e s n o r t h e a s t o f N ew dale on t h e T e t o n R i v e r , h ad
n o t f a i l e d , a b o u t 4 0 , 0 0 0 a c r e s w o u ld h a v e b e e n ne w ly i r r i g a t e d and
a n o t h e r 4 0 , 0 0 0 a c r e s w o u ld h a v e r e c e i v e d s u p p l e m e n t a l i r r i g a t i o n .

T he v i t a l i m p o r t a n c e o f a g r i c u l t u r e f o r t h e economy o f M ad iso n
C o u n ty i s shown i n T a b l e 2 . T a b l e 2 d o c u m e n ts t h e amount o f incom e
g e n e r a t e d by d i f f e r e n t e c o n o m ic a c t i v i t i e s w h ic h c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e
e conom ic b a s e . A g r i c u l t u r e a c c o u n ts f o r alm o st t w o - t h i r d s (2 2 .5
m i l l i o n d o l l a r s ) o f th e t o t a l 3 5 .5 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s g e n e r a te d i n 1974.
Of m a n u f a c t u r i n g , r o u g h l y o n e - h a l f o f t h e amount i s g e n e r a t e d from t h e
p ro c e ssin g o f a g r ic u ltu r a l p ro d u c ts.

T h e r e a r e t e n m a n u f a c t u r i n g f i r m s and t h e l a r g e s t , a p o t a t o p r o ­
c e s s i n g p l a n t , e m p lo y s b e tw e e n 300 and 499 p e r s o n s . T here . r e a ls o
two n a t u r a l c h e e s e p l a n t s . The r e m a i n d e r a r e n o t r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y t o
a g r i c u l t u r e and a r e o f r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l s i z e .

R ic k s C o l l e g e , a t w o - y e a r c h u r c h o p e r a t e d c o l l e g e , p l a y s t h e s e ­
cond m o s t i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e economy o f M ad iso n C o u n t y . I t is th e
s i n g l e l a r g e s t e m p lo y e r i n t h e c o u n t y , e m p lo y in g more t h a n 500 p e r ­
sons. In a d d i t i o n , th e e x p an sio n o f c o lle g e f a c i l i t i e s s u p p o rts th e
c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y and t h e n e a r l y 6000 s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d s u p p o r t
t h e r e t a i l and r e n t a l s e c t o r s o f t h e economy. In f a c t , i t i s i n t e r ­
e s t i n g t h a t t h e s t u d e n t c o l l e g e p o p u l a t i o n makes up 35 p e r c e n t o f t h e
to ta l p o p u la tio n .
 57

T ab le 2 Income g e n e r a t e d i n M adison C o u n ty ,
1974, b y t y p e o f eco no m ic a c t i v i t y

Economic Income g e n e r a t e d
A c tiv ity ( m i 11 i o n s )

A g r i c u 1t u r e 2 2 .5

R ic k s College- * 7 .0

M anu factu rin g 3 .1

C o n stru c tio n * 1 .0

S t a t e and F e d e r a l 1 .9
G overnm ent

T o tal 3 5 .5

^E stim a ted
 58

S o c i a l Demography

The p o p u l a t i o n o f M a d is o n C o u n t y , a c c o r d i n g to t h e 1970 C e n s u s ,
r e c o r d e d 1 3 ,4 5 2 p e r s o n s . ^ F i g u r e 6 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e p o p ­
u l a t i o n by r e s i d e n t i a l d w e l l i n g s f o r th e u n i n c o r p o r a t e d a r e a s . More
t h a n 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i s c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e w e s t e r l y o n e -
t h i r d o f t h e c o u n t y on i r r i g a t e d la n d . R oughly 80 p e r c e n t l i v e w i t h i n
a n a r r o w c o r r i d o r a l o n g Highway 20 and 1 9 1 . The r u r a l a r e a s to t h e
w e s t o f Rexburg - - S a l e m - H i b b a r d , B u r to n and P l a n o — h a v e r o u g h l y 12,
8 , and 3 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o u n t y ' s p o p u l a t i o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The s o u t h ­
e a s t e r n p a r t o f t h e c o r r i d o r w h ic h e x t e n d s a lo n g t h e Snake R i v e r h a s
a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , and t h e a r e a n o r t h o f R exburg and
e a s t o f t h e S o u t h F o rk o f t h e T e to n has l e s s t h a n 1 p e r c e n t .

U n t i l 1 9 60 , t h e p o p u l a t i o n was f a i r l y s t a b l e . B etw een 1960 and

1970, a p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e o f 43 p e r c e n t was r e c o r d e d . B etw een 1970
and 1 97 6, t h e p o p u l a t i o n had i n c r e a s e d a g a i n by a b o u t 34 p e r c e n t w i t h
an e s t i m a t e d t o t a l o f 1 8 ,0 0 0 p e r s o n s l i v i n g i n t h e c o u n t y . To some
e x t e n t , t h i s g r o w th r e f l e c t s t h e n a t i o n a l d e m o g r a p h ic t r e n d w e s t , a l ­
th o u g h t h e r e a r e two p a r t i c u l a r f a c t o r s w hic h e x p l a i n t h i s i n c r e a s e .

F i r s t , d u r i n g t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s , th e b e n c h la n d i m m e d i a t e l y e a s t o f
R e x b u rg came u n d e r i r r i g a t i o n and la n d u s e s h i f t e d from d r y f a r m in g to
p o ta to crops. T h i s s t i m u l a t e d t h e l o c a l economy s i g n i f i c a n t l y and
b r o u g h t c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o s p e r i t y , as w e l l a s more p e o p l e , t o t h e a r e a .
The amount o f la n d u n d e r p o t a t o c r o p s n e a r l y d o u b l e d . N et farm income
a l s o d o u b le d d u r i n g t h e d e c a d e , and by 1974 t h e y h a d n e a r l y q u a d r u p l e d
1964 v a l u e s . I n 1966 a p o t a t o p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t p r o d u c i n g a b o u t 200
new j o b s o p e n e d n e a r R ex b u rg .

The s e c o n d f a c t o r i n e x p l a i n i n g th e g ro w th i s t h e e x p a n s i o n o f
R ic k s C o l l e g e . ^ In 1950 t h e r e w ere few er t h a n 1000 s t u d e n t s . By t h e
m i d - s i x t i e s , e n r o l l m e n t t r i p l e d and by 1 974, 5800 s t u d e n t s w e re en ­
ro lle d . The e f f e c t o f t h i s e x p a n s i o n t o t h e a r e a g e n e r a l l y shows up
i n t h e D e p a r tm e n t o f Employment s t a t i s t i c s in an i n c r e a s e o f j o b s i n
t h e s e r v i c e and m i s c e l l a n e o u s c a t e g o r y from 100 i n 1960 t o 2000 in
1975. Most o f t h i s i n c r e a s e i s a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e
c o lle g e .

A lth o u g h t h e S a i n t s w ere n o t t h e f i r s t to p i o n e e r t h e Upper Snake

R i v e r V a l l e y , t h e y w e r e among t h e f i r s t t o d e v e l o p c o m m e r c ia l c e n t e r s
i n M a d iso n C o u n ty . The h e r i t a g e o f th e p r e s e n t p o p u l a t i o n b e g i n s i n
1883 w i t h t h e d e c i s i o n o f Jo h n T a y l o r , t h e n P r e s i d e n t o f The C h urch o f
J e s u s C h r i s t o f L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s , t o se n d Thomas E. R ic k s t o s o u t h ­
e a s t I d a h o to s e l e c t a s i t e f o r t h e " l o c a t i o n o f a c e n t r a l p o i n t f o r
r e l i g i o u s , e d u c a t i o n a l , and c o m m e rc ia l e n t e r p r i s e s , and t o p r e p a r e th e
way f o r t h e r a p i d c o l o n i z a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t y " . ^ The r e l i g i o u s compo­
s i t i o n o f th e p o p u la tio n r e f l e c t s th e su c c e ss o f t h i s v e n tu r e .

An e s t i m a t e d 95 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i s Mormon, a l t h o u g h
p r o b a b l y no m ore t h a n 60 p e r c e n t o f th e m em bership i s a c t i v e l y
 59

in v o lv e d in church l if e .® The r e m a i n i n g 5 p e r c e n t i s d i v i d e d among

P r e s b y t e r i a n , h u t l i c r a n , Roman C a t h o l i c , J e h o v a h W i t n e s s and B a p t i s t
d e n o m in a tio n s.^ In s o c i o l o g i c a l t e r m s , t h e non-Mormon p o p u l a t i o n c o n ­
s t i t u t e s a m in o rity group. T h e r e a r e no e x c l u s i v e non-Mormon r e s i ­
d e n t i a l a r e a s , a l t h o u g h non-LDS p e r s o n s t e n d t o l i v e m o re o f t e n i n t h e
c i t y o f R exburg and i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e c o u n t y i n t h e B u r t o n -
T h o r n t o n a r e a . W h ile t h e s e v e n - c o u n t y r e g i o n o f s o u t h e a s t I d a h o i s
h e a v i l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e Mormon f a i t h , i t i s f a i r t o c o n c l u d e t h a t
M a d is o n C o u n ty h a s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y m ore LDS t h a n any o t h e r c o u n t y i n
th e re g io n .

The p o p u l a t i o n i s o v e r w h e l m i n g l y w h i t e , A n g lo - S a x o n a n d , o f c o u r s e ,
P ro te sta n t. The r a c i a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n r e f l e c t s t h e New
E n g l a n d h e r i t a g e o f t h e f o u n d e r s o f Mormonism and t h e i r e x t e n s i v e m i s ­
s i o n a r y p r o g r a m s i n G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d W e s t e r n E u ro p e t o c o n v e r t and t o
p e r s u a d e new c o n v e r t s t o e m i g r a t e t o N o r th A m e r i c a . T h e r e w as o n e
b l a c k man l i v i n g i n R exb urg in 1 9 7 0 , b u t h e d i e d s h o r t l y a f t e r . O ri-
e n t a l - A m e r i c a n s , ^ ^ M e x i c a n - A m e r i c a n s , 12 a n d N o r t h A m e rica n I n d i a n s l ^
make up t h e 124 n o n - w h i t e p e r s o n s r e c o r d e d i n t h e 1970 C e n s u s .

Mormon d o c t r i n e p r o h i b i t s a l l fo rm s o f c o n t r a c e p t i o n and t h e e f ­
f e c t o f t h i s r u l e , w h ile not u n iv e r s a lly p r a c tic e d , i s c le a r l y e v id e n t
i n th e age s t r u c t u r e o f th e p o p u la tio n . T a b le 3 com pares th e age
s t r u c t u r e o f M a d iso n C o u n ty w i t h t h e n a t i o n f o r 1 9 7 0 .1 4 The r e l a t i v e ­
l y l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n (51 p e r c e n t com pa re d t o 3 4 . 2
p e r c e n t f o r t h e n a t i o n ) b e lo w 18 y e a r s o f a g e i n d i r e c t l y r e f l e c t s t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y h i g h b i r t h r a t e o f Mormon f a m i l i e s . 15 F a m i l i e s
w i t h n i n e o r e l e v e n c h i l d r e n a r e n o t uncommon, a l t h o u g h t h e t y p i c a l
LDS f a m i l y i n M a d iso n C o u n t y h a s f i v e o r s i x .

As o n e m ig h t e x p e c t w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e o f R ic k s C o l l e g e , t h e e d u ­
c a tio n a l le v e l o f th e p o p u la tio n i s f a i r l y h ig h . A c c o r d in g t o t h e
1970 C e n s u s , t h e m ed ian s c h o o l y e a r s c o m p l e t e d f o r p e r s o n s 25 y e a r s
a n d o l d e r was 1 2 . 6 . I n R e x b u r g , m ore t h a n 72 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n
25 y e a r s and o l d e r ha d c o m p l e t e d a t l e a s t f o u r y e a r s o f h i g h s c h o o l .
T h i s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e g e n e r a l e m p h a s i s i n t h e Mormon C h u rc h o n
e d u c a t i o n and on t h e v a l u e o f a p p l i e d s c i e n t i f i c t e c h n o l o g y .

T a b l e 4 shows t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e i n M a d iso n C o u n ty . The

h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e l a b o r f o r c e e m ploy e d i n w h i t e c o l l a r j o b s r e ­
f l e c t s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f R ic k s C o l l e g e a s an e d u c a t i o n a l c e n t e r and
R e x b u rg a s a s e r v i c e c e n t e r f o r g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s , human s e r v i c e s ,
a n d com m erce. 'ITie p a u c i t y o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g and i n d u s t r i a l d e v e lo p m e n t
i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e l a b o r f o r c e em­
p l o y e d i n b l u e c o l l a r w o r k . The r e l a t i v e l y h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e l a ­
b o r f o r c e em ployed i n s e r v i c e r e f l e c t s t h e d o m e s t i c j o b s g e n e r a t e d by
f a c i l i t i e s s u c h a s t h e c o u n t y h o s p i t a l , c o l l e g e d o r m i t o r y , m o t e l s , and
n u r s i n g h om es. A lth o u g h a g r i c u l t u r e i s v i t a l t o t h e e c o n o n y , o n l y
s l i g h t l y l e s s t h a n 14 p e r c e n t o f t h e l a b o r f o r c e i s d i r e c t l y e m ploy ed
i n farm in g . I n d e e d , t h e r e a r e o n l y 641 f a r m s i n M a d iso n C o u n ty .
 60

T able 3 P e r c e n t a g e o f P o p u l a t i o n o f M a d is o n C o u n ty
and t h e U n ite d S t a t e s by Age, 1970

Age M adiso n C o un ty U n ited S t a t e s

m

18 o r y o u n g e r 51 3 4 .2
(N=7033) (N=70 m i l )
19 - 64 4 2 .7 . 5 6 .0
(N=5562'> (N =114.9 m i l )
65 o r o l d e r 6 .3 9 .8
(N=857) (N=20 m i l )
 61

T ab le 4 O ccu p atio n al c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e la b o r fo rc e o f
16 y e a r s and o l d e r f o r M ad iso n C o u n ty , 1970.

O ccu p atio n Number Percent

W h ite C o l l a r

P r o f e s s i o n a l and k i n d r e d w o r k e r s 658 1 3 .8

M a n a g ers and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s 391 8 .2

S a le s w orkers 246 5 .1

C l e r i c a l and k i n d r e d w o r k e r s 617 1 2 .9

B lu e C o l l a r

C r a f t s m e n , fo re m en and k i n d r e d 349 7 .3
w orkers

O p e ra tiv e s in c lu d in g tr a n s p o r t 633 1 3 .3

N o n -fa rm Labor 298 6 .2

S e rv ic e

S e rv ic e w orkers 909 1 9 .1

A g ric u ltu re

F a rm e r s and farm m a n a g e rs 322 6 .7

Farm l a b o r e r s and forem en 335 7 .0

T o tal 4758 1 0 0 .0
 62

The n a t i o n a l t r e n d i n t h e r e d u c t i o n o f farm s and l a n d i n f a r m u s e

i s a l s o e v i d e n t i n M adison C o u n ty , a l t h o u g h t h e d e c r e a s e up t o t h e
p r e s e n t h a s n o t b e e n r a d i c a l . 16 N o n e t h e l e s s , g i v e n t h e i n c r e a s i n g
t r e n d to w a r d a u t o m a t i o n i n a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e number o f j o b s i n f a r m in g
is e x p e c te d to c o n tin u e to d e c r e a s e . T h i s seem s t o i m p ly a ne e d f o r a
more d i v e r s i f i e d economy.

T a b l e 5 p r o v i d e s a s t a t i s t i c a l summary o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n by f a m i l y
income f o r 1 9 7 0 .1 ^ The m e d ia n f a m i l y income f o r M a d iso n C o u n ty was
$ 8 , 0 6 3 . 0 0 . The income s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e c o u n t y c o m p a re s f a v o r a b l y w i t h
th e s t a t e as a w h o le. A lth o u g h t h e m e d ia n f a m i l y incom e f o r t h e S t a t e
o f I d a h o ( $ 8 , 3 8 1 . 0 0 ) i s s l i g h t l y h i g h e r t h a n f o r M a d iso n C o un ty t h e r e
a r e , i n M adison C o u n t y , a s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r number o f f a m i l i e s w i t h
inco m es o f more t h a n $ 1 5 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 . Compared t o t h e m e d ia n f a m i l y incom e
($ 1 0 ,2 0 0 .0 0 ) in t h e U n ited S t a t e s as a w h o le, how ever, th e d o l l a r v a l ­
ue i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r .

T a b l e 6 c o m p a re s t h e m e d ia n incom e o f w o r k e r s i n M adison C o u n ty
w i t h t h e n a t i o n b y s e x and s e l e c t e d o c c u p a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
T h is t a b l e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e e n t i r e income s c a l e i s lo w e r , a l ­
th o u g h f e m a le L a b o r, b l u e c o l l a r l a b o r , and fa rm l a b o r r e c e i v e s u r ­
p r i s i n g l y low i n c o m e s . In p a r t , t h i s r e f l e c t s th e ab sen ce o f u n io n s
in th e w o rk p la c e . T h i s a l s o e x p l a i n s why t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f women i n
t h e l a b o r f o r c e i s i n c r e a s i n g i n s p i t e o f t h e Mormon e m p h a s is on fam­
i l y and on t r a d i t i o n a l s e x r o l e b e h a v i o r . 18

A lth o u g h t h e wage s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o u n t y i s low , p r o p e r t y v a l u e s

and t h e c o s t o f L i v i n g a r e a l s o Low. F o r e x a m p le , t h e m e d ia n v a l u e o f
a h o u s e , and t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f f a m i l i e s l i v e i n s i n g l e - f a m i l y
hom es, was $ 1 7 , 3 0 0 . 0 0 f o r t h e same y e a r . More e x p e n s i v e homes w e r e
b e i n g b u i l t by t h e a f f l u e n t on t h e h i l l in t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s u r ­
r o u n d i n g t h e c o l l e g e and i n t h e s u b d i v i s i o n s w e s t a l o n g Highway 8 8 .

D u r in g t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e s e v e n t i e s , M a d iso n C o u n ty and t h e
s t a t e o f I d a h o g e n e r a l l y w e re e n j o y i n g a p e r i o d o f i n c r e a s i n g a f f l u ­
ence. The t o t a l p e r s o n a l income f o r t h e s t a t e o f I d a h o i n c r e a s e d by
33 p e r c e n t f o r 1 9 70 , 1 9 71 , and 1972 w h i l e t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e i n ­
c r e a s e d by o n l y 25 p e r c e n t . I n 1972, t h e s t a t e o f I d a h o was r a n k e d
n i n t h f o r t h e r a t e o f i n c r e a s e i n t o t a l p e r s o n a l in c o m e . By 1974 i t
was r a n k e d 4 t h . 19 D u r in g 1975 when t h e unem ploym ent r a t e f o r t h e n a ­
t i o n w as 8 . 5 p e r c e n t t h e unem ploym ent r a t e f o r M ad iso n C o u n ty was 5 . 9
p e rc e n t.

S o c ia l O rg an izatio n

As a r e l i g i o u s g r o u p . Mormons h a v e a u n i q u e h i s t o r y and i d e n t i t y ,
b u t i t i s b e s t t o remember t h a t Mormonism i s t h o r o u g h l y A m eric an i n
o r i g i n and d e v e lo p m e n t.^ ® I t s f o u n d e r , J o s e p h S m it h , r e c e i v e d h i s
f i r s t r e v e l a t i o n s and h e a v e n l y v i s i t a t i o n s i n w e s t e r n New Y o rk S t a t e .
 63

T ab le 5 F a m ily incom e f o r M a d iso n C o u n ty , 1970

F a m ily Income Number P ercent

0 - 3 ,9 9 9 422 1 7 .6 9

4 ,0 0 0 - 5 ,9 9 9 413 1 6 .5 2

6 ,0 0 0 - 7 ,9 9 9 381 1 5 .2 5

8 ,0 0 0 - 9 ,9 9 9 392 1 5 .6 8

1 0 ,0 0 0 - 1 1 ,9 9 9 213 8 .5 3

1 2 , 0 0 0 - 1 4 ,9 9 9 264 1 0 .5 6

1 5 ,0 0 0 - 2 4 ,9 9 9 268 1 0 .7 2

2 5 ,0 0 0 - 4 9 ,9 9 9 100 4 .0 0

5 0 .0 0 0 o r more 26 1.04
 64

T a b le 6 Median incom e o f M adison C o u n ty and U n i t e d S t a t e s

c i v i l i a n Labor f o r c e o f 16 y e a r s and o v e r by s e l e c t e d
o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y and s e x , 1970.

O ccu p atio n al c a te g o ry M edian Income ( d o l l a r s )

and s e x M adiso n C ou nty U n ited S t a t e s

Male

P r o f e s s i o n a l , m a n a g e r i a l and 8 ,8 2 4 1 0 ,7 3 5
k in d red w orkers

C r a f t s m e n , fo re m e n and 6 ,8 9 1 8 ,1 7 2
k in d re d w orkers

O p erativ es, in clu d in g tra n s p o rt 3 ,5 6 7 6 ,7 0 0

L aborers, e x c e p t farm 1 ,801 4 ,6 1 7

F a r m e r s and f a r m m a n a g e rs 5 ,8 3 3 4 ,8 2 2

Farm l a b o r e r s 1 ,6 9 1 2 ,5 7 0

Female

C l e r i c a l and k i n d r e d 1 ,2 7 8 4 ,2 3 2
w orkers

O p e ra tiv e s in c lu d in g 1 ,6 2 2 3 ,635
tran sp o rt
 65

P e r h a p s t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t a r e t h e v i s i t a t i o n s fro m t h e Angel M oroni

who l e d J o s e p h S m ith t o t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e l i n k b e tw e e n t h e Old and
t h e New W o rld s t h r o u g h t h e d i s c o v e r y o f a n c i e n t p l a t e s b u r i e d i n t h e
h i l l now c a l l e d Cumorah. T h e s e a n c i e n t p l a t e s , t r a n s l a t e d by J o s e p h
S m ith i n t o The Rook o f Mormon, a r e b e l i e v e d by Mormons t o be t h e word
o f God. The Cook o f Mormon o f f e r s a s c r i p t u r a l a c c o u n t o f , f i r s t , t h e
e m i g r a t i o n o f L e h i and h i s f a m i l y from J e r u s a l e m a r o u n d 600 B. C. to
t h e W e s te r n H e m i s p h e r e , a n d , s e c o n d , t h e h i s t o r y o f L e h i and h i s d e ­
s c e n d a n t s i n A m erica up t o t h e i r u l t i m a t e d e s t r u c t i o n n e a r Cumorah i n
600 A. D

R e l i e f i n t h e The Book o f Mormon as a c o m p a n io n t o The H o ly B i b l e

d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e S a i n t s a s a u n iq u e s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s g r o u p . 21 An
o f f i c i a l s t a t e m e n t o f t h e c e n t r a l t e n e t s o f Mormon d o c t r i n e , c a l l e d
t h e A r t i c l e s o f F a i t h , a p p e a r s i n f i g u r e 7. F u n d a m e n ta l to t h e Mormon
th e o lo g y i s a b e l i e f i n r e v e l a t i o n and l i v i n g p r o p h e t s . U nder t h e
le a d e rsh ip of Joseph S m it h , t h e f i r s t l i v i n g p r o p h e t o f t h e C h u r c h o f
J e s u s C h r i s t o f L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s , 22 t h e o r i g i n a l g r o u p o f m o d e r n - d a y
S a i n t s ( b e l i e v i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o be t h e c h i l d r e n o f I s r a e l ) a c c e p t e d
t h e t a s k o f r e s t o r i n g t h e " o r i g i n a l " C hu rch on e a r t h and s e t o u t t o
b u i l d t h e c i t y o f 7 i o n in p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e com ing Armageddon and
th e second r e ig n o f C h r i s t in th e s e l a t t e r d a y s.

B e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e f o r m a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e C hu rch on A p r i l 6 ,
1830, t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e S a i n t s i s r e c o r d e d a s a h i s t o r y o f p e r s e c u ­
t i o n and h a r d s h i p . I t i s t h e h i s t o r y o f e s c a p e from r e l i g i o u s p e r s e ­
c u t i o n t h r o u g h t h e g r e a t m i g r a t i o n w e s tw a r d t o O h io , M i s s o u r i and I l l ­
i n o i s and f i n a l l y , t h e G r e a t S a l t Lake B a s in i n 1847. I t is th e h i s ­
t o r y o f t h e s t r u g g l e to s u r v i v e and c r e a t e a s u b s i s t e n c e from t h e d e s ­
e r t s o i l i n U ta h . I t is a ls o th e h i s t o r y o f p io n e e r s e ttle m e n ts in
th e v i r g i n t e r r i t o r i e s o f s o u t h e a s t Id ah o as th e c h u rc h u n d e rto o k e x ­
t e n s i v e c o l o n i z a t i o n p ro g r a m s a t t h e end o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

I n s p i t e o f p e r s e c u t i o n and a d v e r s i t y , o r p e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f i t ,
Mormonism h a s f l o u r i s h e d and t h e Mormon C hurch h a s grown t o i n c l u d e
more t h a n f o u r m i l l i o n members in many n a t i o n s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . More
t h a n t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e m e m b e r s h ip , h o w e v e r , r e s i d e s w e s t o f t h e M i s s ­
i s s i p p i R i v e r i n N o r th A m e r i c a . 23

E c c le s ia s tic a l S tru c tu re

To u n d e r s t a n d w h a t Mormonism means f o r t h e d a i l y l i f e o f i t s mem­

b e r s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to u n d e r s t a n d f i r s t t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l s t r u c t u r e
o f ch u rch gov ern m en t. (S e e f i g u r e 8 f o r a d i a g r a m m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of th is stru c tu re ) Mormons m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
o f t h e C h u rc h o f J e s u s C h r i s t o f L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s i s t h e same as t h a t
w h ic h was eSL a fa iishc ri by C h r i s t i n b i b l i c a l t i m e s . That is , i t s o r ­
g a n iz a tio n c o n s is ts o f p ro p h ets, a p o s tle s , m in is te rs , e v a n g e lis ts ,
p r i e s t s , t e a c h e r s , b i s h o p s , and so o n . 2 6

1. We believe in God. the E ter­
nal Father, and in His Son. Jesus
Christ, and in the Holy Ghost.
2. We believe th at men will be
punidied for their own sins, and
not for Adam’s transgression.
3. We believe th a t through the
Atonement of Christ, all man­
kind may be saved, by obedience
to th e laws and ordinances of the
Gospel.
4. W e believe th a t the first
principles and ordinances of the
Gospel are: first. F aith in the
Lord Jesus C hrist; second. Re­
pentance; third. Baptism by im­
mersion for the remission of sins;
fourth. Laying on of hands for
the gift of the Holy Ghost.
5. We believe th a t a man must
be called of God. by prophecy,
an d by th e laying on of hands,
b y those who are in authority to
preach the Gospel and administer
in the ordinances thereof.
6. We believe in th e same or­
ganization th at existed in the
Prim itive Church, viz.. apostles,
prophets, pastors, teachers, evan­
gelists, etc.
7. We believe in th e gift of
tongues, prophecy, revelation,
visions, healing, interpretation
o f tongues, etc.
8. We believe the Bible to be
th e word of God as far as it is
translated correctly; wc also be­
lieve the Book of M ormon to be
th e word of God.
F i g u r e 7: The A r t i c l e s o f F a i t h o f The C h u rc h
o f Jesu s C h ris t o f L a tte r-d a y S a in ts
66
9. We believe all th a t God has
revealed, all th a t He does now
reveal, and we believe th a t H e
will yet reveal many great and
im portant things pertaining to
th e Kingdom of God.
10. We believe in the literal
gathering of Israel and in the res­
toration of the Ten Tribes; th a t
Zion will Ire built upon this (the
American! continent; th a t Christ
will reign personally upon the
earth ; and. th a t the earth will
be renewed and receive its para­
disiacal glory.
11. Wc claim the privilege of
worshiping Almighty God ac­
cording to the dictates of our own
conscience, and allow all men the
same privilege, let them worship
how. where, or w hat they may.
12. Wc believe in being sub­
ject to kings, presidents, rulers,
and magistrates, in obeying,
honoring, and sustaining the law.
13. We twiieve in being honest,
true, chaste, benevolent, virtu­
ous. and in doing good to all
men; indeed, we may say th a t we
follow the admonition of Paul—
Wc believe all things, we hope
all things, we have endured many
things, and hope to be able to
endure all things. If there is
anything virtuous, lovely, or of
good report o r praiseworthy, wc
seek after these things.
 67

F irst
P resid en cy

Quorum P atriarch
o f Tw elve to th e
A p o stles C h urch

Quorum o f
Se ve n
P r e s i d e n t s of
S ev en ty

M issio n
P re sid e n ts P re sid in g
G eneral
B ish o p ric
S u p erin ten d en cy
of P re sid e n ts of
A u x ilia rie s
S tak e
P re sid e n c y H ig h P r i e s t s
M issio n aries
S tak e S ev en ties
H ig h C o u n c i l
E ld e rs
S t a k e Heads
of
A u x ilia rie s
Ward
B ish o p ric P rie sts
Ward Heads
T each ers
of A u x ilia rie s
Ward
Members D eacons

F i g u r e 8: E c c l e s i a s t i c a l S t r u c t u r e o f th e
C h u rc h o f J e s u s C h r i s t o f t h e
L a tte r-d a y S a in ts
 68

G e n e r a l A u t h o r i t i e s . At t h e h e a d o f t h e Mormon C h u rc h I s t h e F i r s t
P r e s i d e n t , a l s o known by J o s e p h S m i t h ' s o r i g i n a l t i t l e , " p r o p h e t , s e e r
and r e v e l a t o r " . The p r e s i d e n t i s s e l e c t e d , a c c o r d i n g t o s e n i o r i t y ,
fro m t h e Quorum o f T w elve A p o s t l e s and h i s t e n u r e i s f o r l i f e . The
a u t h o r i t y o f t h i s p o s i t i o n i s b e l i e v e d to b e i n h e r i t e d fro m t h e P r o ­
p h e t h i m s e l f and a s t h e t i t l e " p r o p h e t , s e e r , and r e v e l a t o r " s i g n i f i e s ,
t h e F i r s t P r e s i d e n t i s t h e o n l y member o f t h e c h u r c h empowered to
v o ic e r e v e la tio n s . The F i r s t P r e s i d e n t and h i s two c o u n s e l o r s make up
th e o f f i c e o f the F i r s t P re s id e n c y .

A quorum o f t w e l v e a p o s t l e s , a l s o t e n u r e d f o r l i f e , s e r v e s as an
e x e c u t i v e c o m m i tte e to t h e F i r s t P r e s i d e n c y . T h i s quorum o f t w e l v e
a d v i s e s t h e F i r s t P r e s i d e n c y on i s s u e s o f d o c t r i n a l i m p o r t and i n a
m ore p r a c t i c a l s e n s e , t h e quorum a l s o o v e r s e e s a l l e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a f ­
f a i r s w i t h i n t h e c h u r c h i n c l u d i n g p r i e s t h o o d and a u x i l i a r y o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n s , c h u r c h e d u c a t i o n and c u r r i c u l u m , t e m p l e s , g e n e a l o g y , and m i s ­
s i o n a r y w o rk . T o g e t h e r , t h e s e f i f t e e n men a t t h e to p a r e t h e f i n a l
a u t h o r i t y on a l l c h u r c h - r e l a t e d m a t t e r s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e F i r s t P r e s i d e n c y and t h e Quorum o f Twelve A-

p o s t l e s , t h r e e o t h e r o f f i c e s - - t h e Quorum o f S e v e n t y , P a t r i a r c h o f
t h e c h u r c h , and P r e s i d i n g B i s h o p r i c - - make up t h e G e n e r a l A u t h o r i ­
tie s. The Quorum o f S e v e n t y c o n s i s t s o f s e v e n members who o v e r s e e th e
m i s s i o n a r y w ork o f t h e c h u r c h and s u p e r v i s e r e g i o n a l and l o c a l Quorums
o f S e v e n ty . The c h u r c h p a t r i a r c h i s an o f f i c i a l o f t h e c h u r c h r e ­
s p o n s i b l e f o r g i v i n g s p e c i a l b l e s s i n g s t o i n d i v i d u a l c h u r c h m em bers.
The p r e s i d i n g b i s h o p and h i s two c o u n s e l o r s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r manag­
i n g t h e t e m p o r a l a f f a i r s o f t h e c h u r c h i n c l u d i n g b u s i n e s s and f i n a n ­
c ia l tra n sa c tio n s.

G eneral A u t h o r i t i e s , l i k e a l l p o s i t i o n s in th e c h u rc h , a r e s u b je c t
t o a p p r o v a l by t h e m e m b e rsh ip a t l a r g e . The v o t e , c a l l e d a v o t e o f
common c o n s e n t , m e r e l y r e p r e s e n t s a n o m in a l v o t e f o r t h e r e i s no p r e ­
t e n s e t h a t t h e Mormon C h u rc h i s a d e m o c r a c y . 25 On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e
c h u r c h i s d e c i d e d l y t h e o c r a t i c w i t h a l l a u t h o r i t y e m a n a t i n g from t h e
to p .

The G e n e r a l A u t h o r i t i e s a r e s u p p o r t e d by a c e n t r a l i z e d b u r e a u c r a ­
t i c n e tw o r k o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , a d v i s o r s and s p e c i a l i s t s l o c a t e d i n
S a l t Lake C i t y , U ta h . In a l l , c e n t r a l a d m in is tr a tio n c o n s i s t s o f a-
b o u t t w e n t y - s i x d e p a r t m e n t s w i t h a t o t a l s t a f f o f more t h a n 3000 p e r ­
sons.

Mormon P r i e s t h o o d . I m p o r t a n t a s t h e c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e
c h u r c h i s f o r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a l l e c c l e s i a s t i c a l and t e m p o r a l a f ­
f a i r s , t h e w ard u n i t i s , e x c e p t f o r t h e f a m i l y , t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t
s o c i a l u n i t In Mormondom. M o re o v e r , i t i s t h e p r i e s t h o o d h i e r a r c h y
w h ic h o r d e r s w a rd l i f e and L inks t h e r e l a t i v e l y a uton om ou s w ard u n i t s
w ith th e c e n t r a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e ch u rc h . K ephart has c o r r e c t l y ob­
s e r v e d t h a t t h e p r i e s t h o o d h i e r a r c h y " p r o v i d e s t h e b o n e s and s in e w o f
p r e s e n t - d a y M orm onism ".27
 69

A ll " w o r t h y " m a le members a r e o r d a i n e d i n t o t h e l a y p r i e s t h o o d o f

w h ic h t h e r e a r e two o r d e r s , The A a r o n i c and M e l c h i z e d e k . The A a r o n i c ,
o r l e s s e r p r i e s t h o o d , i s b e l i e v e d by t h e S a i n t s t o h a v e o r i g i n a t e d
when J o s e p h Smith and O l i v e r Cowdery r e c e i v e d h e a v e n l y k e y s fro m J o h n
t h e B a p t i s t i n 1829. The h i g h e r o r M e l c h i z e d e k p r i e s t h o o d came a b o u t
l a t e r when b o t h men r e c e i v e d " t h e ke y s o f a l l s p i r i t u a l b l e s s i n g s o f
t h e c h u r c h " Erom t h e A p o s t l e s P e t e r , J a m e s , and J o h n . A l l Mormon
p r i e s t s t r a c e t h e i r o r d i n a t i o n and a u t h o r i t y b a c k to t h e s e o r i g i n a l
h o l y a c t s . 28 O f f i c e s in th e A a r o n ic p r i e s t h o o d a r e d e a c o n , t e a c h e r ,
and p r i e s t ; t h o s e i n t h e M e lc h i z e d e k o r d e r a r e e l d e r , s e v e n t i e s and
h ig h p r i e s t .

About f o u r y e a r s a f t e r b a p t i s m , e v e r y " w o r t h y " m a l e s t a r t s h i s

p r i e s t l y c a r e e r a t t h e a g e o f t w e l v e when h e i s c a l l e d i n t o t h e A a ro ­
n i c o r d e r and o r d a i n e d a t t h e r a n k o f d e a c o n . D eacons' d u t i e s i n c l u d e
a s s i s t i n g a t c h u r c h m e e t i n g s , c o l l e c t i n g f a s t o f f e r i n g s , and g e n e r a l l y
a s s i s t i n g th e h ig h e r ra n k s. About th e age o f f o u r t e e n , i f a l l g o e s
w e l l , t h e d e a c o n i s p ro m o te d to t h e r a n k o f t e a c h e r an d a t a b o u t e i g h ­
t e e n to p r i e s t whose d u t y i t i s " t o p r e a c h , t e a c h , e x p o u n d , e x h o r t ,
and b a p t i z e , and a d m i n i s t e r t h e s a c r a m e n t " .29

I f t h e d u t i e s o f t h e A a r o n ic o r d e r a r e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y p e r f o r m e d ,
a man i s c a l l e d i n t o th e h i g h e r o r d e r o f t h e M e l c h i z e d e k p r i e s t h o o d
a t a b o u t tw e n ty y e a r s o f a g e . The m o st commonly h e l d r a n k i s t h e low­
e s t rank o f t h i s o r d e r , th e ran k o f e l d e r . The e l d e r i s i n v e s t e d w i t h
t h e a u t h o r i t y t o b e s to w c e r t a i n b l e s s i n g s , to t a k e c h a r g e o f m e e t i n g s
and to o f f i c i a t e d u r i n g r i t e s i n t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e h i g h p r i e s t . Sev­
e n t i e s a r e c h a r g e d w i t h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f m i s s i o n a r y w o rk . Once a
man h a s o b t a i n e d t h e r a n k o f h i g h p r i e s t , t h e r e a r e no h i g h e r p r i e s t l y
r a n k s o n e c a n a s p i r e t o , a l t h o u g l i t h e r e a r e in n u m e r a b l e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
and e x e c u t i v e p o s i t i o n s a v a i l a b l e p r o v i d i n g h e h a s t h e r i g h t q u a l i f i ­
catio n s .

Wards and S t a k e s . Wards a r e g e o g r a p h i c a l u n i t s h a v i n g a n a v e r a g e o f

s i x h u n d r e d I n d i v i d u a l s and two h u n d r e d f a m i l i e s . As i n d i c a t e d e a r ­
l i e r , th e w ard, s i m i l a r to a C a th o lic p a r i s h o r p r o t e s t a n t c o n g re ­
g a t i o n , i s t h e l o c a l u n i t o f c h u r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n t h r o u g h w hich Mor­
monism a f f e c t s th e d a i l y l i f e o f i n d i v i d u a l m embers. T h u s , w a rd s
f u n c t i o n a s a m in i-c o m m o n w e a lth whose r a i s o n d ' e t r e i s t o s e r v e t h e
s p i r i t u a l and te m p o r a l n e e d s o f e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l who r e s i d e s w i t h i n
i t s b o u n d aries.

The w ard i s p r e s i d e d o v e r b y a b i s h o p r i c c o n s i s t i n g o f t h r e e mem­

b e r s i n c l u d i n g a b i s h o p and two c o u n s e l o r s . I t i s t h e b ish o p (as
f a t h e r o f t h e ward f a m i l y ) who b a p t i z e s a n d c o n f i r m s , o r d a i n s and r e ­
l e a s e s , p e r f o r m s m a r r i a g e s and f u n e r a l r i t e s , c o u n s e l s members i n
s p i r i t u a l and t e m p o r a l a f f a i r s , r e c e i v e s c o n t r i b u t i o n s , o f f i c i a t e s a t
m e e t i n g s , i s s u e s a recommend t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n te m p le r i t u a l s , o v e r ­
s e e s t h e management o f w ard f i n a n c e s , and so on. A s s is tin g th e b is h ­
op i n t h e g o v e rn m e n t o f w ard l i f e i s a c o r p s o f p r i e s t h o o d quorum s and
la d ie s' a u x ilia rie s o r g a n i z e d i n t o more t h a n two h u n d r e d v o l u n t a r y
 70

p o sitio n s. The b i s h o p r i c , l i k e a l l l o c a l p o s i t i o n s , s e r v e f o r r o u g h l y
fo u r o r f i v e y e a rs b e f o r e th ey a re r e le a s e d w ith a n o te o f th a n k s.

Home t e a c h e r s and v i s i t i n g t e a c h e r s form t h e i m p o r t a n t and c o n ­

t i n u o u s l i n k a g e s b e tw e e n t h e b i s h o p and h i s c o n g r e g a t i o n . Once a
m o n th , e v e r y Mormon h o u s e h o l d i s v i s i t e d by a p a i r o f home t e a c h e r s
from t h e p r i e s t h o o d quorum and a p a i r o f home v i s i t o r s from t h e wo­
m e n 's a u x i l i a r y c a l l e d R e l i e f S o c i e t y . 30 is th e i r c o n jo in t r e ­
s p o n s i b i l i t y to o f f e r r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e home and t o r e p o r t
b a c k t o t h e b i s h o p c o n c e r n i n g any p r o b l e m s , w h e t h e r t h e y be f i n a n c i a l ,
m e d ic a l, p a r e n t a l , s o c i a l , e m o tio n al o r s p i r i t u a l in n a tu r e .

A lth o u g h e a c h w ard c o n t a i n s b o t h p r i e s t h o o d o r d e r s - - and e v e r y

ra n k th e re o f3 1 - - th e b is h o p 's r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a r e lim ite d to th e s u ­
p e r v i s i o n o f t h e A a r o n ic p r i e s t h o o d . S tak e p r e s i d e n t s s u p e r v is e th e
M elch ized ek p r i e s t h o o d .

A s t a k e , s i m i l a r t o a C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e , i s made up o f b e tw e e n f i v e
and t e n w a r d s . At t h e h e a d o f t h e s t a k e i s a p r e s i d e n t who i s a s s i s t ­
ed by two c o u n s e l o r s and a c o u n c i l o f t w e l v e . The s t a k e p r e s i d e n t
n o m in a te s t h e v a r i o u s ward b i s h o p s , h o l d s c o n f e r e n c e s , and i s ge n ­
e r a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e sm ooth f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e w a r d s w i t h i n h i s
ju risd ic tio n . L ik e a l l p o s i t i o n s a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l , s t a k e p o s i t i o n s
a r e v o l u n t a r y a l t h o u g h t h e y may r e q u i r e up t o f o r t y h o u r s o f work p e r
w eek. I n e s s e n c e , s t a k e s a r e a r e g i o n a l o r m i d d l e form o f o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n w h ic h d ra w s l i n e s o f r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e g e n e r a l a u t h o r i t i e s
and ward u n i t s .

S i x e s o f S t a k e s . M adison C o u n ty i s r o u g h l y c o t e r m i n o u s w i t h t h e r e ­
g i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f t h e Mormon C h urch r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e S i x e s o f
S ta k e s. R ic k s C o l l e g e c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e s t a k e s and t h i r t y w a r d s .
P r i o r t o t h e d i s a s t e r , t h e r e s i d e n t p o p u l a t i o n was o r g a n i z e d i n t o
t h r e e s t a k e s - - R exburg N o r th S t a k e , R exburg S t a k e and R exb urg E a s t
S t a k e - - and tw e n t y - o n e w a r d s . R exburg N o r th S t a k e c o n s i s t s o f n i n e
w ards. T h r e e a r c l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e c i t y o f R e x b u rg ; two a r e i n S u g a r
C i t y ; t h r e e a r c l o c a t e d i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s o f P l a n o , S alem and H ib­
b a r d i n t h e n o r t h p a r t o f t h e c o u n t y ; and t h e r e m a i n i n g a r e l o c a t e d
i n th e s o u t h end o f F re m on t C o u n ty in T e to n and N e w d a le . Rexburg
S tak e c o n s i s t s o f seven w a rd s. S ix a r e lo c a te d in th e w est of th e
c i t y o f R ex burg and t h e s u b u r b a n f r i n g e and one w ard i s l o c a t e d i n t h e
r u r a l a r e a o f B u rto n i n t h e s o u t h w e s t o f t h e c o u n t y . Rexburg E a s t
S tak e h as a t o t a l o f fiv e w ard s; t h r e e a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e e a s t end o f
t h e c i t y and two a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s o f Lyman and A r c h e r
i n t h e s o u t h e a s t s e c t i o n o f M adison C o u n ty .

A c t i v e I n v o lv e m e n t

The r e l e n t l e s s demands o f Mormonism d o e s n o t e n c o u r a g e n o m in a l

m e m b e rsh ip among i t s r a n k and f i l e . 3 3 i f t h e w ard c e n t e r s a p p e a r as
 71

p r o v e r b ia l b eeh iv es o f a c t i v i t y , i t is b ecau se, in f a c t , th e y a r e .

I n d e e d , t h e m a in o b j e c t i v e o f Mormonism i s t o i n v o l v e a s many members
a s p o s s i b l e i n d o i n g G o d 's w o r k , a s i n t e r p r e t e d b y t h e G e n e r a l A u t h o r ­
itie s. And t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h i s " a c t i v i s t p r a g m a t i s m " , t o u s e Wha­
l e n ' s p h r a s e , 34 i n c l u d e s t i m e , m oney, l a b o r and c o m m itm en t.

I t i s n o t uncommon f o r a n i n d i v i d u a l t o h a v e t e n h o u r s o c c u p i e d i n
c h u rc h -s p o n s o re d m e e tin g s o r a c t i v i t i e s each week. F o r t h o s e who h a v e
b e e n " c a l l e d " t o s p e c i a l a s s i g n m e n t s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e v o t e up t o
t h i r t y o r f o r t y h o u r s p e r w eek i n c h u r c h w ork i n a d d i t i o n t o m e e t i n g
t h e dem ands o f a f u l l - t i m e c a r e e r . Sundays c o n s i s t o f a g e n e r a l
p r i e s t h o o d m e e t i n g , quorum m e e t i n g s , a c o n g r e g a t i o n a l m e e t i n g , Sunday
s c h o o l , v i s i t a t i o n s and a n o t h e r L a te a f t e r n o o n o r e v e n i n g w ard m e e t ­
i n g . Monday e v e n i n g i s s p e n t a t home e n g a g i n g i n c h u r c h - p l a n n e d a c ­
t i v i t i e s a s p a r t o f a r e g u l a r l y s c h e d u l e d f a m i l y home e v e n i n g . 35 At
l e a s t two o r t h r e e h o u r s i n t h e week w i l l be s c h e d u l e d f o r an a u x i l ­
i a r y o r quorum m e e t i n g . Then t h e r e a r e a w h o le r a n g e o f c h u r c h - s p o n ­
s o r e d a c t i v i t i e s i n w h ic h members a r e e x p e c t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e : spe­
c i a l w ard p r o j e c t s , s t a k e c o n f e r e n c e s , c u l t u r a l e n r i c h m e n t p r o g r a m s ,
r e c r e a t i o n a l and s o c i a l e v e n i n g s , s p o r t i n g e v e n t s . Mormon h o l i d a y c e ­
l e b r a t i o n s , g e n e a l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h , and o r d i n a n c e w o rk i n t h e t e m p l e ,
t o name o n l y a few.

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t i t h i n g , e v e r y Mormon ( c h i l d r e n a r e
a l s o e n c o u r a g e d t o com p ly ) i s e x p e c t e d t o p a y t e n p e r c e n t o f h i s o r
h e r g r o s s incom e t o t h e g e n e r a l f u n d . A n o th e r o f f e r i n g o f r o u g h l y on e
t o two p e r c e n t i s g i v e n t o t h e w ard fund f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e and
o p e r a t i o n o f ward f a c i l i t i e s . On t h e f i r s t Sunday o f e v e r y m o n th ,
f a s t S u n d a y , e a c h f a m i l y a l s o d o n a t e s t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e two f a s t
m e a ls i n c a s h . T h e r e a r e , in a d d i t i o n , p r i v a t e d o n a t i o n s and s p e c i a l
c o n t r i b u t i o n s f o r w ard p r o j e c t s w h ic h m i g h t i n c l u d e a new w a rd b u i l d ­
i n g , s t a k e c e n t e r , t a b e r n a c l e , o r g a n , o r any o t h e r n e e d e d p r o p e r t y o r
co m m o d ity .

I n v o l v e m e n t d o e s n o t end w i t h t h e e x p e n d i t u r e o f ti m e and money.

Mormons a r e a l s o e x p e c t e d t o p r o v i d e g e n e r o u s a m o u n ts o f l a b o r f o r " a
c o i n r e a c h e d o u t o f t h e p o c k e t i s s o o n f o r g o t t e n , b u t s w e a t and b l i s ­
t e r s and t h e f e l l o w s h i p o f c o m m u n ity t o i l a r e lo n g r e m e m b e r e d " .36
R o u t i n e m a in te n a n c e o f ward a n d s t a k e p r o p e r t i e s and s p e c i a l b e a u ­
t i f i c a t i o n p r o j e c t s r e q u i r e t h a t members c o n t r i b u t e l a b o r o n a r e g u l a r
b a sis. E v e ry s t a k e a l s o s u p p o r t s a w e l f a r e p r o j e c t — a f a r m , r a n c h
o r c a n n e r y , f o r e x a m p le — on v o l u n t a r y l a b o r .

F i n a l l y , Mormonism r e q u i r e s an a c t i v e and v i s i b l e com m itm ent t o

t h e o r d i n a n c e s and r u l e s o f c h u r c h d o c t r i n e . To p a r t i c i p a t e i n t e m p l e
r i t u a l s , t o r e c e i v e t h e b l e s s i n g s o f t h e c h u r c h , t o be c a l l e d t o s e r v e
i n s p e c i a l a s s i g n m e n t s , and t o b e o r d a i n e d w i t h i n t h e p r i e s t h o o d . Mor­
mons a r e e x p e c t e d t o b e " w o r t h y " , a word w h ic h m eans e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t
o n e p a y s t i t h e s and o f f e r i n g s , a t t e n d s m e e t i n g s , e n d e a v o r s t o be h o n ­
e s t , f o l l o w s t h e Ten Commandments, o b s e r v e s t h e Word o f W i s d o m , 37 and
p r a c t i c e s f i d e l i t y w i t h i n t h e b o n d s o f m a r r i a g e . Mormons a r e
 72

e n c o u r a g e d t o p r o s e l y t i z e and t o s h a r e t h e i r t e s t i m o n y o f f a i t h w i t h
o th e rs. ®

I m p o r t a n c e o f F a m il y

Mormons c o n s i d e r t h e f a m i l y - m a r r i a g e a n d p a r e n t h o o d — a d u t y , a
b l e s s i n g and t h e p a th w ay t o s a l v a t i o n and g o d l i n e s s . By s u c c e s s f u l l y
f u l f i l l i n g th e covenant o f m a rria g e , in c lu d in g f i d e l i t y to each o th e r
and o b e d i e n c e to God, i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f t h e c e ­
l e s t i a l kingdom may b e a c h i e v e d .

The d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e Mormon f a m i l y i s t h e c o n c e p t o f
" e t e r n a l m a r r i a g e " . M a r r i a g e s perform ed i n th e s a c re d tem p les a r e ,
by s p e c i a l o r d i n a n c e , u n i o n s f o r tim e and a l l e t e r n i t y . A lth o u g h t h i s
i s t h e i d e a l , n o t a l l m a r r i a g e s a r e p e r f o r m e d i n t h e te m p le a n d , i n
f a c t , t h o s e o f f i c i a t e d by t h e b i s h o p i n t h e l o c a l w a rd s a r e , s i m i l a r
t o t h o s e p e r f o r m e d b y a j u s t i c e o f t h e p e a c e , f o r ti m e o n l y . However,
e v e n i n t h e s e i n s t a n c e s , p a r t n e r s may a t some l a t e r d a t e , p r o v i d i n g
t h e c o u p l e i s w o r t h y , be " s e a l e d " f o r e t e r n i t y i n s p e c i a l t e m p le
rite s.

The p r a c t i c e o f s e a l i n g e x t e n d s beyond t h e s i m p l e n u c l e a r f a m i l y
and, in d e e d , beyond th e l i v i n g . A broad n etw o rk o f u n b re a k a b le k in
r e l a t i o n s h i p s may r e a c h b a c k t o i n c l u d e s e v e r a l p a s t g e n e r a t i o n s by
means o f v i c a r i o u s w ork f o r t h e d e a d . The s e a r c h f o r o n e ' s a n c e s t r y
and t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f s p e c i a l o r d i n a n c e s t o e n s u r e t h e i r s a l v a t i o n
s i g n i f i e s t h e r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e and c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e
fam ily .

These b e l i e f s a l s o have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r d a i l y l i v i n g . Mormons

h a v e s t r o n g p r o s c r i p t i o n s a g a i n s t any b e h a v i o r s w h ic h t h e y b e l i e v e
s e r v e t o u n d e r m i n e t h e f a m i l y , s u c h as m a s t u r b a t i o n , p r e m a r i t a l and
e x t r a m a r i t a l s e x , i n d e c e n t l a n g u a g e , b i r t h c o n t r o l , a b o r t i o n , and d i ­
vorce. C o n v e r s e l y , t h e y e n c o u r a g e m odest d r e s s , e a r l y m a r r i a g e , and
larg e fa m ilie s. C h i l d r e n a r e t a u g h t a t an e a r l y a g e t o a s p i r e t o a
tem p le m a rria g e and to ta k e c o u r t s h i p s e r i o u s l y , f o r th e s e l e c t i o n o f
a m a r r i a g e p a r t n e r d e t e r m i n e s o n e ' s t e m p o r a l h a p p i n e s s a s w e l l as

On Monday e v e n i n g , f a m i l i e s a r e e x p e c t e d t o s t a y home f o r w h a t i s
t e r m e d f a m i l y home e v e n i n g . T h i s p e r i o d o f i n s t r u c t i o n , p r a y e r and
r e c r e a t i o n s i n g l e s o u t t h e f a m ily as a s c h o o l o f e x p e r i e n c e , a p la c e
o f w o r s h i p , and a p r e p a r a t o r y a r e n a f o r e t e r n a l l i f e . F a m ilie s a re
e n c o u r a g e d t o p r o v i d e a home t h a t i s f r e e from t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a l ­
c o h o l , t o b a c c o , c o f f e e and t e a ; 4 0 and an e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t i s c o n d u c i v e
t o o b e d i e n c e , w o r k , t h r i f t , s e l f - r e l i a n c e , l e a r n i n g , a c h i e v e m e n t , and
success. The i d e a l f a m i l y a l s o c a r r i e s on g e n e a l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h ,
k e e p s a Book o f Rem em brance, and makes r e g u l a r te m p le v i s i t s .
 73

C h u rc h W e l f a r e P ro g ra m

The U n i t e d O r d e r e n v i s i o n e d b y t h e f o u n d e r s o f Z io n was a t o t a l
kingdom — a p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m ic , s o c i a l and s p i r i t u a l t o t a l i t y —
g o v e r n e d by t h e G e n e r a l A u t h o r i t i e s . P r i o r to a c h ie v in g s ta te h o o d , in
U tah t h i s v i s i o n seems t o h a v e b e e n r e a l i z e d i n p r a c t i c e , f o r Mormon­
dom. w as f u n d a m e n t a l l y a communal s o c i e t y . A r r i n g t o n and B i t t o n ^ l p r o ­
v i d e a f a s c i n a t i n g h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h e s o c i a l f o r c e s w h ic h p r o ­
d u c e d a r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t h e p o l i t i c a l economy o f t h i s s o ­
cie ty , B e f o r e t h e f i r s t d e c a d e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y came t o a
c l o s e , p ra g m a tic c o n s id e r a tio n s had fo rced th e church le a d e r s h ip to a -
b a n d o n t h e i r c o l l e c t i v i s t e c o n o m ic p h i l o s o p h y and e m b ra c e t h e i n d i v i ­
d u a lism o f th e l a r g e r s o c i e t y . T hey c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e g e n e r a l w e l ­
f a r e was b e s t p ro m o te d t h r o u g h p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e and c o m p e t i t i o n .
The Law o f C o n s e c r a t i o n , t h e s c r i p t u a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e c o l l e c t i v i s t
o r d e r , was r e p l a c e d w i t h t h e r e d i s c o v e r y o f t i t h i n g a s a p r i n c i p l e o f
t h e new c a p i t a l i s t o r d e r . T i t h i n g was t h e n , and c o n t i n u e s t o b e , a d ­
v o c a t e d a s t h e s y s t e m o f t a x a t i o n and t h e s t a n d a r d o f i n d i v i d u a l
rig h te o u sn e ss.

W id e s p r e a d u nem ploym ent and t h e i n c r e a s i n g demands f o r r e l i e f fro m

th e c o n d it i o n s o f p o v e rty u sh ered i n w ith th e G re a t D e p re ssio n c h a l ­
l e n g e d t h e v i a b i l i t y o f t h e newly a d o p t e d p h i l o s o p h y . I f th e church
was u n a b l e t o r e s p o n d t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s p r o d u c e d by t h e d e p r e s s i o n i t
w o uld s u r e l y n o t w e a t h e r t h e im p e n d in g d i s a s t e r s f o r e t o l d i n t h e Book
of R e v e la tio n s. The C h u rc h W e l f a r e P r o g r a m , o r i g i n a l l y c a l l e d t h e
C h u rc h S e c u r i t y P l a n , was i n s t i t u t e d i n 1936 a s b o t h an o n g o in g s y s t e m
o f r e l i e f and a g e n e r a l c o n t i n g e n c y f o r d i s a s t e r p r e p a r e d n e s s

I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e w e l f a r e p r o g r a m c o m b in es e l e m e n t s o f b o t h p h i l ­
o s o p h ie s i n t o a un iq u e a rra n g e m e n t. T h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n c a n be s e e n i n
t h e o f f i c i a l g o a l s o f t h e p r o g r a m a s sum m arized by one o f t h e LDS P r e ­
sid e n ts .

Our p r i m a r y p u r p o s e i n o r g a n i z i n g t h e C h u rc h S e c u r i t y P l a n was
t o s e t up a s y s t e m u n d e r w h ic h t h e c u r s e o f i d l e n e s s w ould be
d o n e away w i t h , t h e e v i l s o f a d o l e a b o l i s h e d , and in d e p e n d e n c e ,
i n d u s t r y , t h r i f t and s e l f - r e s p e c t be o n c e more e s t a b l i s h e d a -
m ongst o u r p e o p le . The aim o f t h e C h u rc h i s t o h e l p t h e p e o ­
p l e t o h e l p t h e m s e l v e s . Work i s t o b e r e - e n t h r o n e d a s t h e r u l ­
i n g p r i n c i p l e o f t h e l i v e s o f o u r C h u rc h m e m b e r s h i p . 43

Mormons i n s i s t t h a t t h e y l o o k a f t e r t h e i r own, f o r i t i s presum ed

t h a t a " r e l i g i o n w h ic h h a s n o t t h e pow er t o s a v e p e o p l e t e m p o r a l l y and
make them p r o s p e r o u s and h a p p y h e r e , c a n n o t b e d e p e n d e d upon t o s a v e
th em s p i r i t u a l l y " . 44 A l l members a r e e n c o u r a g e d t o c o n t r i b u t e t o and
dra w from t h e c h u r c h w e l f a r e p r o g r a m . They a r e s t r o n g l y u r g e d t o s t a y
o f f th e " p u b lic d o le " fo r t h i s s u r e l y s i g n i f i e s s p i r i t u a l degenera-
 74

The w e l f a r e p ro g ra m , more a c c u r a t e l y c a l l e d t h e w o r k f a r e p r o g r a m ,
has se v e ra l fa c e ts . As w i t h a l l Mormon p r o g r a m s , t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h i s
p ro g ra m d e p e n d s upon t h e a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s and f a ­
m ilie s w ith in th e c o n te x t of th e la r g e r church s t r u c t u r e .

Each s t a k e h a s a p a r t i c u l a r w e l f a r e p r o j e c t . Some s t a k e s h a v e
f a r m s , some o r c h a r d s , o t h e r s r a i s e c a t t l e , some h a v e c a n n e r i e s o r f a c ­
t o r i e s , and so on . A ll w e lf a r e p r o j e c t la b o r is d o n a te d w ith o u t r e ­
m u n e r a t i o n by l o c a l m em bers. S take w e lf a r e p r o j e c t s produce ro u g h ly
n in e ty p e r c e n t o f a l l w e lf a r e needs in c lu d in g such d i v e r s e ite m s as
s o a p , b l a n k e t s , d a i r y p r o d u c t s , c l o t h i n g , and sh o e p o l i s h . The q u o t a
o f g o o d s p r o d u c e d by t h e s t a k e w e l f a r e p r o j e c t s a r e g a t h e r e d and
t r a n s p o r t e d to t h e c e n t r a l c l e a r i n g h o u s e on W e l f a r e S q u a r e i n S a l t
Lake C i t y 4 5 and r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e more t h a n e i g h t y
B i s h o p ' s S t o r e h o u s e s ^ ^ l o c a t e d i n v a r i o u s LDS c e n t e r s .

E v e ry ward a l s o s u p p o r t s a w e l f a r e p r o g r a m . The f a s t o f f e r i n g s
d o n a t e d on f a s t Sunday a r e u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r w e l f a r e p u r p o s e s . The
m o n ie s a r e c o l l e c t e d fro m ward members and s p e n t l o c a l l y t o m e e t t h e
n e e d s o f i n d i g e n t w ard members. S u r p l u s money, fro m t h e more a f f l u e n t
w a rd s i n p a r t i c u l a r , i s p a s s e d o n t o t h e s t a k e , a n d , u l t i m a t e l y , t h e
g e n e r a l fund, f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n a t r e g i o n a l le v e l s as r e q u i r e d .

E v e ry Mormon h a s t h e r i g h t and d u t y t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e w e l f a r e
program . B is h o p s ha\,e t h e r i g h t and a u t h o r i t y to d e c i d e who s h a l l
r e c e i v e r e l i e f from t h e w e l f a r e p r o g r a m . In lie u o f t h i s , b ish o p s a re
a s s i s t e d by t h e r o u t i n e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m a c h in e r y o f w ard g o v e r n m e n t.
Home t e a c h e r s and v i s i t i n g t e a c h e r s i d e n t i f y and r e p o r t t h e n e e d s o f
members t o t h e b i s h o p on a m o n th ly b a s i s . The b i s h o p t h e n c o n d u c t s a
p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w w i t h members to v e r i f y t h e i r n e e d , d e t e r m i n e t h e i r
f i n a n c i a l s t a t u s , and e x p l o r e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a i d from f a m i l y and
k in re so u rc e s. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s o u r c e o f a i d alw a y s
b e g i n s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l r e s o u r c e s and e x t e n d s o u tw a r d t o f a m i l y , k i n ,
ward q u o ru m s, a n d , f i n a l l y , c h u r c h r e s o u r c e s . When n e ed s c a n n o t be
a d e q u a t e l y met w i t h i n t h e ward p a r a m e t e r s , t h e b i s h o p s i g n s a s p e c i a l
o r d e r a p p r o v i n g r e l e a s e o f m a t e r i a l s from t h e B i s h o p ' s S t o r e h o u s e .
A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e b i s h o p d i s c u s s e s how t h e r e c i p i e n t w i l l r e i m b u r s e
h is /h e r b e n e fa c to rs; p r o v i d e v o l u n t a r y l a b o r f o r a s t a k e o r w ard p r o ­
j e c t , o f f e r h e l p t o a n o t h e r w ard f a m i l y i n n ee d , c o n t r i b u t e w o rk on
t h e ward b u i l d i n g , be a c t i v e in c h u r c h q u o ru m s, b e more a c t i v e in
c h u r c h a t t e n d a n c e , s t a y home w i t h t h e f a m i l y and be p r o d u c t i v e and r e ­
s p o n s i b l e a t home, and f i n a l l y , s t o p b r e a k i n g t h e r u l e s and command­
m e n ts o f t h e c h u r c h .

I f t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r o b le m i s unem ploym ent o r p h y s i c a l d i s a b i l i t y ,

p r i e s t h o o d quorums a r e e n l i s t e d to p l a c e members i n t h e p r i v a t e s e c ­
to r. I f th is f a ils , th e church a t la r g e has s e v e r a l in v e stm e n ts t h a t
em ploy l a r g e num bers o f w orkers inw e l f a r e - r e l a t e d p r o j e c t s t h a t r e ­
c y c l e o l d g o o d s , and t r a n s p o r t , p r o c e s s , d i s t r i b u t e and s t o r e p r o ­
d u c t s from t h e v a r i o u s s t a k e p r o j e c t s .
 75

The c h u r c h e n c o u r a g e s members t o be s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t and m a i n t a i n

eco n o m ic i n d e p e n d e n c e , e v e n i n t i m e s o f a d v e r s i t y , t h r o u g h a home
s t o r a g e p r o g r a m . ^7 Mormon homes a r e e x p e c t e d to h a v e i n s t o r a g e a t
l e a s t one y e a r ' s s u p p l y o f food and w a t e r , c l o t h i n g , f u e l and f i r s t -
aid s u p p lie s.

Summary

Most o f M adison C o u n t y ' s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l p o p u l a t i o n l i v e s on t h e

v a l l e y f l o o r in a c o n c e n t r a t e d a r e a t h a t form s a c o r r i d o r r u n n i n g
th ro u g h th e w e s t e r l y o n e - t h i r d s e c t i o n o f th e c o u n ty . L ife o p p o rtu ­
n i t i e s i n t h e v a l l e y a r e s h a p e d l a r g e l y by an a g r i c u l t u r a l l y b a s e d
economy and a c h u r c h s p o n s o r e d j u n i o r c o l l e g e . F o r m o s t , Mormonism
p ro v id e s th e c o n t e x t , o r in P e t e r B e r g e r 's ^ o term s, a canopy, f o r a
m ean in g fu l L ife; Mormons s h a r e a common i d e n t i t y , a common t h e o l o g y ,
a common h i s t o r y , common i n s t i t u t i o n s , common a c t i v i t i e s and a common
tra d itio n . As A r r i n g t o n and B i t t o n h a v e c o r r e c t l y o b s e r v e d , "They
h a v e g o a l s and o b j e c t i v e s on a l o c a l , m a n a g e a b le s c a l e . They h a v e a
se n s e o f b e in g in v o lv e d in som eth in g l a r g e r th an th e m s e lv e s . They s e e
t h e m s e l v e s a s moving to w a rd e t e r n a l g o a l s , b u t w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f
t h e c h u r c h p r o g r a m s and s p e c i f i c p e r s o n a l and f a m i l y o b j e c t i v e s as
g u i d e p o s t s a l o n g t h e w a y " . ^ ^ Most i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e y h av e a n enorm ous
r e s e rv e o f re s o u r c e s , b o th human and m a t e r i a l , and a v e r y e f f i c i e n t
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l fram ew ork t o m o b i l i z e i n t i m e s o f e m e rg e n c y .

Not a l l who l i v e i n t h e v a l l e y a r e Mormons, n o t a l l Mormons a r e

a c t i v e , and n o t a l l a c t i v e Mormons m e a s u r e up s u c c e s s f u l l y t o t h e e x ­
p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e c h u r c h . But none c a n e s c a p e t h e p e rv a siv e in flu e n c e
o f t h e Mormon C h u r c h , f o r i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n a f f e c t s t h e v e r y rh y th m and
flo w o f s o c i a l l i f e . I t s e c c l e s i a s t i c v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n f i l t e r s in to
t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e l a r g e r c om m unity a s Mormons t a k e up t h e i r
w o r k - a - d a y l i f e in c i v i c , c o m m e r c i a l , m e d i c a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , l e g a l and
so c ia l s e rv ic e se c to rs of t h e c o m m unity.

Non-Mormons in t h e v a l l e y o c c u p y a p o s i t i o n i n com m unity l i f e

w hich i s b e s t d e s c r i b e d a s a m i n o r i t y p o s i t i o n i n t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l
sense. I n r e s p o n s e t o t h e p r e s s u r e s im p osed by Mormonism, accommoda­
t i o n t a k e s v a r i o u s f o r m s . Some move on t o more c o n g e n i a l a r e a s ; some
r e m a i n i n r e l a t i v e harm ony w i t h t h e i r im m e d ia te f a m i l y , f r i e n d s and
n e i g h b o r s , w i t h some f a m i l y member e v e n t u a l l y m a r r y i n g i n t o t h e LDS
f a i t h ; and some r e m a i n , p a r t i a l l y i s o l a t e d , w i t h a ru g g e d s e n s e o f i n ­
d e p e n d e n c e and r e s o l v e . Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , non-M orm ons, a s t h e c h o i c e
o f t h i s te r m s i g n i f i e s , d e r i v e t h e i r s o c i a l i d e n t i t y i n l a r g e m e a s u re
in o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g Mormon e t h i c . L in es o f d i s t i n c t i o n
a r e t y p i c a l l y draw n by r e f e r e n c e t o r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e , e x a m p le s o f
h y p o c r i s y and a c t s o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .

On J u n e 4 , 1 9 76 , t h e r e s e r v o i r b e h i n d t h e new ly c o n s t r u c t e d T e to n
Dam was f i l l i n g . In f a c t , i t was f i l l i n g f a r to o r a p i d l y . The news
 76

m e d ia a n n o u n c e d t h a t on t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y , S a t u r d a y , t h e s p i l l w a y g a t e
a t t h e dam w ould be op ened and some i n c r e a s e i n t h e w a t e r l e v e l o f t h e
T e t o n R i v e r and p o s s i b l y some f l o o d i n g i n t h e lo w l a n d s d o w n s tre a m
m ig h t be e x p e c t e d . E x c e p t f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n c re w s who w ork ed o n t h e
dam, few ha d e v e r s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e dam m ig h t n o t b e s a f e
and no o n e a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t i t w o u ld c o l l a p s e on J u n e 5 t h . We t u r n
now t o t h e e v e n t s o f t h a t d a y .
 77

MOTES TO CHAPTER 3

1. T h i s p a r t i c u l a r q u o t a t i o n i s d raw n from t h e e d i t o r i a l comments o f

a lo c a lly p u b lish ed c o l l e c t i o n of p e rso n a l r e f l e c t i o n s g ath ered
from v i c t i m s o f th e T e t o n Dam d i s a s t e r . J a n e t Thomas, B e r n i c e Mc-
Cowin, Mary T in g e y and M a r g a r e t Thomas ( E d s . ) , T h a t Day I n J u n e :
R e f l e c t i o n s On The T e t o n Dam D i s a s t e r , R e x b u rg , I d a h o : R ic k s C o l­
l e g e P r e s s , 1977 , p . v.

2. For a g e n e r a l h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t o f th e s e t t l e m e n t and d e v e lo p m e n t
o f M adison C o u n ty and t h e Upper S na ke R i v e r V a l l e y , s e e M e r r i l l D.
B e a l , A H i s t o r y o f S o u t h e a s t I d a h o , C a l d w e l l , I d a h o : C a x to n
P r i n t e r s , L t d . , 1942 and L o u i s J . C le m e n ts and H a r o ld S . F o r b u s h ,
P i o n e e r i n g The Snake R i v e r F ork C o u n t r y , R e x b u rg , I d a h o : E a ste rn
I d a h o P u b l i s h i n g C o ., 1 97 2. Most o f t h e p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l s u s e d
f o r t h i s s e c t i o n a r e d raw n from t h e a b o v e , a n d , in a d d i t i o n , from
the fo llo w in g . E n v i r o n m e n ta l P l a n n i n g G r o u p , I n c . , M adison C o u n ty
R e g io n a l P l a n n i n g C o u n c i l C o m p re h e n siv e P l a n : 1990, D rig g s,
I d a h o , 1973. J o h n H. P o w e l, James D. Braraan and C l a y t e r F . F o r s -
g r e n , A d ju s tm e n t P ro g ra m F o r t h e T e to n D i s a s t e r A rea, Volume 1 ,
E x e c u t i v e Summary and F i n a l R e p o r t . P r e p a r e d by The C o n s u l t a n t Di­
v i s i o n , B o e in g C o m p u te r S e r v i c e s , I n c . , S e a t t l e , W a s h in g to n and
F o r s g r e n , P e r k i n s and A s s o c i a t e s , P. A., R e x b u rg , I d a h o .

3. T h i s map and a l l maps u s e d i n t h e s t u d y , u n l e s s s t a t e d o t h e r w i s e ,

a r e c o p i e s o f maps d ra w n by F o r s g r e n , P e r k i n s and A s s o c i a t e s ,
P. A ., R e x b u rg , I d a h o .

4. T h i s t a b l e i s p r e p a r e d from d a t a p u b l i s h e d i n Braman e t a l . . Ib id ,
p . 40.

5. U n l e s s o t h e r w i s e s t a t e d , a l l d e m o g r a p h ic d a t a i s draw n from t h e
U. S. C e n s u s , 1970.

6. A c o m p r e h e n s i v e h i s t o r y o f R ic k s C o l l e g e from i t s b e g i n n i n g s i n
1888 as a n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l c a n be found i n C le m e n ts and F o r b u s h ,
o p . c i t . . C h a p t e r 6 , p r e p a r e d by Norman R ic k s .

7. C le m e n ts and F o r b u s h , op. c it., p . 26.

8. 95 p e r c e n t i s t h e e s t i m a t e t y p i c a l l y g i v e n by l o c a l c h u r c h and
c iv ic o f f ic ia ls . My own e s t i m a t e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s i s a c o n s e r ­
v a tiv e fig u re .

9. I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 300 p e r s o n s ( s l i g h t l y l e s s t h a n
2 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ) e x p r e s s a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h non-Mormon
d e n o m in atio n s. Non-LDS c h u r c h e s h a v e s o few members t h a t th e y
serve a m u lti-co u n ty a re a . The l a r g e s t c h u r c h , Community P r e s b y ­
t e r i a n C h u r c h , h a s 70 r e g i s t e r e d members and t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f a
t o t a l o f 100 f a m i l i e s i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f a c t i v i t y . A sm all
s p l i n t e r o f t h i s l a r g e r g ro u p i n v o l v e s no more t h a n 3 o r 4
 78

f a m i l i e s o f a b o u t 11 p e r s o n s . A l th o u g h Rexburg h a s a Roman C a t h ­
o l i c c h u r c h , i t s c o n g r e g a t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d as a m i s s i o n o f t h e S t .
A n th on y p a r i s h . P r i o r t o t h e d i s a s t e r , t h e r e w e re 17 c a t h o l i c f a ­
m i l i e s , a b o u t h a l f o f w h ic h had t e m p o r a r y r e s i d e n c e b e c a u s e t h e y
w e re em ployed on t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e dam. T h e r e a r e p r o b a b l y
no more t h a n 2p p e r s o n s o t t h i s f a i t h i n t o t a l . The S o u t h e r n Bap­
t i s t C h u rc h moved from Rexburg t o S t . A nthony i n 1966 and t h e r e
a r e f e w e r t h a n 10 p e r s o n s i n M a d iso n C o u n ty who h a v e an a f f i l i a ­
t i o n w ith t h i s ch u rch . A s m a l l I n d e p e n d e n t B a p t i s t C h u rc h whose
m em b e rs h ip m e e ts i n a t r a i l e r b e g a n l e s s t h a n a y e a r b e f o r e t h e
flo o d . I t c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e r e g u l a r f a m i l i e s and p e r h a p s e i g h t
o t h e r s w i t h a t o t a l o f no more t h a n 22 p e r s o n s . The J e h o v a h W it­
n e s s c o n g r e g a t i o n i n v o l v e s a t l e a s t one p e r s o n from a b o u t e i g h t
h o u s e h o l d s a t t h e m o s t. The L u t h e r a n m e m b e rsh ip was s t r o n g e -
nough to s u p p o r t a c h u r c h n e a r S u g a r C i t y a t one t i m e , b u t p r i o r
t o t h e f l o o d t h e i r s m a l l m e m b e rsh ip had a l r e a d y b e e n a b s o r b e d by
o th e r churches.

10. L e o n a r d J . A r r i n g t o n and D av is B i t t o n , The Mormon E x p e r i e n c e : A

H i s t o r y o f The L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s . New Y ork: A l f r e d A K n o p f, 1979,
pp. 126-144.

11. At t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y more t h a n 150 J a p a n e s e had s e t t l e d in

t h e a r e a , f i n d i n g work on th e r a i l r o a d s a n d , l a t e r , i n t h e s u g a r
b eet fa c to ry . T h is f a c t o r y h a s s i n c e c l o s e d and a b o u t e i g h t J a -
p en ese-A m erican f a m i l i e s rem ain .

12. I t i s n o t e n t i r e l y c l e a r how many M e x ic a n -A m e r ic a n s l i v e i n Madi­

s o n C o u n ty . They te n d to be p o o r , u n s u c c e s s f u l i n a c q u i r i n g em­
p lo y m e n t l o c a l l y , m o b i l e , and l a r g e l y i n v i s i b l e . T here a r e s u s ­
p i c i o n s t h a t i l l e g a l a l i e n s o f M e x ica n c i t i z e n s h i p work a s m i g r a n t
l a b o r d u r i n g t h e summer s e a s o n , a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e n o t v i s i b l e .

13. T h e r e i s n o t a v i s i b l e and s t a b l e p o p u l a t i o n o f N o r th - A m e r ic a n I n ­
d ia n s. M ost l i v e on a r e s e r v a t i o n . F o r t H a l l , n e a r I d a h o F a l l s .
A s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m o f t h e Mormon C h u r c h , a p r o g ra m f o r
l a m a n i t e s as N o r th A m e ric a n I n d i a n s a r e c a l l e d , means t h a t some
N o r th A m e ric a n I n d i a n c h i l d r e n a r e t e m p o r a r y r e s i d e n t s i n t h e
g u e s t home o f a Mormon f a m i l y .

14. U n l e s s o t h e r w i s e s t a t e d , a l l s t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e n a t i o n as a w h ole
a r e drawn from B u reau o f t h e C e n s u s , S t a t i s t i c a l A b s t r a c t o f t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s . 9 7 th E d i t i o n . W a s h in g to n D. C . : G overnm ent P r i n t ­
i n g O f f i c e , 1976: summary t a b l e p p . x i i i - x x i .

15. I n 1 977, t h e r e c o r d e d b i r t h r a t e ( 3 1 . 6 6 b i r t h s p e r t h o u s a n d ) o f
Mormons was m ore t h a n t w i c e as h i g h a s t h e b i r t h r a t e f o r t h e n a­
tio n at la rg e . A r r i n g t o n and B i t t o n , o p . c i t . , p . 295.

1 6 . B etw een 1964 and 1969 t h e number o f fa rm s h ad d e c r e a s e d from 691

t o 641 and t h e number o f a c r e s i n farm u s e had d e c r e a s e d from
 79

1 8 3 ,6 8 6 t o 1 7 0 ,0 0 0 .

17. I t i s n o t uncommon f o r Mormon o f f i c i a l s t o a s s e r t t h a t t h e r e i s no

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n among Mormons. The u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w e a l t h
and income do c u m e n te d i n t h i s c h a p t e r d o e s n o t s u p p o r t t h i s c l a i m .

18. Betw een 1970 and 1976 t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e Labor f o r c e w h ic h was

f e m a le had i n c r e a s e d from 2 2 .9 p e r c e n t t o 33 p e r c e n t .

19. B o n n e v i l l e C o u n c i l o f G o v e rn m e n t, P o p u l a t i o n and Economic T r e n d s

and P r o j e c t i o n s , Id a h o F a l l s , I d a h o , 1974, p . 49.

20. F o r h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t s o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e Mormons, s e e
L eonard J . A r r i n g t o n and D avis B i t t o n , The Mormon E x p e r i e n c e : A
H i s t o r y o f t h e L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s , New York; A l f r e d A. K n o p f,
1979; W i l l i a m M. K e p h a r t , "The Mormons", I n E x t r a o r d i n a r y G r o u p s ;
The S o c i o l o g y o f U n c o n v e n t i o n a l L i f e S t y l e s , New Y ork; S t . M ar­
t i n ' s P r e s s , 1976, C h a p t e r 5; R o b e r t M u l l e n , The L a t t e r - d a y
S ain ts; The Mormons Y e s t e r d a y and T o d a y , G a rd e n C i t y , New York;
D o u b le d a y , 1966; and Thomas F. O 'D e a , The Mormons, C h ic a g o ; U n i­
v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , P r e s s , 19 57.

21. I n a d d i t i o n to The Book o f Mormon, t h e r e v e l a t i o n s o f J o s e p h S m ith

r e c o r d e d i n D o c t r i n e and C o v e n a n ts and P e a r l o f G r e a t P r i c e a r e
a l s o t r e a t e d as h o ly s c r i p t u r e .

22. The o r i g i n a l name o f t h e c h u r c h , The C h u rc h o f C h r i s t , was c h a n g e d

t o The C h u rc h o f J e s u s C h r i s t o f L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s i n 183 8. Mor­
mons r e f e r t o t h e m s e l v e s in v a r i o u s w a y s. The n ic k n a m e Mormon d e ­
r i v e s from The Book o f Mormon. S a i n t s , LDS, o r L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s
are a lso used. A l l fo rm s a p p e a r i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y i n t h i s s t u d y .

23. K e p h a r t , o p . c i t . , p. 239.

24. The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n r e f e r s c o n t i n u a l l y t o t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
s t r u c t u r e p r e s e n t e d i n d i a g r a m m a t i c form i n t h e t e x t .

25. The v o t e o f common c o n s e n t r e p r e s e n t s t h e u n a n im o u s a c c e p t a n c e o f

a member i n t o *-he p o s i t i o n and i t s e r v e s a s a p l e d g e on b e h a l f o f
t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n t o c o o p e r a t e and s u s t a i n t h e p o s i t i o n . S in ce
members a r c " c a t Led" t o a p o s i t i o n by t h o s e who h a v e t h e a u t h o r i t y
and power t o know G o d 's w i l l , t h e r e i s l i t t l e room f o r d i s p u t e
about th e app o in tm en t.

2 6 . A r r i n g t o n and B i t t o n , op. c i t . , p. 290.

27. K e p h a r t , o p . c i t . , p. 217.

28. J o s e p h S m i t h , P e a r l o f G r e a t P r i c e , S a l t Lake C i t y , U ta h ; The

C hurch o f J e s u s C h r i s t o f t h e L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s , v e r s e 6 9 - 7 2 .
 30

29 . J o s e p h S m ith , D o c t r i n e and C o v e n a n t s , S a l t Lake C i t y , U ta h : The

C h u rc h o f J e s u s C h r i s t o f t h e L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s , s e c t i o n 20, v e r s e
38.

3 0 . I t s h o u l d b e c l e a r t h a t t h e p r i e s t h o o d i s an a l l m a le o r g a n i z a ­
tio n . I d e a l l y , e v e r y home s h o u l d h a v e a p r i e s t t o p r e s i d e o v e r
t h e f a m i l y i n a l l s p i r i t u a l and te m p o r a l a f f a i r s . The p r e s i d e n t
o f th e R e l i e f S o c i e t y (a fem ale o r g a n i z a t i o n ) f u n c t i o n s l i k e th e
m o t h e r o f t h e w ard and t h u s , t h e c h a r g e o f t h e r e l i e f s o c i e t y and
a l l m o t h e r s c o n c e r n s c o m p a s s i o n a t e w ork.

31. The a c t i v e m em b e rsh ip o f a l l c h u r c h l e a d e r s i n a w a r d , i r r e s p e c ­

t i v e o f t h e i r d u t i e s , means t h a t t h e l e a d e r s h i p d o e s n o t become
s t r u c t u r a l l y o r e x p e r i e n t i a l l y removed from t h e c o n c e r n s o f w ard
life .

3 2 . As t h e m em b e rsh ip o f t h e LDS c h u r c h h a s e x p a n d e d t h e r e g i o n a l
s t r u c t u r e h a s a l s o become more e l a b o r a t e t h a n i n d i c a t e d , b u t a
f u l l y d e t a i l e d acco u n t o f t h i s m id d le le v e l o f o r g a n i z a t i o n i s
not n e c e ssa ry fo r th e purpose o f t h i s stu d y .

33. T h i s i s n o t to im p ly t h a t t h e r e a r e n o t i n a c t i v e Mormons o r d e f e c ­
to rs. T h e r e a r e an d t h e s e a r e a s e r i o u s c o n c e r n t o t h e c h u r c h .
The i m p o r t a n t p o i n t i s t h a t t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s and i d e a l s o f t h e
ch u rch s tr o n g ly encourage f u l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

3 4 . W i l l i a m J . W halen, L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s i n t h e M odern-D ay W o r ld , New

Y ork: Jo h n Day, p . 213.

3 5 . R e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n and s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s f o r f a m i l y home e v e n ­
i n g a r e s t a n d a r d i z e d by t h e G e n e r a l A u t h o r i t i e s . Each y e a r e v e r y
f a m i l y r e c e i v e s a m a n u a l w i t h l e s s o n s f o r t h e w eeks o f t h e f o l l o w ­
ing y e a r . T h i s i s a l s o t r u e f o r a l l o t h e r quorum and a u x i l i a r y
m e e t i n g s and Sunday s c h o o l .

36 . C h u r c h o f J e s u s C h r i s t o f t h e L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s , H e l p i n g O t h e r s To
H e lp T h e m s e lv e s : The S t o r y o f t h e Mormon C h u rc h W e l f a r e P r o g r a m ,
S a l t Lake C i t y , U ta h : D e s e r e t P r e s s , no d a t e , p . 7.

37. The Word o f Wisdom, i n Mormon v o c a b u l a r y , r e f e r s t o a s e t o f r u l e s

c o n c e r n i n g fo od and e s p e c i a l l y t h e p r o s c r i p t i o n a g a i n s t t o b a c c o ,
a l c o h o l and h o t d r i n k s . See D o c t r i n e and C o v e n a n t s , s e c t i o n 89.

3 8 . Young w o r t h y men a b o u t t h e a ge o f 19 o r 2 0 , i f t h e i r p a r e n t s a r e
f i n a n c i a l l y a b l e t o s u p p o r t th e m , a r e u r g e d t o s p e n d two y e a r s i n
th e f i e l d d o in g m is s io n a r y w ork. I f u n m a r r i e d , women a r e a l l o w e d ,
b u t no t s t r o n g ly e n co u rag ed , to p a r t i c i p a t e in th e m is s io n a ry p ro ­
gram . Everyone is en c o u ra g e d to s h a r e t h e i r te s tim o n y w ith o t h ­
ers: Mormons and g e n t i l e s (n o n -M o rm o n s), f a m i l y and s t r a n g e r s .
The w a rd m e e t i n g on f a s t Sunday i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e s t h e t e s t i m o n i a l
as p a r t o f th e r e g u l a r s e r v i c e a lth o u g h t e s t i m o n i a l s a r e n o t lim ­
i t e d t o t h i s tim e o r p l a c e .
 81

39. Polygam y I s commonly t h o u g h t o f a s t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e o f

t h e Mormon f a m i l y , a l t h o u g h t h i s i s i n c o r r e c t . Even when p o l y ­
gamy was o f f i c i a l l y s a n c t i o n e d by t h e c h u r c h , f e w e r t h a n 3 p e r c e n t
of th e p o p u la tio n a t la rg e p r a c tic e d p lu r a l m a rria g e . S e e m in g l y ,
t h e c h u r c h l e a d e r s h i p and a f f l u e n t m a le s w e re b l e s s e d w i t h p l u r a l
w iv es. At any r a t e , a p r o s c r i p t i o n a g a i n s t p o ly gam y was r e c e i v e d
i n a r e v e l a t i o n , r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e M a n i f e s t o , t o P r e s i d e n t W il-
f o r d W o o d r u f f i n 1 8 90 . S in ce t h a t tim e th e c h u rc h does n o t con­
done o r t e a c h polygam y f o r t h i s L i f e on e a r t h .

40 . As n o t e d e a r l i e r , th is r e f e r s t o t h e Word o f Wisdom.

41. A r r i n g t o n and B i t t o n , op. c i t . , s e e e s p e c i a l l y c h a p t e r s 6 , 9 , and

13.

4 2 . The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
s t r u c t u r e , t h e w e l f a r e p r o g ra m and d i s a s t e r p r e p a r e d n e s s h a s b e e n
o u t l i n e d by P a t r i c k J . G u rn e y , "The T h e r a p e u t i c Community R e v i s i t ­
e d ; Some S u g g e s t e d M o d i f i c a t i o n s and T h e i r I m p l i c a t i o n s " , D i s a s t e r
R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , The Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , P r e l i m i n a r y P a p e r No.
39, 1977.

4 3 . A r r i n g t o n and B i t t o n , op. c i t . , p. 27 4.

4 4 . H e l p i n g O t h e r s To H elp T h e m s e l v e s , p . 2.

45. W e lfare S quare c o n s i s t s of a w areh o u se, a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b u i l d i n g ,

h e a t i n g p l a n t , m i l k e v a p o r a t i n g p l a n t , modern c a n n e r y , s e w in g c e n ­
t e r , sh o e m a k in g s h o p , s t o r e , r o o t c e l l a r and a g r a i n e l e v a t o r
w h ic h s t o r e s 3 1 8 ,0 0 0 b u s h e l s o f w h e a t a t c a p a c i t y .

4 6 . The c l o s e s t B i s h o p ' s S t o r e h o u s e t o R ex bu rg i s w i t h i n t w e n t y m i l e s
in t h e s m a l l town o f Ucon.

4 7 . C h u rc h o f J e s u s C h r i s t o f L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s , E s s e n t i a l s o f Home
S t o r a g e , S a l t Lake C i t y , U ta h; D e s e r e t P r e s s , 1974.

4 8 . P e t e r B e r g e r , The S a c r e d Canopy: E le m e n ts o f a S o c i o l o g i c a l T h e o ­
r y o f R e l i g i o n , New Y ork: D o u b le d a y Books, 1 96 7.

4 9 . A r r i n g t o n and B i t t o n , o p . c i t . , p. 307.
 CHAPTER 4

DISASTER

On S a t u r d a y , J u n e 5 , 1 9 7 6 , t h e w a t e r l e v e l b e h in d t h e dam was
s t i l l a b o u t t h r e e f e e t b e lo w t h e s p i l l w a y g a t e , so t h e s c h e d u l e d
op en in g o f th e s p i l l w a y d id n o t o c c u r. I n s t e a d , t h e dam became t h e
f o c u s o f a s e r i e s o f u n s c h e d u l e d e v e n t s t h a t en ded in d i s a s t e r . R e s­
i d e n t s d o w n stre a m , p a r t i c u l a r l y a l o n g t h e T e to n R i v e r , h a d e x p e r i ­
en ced f lo o d in g i n t h e p a s t , b u t th e ty p e o f f lo o d t h a t r e s u l t e d from
t h e c o l l a p s e o f th e dam was t o t a l l y u n e x p e c t e d . In f a c t , i r o n i c a l l y ,
t h e dam was c o n s t r u c t e d p r i m a r i l y t o c o n t r o l f l o o d i n g .

T h is c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h t h e T e t o n Dam b r e a k , c o n c e n t r a t i n g p r i ­
m a r i l y on t h e e v e n t s o f J u n e 5 , 1976. The r e p o r t b e g i n s w i t h a b r i e f
d e s c r i p t i o n and h i s t o r y o f t h e dam a s a man-made s t r u c t u r e . A chrono­
l o g i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h e d i s a s t e r a s a t e c h n o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l phenom­
enon fo llo w s . The d i s c u s s i o n th e n c o n s i d e r s t h e s c o p e an d m a g n i t u d e
o f th e d i s a s t e r by e x a m i n i n g t h e e x t e n t o f damage c a u s e d by t h e f l o o d
w a te rs. F i n a l l y , t h e c h a p te r c o n c lu d e s w ith a d i s c u s s io n o f th e e a r l y
e f f o r t s of l o c a l o f f i c i a l s i n a tte m p tin g to fo rm u la te and e s tim a te th e
human c o s t o f t h e T e t o n t r a g e d y .

H i s t o r y o f The T e to n Dam

T e to n Dam and i t s r e s e r v o i r w e re p r i n c i p a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e T e to n
B a s in P r o j e c t , a m u l t i - p u r p o s e p r o j e c t t h a t was d e s i g n e d and o p e r a t e d
by th e B u re au o f R e c l a m a t i o n (BOR), U .S . D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e I n t e r i o r . ^
The dam, s i t u a t e d t h r e e m i l e s n o r t h e a s t o f N ew dale on t h e T e to n R i v e r ,
h a d c o s t a b o u t 66 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . T e t o n Dam was a n e a r t h - f i l l s t r u c ­
t u r e 305 f e e t h i g h and 3 , 0 0 0 f e e t l o n g . At t h e c r e s t i t had a d e p t h
o f 35 f e e t and a t t h e b a s e , 1 ,0 0 0 f e e t . 80 b i l l i o n g a l l o n s o f w a t e r
f i l l e d t h e 17 m i l e - l o n g r e s e r v o i r s t r e t c h i n g u p s t r e a m on t h e r i v e r .

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f s i t e p o s s i b i l i t i e s b e g a n a s e a r l y a s 1904 and
s u r v e y s had c o n t i n u e d a t v a r i o u s t i m e s t h e r e a f t e r u n t i l C o n g r e s s
f i n a l l y a u t h o r i z e d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p r o p o s e d s t r u c t u r e on S e p te m b e r
7 , 1964, w i t h t h e s i g n i n g o f P u b l i c Law 8 8 - 3 8 3 . Funds f o r t h e w a t e r

82
 83

r e s o u r c e p r o j e c t w e re a p p r o p r i a t e d f o r f i s c a l y e a r 1967. A c o n s t r u c ­
t i o n c o n t r a c t was aw a rd ed on Decem ber 1 3 , 1 9 7 1 , and c o n s t r u c t i o n
commenced t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r . The em bankm ent was t o p p e d o u t on Novem­
b e r 2 6 , 19 75 . F i l l i n g o f t h e r e s e r v o i r , b e g u n on O c t o b e r 3 , 1975,
w as e x p e c t e d t o t a k e two y e a r s . J u s t e i g h t m o n th s l a t e r , w i t h t h e
r e s e r v o i r more t h a n 90 p e r c e n t f u l l , t h e T e t o n Dam c o l l a p s e d .

I n i t s n e a r l y 7C y e a r h i s t o r y , t h e r e was no p u b l i c h i n t o f s a f e t y
h a z a rd , o f in a d e q u a te s i t e s e l e c t i o n , o r o f in co m p eten t d e s ig n .^ In
f a c t , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e dam e n j o y e d b r o a d p u b l i c s u p p o r t due t o
t h e a n t i c i p a t e d b e n e f i t s o f f l o o d c o n t r o l , w a t e r i r r i g a t i o n , pow er
g e n e r a t i o n , an d r e c r e a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . N ot u n t i l a f t e r c o n s t r u c ­
t i o n b e g a n i n 1972 was t h e r e a n y p u b l 'f c o p p o s i t i o n v o i c e d a n d ev e n
t h i s d id not h in t a t a s a f e ty h a z a rd .^ O p p o s i t i o n was fr a m e d p r i m a r ­
i l y i n te r m s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l l o s s and e c o n o m ic f e a s i b i l i t y .

A lt h o u g h t h e p u b l i c was i g n o r a n t , e n g i n e e r s m i g h t h a v e b e e n f o r e ­
w a rn e d o f t h e i n e v i t a b l e f a i l u r e o f t h e T e to n Dam. D u rin g t h e p e r i o d
o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , g r o u t i n g w as r e q u i r e d t o s e a l l e a k s i n t h e p o r o u s
v o l c a n i c r o c k i n am o u n ts t h a t f a r e x c e e d e d w hat was a n t i c i p a t e d by
d e sig n . A l s o , r e p o r t s from a team o f g e o l o g i s t s who w e r e c o n d u c t i n g a
g e o l o g i c a l m a p p in g o f t h e Snake R i v e r V a l l e y i n D ecember o f 1972 i n d i ­
c a t e d t h a t t h e g e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e dam s i t e w ould n o t s u p p o r t
th e proposed s t r u c t u r e . ^ For w h atev er re a s o n s - te c h n i c a l , bureau­
c r a t i c , o r o t h e r w i s e - e n g i n e e r s , l i k e t h e p u b l i c a t l a r g e , w ere un­
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s a f e t y o f t h e dam.

Two d a y s b e f o r e t h e dam c o l l a p s e d , c o n s t r u c t i o n c r e w s o b s e r v e d
t h r e e s m a l l l e a k s d o w n s tr e a m from t h e t o e o f t h e dam a l o n g t h e r i g h t
a b u tm en t. T h e s e d i s c o v e r i e s w e re s e e m i n g l y n o t c a u s e f o r c o n c e r n .
L e a k s s p u r t i n g c l e a r r u n n i n g w a t e r , a s t h e s e w e r e , w ere s e e n by dam
o f f i c i a l s a s r o u t i n e and e x p e c t a b l e o c c u r e n c e s d u r i n g t h e f i l l - s t a g e
o f an e a r t h e n s t r u c t u r e .

C h r o n o lo g y o f D i s a s t e r

J u n e 5 , 1 9 7 6 , was a b e a u t i f u l d a y w i t h s u n s h i n e and a c l e a r b l u e
sky o v erh ead - n o t th e k in d o f day t h a t s i g n a l s d i s a s t e r . ^ P eo p le
d o w n stre a m from t h e dam w ere g o i n g a b o u t t h e i r r o u t i n e S a t u r d a y m orn­
i n g b u s i n e s s c l e a n i n g h o u s e , c a n n i n g , s h o p p i n g , m a k in g r e p a i r s , g a r ­
d e n i n g , w o r k in g t h e f i e l d s , a t t e n d i n g m e e t i n g s a n d so on.

8 : 0 0 a .m .

A t t h e dam s i t e b e tw e e n 7 : 0 0 and
l o c a t e d two m ore l e a k s . One o f t h e s e
t h e c r e s t o f t h e dam a t a p o i n t w h e r e
embankment^ and t h e o t h e r was s l i g h t l y
dam, b u t a l s o n e a r t h e r i g h t a b u t m e n t .
8 : 0 0 a .m . c o n s t r u c t i o n c re w s h a d
was l o c a t e d a b o u t 132 f e e t b e lo w
t h e r i g h t a b u tm e n t j o i n e d t h e
d o w n s tr e a m from t h e t o e o f t h e
T h e s e l e a k s w ere somewhat
 84

d i f f e r e n t t h a n th e o t h e r s . The w a t e r s p u r t i n g o u t was t u r b i d , a n d
t u r b i d s e e p a g e , to s i t e p e r s o n n e l , s i g n i f i e d a p r o b l e m . E n g in eers
w e r e n o t i f i e d a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n c re w s b e g a n w o r k in g f i r s t , t o f i l l t h e
l e a k s an d l a t e r , t o e x c a v a t e a d i v e r s i o n c h a n n e l t o p r e v e n t f u r t h e r
e ro sio n .

1 0 :1 5 a.m .

The f i n a l and f a t a l l e a k a p p e a r e d i n t h e dam embankment a b o u t

15 f e e t from t h e r i g h t a b u tm e n t and 130 f e e t b e lo w t h e c r e s t o f t h e
dam. W a ter w as f l o w i n g t h r o u g h t h i s l e a k a t s u c h a r a p i d r a t e t h a t
t h e f o r c e o f t h e w a t e r was d i g g i n g a c r a t e r on t h e d o w n stre a m s l o p e o f
t h e dam u n t i l , f i f t e e n m i n u t e s l a t e r , i t h a d e x p a n d e d t o a b o u t 25
f e e t in d ia m e te r.

1 0 : 4 0 a .m .

Four d o z e r s began p u s h in g f i l l m a t e r i a l i n t o th e e n l a r g i n g h o l e .

1 0 : 4 3 a .m .

The f i r s t t e l e p h o n e c a l l s w ere p l a c e d t o t h e s h e r i f f s o f M ad iso n

and F rem ont C o u n t i e s . I n M ad ison C o u n ty t h e m e s s a g e , " t h e r e ' s some
t r o u b l e w i t h l e a k s up a t t h e dam", w as r e l a y e d t o b o t h t h e c h a ir m a n o f
c o u n t y c o m m i s s i o n e r s and t h e owner o f t h e l o c a l r a d i o s t a t i o n . 7 A l­
th o u g h d o u b t f u l t h a t t h e p r o b le m w a r r a n t e d an y a c t i o n , t h e commis­
s i o n e r n o n e t h e l e s s d rove to th e s i t e f o r a f i r s t - h a n d v iew o f th e s i t ­
u a tio n .

The ow ner o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n r e a c t e d i n a s i m i l a r m a n n e r. At
a b o u t 1 0 :4 8 he a n n o u n c e d v e r y c a s u a l l y t h a t h e was d r i v i n g t o t h e
dam " t o c h e c k on a r e p o r t e d l e a k " . At a l a t e r p o i n t , some o f t h e
l i s t e n i n g a u d i e n c e would remember h a v i n g h e a r d t h i s m e s s a g e , b u t , a t
t h e t i m e , t h o s e who h e a r d e i t h e r d i d n ' t n o t i c e o r d i d n ' t t a k e i t s e r i ­
o u s l y a s t h e f o l l o w i n g q u i p from a l i s t e n e r i n d i c a t e s . " T e l l 'em t o
s t i c k t h e i r f i n g e r in t h e d i k e . "

1 1 :G0 a .m .

A w h i r l p o o l d e v e l o p e d o p p o s i t e t h e c r a t e r on t h e r e s e r v o i r s i d e
o f t h e dam. Two d o z e r s moved t o p - s i d e and s t a r t e d t o p u s h s a n d ,
g r a v e l and r o c k to w a rd t h e w h i r l p o o l . A bout 1 1 :2 0 t h e e n g i n e e r i n
c h a r g e r e a l i z e d t h i s e f f o r t was f u t i l e and o r d e r e d t h e c re w o f f t h e
t o p o f t h e dam. The c o m m i s s i o n e r , i n t h e m e a n tim e , h a d s e e n en o u g h
to be w o rrie d . He jum ped i n t o h i s t r u c k and r a c e d s o u t h t o o r g a n i z e
o p e r a t i o n s f r o m R e x b u rg .

1 1 : 3 0 a .m .

On t h e d o w n s tr e a m s i d e o f t h e dam t h e d o z e r h a d g o t t e n s t u c k i n
t h e h o l e and a s e c o n d d o z e r moved t o t h e l o c a t i o n t o p u l l t h e o t h e r
 85

o u t. S u d d e n ly , t h e o p e r a t o r s jum ped t o s a f e t y a s b o t h m a c h in e s d i s ­
a p p e a re d i n t o th e h o le a t a b o u t 1 1 :3 0 . S h e r i f f s o f b o t h F re m o n t and
M a d iso n C o u n t i e s t h e n r e c e i v e d t h e i r s e c o n d m e s s a g e . The l e a k s a r e
bad. S t a r t e v a c u a t i n g d o w n s tr e a m p e o p l e . No one had y e t g r a s p e d t h e
m a g n i t u d e o r im m ediacy o f t h e u n f o l d i n g e v e n t . B u t i n F re m o n t
C o u n t y , o f f i c i a l s had c a l c u l a t e d t h a t r e s i d e n t s o f N ew dale, T e t o n ,
an d W i l f o r d , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e n e a r t h e r i v e r , w ere i n g r e a t e s t d a n g e r
o fflo o d in g . S tate and c o u n t y p o l i c e w e re o r g a n i z i n g t o t e l l r e s i ­
d e n t s t h a t t h e r e was a l e a k i n t h e dam and s i n c e t h e r e was a p o s s i ­
b i l i t y o f f l o o d i n g , t h e y s h o u l d move t o h i g h e r g r o u n d .

I n t h e m e a n tim e , t h e r a d i o a n n o u n c e r was m aking h i s own o b s e r ­

v a t i o n s a t t h e dam s i t e and h a d b egun t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e " p r o b le m "
was more t h a n j u s t a l e a k . He r e c a l l s :

From t h a t p o i n t on ( s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e d o z e r s d i s a p ­
p e a r e d ) , I be g a n t e l l i n g p e o p l e t h a t we w ere h a v i n g a
d i f f i c u l t p r o b le m w i t h t h e dam. T h e r e was d e f i n i t e l y more
th an a le a k . The dam i s s l o w l y b e g i n n i n g t o c r u m b l e , i t
w ould a p p e a r ! T h e r e i s a l o t o f w a t e r com in g t h r o u g h and
t h e r e i s g o i n g t o b e some p r o b l e m s d o w n s tr e a m !

1 1 :5 7 a .m .

As I was t a l k i n g (h e c o n t i n u e s ) , s u d d e n l y t h e w h o le
d o w n -s tr e a r a f a c e o f t h a t n o r t h s i d e o f t h e dam seem ed t o
cru m b le. A h u g e g a p i n g h o l e b r o k e up and w a t e r , mud, and
d u st j u s t sp u rte d o u t. The volum e was s u d d e n l y s o tre m e n ­
d o u s and i m m e d i a t e l y I knew , e v e r y o n e s t a n d i n g t h e r e knew,
a r e a l d i s a s t e r was i n t h e m a k in g . I beg a n b r o a d c a s t i n g t h a t
c o n t i n u a l l y fro m t h a t p o i n t o n . " P e o p l e d o w n s tr e a m , e v a c u a t e
q u ic k ly ! H u rry ! H u rry !

The w a t e r , mud and d e b r i s w h ic h b u r s t t h r o u g h t h e o p e n in g a s

t h e r i g h t s i d e o f t h e dam c o l l a p s e d had b e g u n i t s p a t h t h r o u g h t h e
f i v e - m i l e canyon on i t s way t o t h e com m unity o f W i l f o r d , a t t h e mouth
o f t h e c a n y o n , b e lo w . The t o r r e n t , r e l e a s e d a t 1 1 :5 7 a . m . , w ould n o t
c e a s e u n t i l t h e r e s e r v o i r b e h i n d l a y em pty s i x o r s e v e n h o u r s l a t e r .
F o r t h e c o m m u n it ie s b e lo w , s e v e n t y - t w o h o u r s would p a s s b e f o r e t h e
f l o o d w a t e r s had f i n a l l y r e a c h e d t h e i r d e s t i n a t i o n a t A m erican F a l l s
R e s e r v o i r some 85 m i l e s s o u t h . (See F i g u r e 9 . )

1 2 : 0 0 p.m .

A b o u t 20 m i n u t e s a f t e r t h e dam c o l l a p s e d , a f l o o d w a l l e s t i m a t e d
b e t w e e n 30 and 70 f e e t i n h e i g h t e x p l o d e d o u t o f t h e m outh o f t h e
canyon o n to th e p l a i n . When t h e w a t e r h i t t h e p l a i n , t h e l e a d e d g e
f l a t t e n e d s l i g h t l y t o a n e s t i m a t e d 25 o r 30 f e e t and s p r e a d o u t a b o u t
s i x to e i g h t f e e t in w id th . T r a v e l l i n g a t r o u g h l y 10 t o 15 m i l e s
 86

7K 0R N T 0N
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to

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GOSHEN

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F i g u r e 9: T e t o n F lo o d P a t h , J u n e 5 , 1976
 87

p e r h o u r , t h e w a t e r s w i f t l y i n u n d a t e d t h e t h r e e by s i x m i l e a r e a
o f 154 homes and f a r m s known a s W i l f o r d .

Those who had t h e i r r a d i o s on w ere h e a r i n g v e r s i o n s o f t h e

f o l l o w i n g r e p e a l e d o v e r and o v e r u n t i l t h e s t a t i o n l o s t p ow er a t
a b o u t 2 : 3 0 p.m .

P e o p le d o w n s tr e a m , p e o p l e i n t h e way o f t h e s e flo o d w aters,

t h e r e i s g o i n g t o be a tr e m e n d o u s f l o o d ! The volume o f
w a t e r coming t h r o u g h w i l l be tr e m e n d o u s ! The p e o p le down­
s t r e a m s h o u ld e v a c u a t e q u i c k l y ! The w a t e r i s coming!

T h i s i s no j o k e . The T e to n Dam i s g o n e .

P e o p le d o w n s tr e a m , g e t o u t q u i c k l y . H urry! H u rry !

D o n 't s t o p to g a t h e r y o u r t h i n g s . G et o u t . Get o u t .

H u rry ! The T e t o n Dam b r o k e . T h is i s no j o k e .

L o c a l p e o p l e v ie w t h e t i m i n g o f t h e f a i l u r e a s a b l e s s i n g , f o r
many w e re e i t h e r r e t u r n i n g o r a l r e a d y home f o r lu n c h . At m o s t , r e s i ­
d e n t s o f Frem on t C o u n ty had more t h a n 45 m i n u t e s t o l e a m t h a t t h e dam
h ad c o l l a p s e d . Some l e a r n e d o f a p p r o a c h i n g d a n g e r by t h e d o o r - t o -
d o o r w a r n i n g s i n i t i a t e d by s t a t e , c o u n t y and l o c a l p o l i c e ; o th e rs
had t h e i r r a d i o s o n ; o t h e r s h e a r d from a p a s s i n g n e i g h b o r o r v i s i t i n g
f a m i l y member; some r e c e i v e d t e l e p h o n e c a l l s and made o t h e r s ; and
s t i l l o t h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e i n t h e f i e l d s , n o t i c e d an u n u s u a l l y
l a r g e volum e o f r o a d and a i r t r a f f i c an d c o n s e q u e n t l y , became v i g i ­
l a n t o f e n v iro n m en tal c u e s . F o r many, t h e f i r s t s i g n o f d i s a s t e r
came w i t h t h e c u r t a i n o f d u s t t h a t was th r o w n up i n f r o n t o f t h e
m oving w a l l o f w a t e r . Some had no w a r n i n g a t a l l .

E x p e c t a t i o n s o f b o t h o f f i c i a l s and t h e p u b l i c a t l a r g e w e re i n ­
fo rm e d by c o n v e n t i o n a l i d e a s o f f in n X i n g , P r i o r e x p e r i e n c e had t a u g h t
t h a t f l o o d s r e s u l t when r i v e r b a n k s o v e r f l o w . With a c o n v e n t i o n a l i d e a
o f f l o o d i n g i n m in d , many k e p t a w a t c h f u l e y e on t h e r i v e r a s t h e y
a t t e m p t e d t o q u i c k l y l o c a t e f a m i l y m em b ers, s a v e v a l u a b l e i t e m s , o r
t a k e m e a s u r e s to p r o t e c t m a c h i n e r y and farm a n x in a ls. At t h e l a s t
m i n u t e , t h e y w ere t a k e n by s u r p r i s e . Many n a r r o w l y e x c a p e d w i t h w a t e r
s p l a s h i n g a t the r e a r w h e e ls o f a t r u c k . S e v e r a l f a m i l i e s end ed up a s
a g ro u p o f 30 s t r a n d e d on th e h i g h e s t p i e c e o f g ro u n d in t h e v i c i n i t y :
t h e i r e s c a p e r o u t e s had b e e n c u t o f f . 9 One young man fo u n d s a f e t y on
th e ro o f o f a h o u se . F i v e , u n a b l e t o e s c a p e , were d r o w n e d .

Few w ere f i s h i n g on t h e T e to n R i v e r t h a t m o r n in g , b u t t h o s e who

w e r e , w e re t o o i s o l a t e d t o be w a rn e d by t r a d i t i o n a l m e a n s . A sm all
f i s h i n g p a r t y o f f i v e o b s e r v e d r a p i d c h a n g e s in r i v e r c o n d i t i o n s ,
h e a r d a g u n s h o t f i r e d fro m t h e can yo n w a l l and s c u r r i e d up t h e b a n k s
o f t h e r i v e r i n ti m e t o s e e t h e w a l l o f w a t e r l e a v e t h e c a n y o n . Two
 88

young f i s h e r m e n had no w a r n i n g a t a l l . One d r o w n e d . H i s frie n d

was r e s c u e d l a t e r t h a t a f t e r n o o n from t h e t o p o f a t r e e . H

T h i s was n o t a c o n v e n t i o n a l f l o o d . The w a l l o f w a t e r t h a t r a z e d
W i l f o r d was m o r e l i k e a t i d a l wave t h a n a f l o o d . The d e s t r u c t i v e
pow er t h a t h a s b e e n u n l e a s h e d c a u s e d t h o s e who w i t n e s s e d i t t o f e e l
t h a t t h e y w e r e a c t u a l l y l i v i n g t h r o u g h a n i g h t m a r e . T h e y rem em ber,
w i t h a s e n s e o f awe and d i s b e l i e f s t i l l e v i d e n t , h a v i n g s e e n b r i d g e s
t o s s e d i n t o t h e a i r l i k e t o y s , homes e x p l o d i n g on i m p a c t , t r e e s and
u t i l i t y p o l e s u p r o o t e d and f l o a t e d away l i k e m a tc h s t i c k s , w hole
g r o v e s o f t r e e s s h e a r e d i n a n i n s t a n t , homes s e v e r e d fro m t h e i r f o u n ­
d a t i o n and c a r r i e d o f f on t h e c r e s t , h e r d s o f c a t t l e s w a llo w e d up i n t o
t h e c h u r n i n g w a t e r , and r a i l r o a d t i e s t w i s t e d l i k e p r e t z e l s and th ro w n
a sid e .

1 :0 0 p.m .

The f l o o d p a t h t o t a l l y i g n o r e d t h e t o p o g r a p h y o f t h e l a n d . Dur­
i n g t h i s e a r l y p h a s e , t h e f o r c e o f 2 6 0 , 0 0 0 a c r e f e e t o f w a t e r dammed
up i n t h e r e s e r v o i r d r o v e t h e f l o o d w a t e r s o u t o f t h e c a n y o n due w e s t .
N ew dale, s i t u a t e d on t h e r i d g e o f t h e c a n y o n w a l l , was u n t o u c h e d . S t.
A n th o n y and T e t o n , e x c e p t f o r a few p r o p e r t i e s on t h e n o r t h f r i n g e ,
a l s o e sc a p e d dam age. S u g a r C i t y , l i k e W i l f o r d , was l o c a t e d on a w e s t ­
e r l y p a t h an d S u g a r C i t y , l i k e W i l f o r d , r e c e i v e d a h e a d - o n a t t a c k .

When t h e w a t e r a p p r o a c h e d th e e d g e o f S u g a r C i t y a b o u t one h o u r
a f t e r t h e dam b r o k e , t h e town was d e s e r t e d e x c e p t f o r p e r h a p s s e v e n
persons. E v a c u a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s had commenced i n M ad iso n C ou nty s h o r t ­
l y a f t e r t h e c o u n t y c o m m i s s i o n e r r e t u r n e d from t h e dam s i t e . 13 Road
b l o c k s w a r n e d n o r t h b o u n d t r a f f i c ; ! ^ p o l i c e and a m b u la n c e v e h i c l e s
p a t r o l l e d c o u n t y r o a d s and c i t y s t r e e t s s h o u t i n g , "The dam b r o k e . Go
to h ig h ground. Turn on t h e r a d i o . " ; s i r e n s on t h e f i r e b a l l s o f
S u g a r C i t y a n d R ex bu rg b l a r e d c o n t i n u o u s l y ; n e i g h b o r s w a rn ed n e i g h ­
b o r s ; and p r i e s t h o o d l e a d e r s c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e i s o l a t e d and i n f i r m .
The c o n v e r g e n c e o f m u l t i p l e w a r n i n g s and t h e a c t i v i t y w h ic h was t h e r e ­
by g e n e r a t e d c r e a t e d a n a t m o s p h e r e o f e x c i t e m e n t .

A l t h o u g h t h e r e was a g e n e r a l s e n s e o f e x c i t e m e n t , few w e re c o g n i ­
z a n t o f th e d e v a s t a t i o n above. I t was t h e r a r e p e r s o n who h a d e n v i ­
s i o n e d t h e d e s t r u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l o f s u c h a f l o o d . M ost d o u b te d t h e
n e c e s s i t y o f a w h o l e - s c a l e e v a c u a t i o n , b u t Mormons h a v e a h i s t o r y o f
o b e d i e n c e t o a u t h o r i t y and p r i v a t e s c e p t i c i s m g a v e way t o s o c i a l
p r e s s u r e . M o st d i d a s t h e y w ere t o l d and l e f t t h e i r homes - a f t e r
a c c o u n t i n g f o r f a m i l y m em b e rs, t h a t i s . Few saw any n e e d t o p r o t e c t
t h e i r p r o p e r ty o r cake s u r v i v a l eq u ip m en t. They w ou ld b e b a c k home
sh o rtly . Some d i d t a k e a d d i t i o n a l t i m e , i n s p i t e o f a p p e a l s t o t h e
c o n t r a r y , t o p r o t e c t t h e i r p r o p e r t y from f l o o d dam age: g a r a g e d o o r s
w e re c l o s e d , v a l u a b l e s w e r e s e t on h i g h p l a c e s , fo o d s t o r a g e was r e ­
moved from t h e b a s e m e n t , windows w ere s h u t and d o o r s w e re l o c k e d . In
r e t r o s p e c t , s u c h m e a s u r e s w o u ld seem f o o l i s h .
 89

H o u s e s j b o u l d e r s , f e r t i l i z e r t a n k s , f e n c e s , d e a d c a t t l e , t r e e s an d
d e b r i s o f e v e r y i m a g i n a b l e d e s c r i p t i o n , p i c k e d up i n F re m o n t C o u n ty ,
r o d e t h e 10 t o 15 f o o t wave i n t o S u g a r C i t y . The c o m bined f o r c e o f
t h e w a t e r and d e b r i s l e f t t h i s s m a l l town t o t a l l y d e v a s t a t e d . Many
homes r e m a in e d on t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n s , b u t t h i s was d e c e p t i v e f o r , i n
l a r g e m e a s u r e , th e y r e m a i n e d em pty s h e l l s w h ic h would b e condemned and
d em o lish ed l a t e r . The c o n t e n t s o f homes w e r e s c a t t e r e d o v e r t h e
co u n try sid e. By f o u r o ' c l o c k t h a t a f t e r n o o n . S u g ar C i t y w o u ld s t i l l
b e u n d e r 12 f e e t o f c h o c o l a t e - c o l o r e d w a t e r .

1 :2 0 p.m .

Some 260 m i l e s away i n t h e s t a t e c a p i t a l o f B o i s e , t h e G o v e r n o r

d e c l a r e d t h e v a l l e y an e x t r e m e s t a t e o f e m e r g e n c y . S h o r t l y a f t e r ,
he p r e p a r e d t o b o a r d a p l a n e t o make a p e r s o n a l a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e
s i t u a t i o n . O u t s i d e m e d ia b e g a n p i c k i n g up t h e s t o r y from t h e w i r e
and b r o a d c a s t i n g i t to t h e n a t i o n . 17

2 : 0 0 p.m .

As t h e f l o o d w a t e r s a p p r o a c h e d t h e n o r t h e a s t s i d e o f R e x b u rg ,
t h e l e a d e d g e was s t i l l an e s t i m a t e d s i x t o e i g h t f e e t m oving a p p r o x ­
im a te ly e i g h t to te n m ile s p e r h o u r. The c u r r e n t o f w a t e r f l o w i n g
t h r o u g h t h e c i t y c r e a t e d s e c o n d a r y d i s a s t e r s i n i t s wake. T hree f i r e s
s t a r t e d when t h e b u l k p l a n t s o f two o i l c o m p a n ie s e x p l o d e d and t h o u ­
s a n d s o f f l o a t i n g m i s s i l e s w ere a d d e d t o t h e d e b r i s when t h e lu m b e r
m i l l was h i t . Tlie w a t e r - d r i v e n l o g s from t h e m i l l f u n c t i o n e d l i k e
p r o j e c t i l e s a n d b a t t e r i n g ram s a s t h e y c o l l i d e d i n t o tw o s u b d i v i s i o n s
and a t r a i l e r c o u r t in t h e n o r t h w e s t s e c t i o n o f t h e c i t y .

T h o u s a n d s who had g a t h e r e d n e a r R ic k s C o l l e g e w a t c h e d from " t h e

h i l l o f r e f u g e " . I n t h e w ords o f one o b s e r v e r :

The n o i s e was i n c r e d i b l e . The so u n d w as l i k e a l a r g e r u s h i n g

r i v e r a s t h e w a t e r s came t h r o u g h . T h e r e w e re s q u e a k s and
s q u e a l s from t h e homes a s n a i l s p u l l e d l o o s e , r u s h i n g s o u n d s
from t h e w a t e r s t h e m s e l v e s and d e b r i s c r a c k i n g , b r e a k i n g ,
p o p p in g o f f a g a i n s t a n y s o l i d o b j e c t s . Mixed i n w e r e s o u n d s
o f a n i m a l s a s t h e y w e r e swimming t h r o u g h t h e f l o o d w a t e r s and
e x p l o s i o n s i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d when g a s o l i n e t a n k s and o t h e r
k i n d s o f flam m a b le m a t e r i a l s c a u g h t on f i r e . T h e r e was n o t
a sound i n tow n . T h e r e w e r e no h o r n s — p e o p l e j u s t s t o o d by
s i l e n t l y a s t h e y w a t c h e d f l o o d w a t e r s go t h r o u g h town.

R e a c t i o n s w e re v a r i e d , b u t u n d e r n e a t h t h e d i v e r s i t y was a g e n e r a l
s e n s e o f d i s b e l i e f and d e t a c h m e n t . The a t m o s p h e r e , r e p o r t e d l y , was
marked by a u n i q u e c o m b i n a t i o n o f a c a r n i v a l and a b a d m o v ie . "D isas­
t e r s l i k e t h i s happen i n o t h e r p la c e s to o t h e r p e o p le . N ot h e r e . Not
u s . " " I j u s t k e p t t h i n k i n g , t h i s c a n ' t r e a l l y be h a p p e n in g ." In
th e b a c k g r o u n d , m i s s i n g f a m i l y members g r e e t e d and e m b r a c e d i n r e l i e f ,
r e l a t i v e s search ed an x io u sly fo r those s t i l l m issin g , f i e l d g la s s e s
 90

w e r e p a s s e d a r o u n d f o r f r i e n d s t o have a c l o s e r l o o k , c a m e r a s c l i c k e d ,
c a r s moved s l o w l y t h r o u g h t h e s t r e e t s l i n e d w i t h p a r k e d c a r s , i n f a n t s
c r i e d , t e a r s w e r e s h e d a n d j o k e s w e re m a d e. M o s t l y , p e o p l e remem ber
s t a n d i n g , w a tc h in g and f e e l i n g h e l p l e s s .

A bout f i v e h o u r s l a t e r t h e c r e s t o f t h e f l o o d w a t e r s h a d p a s s e d
th ro u g h th e c i t y o f R exburg. The b u s i n e s s c e n t e r a l o n g M ain S t r e e t
and r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s b e lo w t h e h i l l on t h e n o r t h , w e s t , and s o u t h w e s t
w e re u n d e r s i x t o e i g h t f e e t o f w a t e r . I n s i d e many o f t h e homes a n d
s h o p s lo o k e d l i k e g i a n t e g g b e a t e r s had c h u r n e d e v e r y t h i n g t o p s y -
tu rv e y .

4 : 3 0 p.m .

I n t h e m e a n tim e , t h e l e a d e d g e had a d v a n c e d o n t o t h e p l a i n s
m o v in g to w a rd t h e r i v e r . As t h e f l o o d w a t e r s l e f t S u g a r C i t y and Rex­
b u r g , some o f t h e f o r c e had b e e n s p e n t , t h e l e a d e d g e f l a t t e n e d , and
t h e w a t e r s lo w e d . In a s e n s e , t h i s r e p r e s e n t s th e second phase
i n t h e T e to n f l o o d . The w a t e r t u r n e d s o u t h w a r d and f o l l o w e d t h e n o r ­
m al d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s o f t h e t e r r a i n a l i t t l e m o re c l o s e l y . In th e
r u r a l a r e a s o f Salem , H i b b a r d , a n d B u r t o n t h e w a t e r b e h a v e d m ore c a ­
p ric io u sly . One home was l i f t e d from i t s f o u n d a t i o n and f l o a t e d
d o w n s tr e a m w h i l e t h e n e i g h b o r ' s home, l e s s t h a n a few h u n d r e d y a r d s
aw ay, s t o o d b a r e l y t o u c h e d . The s o i l o f one fa r m was s c r a p e d down t o
t h e r o c k b e d , a n o t h e r n e a r b y h a d r i c h d e p o s i t s fro m u p s t r e a m , and
a n o t h e r had o n ly enough w a te r to a p p e a r w e l l i r r i g a t e d .

A t t h e s o u t h w e s t c o r n e r o f M a d iso n C o u n ty , a t h i r d p h a s e b e g a n .
The l e a d e dg e s p l i t , f o r m i n g two p a t h s , one r u n n i n g a r o u n d e a c h s i d e
o f t h e Menan B u t t e s . The n o r t h e d g e c u t a c h a n n e l a r o u n d t h e B u t t e
and c a r r i e d f l o o d w a t e r u n e x p e c t e d l y f u r t h e r w e s t i n t o t h e s m a l l town
o f R o b e r t s in J e f f e r s o n C o u n t y . T h e m arshy lo w la n d s o f R o b e rts
t r a p p e d s t a g n a n t w a t e r i n a l a k e w h ic h r e m a i n e d f o r more t h a n a week.

The S n a ke R i v e r b e lo w b e g a n t o r e c e i v e t h e s p i l l - o v e r w h ic h
d r a i n e d fro m t h e p l a i n s i n t o i t s b a n k s . From t h i s p o i n t s o u t h t h e
f o u r t h and f i n a l p h a s e o c c u r r e d a s t h e T e to n f l o o d t o o k on a more
c o n v e n tio n a l app earan ce.

R i s i n g w a t e r l e v e l s i n t h e Snake R i v e r t h r e a t e n e d t h e c i t y o f
I d a h o F a l l s a b o u t 44 m i l e s s o u t h o f t h e dam, b u t s a n d b a g g i n g o p e r a ­
t i o n s and d i v e r s i o n c h a n n e l s p r o v e d t o b e e f f e c t i v e e m e r g e n c y mea­
s u re s.^ ® A d d i t i o n a l l y , c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s w e re a i d e d by t h e c r e a t i o n
o f a r t i f i c i a l dams w h ic h form ed a s d e b r i s from u p s t r e a m o b s t r u c t e d
passage under b rid g e s. D ow nstream , t h e c o m m u n i tie s o f F i r t h , S h e l l e y ,
and B l a c k f o o t e x p e r i e n c e d s e r i o u s f l o o d damage a s t h e Snake R iv e r
c r e s t e d a n d o v e r f l o w e d i t s b a n k s a f t e r m i d n i g h t on S u n d a y . S e v en ty -
two h o u r s h ad p a s s e d a f t e r t h e T e t o n Dam b r o k e b e f o r e t h e f l o o d was
f i n a l l y stemmed by t h e A m e ric a n F a l l s R e s e r v o i r .
 91

9 :0 0 p.m.

But t h e d i s c u s s i o n h a s a d v a n c e d t o o f a r d o w n s tr e a m , f o r t h e p a r a ­
m e t e r s o f t h i s s t u d y h av e b e e n d raw n a t M a d iso n C o u n ty . As t h e
c o m m u n iti e s d o w n s tr e a m from M a d iso n C o u n ty w e re p r e p a r i n g f o r im p e n d in g
d i s a s t e r , M a d iso n C ounty had a l r e a d y e x p e r i e n c e d t h e f u l l i m p a c t . By
9 : 0 0 p .m . on S a t u r d a y , J u n e 5 t h , t h e f l o o d w a t e r s h a d b e gun t o r e c e d e .
A l l o v e r t h e u p p e r v a l l e y , r e s i d e n t s w o nd e re d a b o u t t h e i r l o s s e s and
th e ir fu tu re . R e s i d e n t s and o f f i c i a l s w e re r e t u r n i n g t o t h e f l o o d p a t h
( f i g u r e 10 d i a g r a m s t h e f l o o d p a t h f o r F re m o n t and M adison C o u n t i e s
a l o n e ) t o e s t i m a t e t h e e x t e n t o f th e d a m a g e s . T ab le 7 ite m iz e s th e
f l o o d dam ages by s e l e c t i v e c a t e g o r i e s f o r b o t h F re m o n t and M a d iso n
C o u n ty .

D e s tr u c tio n In I t s P ath

I n Frem ont C o u n t y , t h e r u r a l com m unity o f W i l f o r d , w h ic h t a k e s

i t s name from t h e LDS ward c h a p e l , was a l m o s t t o t a l l y d e v a s t a t e d .
Of t h e 154 homes i n W i l f o r d o n ly 20 r e m a in e d on t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n s .
A l t h o u g h t h e w ard c h a p e l , t h e c e n t e r o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t y f o r t h e p r e ­
d o m i n a n t l y Mormon p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 8 0 p e r s o n s , was s t i l l s t a n d i n g ,
damage t o t h e s t r u c t u r e was so e x t e n s i v e t h a t i t was b u r n e d t o t h e
g ro u n d a few d a y s l a t e r . C rops, t r e e s , ro a d s and th e n a t u r a l h a b i t a t
a lo n g t h e r i v e r had been r a z e d . In f a c t , even th e c o u rse o f th e
r i v e r was a l t e r e d when t h e f o r c e o f t h e w a t e r c u t a new c h a n n e l . Most
i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e t o p s o i l had b e e n w ashed away and i n many a r e a s
e r o s i o n e x t e n d e d r i g h t down to b e d r o c k . I n some s e c t i o n s , 60 f o o t
d e e p h o l e s and g r a v e l p i t s s t o o d w here f e r t i l e f a r m l a n d had b e e n o n l y
hours e a r l i e r .

As r e s i d e n t s r e t u r n e d l a t e r t h a t da y t h e y w ere sh o c k e d by t h e
to ta lity of d e stru c tio n . In t h e w o rd s o f one r e s i d e n t :

We s t a y e d up t h e r e ( S t . A n th o n y ) t o a b o u t 4 o ' c l o c k
an d g e e , we j u s t c o u l d n ' t s t a n d i t any l o n g e r . And we came
back. A l l t h e r o a d s w ere w ash ed aw ay. T h e r e w a s, o h , p r o ­
b a b l y two o r t h r e e f e e t o f w a t e r y e t , you know. We came
a s f a r a s we c o u l d b u t you lo o k e d o v e r and t h e r e was n o t h i n g .
I mean, a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g . C o u rs e we ha d a few t r e e s n e a r
our p lace b u t as fa r as b u ild in g s , l i g h t s or lig h tp o le s ,
f e n c e p o s t s , t h e r e was n o t h i n g . I t lo o k e d l i k e a d r i e d up
r i v e r bed.
N ext m o r n i n g we g o t b o o t s and we w a lk e d i n h e r e . And,
o h , you j u s t c a n ' t b e l i e v e i t . Our b a s e m e n t and o u r f o u n d a ­
t i o n s t a y e d b u t I d o n ' t t h i n k t h e r e was an y o t h e r s r i g h t i n t h e
im m e d ia t e a r e a . E x c e p t , l e t ' s s e e , o n e n e i g h b o r ' s , h i s was
p a r tia lly th e re . B u t , you c o u l d n ' t e v e n t e l l w h e re t h e
h o u s e s had b e e n . The o t h e r s , w h e re t h e y a r e , I d o n ' t know.
 92

F i g u r e 10: T e to n F lo o d P a t h , M adison and F re m o n t C o u n t i e s

 93

T ab le 7 D i s a s t e r L oss by S e l e c t i v e P e r s o n a l and P r o o e r t v C a t e e o r i e s
f o r M adison a n d F rem o n t C o u n t i e s

SELECTED CATEGORIES OF LOSS MADISON FREMONT

COUNTY COUNTY
PERSONAL
DEATH ( t o t a l ) 2 9
D row ning 0 6
G u n - s h o t wound 1 1
H eart F a ilu re 1 2
INJURY ( t o t a l ) 0 1
S e rio u s 0 1
UNEMPLOYMENT ( n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l )
T o t a l U nemployed 2 ,0 2 6 596
Number due t o f l o o d a l o n e 2,000 560
Unemployment r a t e (%) 22.6 1 9 .2

PROPERTY - NON-AGRICULTURAL
RESIDENTIAL ( t o t a l ) 2 ,7 9 8 149
Homes D e s t r o y e d 493 134
Homes w i t h m a j o r damage 1 ,3 8 3 10
Homes w i t h m i n o r damage 822 5
BUSINESS
D e s t r o y e d o r damaged 177

PROPERTY - AGRICULTURAL
FARM BUILDINGS
D e s t r o y e d o r damaged 1,275 1, 00 0
CROPS ( a c r e ) 4 5 .2 0 0 10,000
P o tato 6,000 1 .5 0 0
G rain 1 8 ,0 0 0 5 .0 0 0
Hay 1 8 ,0 0 0 2 .5 0 0
Beet 200 0
P astu re 3 .0 0 0 1.000
LIVESTOCK ( h e a d ) 9 ,7 3 0 5 ,1 5 0
C a ttle 6 ,5 0 0 4 .0 0 0
Hogs & P ig s 700 150
Sheep & Lambs 500 1.000
P o u ltry 2.000 n /a
H orses 30 n /a
CROPLAND ( a c r e ) 4 5 .2 0 0 1 3 ,0 0 0
N o n -reclaim ab le 4 ,0 0 0 5 .0 0 0
N o n - p r o d u c t i v e f o r one y e a r 12,000 2 .0 0 0
More t h a n 35% p r o d u c t i v i t y l o s s 1 6 ,5 0 0 4 .5 0 0
No p e r m a n e n t damage 2 4 ,7 0 0 3 .5 0 0
 94

I 'd p a in te d o u r fo u n d a tio n green. T h a t ' s how we knew

i t was o u r p l a c e . B u t when y o u w ere w a l k i n g i n , you c o u l d n ' t
t e l l one p l a c e fro m a n o t h e r . The w a t e r j u s t w a sh e d e v e r y ­
t h i n g , e s p e c i a l l y t h e f i e l d s t h a t had j u s t b e e n p l a n t e d —
l i k e h a y and p a s t u r e — you know.
I t was a w e i r d f e e l i n g . I c a n t e l l y ou t h a t . You j u s t
c o u ld n 't b e lie v e . You c a n ' t com prehend s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h a t
when i t j u s t t a k e s , w e l l , we h a d a b r i c k h o u s e , and i t
seemed l i k e i t j u s t e x p l o d e d . I t was g on e .
And t h e g ro u n d l o o k e d s o b a d . I t lo o k e d j u s t l i k e a
d r i e d up r i v e r b e d . W e ll, i f you had n e v e r known p e o p l e w e re
h e r e , y o u 'd t h i n k n o one h ad e v e r l i v e d h e r e b e f o r e . I t was
j u s t , w e l l , I d o n ' t know. You j u s t c o u l d n ' t b e l i e v e i t .
But t h e r e was a l o t o f t r a s h . T h e r e was s o many l o g s up
t h e r e b e h i n d t h e dam. And t h e r e was a l o t o f h u g e l o g s and
rocks. And a l o t o f t r a s h .
The mud was s o b a d . Our b a s e m e n t - i t was c l e a r f u l l o f
mud. P a r t o f t h e s u b f l o o r s t a y e d o n , t h e p a r t w h e re we k e p t
our f r e e z e r . When t h e w a t e r came we f i g u r e i t h i t t h a t b a s e ­
ment s t a i r w a y and j u s t b le w t h a t f r e e z e r r i g h t o u t . I had
a c o u p l e o f b e d ro o m s down t h e r e i n t h e b a s e m e n t . W ell, th e
beds j u s t ex p lo d ed . Oh, f u r n i t u r e a n d b e d d i n g and I mean,
k i d ' s c l o t h e s and e v e r y t h i n g . I t was a m e s s , a l l down t h e r e
m ixed up i n t h e m u d ."

D ow nstream , a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e s i x e s o f s t a k e s h a d
b e e n i n u n d a t e d w i t h w a t e r . As i n d i c a t e d on f i g u r e 10 , t h e f l o o d p a t h
i n M a d iso n C o u n ty e n c o m p a s s e d a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d
c o r r i d o r w h ic h r u n s t h r o u g h t h e w e s t e r l y o n e - t h i r d o f t h e c o u n t y .
A lth o u g h dam ages w e re e x t e n s i v e i n M adison C o u n ty , n o s i n g l e com m unity
i n t h e f l o o d p a t h was a s c o m p l e t e l y a f f e c t e d a s t h e com m unity o f
W ilfo rd .

The t h r e e c o l l e g e s t a k e s l o c a t e d on t h e h i l l i n R e x b u rg w e r e
o u t s i d e t h e f l o o d p a t h . 2 2 S i x o f n i n e w a rd s ( S a le m , S u g a r C i t y f i r s t
and s e c o n d , H i b b a r d , a n d R exburg f i r s t and e i g h t h ) and r o u g h l y 70
p e r c e n t o f t h e R exb urg N o r th S t a k e p r o p e r t i e s a l o n g t h e f r i n g e s o f
T e t o n and P l a n o t h e o t h e r t h r e e w a r d s w e re o u t s i d e t h e f l o o d a r e a .
R o u g h ly 85 p e r c e n t o f t^'e p o p u l a t i o n o f R exburg S t a k e a n d f i v e ( s e c ­
o n d , t h i r d , f i f t h , e l e v e n t h and t w e l f t h ) w a rd s w e r e i n t h e f l o o d
p a th . The r e m a i n i n g two w a rd s ( R e x b u rg s e v e n t h a n d n i n t h ) w e re
p a r t i a l l y flo o d ed . Of t h e f i v e w a rd s i n R exb urg E a s t S t a k e , o n l y t h e
w e s t s e c t i o n o f t h e f o u r t h w ard (b e lo w t h e h i l l ) was f l o o d e d . S ince
t h e f l o o d w a t e r s c u t t h r o u g h t h e c i t y o f R exb urg j u s t b e l o w t h e h i l l
and moved s o u t h w e s t o n t o t h e p l a i n , t h e w a rd s e a s t on t h e h i l l
( s i x t h and t e n t h ) and s o u t h e a s t a l o n g t h e Snake R i v e r ( A r c h e r and
Lyman) w e re u n a f f e c t e d . I n t o t a l , a b o u t 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e non­
s tu d e n t p o p u la tio n of th e s ix e s of s ta k e s re s id e d d i r e c t l y in th e
flo o d p a th .
 95

A lm o st a l l o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w as a f f e c t e d i n some w ay. S er­

v i c e s to th e e n t i r e c o u n ty w ere d i s r u p t e d . Two t h o u s a n d p e r s o n s i n
t h e l a b o r f o r c e w e re r e p o r t e d a s u n e m p lo y e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e
flo o d . The c o m m e r c ia l, f i n a n c i a l , g o v e r n m e n t a l and l i g h t i n d u s t r i a l
s e c t o r s l o c a t e d a r o u n d o r i n R e x b u rg a l o n g H ighw ay 191 and 20 w e r e
s e v e r l y dam aged. B rid g es, d ik e s , i r r i g a t i o n c a n a ls , r a i l r o a d tr a c k s ,
u t i l i t y l i n e s , t e l e p h o n e c a b l e s a n d more t h a n 700 m i l e s o f h ig h w a y
and c o u n t y r o a d w e re w a sh e d o u t . 4 2 0 ,0 0 0 c u b i c y a r d s o f d e b r i s
o b s t r u c t e d a c t i v i t y and movement a n d t h e c a r c a s s e s o f more t h a n
6 , 0 0 0 d e a d a n i m a l s t h r e a t e n e d t o become a p u b l i c h e a l t h p r o b l e m .

S econd t o W i l f o r d , S u g a r C i t y w as t h e m o s t s e v e r e l y damaged com­

m u n ity i n t h e f l o o d p a t h . T h i s com m unity l o s t 75 p e r c e n t o f t h e c i t y
w a t e r s y s t e m , 30 p e r c e n t o f t h e se w a g e s y s t e m , a l l m u n i c i p a l a n d
c o m m e r c ia l f a c i l i t i e s , a n d 98 p e r c e n t o f t h e h o u s i n g i n v e n t o r y .
Both s c h o o l s and t h e w a rd c h a p e l w e re dam aged. Many o f t h e homes
r e m a in e d on t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n , b u t t h i s was d e c e p t i v e , f o r a f t e r t h e y
had b e e n "mudded o u t " and c l e a n e d u p , m ost w e r e condemned a n d d e m o l­
ish e d . Of t h e 300 homes i n S u g a r C i t y , a b o u t s i x w e re s a l v a g e d .
One r e s i d e n t , whose home was r e s t o r e d a f t e r e x t e n s i v e r e p a i r , r e c a l l s
t h e k i n d o f damage t h a t r e s u l t e d fr o m t h e f o r c e o f th e w a t e r i n
Sugar C ity .

Sunday m o rn in g we w a lk e d i n . D rove from R i r i e , up on

t h e d r y f a r m s , down a s f a r a s S u g a r C i t y c e m e te r y and w a lk e d
in . We w e r e i n w a t e r , o h , up t o o u r w a i s t s o m e tim e s . T here
was no r o a d s an d w e 'd f a l l o v e r t h e r o c k s and s t u f f . It
was a h a r d t r i p i n h e r e . And we c o u l d s e e a l l t h e h o u s e s
gone a n d j u s t t o n s o f m a c h i n e s and c a r s and t h i n g s a l l
m a n g le d up a g a i n s t t h e s t a t i o n and t h e n , when we g o t o v e r
t o t h i s s i d e we saw o u r h o u s e s t i l l s t a n d i n g .
We l o c k e d t h e h o u s e when we l e f t ' c a u s e we t h o u g h t w e 'd
be back in a c o u p le o f h o u rs . We d i d n ' t h a v e a k e y s o we had
t o b r e a k a window t o g e t i n . My s o n - i n - l a w s a i d we b e t t e r t a k e
o f f o u r s h o e s so we d o n ' t t r a c k up t h e c a r p e t . Ha!
We o p e n e d t h e d o o r a n d i t was j u s t h e a r t b r e a k i n g . Two
f l o o r s w e r e c o m p l e t e l y c a v e d i n and t h e on e w a l l w h e re t h e
f l o o r c a v e d i n was j u s t h a n g i n g . W a te r had g o t up on t h e
n o r t h w a l l t o a b o u t , o h , up t o t h e e a v e s .
Funny p a r t o f i t was we d i d n ' t h a v e a window b r o k e , w e l l ,
u n t i l we b r o k e one t o g e t i n . The d o o r was l o c k e d a n d when
we g o t i n we fo u n d a b i g l o n g law n r a k e . And i t was l e a n ­
i n g up a g a i n s t t h e l i v i n g room w a l l . We fo un d some d e a d f i s h
on t h e c u p b o a r d a n d r o o t s o f s h r u b s and t h i n g s l i k e t h a t a l l
o v e r t h e h o u s e . And we d o n ' t know how t h e y e v e r g o t i n t h e
h o u s e b e c a u s e t h e f o u n d a t i o n w a s n ' t moved a t a l l . T here
w a s n 't a c ra c k in th e fo u n d a tio n o r t h a t . But t h o s e t h i n g s
w e r e a l l i n t h e r e and t h a t r a k e , l e a n i n g up a g a i n s t t h e w a l l .
The s m e l l . Ugh!
 96

W e l l , e v e r y o n e t o l d u s t h a t we w e r e s i l l y to e v e r t r y to
f i x i t back. We j u s t c o u l d n ' t l e a v e i t .

R e s i d e n t i a l dam age i n t h e c i t y o f R e x b u rg a n d i n t h e u n i n c o r ­
p o r a t e d a r e a s o f M a d is o n C o u n ty w as d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s , i n i t i a l l y .
Damage t o homes v a r i e d w i d e l y fro m a l m o s t n e g l i g i b l e t o t o t a l l o s s .
I n t h e c o u n t y a s a w h o le , 2 ,7 9 8 homes w e re dam aged. Of t h e s e , a b o u t
one o u t o f f o u r homes r e c e i v e d o n l y m i n i m a l damage o r , a t l e a s t ,
damage t h a t was r e p a i r a b l e ; 493 w e r e t o t a l l y d e s t r o y e d ; and t h e r e m a i n ­
i n g 1 ,3 8 3 r e c e i v e d m a j o r damage w i t h a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e s e
beyond r e p a i r . F lo o d d am a g e s c a t e g o r i z e d i n t h i s way l e a v e o u t t h e
human a s p e c t o f s u c h l o s s e s . The v i g n e t t e s b e l o w a r e i n c l u d e d t o
c o n v e y some s e n s e o f w h a t t h i s i n v e n t o r y o f r e s i d e n t i a l l o s s m e a n t .
The a c c o u n t s s e l e c t e d a r e f a i r l y t y p i c a l o f t h e v a r i e t y t h a t was e x ­
p e r i e n c e d b y t h e r e s i d e n t s o f M a d iso n C o u n ty a s t h e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e
f l o o d p a t h t o make t h e i r own a s s e s m e n t s .

Account 1

I t was a l m o s t d u s k and t h e w a t e r h a d p r e t t y w e l l gone

down a n d we w e r e t r y i n ' to make i t o u t t o o u r h o u s e t o s e e
w hat h a p p e n e d . S t u f f ha d r i p p e d o u t t h e c u l v e r t s and 88 was
c l o s e d so we c o u l d n ' t make i t . So, we w e r e j u s t d r i v i n '
a ro u n d and I ' l l n e v e r f o r g e t t h a t f e e l i n g . I c a n 't ex p la in
i t , i t ' s so e e r i e , you know. T h e r e was s t i l l w a t e r b u t t h e
f o u r - w h e e l d r i v e s i t s up h i g h . T h e r e w e re f i r e s and i t was
so b l e a k . H e l i c o p t e r s w e re e v e r y w h e r e a n d you c o u l d h e a r
t h e cows b e l l e r i n ' .
We d i d n ' t h a r d l y s l e e p a t a l l and a t t h e c r a c k o f dawn we
g o t up and h e a d e d o u t t o w a r d o u r h o u s e a g a i n . We came w i t h ­
i n a h a l f a m i l e o r so and t h e n t h e r e w e r e t r e e s and s t u f f
a c ro s s th e ro ad . So, we w a l k e d . I t was j u s t a w f u l .
We had t h i s l i t t l e w h i t e f e n c e a r o u n d t h e h o u s e , you
know. And t h a t was g o n e . We c o u l d s e e t h a t a l l t h a t was l e f t
o f t h e g a r a g e was t h e c e m e n t p a d . B ut t h e h o u s e , o u r h o u s e
was s t i l l t h e r e . We j u s t w a l k e d i n t h e h o u s e and t h e r e was
a f o o t o f mud. E v e r y t h i n g was l i k e y o u 'd t a k e n a m i x e r and
j u s t w hipp ed e v e r y t h i n g a r o u n d . The c o u c h was t u r n e d com­
p l e t e l y aro u n d . S t u f f t h a t was down i n t h e b a s e m e n t was
s i t t i n ' up on t h e f r o n t room f l o o r . I t ' d j u s t w ashed up
t h e s t a i r s and th ro u g h th e k i t c h e n . I t was w e i r d .
C o l l , we d i d n ' t know w h e r e t o s t a r t . We d i d n ' t h a v e a
t r u c k to s t a r t h a u l i n ' t h i n g s o f f . We d i d n ' t e v e n h a v e o u r
sh o v els. They w e r e s o m e p l a c e w i t h th e g arage.
I d i d g e t my w e d d in g p i c t u r e s . We t o o k t h o s e b a c k t o a
f r i e n d s and I s c r u b b e d 'em o f f . I s t i l l h a v e th e m . T h e y 'v e
g o t w a t e r s p o t s on t h e m , b u t you know, t h e y ' r e o k a y . We
j u s t w e n t b a c k i n t o to w n ."
 97

Account 2

When we came b a c k a n d we l o o k e d i n t h e b a s e m e n t , i t was

s t i l l f u l l o f w a t e r and t h e r e was s u c k e r s swimmin' a r o u n d —
i n o u r b a s e m e n t! Oh, g e e z , e v e n s n a k e s t o o .
And t h e n me a n ' my d a u g h t e r was w a l k i n g ' a r o u n d on t h e
s t r e e t — i t was s o muddy y o u c o u l d n ' t w a l k i n t h e y a r d —
p a s t t h i s b i g p i l e o f l o g s a n d I c a u g h t h o l d o f h e r h an d and
s a i d , 'S o m e th in 's l o o k i n ' a t m e ,' She s a i d , 'O h, m o t h e r ! ' I
lo o k e d i n t h a t bunch o f l o g s an d t h e r e s t o o d t h i s b u l l cow,
j u s t s ta n d in ' up. The l o g s h a d come a r o u n d h e r w h e r e s h e
c o u ld n 't f a l l . She d i e d . B ut s h e d i d n ' t f e e l i t . So,
we h a d t e n b i g cows i n o u r y a r d — in t h e y a r d , u n d e r t h e l o g s ,
u n d e r t h e h o u s e , up i n t h e t r e e . Ten. T h a t r e a l l y was a l o t
o f 'e m .
We had s o many l o g s . J u s t lo o k e d l i k e a l o g t r u c k had
come and dumped 'em i n o u r y a r d .
I t was a l o t o f m e s s . And when ya g o t i n t h e r e s h o v e l l i n '
i t o u t , i t was t e r r i b l e . The s t e n c h !

A ccount 3

And a s we t u r n e d o n t o o u r s t r e e t , ' c o u r s e we w e r e l o o k i n g
f o r o u r h o u s e . What we saw we j u s t c o u l d n ' t b e l i e v e . T h is
was Sunday a t a b o u t f i v e o ' c l o c k . E v e ry b o d y was o u t on o u r
s t r e e t i n f r o n t o f t h e i r g a r a g e s , and t h e d r i v e w a y s w e re f u l l
o f t h i n g s t h e y ' d b r o u g h t o u t o f t h e i r h o m e s. We j u s t a r r i v e d
b a c k from U ta h and we s t o p p e d a l o n g t h e w a y . We w e r e s o g l a d
t o s e e them and t h e y w e r e s o g l a d to s e e u s .
A new home on t h e c o m e r was c o m p l e t e l y r u i n e d — i t was
a l l sm ashed i n . And t h e s e c o n d home, a b r a n d new home t h a t
young f o l k s had l i v e d i n f o r s i x m o n t h s , i t was g o n e . A t h i r d
home on t h e e a s t s i d e o f t h e s t r e e t had b e e n rammed w i t h l o g s
and i t was a skew on i t s f o u n d a t i o n . Some o f them d i d n ' t
l o o k l i k e t h e y ' d b e e n t o u c h e d , from t h e o u t s i d e a t l e a s t .
The r o a d was s l i m y mud a b o u t t e n t o t w e l v e i n c h e s d e e p .
T h e r e was mud on o u r d r i v e w a y , a good t e n i n c h e s d e e p .
Of c o u r s e , when we d r o v e i n , we t o o k o u r s h o e s o f f and
w a lk e d i n t h r o u g h t h e mud and opened t h e g a r a g e d o o r . The
C h r y s l e r was s i t t i n g p r e t t y good b u t t h e V olk sw a g e n was s i t t i n g
c r o s s w a y s w i t h t h e b a c k w h e e l s up on t h e s t e p s i n t o t h e
k i t c h e n and t h e f r o n t e n d was i n t o t h e s i d e o f t h e C h r y s l e r .
My h u s b a n d had a t e n g a l l o n c a n o f o i l i n t h e g a r a g e . (He
a l w a y s c h a n g e d h i s own o i l . ) T h a t o i l h a d gone a l l o v e r
ev e ry th in g .
The w a t e r had come t h r o u g h t h e g a r a g e and i n t o t h e b a c k
d o o r o f t h e h o u s e — i n t o t h e k i t c h e n , t h e u t i l i t y room and t h e
d i n i n g room . Mud e v e r y w h e r e . The c a r p e t was c o v e r e d w i t h
mud and t h e r e was a b o u t two i n c h e s i n t h e u t i l i t y room.
The w a t e r e n d e d r i g h t a t t h e doorw ay i n t o t h e f r o n t room —
 98

i t a n d t h e bedro om s on t h e m a in f l o o r w e r e d r y . W e ll, we
t h o u g h t t h e y w e re d r y . They l o o k e d d r y .
The w a t e r d o w n s t a i r s was s t i l l a b o u t f o u r f e e t d e e p . We
l o o k e d t h i n g s o v e r and my h u s b a n d s a i d , " W e l l , we c a n ' t do
a n y th in g . L e t ' s go b a c k t o t h e F a l l s a n d g e t a room and
w e ' l l j u s t s t a y t h e r e t o n i g h t a n d come h a c k t o m o r r o w ,"
And, o h , I d i d n ' t w a n t t o g o . B u t , my h u s b a n d h a d h a d t h r e e
h e a r t a t t a c k s and had l e a r n e d t o l i v e w i t h th e m , a n d , a l l o f
a s u d d e n I r e a l i z e d , h e had t o g e t aw ay.

A ccount 4

F i r s t t h i n g I d i d was d r i v e t o t h e t r a i l e r c o u r t w h e re my
house w as. The o n l y t h i n g t h e r e was my g a r d e n h o s e . I t was
s t i l l a t t a c h e d to t h e f a u c e t u n d e r n e a t h t h e h o u s e and i t was
a l l s tre tc h e d o u t.
I h ad a l o t o f t i m e r i g h t t h e n and I w a l k e d . I th o u g h t
I ' d j u s t w a lk i n t h e p a t t e r n t h e w a t e r f lo w e d an d s e e i f I
co u ld f i n d i t . And I e n d e d up w a l k i n g two m i l e s o u t w e s t . I
found i t . I h a d two m o t o r c y c l e s t h a t w e r e p a r k e d t o t h e
s i d e o f ray t r a i l e r and I s p e n t a l m o s t f o u r w e e k s b e f o r e I
f o u n d them . They w e re o n l y a b o u t a q u a r t e r o f a m i l e from
my t r a i l e r , l a y i n ' s i d e by s i d e , i n a d i t c h . But th ey w ere
t o t a l l y m a n g le d a n d t h e r e w a s n ' t a n y t h i n g s a l v a g e a b l e on 'e m .
The t r a i l e r ? W e l l , t h e r e was a c o u p l e o f p i e c e s o f f u r ­
n i t u r e , l i k e , t h e m a t t r e s s e s on t h e b e d s w as a l r i g h t . I had a
wooden fra m e f o r t h e bed and i t f l o a t e d s o t h e m a t t r e s s e s w a s n ' t
d irty . I had some b l a n k e t s t o o . They was o k a y . Funny e n o u g h ,
t h i s d e e r h e a d r i g h t h e r e was b a n g i n ' on a hoo k l i k e i t i s
now — a t e e n y t i n y h o o k . T hat th in g t r a v e l l e d th e f u l l
l e n g t h and i t d i d n ' t f a l l o f f . He was h i g h and d r y .
I t was t h e f u n n i e s t t h i n g I e v e r s e e n b e c a u s e t h e w a l l
w h ere my k i t c h e n was was g o n e . My o v e n was g o n e , d r y e r was
g o n e , p a n t r y was g o n e . B ut s o m e t h i n ' t h a t f r a g i l e — I 'm an
a v i d h u n t e r a n d t h a t ' s p r e t t y i m p o r t a n t t o me, you know —
s t a y e d on t h e w a l l . I j u s t c o u ld n 't b e lie v e i t . I t was c r a z y .

T a b l e 7 i n d i c a t e s t h a t l o s s t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r w as con­
sid e ra b le . More t h a n 1 ,0 0 0 p i e c e s o f fa r m m a c h i n e r y , 9 ,7 3 0 h e a d o f
l i v e s t o c k and 4 5 ,2 0 0 a c r e s o f c r o p s w e re l o s t . F a r m e r s and o f f i c i a l s
w o r r i e d t h a t c r o p s w h ic h w e r e undamaged d i r e c t l y by t h e f l o o d w ould
be b u r n e d up due t o a s h o r t a g e o f i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r a s a r e s u l t o f
damage t o t h e c a n a l s y s t e m . R e d u c t i o n and p e r m a n e n t l o s s i n c r o p p r o ­
d u c t i v i t y due t o e x t e n s i v e s o i l e r o s i o n was a m a j o r c o n c e r n f o r t h e
s e r i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s t h i s had b o th f o r th e w e l f a r e o f i n d i v i d u a l
f a r m e r s an d t h e e c o n o m ic b a s e o f t h e c o u n t y a s a w h o le .

T h e n , t h e r e a r e t h e i n t a n g i b l e l o s s e s , t h e l o s s e s t h a t do n o t
lend th em selv es r e a d i l y to in v e n to r y . I n ta n g ib le lo s s e s in c lu d e
 99

t h i n g s l i k e h i s t o r i c a l l a n d m a r k s , t h e l a b o r o f a l i f e t i m e ' s w ork ,
f a m i l y h e i r l o o m s , g e n e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h , f a m i l y Books o f Rem embrance,
dream s and p l a n s f o r t h e f u t u r e , fo o d s t o r a g e , m em entos s a v e d fro m
s p e c i a l o c c a s i o n s , baby p i c t u r e s , w e d d in g a lb u m s a n d com m unity
ro o ts. I n t h e w ords o f o n e r e s i d e n t ; " E v e r y t h i n g we w o rk e d f o r a l l
o u r l i v e s w ashed down t h e v a l l e y . I t was j u s t a s i f we n e v e r e x ­
is te d ."

E x c e p t a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f l o s s o f l i f e and i n j u r y t o p e r s o n ,
t h e d e s t r u c t i o n w h ic h f o l l o w e d i n t h e wake o f t h e T e to n Dam b r e a k
was e x t e n s i v e . I n m o n e t a r y t e r m s , t h e e a r l i e s t e s t i m a t e s f o r F re m o n t
and M a d iso n C ounty w e re s e t a t 7 1 .2 m i l l i o n and 556 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s ,
re sp e c tiv e ly . I t i s n o t uncommon f o r e a r l y e s t i m a t e s o f d i s a s t e r
l o s s t o be o v e r e x a g g e r a t e d and t h e T e to n f l o o d i s no e x c e p t i o n .
L a te r’ su rv e y s c a lc u la te d th e d o l l a r l o s s a t ro u g h ly t w o - f i f t h s o f
t h e o r i g i n a l . W h a t e v e r t h e p r e c i s e f i g u r e s may b e , i f i n d e e d t h e y
a r e p r e c i s e l y c a l c u l a b l e , ^5 and t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t d i s a s t e r s a r e
m e a s u r e a b l e by i n v e n t o r i e s and m o n e ta r y v a l u a t i o n , t h e T e t o n Dam
b r e a k was a d i s a s t e r o f m a j o r p r o p o r t i o n s .

The Human C ost

E stim ates o f m a te r ia l lo s s e s a re f a i r l y s tr a ig h t- f o r w a r d .
Damages t o b u i l d i n g s , c a r s and m a c h in e s a r e d i r e c t l y o b s e r v a b l e and
c l e a r l y v i s i b l e , b u t d am ag es i n p e r s o n a l a n d s o c i a l t e r m s a r e more
e lu siv e . I t seemed c l e a r t o m ost o b s e r v e r s t h a t t h e i n i t i a l r e ­
s p o n s e o f s h o c k and d i s b e l i e f was a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l , b u t t h e q u e s t i o n
was d o e s one " b o u n c e b a c k " a f t e r th e s h o c k s u b s i d e s o r d o e s s h o c k
p r o g r e s s t o "breakdow n". T h e r e was no p r i o r l o c a l d i s a s t e r e x p e r ­
i e n c e on w h ic h t o b a s e a n a n s w e r , b u t t h e r e was a g e n e r a l f e e l i n g
t h a t , in s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l te rra s, th e a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o f d i s a s t e r
e x t e n d e d bey o n d th e s p a c e and tim e o f t h e f l o o d p a t h i t s e l f . Just
w hat t h e a d v e r s e e f f e c t s a r e and how l o n g t h e y l a s t was unknown.

Two o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n s , t h e LDS C hurch and t h e g o v e r n ­

m e n t, ha ve a s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e s o c i a l w e l f a r e o f
r e s i d e n t s i n t h e f l o o d a r e a , and b o t h v ie w e d t h i s i s s u e a s a c e n t r a l
c o n c e r n f a l l i n g w i t h i n t h e i r do m ain. From t h e com munity p e r s p e c t i v e ,
a t l e a s t from t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f t h e d o m in a n t g r o u p , p u b l i c a u t h o r ­
i t i e s o f b o t h s t a t e and f e d e r a l a g e n c i e s a r e o u t s i d e r s . N o n e th e le ss,
i n s i d e r s and o u t s i d e r s s h a r e d a common c o n c e r n . More i m p o r t a n t t h a n
t h e s t a t u s o f i n s i d e r o r o u t s i d e r was t h e d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e
t h a t e a c h b r o u g h t t o b e a r on t h e i r a s s e s s m e n t . A l t h o u g h t t h e o b s e r ­
v a t i o n s w e re s i m i l a r , t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s
and t h e p r o p o s e d r e m e d i e s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y .

T h e re seemed t o be g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t t h a t t h e i n i t i a l s h o c k and
d i s b e l i e f w e re f o l l o w e d by v i s i b l e s i g n s o f e m o t i o n a l u p s e t , w o r r y ,
c o n f u s i o n , g r i e f , a s e n s e o f l o s s , a n x i e t y and d e p r e s s i o n . To some
 100

d e g r e e t h e d e s c r i p t i v e t e r m i n o l o g y d i f f e r s , b u t o n l y m i n i m a l l y . 27
How ever, t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and s i g n i f i c a n c e d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y .

LDS a u t h o r i t i e s v ie w e d t h e s e s i g n s o f human s u f f e r i n g a s n o r m a l ,
n o t d e s i r a b l e , b u t n o r m a l a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e h a r d s h i p s im p o se d by
d isa ste r. The e x p e r i e n c e o f J u l y 5 t h seemed t o p r o v i d e a s e l f -
e v id e n t j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r b ein g u p s e t. The i n a b i l i t y o f f a m i l i e s t o
p r o v i d e f o r t h e i r own b a s i c n e e d s s u c h a s f o o d and s h e l t e r seemed
r e a s o n a b le grounds f o r w orry. G iv e n t h e d i s r u p t i o n t o com m un ity and
f a m i l y r o u t i n e , a c e r t a i n amount o f c o n f u s i o n was u n d e r s t a n d a b l e .
G iv e n t h e e x t e n t o f c o n c r e t e and i n t a n g i b l e l o s s e s , a s e n s e o f l o s s
a nd g r i e f seem ed l i k e a n a p p r o p r i a t e and r e a l i s t i c e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e .
The e x t e n t o f d e s t r u c t i o n i n e c o n o m ic an d a g r i c u l t u r a l t e r m s a l s o
seemed t o p r o v i d e r e a s o n a b l e g r o u n d s f o r a n x i e t y and d i s c o u r a g e m e n t
ab o u t th e f u t u r e . E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e s e s i g n s w e r e v ie w e d a s an
u n d e r s ta n d a b le , b u t tem p o rary , s i t u a t i o n a l a d a p ta tio n .

C l e a r l y , an e n d u r i n g s e n s e o f d e s p a i r , b i t t e r n e s s , i d l e n e s s ,
n e g l e c t o f f a m i l y and c h u r c h d u t i e s , i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , l o s s o f
f a i t h , o r a n g e r w ould b e b o t h u n d e s i r a b l e and u n a c c e p t a b l e . In
f a c t , s u c h d e v i a t i o n s i n s o c i a l c o n d u c t w ould s i g n a l s p i r i t u a l d e ­
g e n e ra tio n . But s u c h a b e r r a t i o n s an d l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t s w e re n o t
e n v isio n e d a s n e c e ssa ry o r p ro b a b le .

The e c c l e s i a s t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Mormon C h u rc h p r o v i d e s a
p h i l o s o p h y an d o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t i s i m m e d i a t e l y a d a p t a b l e t o t h e d i s ­
a s te r c o n te x t. T h u s, t h e dam b r e a k was e x p l a i n a b l e b o t h a s a s i g n
o f t h e c a l a m i t i e s p r o p h e s i e d i n R e v e l a t i o n s an d a s a t e s t o f t h e
S a in ts ' p re p a re d n e s s fo r th e se l a t t e r d ay s. I n t h e w o rd s o f o n e
p r e s i d e n t o f t h e LDS C h u r c h ,

The L o r d u s e d t h i s c om m unity b e c a u s e o f t h e h i g h c o n c e n t r a ­
tio n of b e lie v e rs. He d i d n ' t c a u s e i t t o h a p p e n , b u t i t ' s
p a r t o f t h e g e a r i n g up f o r t h e f i n a n c i a l and o t h e r c r i s e s
t h a t a r e in c r e a s in g a l l o v er th e w o rld .

T h u s , t h e s u f f e r i n g an d a d v e r s i t y c o u l d be e x p l a i n e d w i t h i n t h e
la r g e r s p i r i t u a l c o n te x t as p r e p a r a tio n fo r th e l a t t e r d ays, a s a
c h a l l e g e o f f a i t h and c o m m itm en t, a n d a n o p p o r t u n i t y w h i c h , i f
m e t s u c c e s s f u l l y , w o u ld b r i n g i t s own b l e s s i n g s and p r o s p e r i t y .

The s o l u t i o n t o t h e s u f f e r i n g , l i k e t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w as
f o u n d i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e LDS C h u r c h . L ike
a l l p r o j e c t s , s p i r i t u a l an d t e m p o r a l , w o rk , s e l f - r e l i a n c e , m u t u a l
s e l f - h e l p , p rie s th o o d c o u n s e l, fa m ily u n i t y , a c t iv e in v o lv e m e n t,
t e s t i m o n i a l s and o b e d i e n c e t o t h e commandments o f c h u r c h d o c t r i n e
w ere th e i n g r e d i e n t s to be em p h asized . The d i s a s t e r was no e x c e p ­
tio n . The f i r s t p u b l i c c o u n s e l g i v e n t o t h e e v a c u e e s who g a t h e r e d on
 101

R ic k s C o l l e g e on Sunday w ould b e r e p e a t e d many t i m e s .

R o l l up y o u r s l e e v e s a n d g e t y o u r homes and o u r c o m m u n it ie s
cle a n e d up. D o n 't s i t b a c k and w a i t f o r t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n ­
m en t t o do i t f o r y o u . L e t ' s do i t o u r s e l v e s .

T h e r e seem ed t o be an a u t o m a t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e medium
t o a l l e v i a t e s u f f e r i n g and a d v e r s i t y was work and f e l l o w s h i p . The
s o o n e r t h e r e s i d e n t s beg an t h e a r d u o u s t a s k o f r e b u i l d i n g hom es,
f a r m s , b u s i n e s s e s and c o m m u nity , t h e s o o n e r t h e s i t u a t i o n w ould r e ­
tu r n to n o rm alcy . T h u s , t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f r e b u i l d i n g and t h e emo­
t i o n a l a d j u s t m e n t s t o t h e h a r d s h i p im p o se d by t h e f l o o d w o u ld be
r e s t r u c t u r e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e same p r i n c i p l e s and r u l e s t h a t e x i s t e d
p r i o r to t h e f l o o d .

In c o n t r a s t , p u b lic a u t h o r i t i e s i n t e r p r e t e d th e observed s o c i a l -
p s y c h o l o g i c a l phenomenon w i t h i n a c l i n i c a l o r m e n t a l h e a l t h p e r s p e c ­
tiv e . The o b s e r v e d w o r r y , a n x i e t y , e m o t i o n a l u p s e t , d e p r e s s i o n ,
c o n f u s i o n , g r i e f and s e n s e o f l o s s w e r e s e e n a s t h e r e f l e c t i o n o f
p s y c h o l o g i c a l damage im po se d f i r s t , by t h e tr a u m a o f d i s a s t e r i t s e l f
a n d s e c o n d , by t h e tr a u m a o f s t r e s s f u l l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s . Essen­
t i a l l y , t h e s e w e r e s i g n s o f a d e e p e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l t r a u m a . G ive n
t h e n a t u r e o f t h e t r a u m a , c r i s e s o r m e n t a l h e a l t h e m e r g e n c i e s w e re
e x p e c t a b l e a r .l p r e d i c t a b l e s e q u e l a e f o r a t l e a s t a y e a r u n l e s s a p p r o ­
p r i a t e th e r a p e u t i c m easures in te rv e n e d .

C r i s e s c o n v e y e d t h e i d e a t h a t "so m eo n e had r e a c h e d t h e p o i n t
t h a t e m o tio n a lly th ey a re in such d i s t r e s s th a t i t i s l i f e - t h r e a t e n ­
i n g o r so s e v e r e t h a t i t dem ands i n t e r v e n t i o n . " These e a r l y o b s e r­
v a t i o n s , t h e n , w e r e a s i g n a l o f im p e n d in g m e n t a l h e a l t h e m e r g e n c i e s
a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f s u i c i d e , a c t i n g o u t , s o c i a l d i s a b i l i t y , and d e e p
d ep ressio n . One o f f i c i a l o u t l i n e d t h e e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f t r a u m a
as fo llo w s.

We a r e d e a l i n g w i t h a c u t e d e p r e s s i o n s , a n x i e t i e s , t h e i n ­
a b i l i t y o f c h i l d r e n to s le e p a t n i g h t , n ig h tm a r e s , and
r e g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r . . . m a r i t a l p r o b l e m s du e t o s t r e s s and
f in a n c ia l d i f f i c u l t y . . . in creased in sta n c e s of c h ild
a b u s e . . . a n d . . . au300 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e u s e o f
d ru g s and a l c o h o l .

The i m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t u n l e s s a i d e d b y c l i n i c a l m e a s u r e s , t r a u m a t i z e d
d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s a d a p t to t h e s t r e s s o f d i s a s t e r a f t e r m a t h w i t h c o n ­
d u c t t h a t i s in t h e l o n g - r u n m a l a d a p t i v e , p e r s o n a l l y d a m a g in g and
s o c i a l l y o f f e n s iv e o r, p erh ap s, s o c i a l l y harm ful a ls o .

T h e r e was some s u s p i c i o n t h a t d i s a s t e r t r a u m a w ould be d e n i e d

o r m in im iz e d w i t h i n t h e d o m i n a n t s t r u c t u r e o f LDS o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d .
 102

m o r e o v e r , t h a t " d e e p d e p r e s s i o n " w ould b e m i s s e d by a n u n t r a i n e d

eye. P u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s v ie w e d t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l damage a s s e r i o u s
enough to r e q u i r e l a r g e - s c a l e s o c i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n o rg a n iz e d a c c o rd in g
t o a c l i n i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f human b e h a v i o r . E s s e n t i a l l y , t h i s
r e q u i r e d a s o c i a l n e tw o r k t h a t was c a p a b l e o f " r e a c h i n g o u t " a n d
b r i n g i n g c r i s e s c o u n s e l i n g t o t h e homes o f d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s . The
i n t e r v e n t i o n m u s t a l s o b e c a p a b l e o f l i n k i n g up v i c t i m s o f d i s a s t e r
w ith th e p r e - e x i s t e n t netw o rk o f s o c i a l s e r v i c e a g e n c ie s in o r d e r
t o m e e t t h e f u l l r a n g e o f human n e e d s t h a t m i g h t a r i s e .

To LDS c h u r c h l e a d e r s , t h i s t h e r a p e u t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n seemed
u n n e c e s s a r y , d u p l i c a t i v e , an d c o m p e t i t i v e . The e c c l e s i a s t i c a l s t r u c ­
t u r e , i n t h e i r o p i n i o n , a l r e a d y p r o v i d e d an i n d i g e n o u s s o c i a l n e t w o r k
t h a t " r e a c h e s o u t " i n t o f a m i l y homes a n d t h e c h u r c h w e l f a r e p r o g r a m
m akes p r o v i s i o n s f o r a l l t e m p o r a l and s p i r i t u a l n e e d s . In a d d itio n ,
a c c e p ta n c e o f p u b lic s o c i a l s e r v i c e "h an d o u ts" te n d s to be se e n as
a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e " d o l e " , an u n d e s i r a b l e c o n d i t i o n w hic h u n d e r m in e s
s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y and s e l f - r e s p e c t .

The m o st i m p o r t a n t i s s u e r a i s e d by t h e c l i n i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e was
th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f w id e - s c a le m e n ta l h e a l t h e m e rg e n c ies. I f ex p ected
i n c r e a s e s i n c r i s e s a l o n g t h e o r d e r o f a l c o h o l and d r u g a b u s e , m a r i t a l
d i s c o r d , c h i l d a b u s e , and d e e p d e p r e s s i o n w e re a c t u a l l y r e a l i z e d , t h e
human c o s t o f t h e T e t o n t r a g e d y w o uld b e s e r i o u s , i n d e e d . In f a c t ,
t h e s e p r e d i c t i o n s seemed t o im p ly t h a t t h e s o c i a l and m o r a l f a b r i c
o f t h e community had b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y damaged by t h e f l o o d .

Summary

The c o l l a p s e o f t h e T e t o n Dam was a n u n e x p e c t e d man-made t r a g e d y .

W ith t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h o s e who w e re i m m e d i a t e l y b e lo w t h e dam, m o st
d o w n s tr e a m r e s i d e n t s had s u f f i c i e n t w a r n i n g t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e i r
p erso n al s a fe ty . U n d o u b t e d l y , t h e w a r n i n g a c c o u n t s f o r t h e low d e a t h
c o u n t.^ D e s t r u c t i o n t o p u b l i c and p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y was e x t e n s i v e ,
an d t h e r e s u l t i n g damage c a u s e d m a j o r d i s r u p t i o n t o t h e n o r m a l
r o u t i n e o f s e v e r a l c o m m u n i tie s and t h o u s a n d s o f f a m i l i e s . As a t t e m p t s
w e r e made t o a s s e s s t h e f u l l i m p a c t o f t h e dam b r e a k t h e r e w e r e many
q u e s t i o n s and e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t t h e a b i l i t y o r i n a b i l i t y o f r e s i d e n t s
t o re su m e a n o r m a l e x i s t e n c e and t o r e b u i l d t h e i r l i v e s and communi­
t i e s in th e a fte rm a th of d i s a s t e r . The r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s r e p o r t d e a l s
s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h t h e a f t e r m a t h o f d i s a s t e r , t h e r e b u i l d i n g e f f o r t and
t h e f e a t u r e s w h ic h ga ve o r d e r and m e a n in g t o t h e r e c o v e r y e x p e r i e n c e .
 103

NOTES TO CHAPTER 4

1. The T e to n Dam i s one o f m ore t h a n 300 dams c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e

BOR d u r i n g i t s t h e n 74 y e a r h i s t o r y . More d e t a i l e d p a r t i c u l a r s
o f t h e dam, i t s h i s t o r y and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o t h e c a u s e s o f
i t s f a i l u r e may be fo u n d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g . House R e p o r t No. 9 4 -
1667, 9 4 t h C o n g r e s s , 2nd S e s s i o n , T e to n Dam D i s a s t e r , T h i r t i e t h
R e p o r t by t h e C om m ittee on G o vernm en t O p e r a t i o n s , W a s h in g to n ,
D. C. ; U .S . G overnm ent P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 976 ; I n d e p e n d e n t P a n e l
t o R eview C a u se o f t h e T e t o n Dam F a i l u r e , R e p o r t t o t h e U. S. De­
p a r t m e n t o f t h e I n t e r i o r and S t a t e o f I d a h o on F a i l u r e o f t h e
T e to n Dam, W a s h i n g to n , D. C. : U .S . G ov e rn m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e ,
1976; T e to n Dam D i s a s t e r , H e a r i n g s B e f o r e t h e S u b c o m m itte e on
E n e rg y R e s e a r c h and D e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e C o m m itte e on Energy and
N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e t o R e c e iv e I n f o r ­
m a t i o n a b o u t P o s s i b l e C a u s e s o f t h e F a i l u r e o f t h e T e t o n Dam,
W a s h in g to n , D. C. : U. S. G ov e rn m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1977; House
R e p o r t No. 9 5 - 3 5 , 9 5 t h C o n g r e s s , 1 s t S e s s i o n , T e t o n Dam F a i l u r e ,
P r e p a r e d a t t h e R e q u e s t o f F r a n k C hurch f o r t h e S u b c o m m itte e on
E n e r g y , R e s e a r c h and D e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e C o m m itte e on E nergy and
N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e , W a s h in g to n , D. C. :
U. S. G o vernm en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1977; U. S. D e p a r tm e n t o f t h e
I n t e r i o r T e to n Dam F a i l u r e R eview G roup, F a i l u r e o f t h e T e to n
Dam: A R e p o r t o f F i n d i n g s , W a s h in g to n , D. C. : U. S. G overnm ent
P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1977.

2. I n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e v e a l t h a t t h e dam c o l l a p s e d due t o an i n t e r ­
a c t i o n e f f e c t o f g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , s i t e s e l e c t i o n , in a d e ­
q u a t e d e s i g n , m anagement p r o c e d u r e and n e g l e c t o f s a f e t y r e g u l a ­
tio n s. For t e c h n i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n s r e f e r t o t h e r e p o r t s i s s u e d
i n 1977 end l i s t e d i n f o o t n o t e 1 a b o v e .

3. At l e a s t one e n g i n e e r r e s i g n e d a l l e g e d l y d u e t o a n a s s e s s m e n t
of s a fe ty hazard. A lth o u g h h e a p p a r e n t l y g a v e i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h i s
n a t u r e t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l o p p o s i t i o n g r o u p s , i t was n o t made a
m a tte r o f p u b lic d eb ate. S e v e r a l o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n c re w a r e
n o t e d to h av e v o i c e d t h e i r l a c k o f f a i t h i n t h e perm an e n c e o f t h e
dam, b u t t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , w h i l e known t o a s e l e c t g ro u p o f a c ­
q u a i n t a n c e s and pub f r i e n d s , was n o t e x p o s e d f o r p u b l i c r e v i e w .

4. The h i s t o r y o f t h e r e p o r t from t h e pen o f t h e t h r e e g e o l o g i s t s

t o t h e d e s k o f o f f i c i a l s o f t h e BOR w ould make a n i n t e r e s t i n g
s tu d y in th e p h ilo so p h y o f s c i e n c e . A p p a r e n t l y , t h e r e p o r t con­
v e y e d t h e a l a r m f e l t by t h e g e o l o g i s t s . I t was h o w e v e r, j u d g e d
to be e m o t i o n a l a n d , t h e r e f o r e , u n s c i e n t i f i c . By t h e tim e t h e
l a n g u a g e had b e e n l a u n d e r e d c l e a n eno ug h f o r " s c i e n c e " , t h e
u r g e n c y and s e r i o u s n e s s o f t h e f i n d i n g s h a d a l s o b e e n w ashed o u t .
The r e p o r t was e v e n t u a l l y r e c e i v e d b u t i g n o r e d . T h is, of course
o n ly r e p r e s e n t s a p o r t i o n , b u t an i n t e r e s t i n g p o r t i o n , o f th e
p ro b lem , n o n e t h e l e s s .
 104

5. T h e r e a r e many p o p u l a r a c c o u n t s o f t h e e v e n t s o f t h i s d a y whi ch
t h e i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r may c o n s u l t . See, f o r example, Tragedy :
A C h r o no lo g y o f t h e T e t o n Dam D i s a s t e r , The B l a c k f o o t News and
The S t a n d a r d J o u r n a l , I d a h o , 1 976; " T e t o n : Eyewitness to Disas­
t e r " , Time , v o l . 107, n o . 26: p . 5 6 , 1976; Bu re au o f R e c l a m a t i o n ,
D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e I n t e r i o r , " A f t e r T e t o n " , R e c l a m a t i o n ERA, v o l .
6 2 , n o . 3: 1 - 3 3 , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : U . S . Go ver nment P r i n t i n g
O f f i c e , 1976; E a r l S e l b y and M i r i a m S e l b y , "The Day t h e T e t o n
Dam B r o k e " , R e a d e r ' s D i g e s t , 1 97 7; Utah Power and L i g h t Company,
" S p e c i a l Fl ood I s s u e " , C i r c u i t , S a l t Lake C i t y , U t a h : U t a h
Power and L i g h t Co. , 1976; Van V a m e r , "The T e t o n Dam B r e a k : A
Time When H e r o e s Ar e B o r n " , G u i d e p o s t s , N ov ., 1977. This account
makes u s e o f t h e p o p u l a r l i t e r a t u r e i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a b o ve
l i s t e d i n v e s t i g a t i v e r e p o r t s , n e w s p a p e r d o c u m e n t s , and o p e n -
ended i n t e r v i e w s . The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f e x a c t t i m e s f o r v a r i o u s
ev en ts I s problem atic sin c e recording the hour i s not g e n e ra lly
s e e n a s a p r i o r i t y a t t h e t i m e . However, g i v e n t h e v a r i o u s
s o u r c e s , the time frame given i s f e l t to be a f a i r l y c l o s e
approximation.

6. The l o c a t i o n o f t h i s l e a k was e s p e c i a l l y d a n g e r o u s , f o r e r o s i o n
a t t h i s p o i n t h ad t h e p o t e n t i a l o f p l a c i n g t h e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e
i n j e o p a r d y . What had n o t b e e n r e a l i z e d was t h a t t h e e n t i r e
i n t e r n a l c o r e o f t h e dam was s a t u r a t e d w i t h w a t e r . Any e f f o r t s
t o s a v e t he dam w e r e a l r e a d y f u t i l e ,

7. The e x a c t w o r d i n g o f m e s s a g e s f rom t h e i r s o u r c e i s n o t a v a i l a b l e ,
f o r t o t h e b e s t o f my k n o w l e d g e , t h i s was n o t r e c o r d e d . However,
i f t h e w o r d i n g o f t h e message s e n t i s n o t c o r r e c t , t h e i n t e r p r e ­
t a t i o n o f the message re c e iv e d is g e n e r a lly as n oted. There
c l e a r l y was no u r g e n c y in t h e me ss age s e n t f rom t h e dam. Offi­
c i a l s a t t h e dam s i t e d i d n o t a n t i c i p a t e a f a i l u r e . Me s s a g e s
w e re a l s o r e l a y e d t o t h e head o f f i c e o f t h e BOR on two o c c a s i o n s .
The o wner o f t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n i n S t . An thony was n o t i f i e d and
a l s o p r e s e n t a t t h e dam s i t e .

8. The m e s s a g e s c o nv e y e d o v e r t h e r a d i o c a r r i e d a n o t e o f u r g e n c y
a n d , in a s e n s e , t h i s was f o r u u n a t e . Many l a t e r r e g r e t t e d t h a t
t h e r e was no o f f i c i a l o r s y s t e m a t i c c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e p a t h and
t i me d i m e n s i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e f l o o d . I t was g e n e r a l l y f e l t
t h a t some a r e a s had ample t i me t o t a k e m e a s u r e s t o p r o t e c t and
s a v e v a l u a b l e p r o p e r t y i f t h e y had s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n . In
f a c t , i t w i l l b e c l e a r to t h e r e a d e r t h a t t h e r e was no p r e - d i s ­
a s t e r p l a n n i n g f o r s u c h an e v e n t .

9. The r e s c u e o f t h i s g r o u p was a l s o s u s p e n s e f u l . A lig h t airplane

r e s c u e d t h e p a r t y i n s m a l l e r g r o u p s o f t h r e e , b u t t h e h i l l was
a b o u t 40 a c r e s i n s i z e and t h e w h e e l s o f t h e p l a n e a l m o s t
s k i d d e d i n t o t h e f l o o d on t a k e - o f f .
 105

10. A ll s i x drownlngs to o k p l a c e i n Fremont County.

11. T h i s i s t h e one i n j u r y ( a c r u s h e d c h e s t ) a t t r i b u t e d d i r e c t l y to
the impact of the flo o d .

12. I n a d d i t i o n t o s i t e p e r s o n n e l and r a d i o a n n o u n c e rs , o t h e r s were

d i r e c t o b s e r v e r s n e a r t h e dam. A g e o l o g i s t a nd h i s f a m i l y w e re
s t a n d i n g o n t h e l o o k - o u t t e r r a c e a t t h e dam. The s e r i e s o f
p i c t u r e s w h i c h t h i s g e n t l e m a n t o o k f ro m t h e l o o k - o u t a s t h e dam
c o l l a p s e d a p p e a r e d i n Time M a g a z i n e . S e v e r a l p e rso n s were
s t r a n d e d on t h e S t . An thony o v e r - p a s s n e a r - b y a nd a l a r g e crowd
o f e v a c u e e s f r om Newdale h ad g a t h e r e d on t h e c r e s t o f t h e c a n y o n
i m m e d i a t e l y b e l o w t h e dam s i t e . U n lik e o b s e r v e r s a t Rexburg,
b e l o w , t h o s e n e a r t h e s i t e h a d a s e n s e o f i m m e d i a t e and p e r s o n a l
in vo lvem ent in the e v e n t .

13. As t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r a r r i v e d b a c k i n R e x b u r g , o t h e r c i v i l d e f e n s e
p e r s o n n e l w e re b e g i n n i n g t o i n i t i a t e a c t i o n a l s o . I t was s h o r t l y
a f t e r h i s a r r i v a l t h a t k n o w l e dg e o f t h e c o l l a p s e came t h r o u g h .
One o f t h e p r o b l e m s n o t e d b y o f f i c i a l s c o n c e r n s t h e d i f f i c u l t y
in c onveying t h e urgency of a c t i o n . The c o m m i s s i o n e r r e c a l l s
u s i n g some " u n - C h r i s t i a n " t e r m i n o l o g y a n d , p r e s u m a b l y , s u c h w o r ds
coming f r om t h e mouth o f a b i s h o p have th e d e s i r e d e f f e c t .
From a s m a l l p l a n e , t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r and c i v i l d e f e n s e d i r e c t o r
w er e a b l e to s u r v e y t h e a p p r o a c h i n g f l o o d p a t h and r a d i o d e c i ­
s i o n s a b o u t a r e a s t o be e v a c u a t e d . I t is c r i t i c a l , I b e lie v e ,
t h a t t h e m a j o r s o u r c e o f w a r n i n g a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n i n Ma d i so n
Co u n ty h ad t h e c r e d i b i l i t y a t t e n d a n t on t h e p r i e s t h o o d h i e r a r c h y
Upon r e v i e w i n g a l l a v a i l a b l e s o u r c e s , i t w o u ld a p p e a r t h a t l e s s
t h a n o n e - h a l f o f one p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f M a d i s o n
C o un t y d i d n o t e v a c u a t e .

14. R e s i d e n t s o f W i l f o r d who w e re i n t h e R e xb ur g a r e a c o n t i n u e d
northbound through the roadblocks u n t i l the n a tu r e of the flood
was d i s c e r n e d from a e r i a l v i e w s . A fterw ard , a l l northbound
t r a f f i c was s t o p p e d .

15. L a t e r t h a t e v e n i n g t h e G o v e r n o r r e q u e s t e d t h a t s o u t h e a s t I d ah o
be d e c l a r e d a f e d e r a l d i s a s t e r . On S un da y, P r e s i d e n t Ford
declared four c o u n ties a fe d e ra l d i s a s t e r . ( J e f f e r s o n County,
t h e f i f t h c o u n t y , was a dde d l a t e r . )

16. S e e m i n g l y , t h e r e w e re s o many s m a l l p l a n e s a n d h e l i c o p t e r s o v e r ­
h e ad t h a t f l y i n g was a d a n g e r o u s u n d e r t a k i n g . The c o n v e r g e n c e
phenomenon i s a f r e q u e n t l y n o t e d o c c u r e n c e d u r i n g d i s a s t e r s .

17. Many f a l s e r e p o r t s - N ew da le , R e xb u r g and I d a h o F a l l s h av e j u s t

b e e n w i p e d o f f t h e map - g a v e u n n e c e s s a r y c o n c e r n t o d i s t a n t
f r i e n d s a nd r e l a t i v e s who w a i t e d a n x i o u s l y f o r news a b o u t t h e
situation.
 106

18. The m a j o r i t y o f e v a c u e e s c o n g r e g a t e d on t h e h i l l i n R e x b u r g .
T h i s was t h e l o g i c a l p l a c e , g i v e n t h e t e r r a i n , a n d c o l l e g e
p e r s o n n e l ha d i s s u e d a news b u l l e t i n t h a t t h e y w e r e p r e p a r i n g
to r e c e i v e ev a c u e e s . However , some w e n t w e s t t o t h e b u t t e s
n e a r t h e Snake R i v e r , n o r t h t o S t . Ant h o n y o r s o u t h t o I d a h o
Falls. The r o u t e s e l e c t e d s ee ms t o h a v e b e e n d e t e r m i n e d by
f a m i l y t i e s and p r o x i m i t y . The d i v e r s i t y i n e s c a p e p a t t e r n s
gave r i s e t o l a t e r p r o b l e m s i n a c c o u n t i n g f o r s u r v i v o r s . At
one p o i n t on Sun da y, 250 p e r s o n s w e r e l i s t e d a s m i s s i n g and
feared dead. In a c t u a l i t y , the y were a l l s a f e , b u t i n t e r r u p t i o n
t o c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n e s d e l a y e d k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i r s u r v i v a l fr om
r e a c h in g o f f i c i a l s and f a m ily .

19. R o b e r t s , Menan a n d L e w i s t o n i n Bingham Co u n t y w e r e a l l s e r i o u s l y

damaged by f l o o d w a t e r .

2 0. Mi ni mal f l o o d damage o c c u r r e d i n B o n n e v i l l e C ou n ty t o p r o p e r ­
t i e s n e a r t h e r i v e r on t h e n o r t h e n d .

21 . Lowland s e c t i o n s o f F o r t H a l l I n d i a n R e s e r v a t i o n a n d f a r m l a n d
b e t w e e n B l a c k f o o t and t h e A m e r i c a n F a l l s R e s e r v o i r w e r e a l s o
flooded.

22. The c o l l e g e dor ms w e r e a l m o s t e m p t y b e c a u s e few s t u d e n t s were

e n r o l l e d f o r summer s e s s i o n s . At t h e t i m e , t h e c o l l e g e was
prep a rin g for the a r r i v a l of a s p e c i a l seminar he ld f o r o ut-
of-town p a r t i c i p a n t s . F o r t u i t o u s l y , t h e c o l l e g e was p r e p a r e d t o
r e c e i v e f l o o d v i c t i m s , p r o v i d e t e m p o r a r y h o u s i n g a nd s e r v e m e a l s
d u r i n g t h e e m e r g e nc y p e r i o d .

2 3. One g a s s t a t i o n was r e p a i r e d a nd a l l o t h e r c o m m e r c i a l b u i l d i n g s
wer e d e s t r o y e d o r d e m o l i s h e d . T h e r e wer e f ew c o m m e r c i a l
b u i l d i n g s in S u g a r C i t y s i n c e t h i s s m a l l c ommuni ty was b a s i c a l l y
a bedr oom community o f R e x b u r g .

24. For t h e f l o o d a s a w h o l e , t h e h i g h e s t e s t i m a t e o f d amages t h a t I

am a wa r e o f i s s e v e n b i l l i o n d o l l a r s . T h i s was a f i g u r e t h a t
was s u g g e s t e d i n t h e f i r s t f i v e d a y s and a i r e d o v e r r a d i o . The
h i g h e s t e s t i m a t e i n p r i n t i s two b i l l i o n d o l l a r s . The most
commonly p u b l i s h e d f i g u r e , L.2 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s , a p p e a r e d In
B o i s e S t a t e s m a n , J u n e 2 8, 1976. The most r e c e n t , and l o w e s t ,
e s t i m a t e o f 400 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s a p p e a r s i n a s u r v e y p u b l i s h e d
i n a r e p o r t n o t e d e a r l i e r , Powel e t a l , o p . c i t , p . 5 . Th e se
e s t i m a t e s a r e a l l e x c l u s i v e o f t h e c o s t o f t h e dam i t s e l f .

25. An e x c e l l e n t d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m s i n e s t i m a t i n g l o s s e s ,
g i v e n t h e d i s a s t e r c o n t e x t , a p p e a r s i n H. P a u l F r i e s e m a , James
C a p o r a s o , G e r a l d G o l d s t e i n , R o b e r t L i n e b e r r y a nd R i c h a r d
M c CI e ar y , A f t e r m a t h : Co mmu n it i e s A f t e r N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r s .
Beverly H i l l s , C a l i f o r n i a : Sage P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1 97 9. c h a p t e r 7.
 107

26. The S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h and W e l f a r e i s t h e u l t i m a t e

public a u th o rity for w elfare. L o c a l l y , a p r i v a t e community
mental h e a l t h c e n t e r has r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the p r o v is io n of
mental h e a lth s e r v i c e s b u t the gen eral o r i e n t a t i o n to d i s a s t e r
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f c e n t e r s t a f f and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s c l o s e r t o
th e Church than t h e S t a t e .

27. LDS members a r e more l i k e l y t o u s e p h r a s e s o r t e r m s l i k e

people are h u rtin g , i d l e , discouraged o r under p re ssu re r a th e r
than an xious, d y s fu n c tio n a l, depressed or under s t r e s s , a l ­
t h o u g h a l l te rr as a r e u s e d t o some d e g r e e .

28. This p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e m e n t a p p e a rs i n a newspaper, Boise S t a t e s ­

man, J u l y 31, 1976. The d e t a i l s a r e n o t d i f f e r e n t f ro m t h o s e
i n o t h e r s o u r c e s , b u t b e c a u s e t h i s n e w s p a p e r r e c e i v e s wi de
p u b l i c a t i o n , th e c o n t e n t s o f th e a r t i c l e had a p u b l i c im pact.
I t was n o t uncommon t o b e t o l d i n a n i n t e r v i e w t h a t " t h e s t a t e
s e n t 50 p s y c h i a t r i s t s i n h e r e and t h e y t h o u g h t we w e r e a l l
crazy I guess. Found 2 , 5 0 0 p e o p l e m e n t a l l y i l l r i g h t a f t e r t h e
f l o o d . " T h e r e was a s t a t e a s s e s s m e n t done w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e
o f 40 p e r s o n n e l f rom t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h and W e l f a r e , one
o f whom was a p s y c h i a t r i s t , and t h e y d i d r e p o r t 2 , 5 0 0 con­
t a c t e d who w e re i n n e e d o f m e n t a l h e a l t h s e r v i c e s i m m e d i a t e l y
a f t e r the flood. The p o i n t , o f c o u r s e , i s n o t t h a t t h e d e t a i l s
a r e a l i t t l e i n a c c u r a t e , b u t t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t was v i e w e d l o ­
c a l l y as an i n s u l t . Whatever m e n ta l h e a l t h , c r i s i s , o r m en tal
h e a l t h e m e r g e n c y may mean t o c l i n i c i a n s o r s o c i a l s e r v i c e
p r o f e s s i o n a l s , i t means m e n t a l i l l n e s s o r c r a z y t o t h e l a y
public. In la y te rm s, the p r i e s t h o o d d e a l s w ith te m pora l prob­
l e ms and p r o f e s s i o n a l s d e a l w i t h m e n t a l i l l n e s s a s a m e d i c a l
problem.

29. T h i s a c c o u n t may g i v e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e t h e r a p e u t i c
o r i e n t a t i o n was i m m e d i a t e l y a d a p t a b l e t o t h e d i s a s t e r c o n t e x t .
This i s i n c o r r e c t . In a c t u a l i t y , the id e a s about p sy c h o lo g ic a l
damage c a u s e d by d i s a s t e r w e re v a g u e and h a d n o t b e e n t h e o r e t ­
i c a l l y or pro g ram aticaily formulated in a p re c is e statem ent.
T h e s e i d e a s eme rge d i n t h e d i s a s t e r c o n t e x t u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e
o f g u i d e l i n e s o u t l i n e d i n s e c t i o n 413 o f P u b l i c Law 9 3- 2 88
and w i t h t h e a d v i c e o f c o n s u l t a n t s f r om t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e
S t u d i e s o f D e s t r u c t i v e B e h a v i o r s a n d t h e Los A n g e l e s S u i c i d e
P revention Center. The T e t o n Dam b r e a k s e r v e d t h i s I n s t i t u t e
a s t h e f i r s t o f two e x p l o r a t o r y c a s e s o f d i s a s t e r m e n t a l
h e a l t h s e r v i c e s i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r a t r a i n i n g m an u a l f o r human
s e r v i c e w o r k e r s i n t h e d i s a s t e r c o n t e x t u n d e r c o n t r a c t number
2 7 8 - 7 5 - 0 0 1 8 (SM) f ro m t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f M e n t a l H e a l t h .

30. The i n v e n t o r y o f l o s s e s shown i n T a b l e 7 i n d i c a t e s t h a t a t o t a l

o f 11 d e a t h s were a t t r i b u t e d to t h e f lo o d . S i x , a l l i n Fr e mo n t
County, were due t o d r o w n i n g . Bo t h g u n s h o t w ou n d s, o n e i n
each county, were s u s p e c te d s u i c i d e s . The o n e i n F r e mo n t C o u n t y
 108

i s c o u n t e d a s a s u i c i d e and i n v o l v e s a p r e v i o u s l y t r e a t e d
woman d i a g n o s e d a s p s y c h o t i c . The o t h e r i s c o u n t e d a s an
accident. The r e m a i n i n g t h r e e d e a t h s o c c u r r e d d u r i n g , o r
s h o r t l y a f t e r , e v a c u a t i o n and t h e s t r e s s o f t h e e v a c u a t i o n
p r o c e s s was v i e w ed a s a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r t o d e a t h .
 CHAPTER 5

AFTERMATH OF DISASTER: TRAUMA?

One o f t h e o f f i c i a l d e f i n i t i o n s t h a t emerged i n t h e e a r l y a f t e r -
m a t h o f t h e f l o o d , as n o t e d i n t h e p r e c e e d i n g c h a p t e r , was i n f o r m e d by
a c lin ical orientation. From t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e r e c o v e r y p e r i o d i s
m o s t a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e d as a v i c i o u s c y c l e w h i ch u l t i m a t e l y l e a d s
v ic tim s of d i s a s t e r to ex p erien ce mental h e a l t h emergencies. W ithin
t h e f i r s t two w e e k s , t h e a d v o c a t e s o f t h i s p o s i t i o n had s e t f o r t h some
f a i r l y s p e c i f i c p r e d i c t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e and e x t e n t o f t h e e m e r ­
g e n c i e s w hi ch w er e l i k e l y t o o c c u r o v e r t h e n e x t y e a r and p o s s i b l y
longer. This c h a p t e r begins w ith a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e a s se ssm e n ts
w h i c h w e re made a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s . The r e m a i n d e r o f t h e c h a p t e r e x a ­
mines th e e x p e c t a t i o n s in l i g h t of the a v a i l a b l e e v id e n c e .

Expected Mental H e a lth Emergencies

E x p e c t a t i o n s w e r e b a s e d f u n d a m e n t a l l y on a p r e s u m p t i o n o f p s y c h o ­
l o g i c a l damage. In a sense, the assumption t h a t d i s a s t e r causes psy­
c h o l o g i c a l t r a u ma s e r v e d t h e f u n c t i o n o f w h a t some h a v e t e r m e d an i n ­
c o rrig ib le proposition.^ This p r o p o s i t i o n provided the l o g i c a l
g r o u n d s f o r a n t i c i p a t i n g a w i d e r a n g e o f b e h a v i o r a l d e v i a t i o n s w hi ch
are t r a d i t i o n a l l y included under the mental i l l n e s s r u b r ic . When one
b e g in s w ith t h i s assumptiu:,, th e e x p e c t a t i o n fo r a b e r r a n t condu ct p r o ­
v i d e s i t s own w a r r a n t . The comments o f t h r e e m e n t a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s
p r o v i d e some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e s e l f - e v i d e n t n a t u r e o f t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s .
When a s k e d t o e x p l a i n why t h e p s y c h i a t r i c s t a f f e x p e c t e d i n c r e a s i n g
numbers o f v a l l e y r e s i d e n t s t o r e q u i r e a d m i s s i o n f o r a c u t e d i s o r d e r s ,
t h e f i r s t p r o f e s s i o n a l r e s p o n d e d , "What c a n you e x p e c t b u t d e p r e s ­
sion?" A s e c o n d m e n t a l h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n a l r e c a l l e d h i s t h o u g h t s as
h e s t o o d n e a r t h e c an y o n and o b s e r v e d t h e dam c o l l a p s e : " I knew as
i t h a p p e n e d , b e f o r e i t h a p p e n e d , y ou know, t h a t when t h e r e ' s a l o t o f
lo s s t h e r e w ill be p s y c h o lo g ic a l trauma". "When I h e a r d o f t h e
f l o o d , " t h e t h i r d p r a c t i t i o n e r s t a t e s , " I t h o u g h t h o l y s mokes, t h e y ' r e
going to be c r a w lin g th e w a l l s ! " This assu m ptio n le a d s to a g e n e r a l
o p e n n e s s t o i n t e r p r e t g e n e r a l f e e l i n g s o f e m o t i o n a l d i s c o m f o r t and
s i n g l e i n s t a n c e s o f a b e r r a n t conduct l i k e s u i c i d e , fo r example, as
m e r e l y t h e t i p o f t h e i c e b e r g and a s d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f w i d e - s p r e a d

109
 110

p a t t e r n s of m aladjustm ent. The a s s e s s m e n t p r o c e d u r e s e mpl oyed i n e v a ­

l u a t i n g t h e e m o t i o n a l t r a u ma and t h e d e b a t e w h i c h t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s
c r e a te d u nscores th e g e n e ra l importance of the i n c o r r i g i b l e p r o p o s i­
tion.

E s s e n t i a l l y , the assessment involved being p h y s ic a l ly p re s e n t in

t h e company o f d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s , c a r r y i n g on a c o n v e r s a t i o n and a t ­
t e m p t i n g Lo g e t a " f e e l " f o r t h e e m o t i o n a l u n d e r c u r r e n t . The t e c h n i ­
c a l t e r m u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h i s p r o c e d u r e was o u t r e a c h , a n d , a s t h e
t e r m i m p l i e s , t h e d i a l o g u e s e r v e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a s a s s e s s m e n t and
treatm ent. One p r o f e s s i o n a l o f f e r s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c r e t e i l l u s t r a ­
t i o n o f how t h e a s s e s s m e n t was c o n d u c t e d i n t h e f i e l d .

I d r o v e up and down t h e r o a d i n my t r u c k and s t o p p e d w he re

h o u s e s u s e d t o be o r a h a l f o f a h o u s e was s t i l l s t a n d i n g .
I i n t r o d u c e d m y s e l f w i t h my name o n l y and s a i d I was from
t h e d i s a s t e r c e n t e r a t S t . Ant hon y. "Could I a n s we r any
q u e s t i o n s ? " T h e r e were l o t s o f q u e s t i o n s a b o u t h o u s i n g , e s ­
p e c i a l l y , and c l o t h i n g , o r money. I reached out to people
on r o a d s , i n h o u s e s , on f a r m s . I i d e n t i f i e d m y self as a
p e r s o n w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t w h at was g o i n g on i n t own. I
i d e n t i f i e d u n u s u a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s and ga ve c o u n s e l i n g on t h e
spot. F or e x a m p l e , t h e r e w e r e two b o y s a b o u t 11 o r 14 y e a r s
old. They l i v e d i n t h e d i s a s t e r a r e a b u t w e r e s t a n d i n g on t h e
r o a d l o s t i n t h e i r own l a n d b e c a u s e t h e f a m i l i a r l a n d m a r k s
w e re g o n e . They were c o n f u s e d and d i s o r i e n t e d . It really
h e l p e d t o be a c h i l d p s y c h o l o g i s t .

The s e c o n d e xa mp l e shows how t h e p r o c e d u r e was a d o p t e d i n t h e

o n e - s t o p c e n t e r w h e re v a l l e y r e s i d e n t s came t o a p p l y f o r d i s a s t e r r e ­
lief. The s p e a k e r i n t h i s q u o t a t i o n w o r ke d a s a c a s e w o r k e r who had
t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f i d e n t i f y i n g v i c t i m s i n need o f t h e r a p e u t i c i n ­
tervention.

U n c o n t r o l l a b l e a n g e r , t h a t was t h e r e a l t h i n g . L e t me g i v e
y ou an e x a m p l e . T h e r e was t h i s l a d y and s h e ' d b e e n t o t h e
o n e - s t o p c e n t e r , oh, I d o n ' t know how many t i m e s b u t s h e ' d
been t h e r e b e f o r e . She f o r g o t t o b r i n g h e r cop y o f t h e r e ­
g i s t r a t i o n form - - t h e y g i v e you on e t h e f i r s t t i m e y ou come
to the c e n t e r . You h a ve t o h a v e i t o r t h e y c a n ' t h e l p yo u.
S h e ' d b e e n s t a n d i n g i n l i n e f o r a l o n g t i m e and when h e r t u r n
came, s h e d i d n ' t have h e r form. Th e y t o l d h e r t h e y c o u l d n ' t
h e l p h e r w i t h o u t t h e f or m. "I'm j u s t a yellow piece of paper
w i t h a number on i t . I c a n ' t s t a n d a n o t h e r day o f t h i s . I'm
b e i n g t r e a t e d l i k e a b a l l - - b ou nc ed from one d e s k i n h e r e t o
another. A n o t h e r day l i k e t h i s and I ' l l go o f f t h e d e ep e n d ! "
She r e a l l y l o s t i t . An g e r, t h a t was a p r o b l e m . Suicidal, I
guess y o u 'd sa y . At l e a s t , t h e t h r e a t was t h e r e . I went
o v e r t o c a lm h e r down b e f o r e s h e g o t e v e r y b o d y u p s e t . I wrote
 Ill

down t h e name o£ t h e c o u n s e l o r on a p i e c e o f p a p e r and t o l d

h e r t h a t he c o u l d h e l p h e r and t h e n I s e n t h e r o v e r t o t h a t
desk.

The a s s e s s m e n t c o n t i n u e d f o r a b o u t two weeks a t w h i c h t i m e more

t h a n 2 , 0 0 0 " c o n t a c t s " had r e c e i v e d m e n t a l h e a l t h s e r v i c e s . ^ The c o n ­
s e n s u s among o n e - s t o p w o r k e r s seemed t o b e t h a t b e t w e e n 10 and 40 p e r ­
c e n t o f a l l v i c t i m s who w e r e p r o c e s s e d t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r w e r e i n ne ed
of mental h e a l t h c o u n s e l i n g . A d d i t i o n a l l y , mo st p e o p l e we re r e p o r t ­
e d ly concerned w ith immediate m a t e r i a l needs, b u t a f t e r t h e i r b a s ic
s u r v i v a l n e e d s w e re m e t , t h e y " a d m i t t e d , u n d e r q u e s t i o n i n g , t h a t t h e y
w e re e x p e r i e n c i n g e m o t i o n a l d i s t r e s s a s w e l l " . I t was a l s o d e c i d e d
" t h a t a l l p e r s o n s a f f e c t e d by t h e f l o o d would be c o n s i d e r e d i n p o t e n ­
t i a l need o f m e n t a l h e a l t h s e r v i c e s i n t h e c o n t e x t t h a t a l l w e r e u n d e r
e m o t i o n a l d u r e s s from t h e i r o r d e a l " . G i v e n t h a t b e t w e e n 10 and 40
p e r c e n t were l i k e l y to e x p e r i e n c e a m e n ta l h e a l t h emergency, i t co uld
be a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t w i t h i n t h e a r e a o f Ma di s on C o u n t y and W i l f o r d
t h e r e woul d be b e t w e e n 1 , 3 4 8 and 5 , 3 9 2 a c u t e e p i s o d e s w i t h i n t h e f i r s t
six m onths.3

This a s s e s s m e n t , in c o n j u n c t i o n w ith o t h e r p i e c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n ,
was us ed t o make more s p e c i f i c p r e d i c t i o n s a b o u t t h e number and n a t u r e
o f t h e e m e r g e n c i e s t h a t c o u l d be e x p e c t e d o v e r t h e f o l l o w i n g one o r
two y e a r s . T h e r e was some r e c o l l e c t i o n t h a t t h e d i s a s t e r l i t e r a t u r e
r e p o r t e d an i n c r e a s e i n a d m i s s i o n s t c p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l s f o l l o w i n g
t h e e a r t h q u a k e s i n Manaqua and t h e San F e r n a n d o V a l l e y . ^ Admission t o
t h e s t a t e p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l , t h e r e f o r e , was e x p e c t e d t o i n c r e a s e by
30 p e r c e n t f o r a t l e a s t o n e y e a r . The e x a c t number o f s u i c i d e s was
a d m i t t e d l y u n k n o w a b l e , b u t t h e r e had a l r e a d y b e e n one s u i c i d e and one
s e l f - i n f l i c t e d and f a t a l g u n - s h o t wound and i t s eemed r e a s o n a b l e to
e x p e c t more i n l i e u o f t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e l o s s e s i n c u r r e d . Inquir­
i e s a b o u t a l c o h o l s a l e s and d r u g u s e l e d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t a l c o ­
h ol and d r u g a b u s e w ou ld i n c r e a s e by 300 and 250 p e r c e n t , r e s p e c t i v e ­
ly. I t was r e a s o n e d t h a t when p o l i c e t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n from
l o o t i n g and s e c u r i t y b a c k t o t r a f f i c c o n t r o l , a n i n c r e a s e i n a r r e s t s
f o r d r i v i n g w h i l e i n t o x i c a t e d (DWI) woul d r e f l e c t a n i n c r e a s e i n s u b ­
stance abuse. By A u g u s t , e x p e c t a t i o n s a l s o i n c l u d e d i n c r e a s e s i n d i ­
v o r c e , f a m i l y d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , c h i l d a b u s e , c r i m e and j u v e n i l e d e l i n ­
q u e nc y . Apparently, in q u ir ie s d ire c te d to p o lice o f f i c i a l s suggested
t h a t p o l i c e a c t i v i t i e s r e g a r d i n g d o m e s t i c c a l l s , and j u v e n i l e and
a d u lt o f f e n s e s were i n c r e a s i n g .

T h e r e w e r e many c r i t i c s who a r g u e d t h a t t h e " c o n t a c t s " had b e e n

m isinterpreted.^ One c r i t i c a s k e d t h e q u e s t i o n , " T h e s e s o - c a l l e d c o n ­
t a c t s th e s t a t e says th e y found; a re th ey mental h e a l t h problem s?"
Hi s a n s w er f o l l o w s .

No ! I t ' d be j u s t t h e same as you s i t t i n ' i n a c o n f u s e d p l a c e ,

s a y y o u ' r e i n Gr an d C e n t r a l S t a t i o n , and s o m e b o d y ' s l o s t and
t h e y come up and t a l k t o y o u. And y o u ' r e a b l e t o c a lm 'em
 112

down. I t ' d be t h e same t h i n g . You g e t 'em s q u a r e d away, l e t

'em t a l k a m i n u t e and t h e n t h e y g o away. I t i s n ' t mental
h e a l t h as such. I t ' s j u s t b e i n g t h e r e when p e o p l e need some­
body t c c a l k t o . I n t h a t s e n s e , y e s , i t m i g h t be m e n t a l h e a l t h
b u t i t i s n ' t r e a l l y m ental h e a l t h . . . . I t d o e s n ' t mean y o u r
m ental h e a l t h i s going to decay.

I n p a r t , th e d e b a te revo lved around t h e meaning o f m ental h e a l t h

and m e n t a l i l l n e s s and t h e l e a p whi c h was i n v o l v e d i n c o n c l u d i n g t h a t
b i z a r r e and s o c i a l l y d e v i a n t c o n d u c t w o u l d i n c r e a s e o v e r t h e l o n g ­
term becau se i n d i v i d u a l s ad m itted to f e e l i n g e m otion al d i s t r e s s in
th e s h o r t - t e r m . In p a r t , th e c r i t i c s w ere s u g g e s tin g t h a t th e c o n t e x t
had b e e n r a d i c a l l y a l t e r e d and t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d s f o r a p p r o p r i a t e
f e e l i n g s and r e m e d i e s h a d a l s o c h a n g e d . The s p e a k e r i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
q u o t a t i o n a t t e m p t s t o d e a l w i t h t h e s e c om pl e x i s s u e s .

They ( t h e s t a t e ) w e r e c o u n t i n g e v e r y b o d y t h e y s t o p p e d t o t a l k
to. I t ' s t r u e , p e o p l e w e r e n e r v o u s and u p s e t . We a l l w e r e .
I f you w a n t to c a l l t h a t m e n t a l h e a l t h , w e l l , I c a n ' t a g r e e .
We c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e n or ma l r e s p o n s e . P e o p l e w e re u p s e t ,
b u t t h e y w e re c o p i n g w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n and f u n c t i o n i n g as w e l l
a s you c o u l d e x p e c t i f y ou t h i n k a b o u t how.much c o n f u s i o n
t h e r e was a l l a r o u n d . . . . T h e r e w e r e no b r e a k d o w n s t h a t we c o u l d
s e e . . . . We w e r e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e p e o p l e who w e r e n ' t u p s e t .
T h a t ' s w h a t we w e r e l o o k i n g f o r . T h a t seemed l i k e t h e m os t im­
p o r t a n t t h i n g t o w a t c h f o r . . . . And we we re c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e
p e o p l e who w e r e u p s e t and m i g h t n o t b ou nc e b a c k o nc e t h i n g s
s e t t l e d down. . . . We a l r e a d y had t h e b e s t t h e r a p y you c o u l d
h a v e up a t R i c k ' s C o l l e g e . Neighbors c o m fo rtin g ne ig h b o rs. A
p l a c e t o s l e e p and e a t and c h e c k on f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s .
Ward m e e t i n g s . C o u n s e l from t h e b i s h o p s . T h a t ' s the kind o f
r e a s s u r a n c e people need. They n e e d t o know: "We're going to
re b u ild — b e t t e r than b e f o re " . And, t h e y ne ed t o know t h e
Church is t h e r e to h e l p . The s t a t e seemed t o f o r g e t t h a t .
What good a r e s t r a n g e r s a t a t ime l i k e t h a t ? People d o n 't
ne ed m e n t a l h e a l t h . You f e e l u p l i f t e d when somebody you know
p u t s t h e i r arm a r o u n d y o u and s a y s , " I t ' s g o i n g t o be o k a y " ,
and p i c k s up a s h o v e l and s t a r t s t o mud o u t r i g h t b e s i d e y o u .
Maybe i t e v e n h e l p s t o s h e d a few t e a r s t o g e t h e r - - h e l p s
yo u k e ep g o i n g — e v e n t h e men. . . . The f l o o d i s a d i f f e r e n t
situation. I t ' s n o t m e n t a l h e a l t h , t h e way y ou g e n e r a l l y
th in k of i t .

A l t h o u g h t h e a s s e s s m e n t was d e b a t e d i t d i d s e r v e a s a p o s s i b i l i t y
t h a t was n o t e a s i l y d i s m i s s e d o r i g n o r e d . S i n c e t h e r e was a m e n t a l
h e a l t h p r o j e c t t o p r o v i d e s e r v i c e s to t h e v i c t i m s o f d i s a s t e r , m e n t a l
h e a l t h i s s u e s w e r e n e c e s s a r i l y i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e s e t t i n g a s an on­
g o i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e a f t e r m a t h . ^ The p r e d i c t i o n s o u t l i n e d i n t h e
e a r l y a f t e r m a t h came to s e r v e a s a n t i c i p a t o r y c u e s f o r p o s s i b l e
 113

o c c u r r e n c e s and a s a y a r d s t i c k a g a i n s t w h i c h l a t e r o b s e r v a t i o n s and
e x p e r i e n c e s were measured.

I t i s c l e a r from t h e a b o v e t h a t t h e e a r l y e x p e c t a t i o n s w e r e f o r
r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e and s e r i o u s d e v i a t i o n s f ro m r o u t i n e c o n d u c t . The
g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o f e x p e c t a n c y seems t o b e t h a t d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s l o s e
c o n t r o l and t h i n k and b e h a v e i n ways t h a t a r e d i s r u p t i v e and p o s s i b l y
d a n g e r o u s t o s e l f , f a m i l y and o t h e r s . Moreover, th e e x p e c t a t i o n s for
m e n t a l h e a l t h e m e r g e n c i e s w e r e f r ame d i n t e r m s o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s
t h a t a r e r o u t i n e l y g a t h e r e d b e f o r e and a f t e r d i s a s t e r . T h i s a l l o w s us
th e o p p o r t u n i t y to examine the e x p e c t a t i o n s i n l i g h t o f th e a v a i l a b l e
evidence.

A ctual Mental H e a lth Emergencies

The p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d i n u t i l i z i n g s t a t i s t i c s a s a n a c c u r a t e r e ­
f l e c t i o n o r i n d i c a t o r o f some s o c i a l phenomenon a r e w e l l known.
C l e a r l y , t h e s t a t i s t i c r e p r e s e n t s t h e end p r o d u c t o f comp l ex s o c i a l
pro ce sses involved in the v i o l a t i o n , d e f i n i t i o n , d e t e c t i o n , processing
and r e c o r d i n g o f d e v i a n t phenomenon. Howe ve r, t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e
n o t a s p r o b l e m a t i c i n t h i s c a s e s i n c e t h e c r i t e r i a and d e f i n i t i o n o f
a n t i c i p a t e d m e n t a l h e a l t h e m e r g e n c i e s was i n i t i a l l y f o r m u l a t e d in
t e r m s o f i n c r e a s e s i n o f f i c i a l l y d e t e c t e d and r e c o r d e d c a s e s . None­
t h e l e s s , th e is s u e o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t i l l poses a s e r i o u s problem.

All s t a t i s t i c s p r e s e n t e d in th e a n a l y s i s below a r e l i m i t e d to
Madison County. S i n c e t h e communi ty o f W i l f o r d r e p r e s e n t s o n l y a
s m a l l p o r t i o n o f t h e F r e m o n t C ou n t y p o p u l a t i o n i t was f e l t t h a t any
d e v i a t i o n s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o r e s i d e n t s o f t h e W i l f o r d a r e a would n o t be
d e t e c t e d in a g g r e g a t e d a t a g a t h e r e d f o r th e coun ty as a whole. The
s t a t i s t i c a l m a t e r i a l i s p r e s e n t e d in a graph format w i t h a broken l i n e
dr awn v e r t i c a l l y t h r o u g h t h e g r a p h t o i n d i c a t e t h e dam b r e a k o f J u ne
5 , 1976.

Personal D is a b ility

I t was p r e d i c t e d t h a t a d m i s s i o n t o p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l would
i n c r e a s e by 30 p e r c e n t f o r a t l e a s t one y e a r and t h a t s u i c i d e would
i n c r e a s e , a lth o u g h a t an unknowable r a t e . The a s s u m p t i o n seems t o
be t h a t an i n c r e a s i n g number o f v i c t i m s a d a p t t o d i s a s t e r w i t h f e e l ­
i n g s , a c t s , and m o t i v a t i o n s t h a t a r e i r r a t i o n a l , b i z a r r e , a n d / o r s e l f -
destructive. T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s p r e s u m a b l y s e r i o u s e no u g h o r d i s r u p ­
t i v e e nough t o s e l f a n d / o r o t h e r s t h a t o f f i c i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s o c c u r .

F i g u r e 11 shows t h e number o f a d m i s s i o n s (new a d m i s s i o n s and

t o t a l ad m issio n s) o f Madison County r e s i d e n t s to t h e s t a t e p s y c h i a t r i c
h o s p i t a l b e t w e e n J a n u a r y 1, 1974, and December 31, 1 9 7 9 . Unfortu­
n a t e l y , s t a t i s t i c a l r e p o r t s o r e o n l y a v a i l a b l e on a s e m i - a n n u a l b a s i s .
 114
. 7at«t M atiilo w

me* AdaliJlou

20

IS

10

0
1974 1977 1978 1979

F i g u r e 11 A d m i s s i o n s (New and T o t a l ) t o
P s y c h i a t r i c H o s p i t a l £ o r Ma di son
C o u n t y , s e m i - a n n u a l r e p o r t s , 1974-1979

1974 1975 1976 19 7 ? 1978 1979

F i g u r e 12 Complaints of S t r a n g e , B i z a r r e o r Mental
B e h a v i o r r e c e i v e d by t h e Re xb ur g P o l i c e
D e p a r t m e n t , b y t h e m o n t h , 1 974- ( A p r i l ) 1979

1974 1*75 1976 1977 1978 1979

I

Figure 13 Complaints o f S u s p e c te d S u i c i d a l
B e h a v i o r r e c e i v e d b y t h e Rexbur g P o l i c e
D e p a r t m e n t , by t h e m o n t h , 1974- ( A p r i l ) 1979
 115

C o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h e number o f a d m i s s i o n s d i d n o t i n c r e a s e .
I n f a c t , b o t h new and t o t a l a d m i s s i o n s a c t u a l l y d e c r e a s e d o v e r a t h r e e
year period. I n 1 97 6 , f o l l o w i n g t h e d i s a s t e r , t h e r e w e r e no new a d ­
m i s s i o n s and f o u r r é a d m i s s i o n s . T h i s i s n o t an uncommonly h i g h num­
b e r f o r r e a d m i s s i o n i n a s i x m on th p e r i o d . E x c l u d i n g 197 6 , and com­
b i n i n g a l l new a d m i s s i o n s f o r t h e t h r e e y e a r s f o l l o w i n g t h e d i s a s t e r ,
t h e r e a r e f e w e r a d m i s s i o n s ( 13) t h a n i n t h e p r o c e e d i n g two y e a r s ( 2 2 ) .
T h i s i s a l s o t r u e f o r t o t a l a d m i s s i o n s (22 c omp a r ed t o 2 5 ) . This
g e n e r a l d e c l i n e u n d o u b t e d l y r e f l e c t s a t r e n d i n s t a t e p o l i c y t o w a rd
dei n s t itu tio n a liz a tio n .^ N o n e th e le s s , th e d i s a s t e r d id n o t seemingly
a f f e c t t h i s tr e n d as p r e d i c t e d . Moreover, th e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r a r e ­
v e r s a l e x is te d s in c e the s t a t e h o s p i t a l prepared for th e expected in ­
f l u x o f a c u t e d i s o r d e r by e m p l o y i n g t h r e e a d d i t i o n a l s t a f f m e mb e rs .

The p e a k o c c u r r i n g i n 1978 b e t w e e n t h e e i g h t e e n t h and t w e n t y -

f o u r t h m on t hs p o s t - d i s a s t e r r e p r e s e n t s a n i n t e r e s t i n g a no ma l y i n t h e
p a tte r n of adm issions. T h i s anoma ly i s d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t w i t h ­
o u t k n o w l ed g e o f t h e social context. I t may r e p r e s e n t 1) a n a c t u a l
in c re a se in a b e rra n t b e h a v i o r a r o u n d one and a h a l f t o two y e a r s a f t e r
i m p a c t ; 2) a d e l a y i n a d m i s s i o n s due t o a h i g h e r d e g r e e o f t o l e r a n c e
f o r s t r a n g e b e h a v i o r ; o r 3) i t may r e f l e c t a c h a n g e i n t r e a t m e n t p r a c ­
tices. I b e l i e v e t h e p e a k c a n be a c c o u n t e d f o r by a c o m b i n a t i o n o f
t h e l a s t two f a c t o r s g i v i n g mor e w e i g h t t o t h e l a t t e r . T his does lend
some s u p p o r t t o t h e t h e r a p e u t i c communi ty n o t i o n and t h e r e i s s u f f i ­
c i e n t evidence to b e l i e v e t h a t d u rin g the f i r s t y e a r , in p a r t i c u l a r ,
t h e s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t i s mo re t o l e r a n t and mor e s u p p o r t i v e . In July
o f 197 8, i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e e d i n g Che p e a k , t h e r e was a m a j o r c h a n g e i n
t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , s t a f f i n g , and f u n d i n g o f t h e community m e n t a l
h e a l t h c e n t e r from a p r i v a t e to a p u b l i c f a c i l i t y . Some o f t h e more
serious o u t-p atien ts were t r a n s f e r r e d to th e h o s p i t a l d u r i n g th e t r a n ­
s i t i o n p e r i o d and t h i s p r o b a b l y a c c o u n t s f o r a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e
p e a k i n b o t h new and r é a d m i s s i o n s .

F i g u r e 12 shows t h e number o f c o m p l a i n t s w h i c h t h e Re xb u r g P o l i c e
D e p a r t m e n t r e c e i v e d e a c h mo nth c o n c e r n i n g " s t r a n g e , b i z a r r e o r m e n t a l "
b e h a v i o r f o r t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n J a n u a r y 1, 1 9 7 4 , and A p r i l 30, 1979.
A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e few c o m p l a i n t s o f t h i s n a t u r e p r i o r t o t h e f l o o d ( a
t o t a l o f 6 i n 2% y e a r s ) , t h e p a t t e r n i s i n t e r e s t i n g f o r t h e a b s e n c e
o f c o m p l a i n t s f o r e i g h t e e n m o n t hs a f t e r i m p a c t . S im ila r to the p a t ­
t e r n o f h o s p i t a l a d m i s s i o n s , a c t i v i t y r e s u m e s and p e a k s a r o u n d t h e
e i g h t e e n t h t o t h e t w e n t y - f o u r t h m o n t hs a f t e r i m p a c t .

O f f i c i a l d a t a on s u i c i d e s i s a v a i l a b l e i n two f o r m s : p o l i c e com­
p l a i n t s r e c e i v e d and v i t a l s t a t i s t i c s . F i g u r e 13 shows t h e c o m p l a i n t s
w h i c h t h e R e xb ur g P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t r e c e i v e d c o n c e r n i n g b e h a v i o r s t h a t
may be t e r me d s u s p e c t e d s u i c i d e . This in c lu d e s com plaints en tered
i n t o p o l i c e f i l e s a s " o v e r d o s e " , " g u n - s h o t w ou nd ", " s u i c i d e a t t e m p t " ,
" t h r e a t e n e d s u i c i d e " o r " s e l f - i n f l i c t e d wo und". This p a t t e r n , s i m i l a r
t o t h e two a b o v e , d o e s n o t r e f l e c t a p o s t - d i s a s t e r i n c r e a s e as e x p e c t ­
ed. C omp ar i ng t h e c o m p l a i n t s r e c e i v e d f o r t h e two and a h a l f y e a r s
p r e - d i s a s t e r ( a t o t a l o f 18) t o t h e two and a h a l f y e a r s p o s t - d i s a s t e r
( a t o t a l o f 14) t h e r e i s a c t u a l l y a s l i g h t d e c r e a s e o f f o u r c a s e s .
 116

This p a tte r n is i n t e r e s t i n g because, although the o v e r a ll trend

shows a d e c r e a s e , t h e i m m e d i a t e p o s t - d i s a s t e r d e p r e s s i o n w h i c h o c c u r s
f o r c o m p l a i n t s o f s t r a n g e b e h a v i o r and new a d m i s s i o n s i s a b s e n t . A
t o t a l o f s e v e n c o m p l a i n t s was r e c e i v e d i n t h e f i r s t n i n e m on th s f o l ­
l o w i n g i m p a c t b e f o r e a s e v e n m on t h d e p r e s s i o n o f z e r o c o m p l a i n t s .
A c t i v i t y r e s u me s a g a i n a r o u n d t h e e i g h t e e n t h mo n t h. Given t h a t r é a d ­
m i s s i o n s to the p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l c o n tin u e d in t h e e a r l y p o s t - i m ­
p a c t p e r i o d , i t may b e t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n o f p e r s o n s who h a v e a p r e ­
d i s a s t e r p s y c h ia tr ic or s u ic id a l h is to r y are exacerbated or unaffected
by c o n t e x t u a l e v e n t s i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f d i s a s t e r .

V i t a l s t a t i s t i c s m a i n t a i n e d by t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h and Wel ­
f a r e ( A p p e n d i x B) f a i l t o show any d e a t h s by s u i c i d e . However , a c c i ­
d e n t a l d e a t h s a r e f r e q u e n t l y s u s p e c te d as d e a th w i th s u i c i d a l i n t e n t .
To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i s r e l e v a n t , t h e v i t a l s t a t i s t i c s
do i n d i c a t e an i n c r e a s e i n a c c i d e n t a l d e a t h s f o r 1976 and 1977 w i t h a
s h a r p d e c l i n e i n 1 9 7 8. I t is u n fo rtu n a te for the purpose of t h i s a n a l­
ysis t h a t these s t a t i s t i c s a r e not re p o r te d monthly. I f we c a n a s ­
sume, g i v e n t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e , t h a t t e n a c c i d e n t a l d e a t h s p e r
y e a r f o r 1976, 1977 and 1978 d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t an i n c r e a s e , t h e n t h e
number o f a c c i d e n t a l d e a t h s d e v i a t i n g from t h i s a r t i f i c i a l l y imposed
b a s e l i n e i s +1 f o r 1 976, +3 f o r 1977 and - 4 f o r 1 978. The n e t d i f f e r ­
e n c e f o r t h e t h r e e y e a r p o s t - d i s a s t e r p e r i o d i s z e r o o r no i n c r e a s e .
N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s i n t e r e s t i n g w i t h mo re d e a t h s d u e t o
a c c i d e n t c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e f i r s t y e a r and a h a l f a f t e r i m p a c t .

The o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s r e v i e w e d t h u s f a r r e p r e s e n t f a i r l y e x ­
t r e m e f or ms o f a b e r r a n t c o n d u c t . I f my r e a d i n g o f t h e d a t a i s c o r ­
r e c t , t h e dam b r e a k was n o t f o l l o w e d by an i n c r e a s e i n e x t r e m e forms
o f p e r s o n a l l y d i s a b l i n g c on duc t as p r e d i c t e d . This i s a re a s o n a b le
c o n c lu s io n sin c e c a s e f in d in g procedures were a c t u a l l y i n t e n s i f i e d
w i t h i n t h e communi ty p o s t - i m p a c t . The d e b a t e c o n c e r n i n g t h e e x p e c t a ­
t i o n s f o r e m e r g e n c i e s s e n s i t i z e d mo st communi ty l e a d e r s and o f f i c i a l s
c o n c e rn in g the p o s s i b i l i t y o f o c c u r r e n c e . I t i s p o s s i b l e to argu e the
r e v e r s e , t h a t t h e d e b a t e made community o f f i c i a l s e v e n more r e s i s t a n t
t o a c c e p t s u c h d e f i n i t i o n s a nd i n f a c t , t o de ny t h e s e r i o u s n e s s o f
such co n d u c t. Although t h i s i s p o s s i b l e , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to deny or
d e f i n e away s u i c i d a l a t t e m p t s o r b i z a r r e b e h a v i o r t h a t h a s d e s t r u c ­
tiv e im plications. Even i f t h i s i s t r u e , t h e r e was a n a d d i t i o n a l c a d ­
r e o f 100 a d v o c a t e w o r k e r s who w e nt d o o r - t o - d o o r w i t h i n t h e community
w i t h t h e e x p r e s s p u r p o s e o f i d e n t i f y i n g and r e f e r r i n g e m o t i o n a l l y d i s ­
tr a u g h t v ic tim s i n t o the o f f i c i a l mental h e a l t h netw ork.^ T h e ir e f ­
f o r t s s h o u l d h a v e i d e n t i f i e d p e r s o n s w i t h s u c h e x t r e m e f or ms o f d e v i a ­
tio n . The o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n m i g h t be t h a t t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e 413 p r o ­
j e c t a c c o u n t s f o r t h e l a c k o f i n c r e a s e . I n o t h e r w o r d s , i f t h e r e had
not been mental h e a l t h s e r v ic e s to d i s a s t e r v ic tim s , the p r e d ic t e d
i n c r e a s e s woul d h a v e o c c u r r e d . The c a s e l o a d o f t h e 413 p r o j e c t w i l l
be examined l a t e r fo llo w in g an a n a l y s i s o f th e r e m a in in g p r e d i c t i o n s .
 117

A l c o h o l Abuse

An i n c r e a s e d i n c i d e n c e o f a l c o h o l a b u s e was p r e d i c t e d to show up
i n t h e s a l e o f a l c o h o l and i n t h e number o f p o l i c e a r r e s t s f o r d r i v i n g
w h i l e i n t o x i c a t e d (DWI). An i n i t i a l s u r v e y o f s e l e c t e d l i q u o r o u t ­
l e t s , i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r i m p a c t , i n d i c a t e d t h a t s a l e s h ad i n c r e a s e d by
300 p e r c e n t . F i g u r e 1 4 shows t h e m o n t h l y d o l l a r s a l e s f o r t he s t a t e
d i s p e n s a r y i n Ma di so n C o un t y b e t w e e n 1974 and 1979. This d is p e n s a ry
i s t h e o n l y r e t a i l o u t l e t f o r t h e s a l e o f w i n e and a l c o h o l in t h e
c o u n t y . 10 C o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h e r e i s no i n c r e a s e i n a l c o h o l
sales. I n f a c t , g i v e n t h e i n c r e a s e b o t h i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n and i n t h e
c o s t o f a l c o h o l , one w o u l d e x p e c t a g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e . The o n l y d e v i a ­
t i o n i n the p a t t e r n i s a sharp d e c l i n e im mediately fo ll o w i n g im pact.
T h i s d e c l i n e r e f l e c t s a t h r e e week p e r i o d i n w hi ch t h e d i s p e n s a r y was
c l o s e d f o r t h e r e p a i r o f damages i n c u r r e d by t h e f l o o d .

F i g u r e 15 shows t h e number o f DWI a r r e s t s r e p o r t e d by t h e Re xbur g

P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t by t h e month f o r 1975 t h r o u g h 1978. Consistent w ith
e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h i s g r a p h shows a s u s t a i n e d i n c r e a s e o v e r a t w e l v e
m o n th p e r i o d b e g i n n i n g t h e f i r s t m o n t h a f t e r i m p a c t . Around t h e t h i r ­
t e e n t h mont h t h e number o f a r r e s t s d r o p s w i t h t h e r e m a i n i n g s i x mo n th s
o f 1977 and t h e y e a r 1978 sh o wi n g a r e t u r n t o t h e p r e - d i s a s t e r p a t ­
tern. The t o t a l number o f a r r e s t s f o r t h e y e a r s 1974, 1975, 1976,
1 97 7, and 1978 i s 32, 34, 6 7 , 5 8 , and 32, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The q u e s t i o n
i s w h e t h e r t h i s d r a m a t i c i n c r e a s e i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o a t w e l v e mont h
c h a n g e i n t h e a l c o h o l u s e o f d i s a s t e r v i c t i m ? o r t o some o t h e r p h e ­
nomenon. T h i s i n c r e a s e r e f l e c t s a c h a n ge i n two o t h e r f a c t o r s : an
i n f l u x o f c o n s t r u c t i o n and r e p a i r w o r k e r s i n t h e d i s a s t e r a r e a and i n ­
creased police s u rv e illa n c e . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e how many
w o r k e r s came i n t o t h e f l o o d a r e a t o a s s i s t i n c l e a n - u p , d e m o l i t i o n ,
r e p a i r and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , b u t t h e number e a s i l y e x c e e d s 1 , 0 0 0 . The
c l o s e s t p u b l i c t a v e r n s w er e l o c a t e d n o r t h i n S t . Anthony o r s o u t h i n
I d a h o F a l l s , a nd w o r k e r s w e r e c a u g h t a t s e c u r i t y c h e c k p o i n t s a s t h e y
were d r i v i n g th ro u g h Madison County. The a c c u r a c y o f t h i s i n t e r p r e ­
t a t i o n i s c o n f i r m e d i n a r e p o r t w h i c h d o c um e n ts t h a t 69 o u t s i d e w or k ­
e r s h a d b e e n r e f e r r e d by t h e c o u r t s f o r s u b s t a n c e a b u s e t r e a t m e n t
p r i o r t o S e p t e m b e r 1 0, 1976.

Fam ilial Disorder

An i n c r e a s i n g i n c i d e n c e o f p o l i c e c a l l s f o r d o m e s t i c p r o b l e m s ,
c a s e s o f c h i l d a b u s e , and d i v o r c e was p r e d i c t e d as a r e f l e c t i o n o f
f a m i l i a l d i s o r d e r c a u s e d by t h e f l o o d . F i g u r e 16 shows t h e number o f
d o m e s t i c c a l l s r e p o r t e d by t h e R e x b ur g P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t by t h e month
f o r 1974 t h r o u g h A p r i l , 1 97 9. In c o n tr a s t to ex p e c ta tio n s, t h i s graph
shows a n a b s e n c e o f d o m e s t i c c a l l s f o r e l e v e n months f o l l o w i n g t h e
flood. A c t i v i t y r e s u m e s d u r i n g t h e e l e v e n t h month a l t h o u g h p r e - d i s a s ­
t e r l e v e l s a r e n o t r e a c h e d o v e r t h e f o l l o w i n g two y e a r s . This i s r e ­
f l e c t e d i n t h e t o t a l number o f c a l l s p e r y e a r : 13, 16, 4, 8 a nd 5 f o r
 118

( 20,000

( 15,000

( 10,000

35,000

1974 1975 1977 1978 1979

F i g u r e 14 L i q u o r S a l e s ( d o l l a r s ) r e p o r t e d by
S t a t e L i q u o r D i s p e n s a r y f o r Ma di so n
C o u n t y , by t h e m o n th , 1 974- 1979

1975 1977 1978

Figure 15 DWI A r r e s t s r e p o r t e d b y Re xb ur g
P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t , by t h e month,
1975-1979
 119

6
i
*
}
1
1
0
1974 1975 1977 1978 1979

F i g u r e 16 D o m e s t i c C a l l s r e p o r t e d by Re xbur g
P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t , by t h e m o n t h,
1974- ( A p r i l ) 1979.

30

25

20

15

10

0
1975 1977 1978 1979

F i g u r e 17 D i v o r c e F i l i n g s f o r MsrH son C o u n t y .
by t h e m o n t h , ( J u n e ) 1 97 4 - ( A p r i l ) 1979
 120

1974, 1 9 75 , 1976, 1977 and 1 9 7 8 , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

T h e r e i s a p r o b l e m w i t h t h e d a t a on c h i l d a b u s e . D u r i n g 1976,
t h e j u d i c i a l p o l i c y was c h a n g e d i n an a t t e m p t t o d i v e r t c h i l d a b u s e
c a s e s from th e c o u r t syst em to more i n f o r m a l c h a n n e l s t h r o u g h th e
D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h and W e l f a r e . U n fo rtu n a tely , I did not ga th er
d a t a f r om t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h and W e l f a r e on t h i s s t a t i s t i c . In­
f o r m a n t s f rom t h i s a g e n c y d i d n o t i d e n t i f y c h i l d n e g l e c t a s a problem,
o f i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e r n , a l t h o u g h t h i s may h a v e b e e n a n o v e r s i g h t . Re­
l e v a n t d a t a from e i t h e r p o l i c e r e p o r t s o r c o u r t f i l i n g s d o e s n o t i n d i ­
c a t e an i n c r e a s e a lo n g t h e s e l i n e s . One m i g h t e x p e c t t h a t p o l i c e a r ­
r e s t s f o r " f a m i l y a nd c h i l d ” o f f e n s e s and a r r e s t s f o r a s s a u l t m i g h t
h a v e some b e a r i n g on t h i s i s s u e . If this is correct, police a c tiv i­
t i e s ( A p p e n d i x C, T a b l e 9) do n o t i n d i c a t e a p r o b l e m . T h e r e a r e no
a r r e s t s i n 1976, 1 977, o r 1978 f o r " f a m i l y and c h i l d " r e l a t e d o f ­
fenses. T h e r e a r e no a r r e s t s f o r a s s a u l t i n 1976 o r 1 9 77 , a l t h o u g h
s i x a r e r e c o r d e d f o r 1978. To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h i s r e f l e c t s some a s ­
p e c t o f f a m i l i a l d i s o r d e r o r c h i l d n e g l e c t , i t does no t o c c u r u n t i l
18 mo n th s a f t e r i m p a c t a n d , i n c i d e n t a l l y , t h e s i x r e c o r d e d a r r e s t s f o r
a s s a u l t i n 1976 i s l e s s t h a n t h e number r e c o r d e d f o r 1 9 7 5 . Court f i l ­
l i n g s ( A p p en d ix D) a l s o f a i l t o show any i n c r e a s e i n c h i l d p r o t e c t i v e
cases or guardianship of m inors. G i v e n t h e p o l i c y c h a n g e i n 1976, a
d e c r e a s e m ight be e x p e c te d r e g a r d l e s s of o t h e r f a c t o r s .

The number o f m o n t h l y d i v o r c e f i l i n g s r e c o r d e d f o r M a d i s o n C o u n t y
b e t w e e n J u n e 1974 a nd A p r i l 1979 a r e shown i n f i g u r e 17. I t should be
p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h i s s t a t i s t i c r e p r e s e n t s t h e number o f d i v o r c e f i l ­
i n g s and n o t t h e number o f d i v o r c e s g r a n t e d . C o n tr a r y to e x p e c ta ­
t i o n s , t h e r e i s a d e c r e a s e i n t h e number o f c o u p l e s f i l i n g f o r d i ­
vorce. The t o t a l s f o r 1 9 7 6 , 1977, and 1978 ( 1 2 7 , 135 and 140, r e s p e c ­
t i v e l y ) do n o t r e a c h t h e 1975 t o t a l o f 1 7 9, a l t h o u g h t h e e a r l y m on t hs
o f 1979 s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s l e v e l may b e r e a c h e d a g a i n t h r e e and a h a l f
to four y e a rs p o s t - d i s a s t e r .

Legal Deviance

E x p e c t a t i o n s Cor an i n c r e a s e i n c r i m i n a l c o n d u c t and j u v e n i l e d e ­
l i n q u e n c y w e re b a s e d i n i t i a l l y on a g e n e r a l p e r c e p t i o n t h a t p o l i c e s e ­
c u r i t y was n e c e s s a r i l y i n t e n s i f i e d i n t h e d i s a s t e r a r e a t o p r o t e c t
p r o p e r t y own e rs f rom l o o t i n g a n d , i n l a r g e p a r t , on i n q u i r i e s i n w h i c h
p o l i c e i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e number o f a r r e s t s was r i s i n g s h a r p l y . This
g e n e r a l p e r c e p t i o n s eemed t o be c o n f i r m e d when t h e p o l i c e had r e q u e s t ­
ed t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e c r i s i s team t o d e f u s e a v i o l e n t e n c o u n t e r i n ­
v o l v in g a d i s a s t e r v i c t i m and h i s n e i g h b o r . A dditionally, within the
f i r s t two mont hs a f t e r i m p a c t , t h e p o l i c e and t h e c o u r t s h ad b e gu n r e ­
f e r r i n g c l i e n t s t o t h e s u b s t a n c e a b u s e p r o g r a m o f t h e s e c t i o n 413 p r o ­
j e c t f o l l o w i n g a l c o h o l and d r u g r e l a t e d a r r e s t s . The a n t i c i p a t i o n ,
t h e n , was t h a t c r i m e a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , c r i m e s t h a t i n v o l v e d a l c o h o l
and d r u g s , w e re i n c r e a s i n g .
 121
A d u le

J u v e n ile

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
1977

F i g u r e 18 A l l a r r e s t s ( a d u l t and j u v e n i l e )
r e p o r t e d b y t h e R e xb ur g P o l i c e
D e p a r t m e n t , b y t h e mo nt h , 19 75 -1 9 78
A d u lt

. — . J u v e n ile

15

10

0
1975 1977 1978

F i g u r e 19 A l c o h o l R e l a t e d A r r e s t s ( a d u l t and
j u v e n i l e ) r e p o r t e d by t h e Re xb u r g P o l i c e
D e p a r t m e n t , b y t h e mo n th , 1 9 75 - 19 7 8

----------- A du lt
15
___________ J u v e n ile

10

0
1975 1977 1978

f i g u r e 2u u r u g R e l a t e d A r r e s t s ( a d u l t a n d j u v e n i l e ) r e p o r t e d by
t h e Re x bu r g P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t , b y t h e m o n t h , 1 97 5- 19 78
 122

F i g u r e s 1 8 , 19 and 20 show t h e a r r e s t s r e p o r t e d by t h e Re xbur g

P o l i c e Department for a l l a r r e s t s combined, f o r a l c o h o l - r e l a t e d a r ­
r e s t s and f o r d r u g r e l a t e d a r r e s t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . C onsistent w ith
e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e f o r b o t h a d u l t and j u v e n i l e a r ­
rests. The p a t t e r n f o r a d u l t s and f o r j u v e n i l e s i s s i m i l a r f o r a l l
three fig u res. T h i s r e f l e c t s t h a t f a c t t h a t a l c o h o l and d r u g r e l a t e d
a r r e s t s t o g e t h e r r e p r e s e n t t h e s i n g l e l a r g e s t c a t e g o r y o f a r r e s t a nd ,
m o r e o v e r , a l c o h o l and d r u g r e l a t e d a r r e s t s seem t o a c c o u n t f o r m o st
of the p o s t - d i s a s t e r in c re a se . You w i l l r e c a l l f rom t h e e a r l i e r d e s -
cussion th a t a large p o rtio n o f a d u lt alcohol r e la te d a r r e s t s are
DWI's a t t r i b u t a b l e to an i n f l u x o f wor k c r e w s . T h e r e a r e some i n t e r ­
e s t i n g v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e p a t t e r n f o r a d u l t s compar ed t o j u v e n i l e s .

F o r a d u l t s , t h e h i g h e s t p e a k o c c u r s i n t h e f i r s t month a f t e r im­
pact. The g e n e r a l t r e n d d e c l i n e s , a l t h o u g h i t r e m a i n s a b ov e p r e - d i ­
s a s t e r l e v e l s f o r r o u g h l y two y e a r s . I f we l o o k a t t h e y e a r l y t o t a l s
f o r comb i ne d a r r e s t s ( 1 9 6 , 257, 23 7 , and 160 f o r 1 975, 1 976, 1 977, and
1 97 8, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) i t w i l l be o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e t o t a l a r r e s t s f o r
1978 f a l l b e l ow t h e 1975 t o t a l . 13F o r j u v e n i l e s , t h e t r e n d o f t h e
f i r s t s i x mo nt hs i n 1976 a p p e a r e d t o f o r e s h a d o w an i n c r e a s e i n a r r e s t s
o v e r t h e p r e c e e d i n g y e a r (67 o f 95 a r r e s t s o c c u r r e d i n t h e p r e - d i s a s ­
t e r period of 1976). Unlike the p a t t e r n f o r a d u lt a r r e s t s , a r a t h e r
s h a r p d e c l i n e o c c u r s o v e r s i x months im m e d ia te ly f o l l o w i n g t h e f l o o d .
T h i s i s f o l l o w e d by a n i n c r e a s e o f one and a h a l f y e a r s , and t h e n a
d e c l i n e d u r in g 1978. I f we l o o k a t t h e y e a r l y t o t a l s f o r j u v e n i l e a r ­
r e s t s ( 9 2 , 9 5, 147 and 109 f o r 1 9 75, 1976, 1977, and 1978, r e s p e c t i v e ­
l y ) i t w i l l be s e e n t h a t , a l s o u n l i k e t h e a d u l t p a t t e r n , t h e number
of a r r e s t s does n o t f a l l b e l o w o r r e t u r n t o t h e 1975 t o t a l . Alcohol-
r e l a t e d i n c i d e n t s appear t o be t h e major f a c t o r in m a i n t a i n i n g ju ve ­
n i l e a r r e s t s f o r 1978 a bo ve t h e 1975 t o t a l .

The q u e s t i o n o f c e n t r a l c o n c e r n , o f c o u r s e , i s w h e t h e r t h e p o s t ­
d i s a s t e r i n c r e a s e i n a r r e s t s r e f l e c t s an i n c r e a s e i n v i o l a t i o n s o f t h e
law o r i n d e t e c t i o n . 14 The w e i g h t o f t h e e v i d e n c e seems t o s u g g e s t
t h a t the l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e o f f e r s the b e t t e r e x p la n atio n .^ ^ P r io r to
19 76, t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d showed an i n c r e a s e o f s u f f i c i e n t m a g n i t u d e
t h a t t h e p o l i c e d e p a r t m e n t a dde d s e v e n o f f i c e r s t o t h e p o l i c e f o r c e i n
1976 and one a d d i t i o n a l s t a f f member f o r e a c h f o l l o w i n g y e a r i n 1977,
1978, and 1 9 7 9 . 1 6 I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e f l o o d , s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s we r e
a h i g h p r i o r i t y and 65 s t a t e p o l i c e o f f i c e r s we re a s s i g n e d t o t h e Mad-
i s o n - F r e m o n t - J e f f e r s o n Cou nt y a r e a f o r t h r e e we ek s . Also, th e e q u i ­
v a l e n t o f 43 p o l i c e o f f i c e r s w e r e t e m p o r a r i l y added t o M a d i s o n - F r e m o n t
C o u n t i e s f o r s i x mo nt hs u n d e r a n e m e r g e n c y g r a n t r e c e i v e d f ro m LEAA.17
This i n c r e a s e in p e r s o n n e l allowed f o r i n c r e a s e d p o l i c e s u r v e i l l a n c e
and d e t e c t i o n .

The a d e q u a c y o f t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n i s s u p p o r t e d b y a s t a t i s t i c a l
c o m p a r i s o n o f a r r e s t s , o f f e n s e s , a n d c o m p l a i n t s r e p o r t e d - b y t h e Rex­
b u r g P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t f o r 1974 t h r o u g h 1979 ( Appe ndi x C, T a b l e 1 0 ) .
I t w i l l b e o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e number o f o f f e n s e s r e p o r t e d f o r 1976
d r o p s f r om 1975 t o b el ow t h e t o t a l f o r 1 9 74 , i n c r e a s e s i n 1977 b u t r e ­
m a i n s b e l o w t h e t o t a l f o r 1975 and d e c r e a s e s i n 1978 t o r o u g h l y t h e
 123

1974 t o t a l . O b s e r v i n g t h e y e a r l y t o t a l s f o r c o m p l a i n t s r e c e i v e d from
the p u b lic , a p o s t - d i s a s t e r decrease is also noted. The t o t a l f o r
1976 d r o p s b e l ow t h e t o t a l c o m p l a i n t s f o r 1974 and c o n t i n u e s t o d e ­
c l i n e each c o n s e c u tiv e y e a r . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t r e p o r t e d o f f e n s e s and
c o m p l a i n t s r e f l e c t l e g a l d e v i a n c e , i t would a p p e a r t h a t l e g a l v i o l a ­
t i o n s do n o t n o t i c e a b l y i n c r e a s e i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f d i s a s t e r . In
f a c t , t h e i n t e r e s t i n g phenomenon t o be e x p l a i n e d i s t h e a p p a r e n t d e ­
cline. I t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o as su me t h a t t h e v i s i b i l i t y and p r e s e n c e
o f a d d i t i o n a l p o l i c e i n t h e a r e a a c t e d as a d e t e r r e n t . A lso, t h i s
d a t a l e n d s some s u p p o r t t o t h e n o t i o n t h a t communi ty c o h e s i o n i s e n ­
h a n c e d by s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s w h i c h a r e p r o m o t e d i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f d i ­
saster.

I f my i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s i s c o r r e c t , t h e
i n c r e a s e i n a r r e s t s r e f l e c t s an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f p o l i c e s u r v e i l ­
lance. For th e most p a r t , a r r e s t s o f a r e l a t i v e l y minor n a t u r e , p a r ­
t i c u l a r l y those r e l a t e d to t r a f f i c v i o l a t i o n s , o ccu r as a consequence
o f i n c r e a s e d a t t e n t i o n t o s e c u r i t y and t r a f f i c c o n t r o l . ( S e e Appen­
d i x D f o r a c o m p a r i s o n o f c o u r t f i l i n g s f o r f e l o n i e s and m i s d e m e a n ­
ors fo r fu rth e r confirm ation). However, t h i s g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t o f
t h e r a t h e r m i n o r n a t u r e o f o f f e n s e s r e q u i r e s some q u a l i f i c a t i o n . The
i n d e x c r i m e s r e p o r t e d on a y e a r l y b a s i s by t h e Re xbur g P o l i c e D e p a r t ­
ment ( A pp e nd ix C, T a b l e 11) s u g g e s t a mixed p i c t u r e f o r t h e mo re s e r ­
ious crim es. I t w i l l be o b s e r v e d t h a t b u r g l a r y and armed r o b b e r y i n ­
c r e a s e d d u r i n g 1976 and 1977 w h i l e v e h i c u l a r t h e f t and l a r c e n y d e ­
creased. I t i s not c l e a r whether t h i s is a t t r i b u t a b l e to the d i s a s ­
t e r o r whether i t r e f l e c t s a p r e - d i s a s t e r tre n d . R e s i d e n t s and o f f i ­
c i a l s do e x p r e s s c o n c e r n t h a t a s s o u t h e a s t I d a h o grows i t t a k e s on
many u r b a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n c l u d i n g p r o b l e m s o f c r i m e . D i s a s t e r s may
a l s o c r e a t e s i t u a t i o n s - - a t e m p o r a r y i n f l u x o f o u t s i d e r s and u n a t ­
t e n d e d p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y - - i n w h i c h t h e r e a r e new o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r
c e r t a i n types o f l e g a l d e v ia n c e , crim es a g a i n s t p r o p e r t y , in p a r t i c u ­
lar.

Detected C rises

The f i s c a l and o p e r a t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s o f t h e 413 p r o j e c t we re

s e t up s o t h a t a l l d i s a s t e r - r e l a t e d c r i s e s , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e l o c a t i o n
o r t y p e o f m e n t a l h e a l t h t r e a t m e n t , w e r e p a i d f o r by 413 m o n i e s and
r e c o r d e d in monthly r e p o r t s in a cc o rd a n ce w ith th e terms o f t h e con­
tract.^® I n v i e w o f t h i s p o l i c y and t h e r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e and i n t e n ­
s i v e o u t r e a c h e f f o r t s , i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o as su me t h a t m o s t o f t h e d e ­
t e c t e d c r i s e s woul d a p p e a r on t h e 413 p r o j e c t ' s c a s e l o a d r e p o r t s .
M o r e o v e r , t h e m o s t s e r i o u s c r i s e s s h o u l d be r e c o r d e d s i n c e i n t e r - a g e n ­
c y r e l a t i o n s h i p s for med a t i e r e d p a t t e r n o f r e f e r r a l . I n t e r f a i t h ad­
v o c a t e s r e f e r r e d t h e " e m o t i o n a l " c r i s e s and s e v e r e p r o b l e m s i n c o p i n g
t o t h e d i s a s t e r c r i s i s t e am f o r i m m e d i a t e e v a l u a t i o n and i n t e r v e n t i o n
and t h e d i s a s t e r c r i s i s t ea m r e f e r r e d t h e l o n g - t e r m and more s e r i o u s
c a se s i n to the p r e - e x i s t e n t mental h e a l t h system. Table 8 provides a
summary o f t h e c r i s e s e p i s o d e s w h i c h w e re b r o u g h t t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f
 124

Table 8 D e t e c t e d C r i s e s R e p o r t e d by P r o j e c t 413 b y S e l e c t i v e Case

D e s c r i p t i o n , by t h e mo nt h, A u g u s t 1 9 7 6 - A p r i l 1 977.

1976 1977
C a se D e s c r i p t i o n
A u g ./S ep t. O ct. Nov. Dec, Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. TOTAL

New C l i e n t s 145 57 114 123 104 83 94 67 787

Prim ary P roblem (s)

A lcoh o l 74 40 24 33 37 12 14 12 246
F am ily/M arital 9 5 21 34 19 23 26 18 155
L i v i n g A r ra n g e m e n ts 4 29 26 50 24 1 3 0 137
D epression 24 5 13 14 6 10 10 12 94
A n x ietv /S tress 8 8 14 21 4 9 10 8 82
E ducation 12 5 1 24 4 2 2 0 50
Delinquency 0 0 0 1 0 17 22 8 48
Drug Use 3 2 13 6 4 6 2 42
D e c i s i o n -M a k i n g 10 3 2 0 3 0 0 0 18
F in an cial 2 2 6 18 1 5 0 41
A ggression 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 6
TOTAL 148 103 114 208 104 83 93 920

R esidence
Wi1 f o r d 3:
S ug ar C i t y IK
Rexburg 409
O ther 227
TOTAL 78 7

R e f e r r a l s To
P sy c h ia trist 31
P s y c h i a tr i c H o s p ita l 14
O ther T reatm ent 25
C e n te rs
TOTAL 70

C l i e n t s in T re a t m e n t
At P r o j e c t T e r m i n a t i o n
C r i s i s Team 40
P sy c h ia trist 31
P s y c h i a t r i c H o sp ita l 4
O t h e r T re a t m e n t j4
C e n te rs
TOTAI, 79
 125

t h e 413 p r o j e c t o v e r a n i n e mo nth p e r i o d .

A l t h o u g h t h e number o f c r i s e s t h e 413 p r o j e c t e x p e c t e d t o t r e a t
was r a t h e r v a g u e , a n e s t i m a t e d 1 , 3 4 8 t o 5 , 3 9 2 c r i s i s e p i s o d e s was c a l ­
c u l a t e d a b o v e by a p p l y i n g t h e r e a s o n i n g and c r i t e r i a e mpl oye d by p r o ­
f e s s i o n a l s who h a d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a s s e s s i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l t r a u ­
ma. I t w i l l be o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e t o t a l number o f c r i s i s c l i e n t s (787)
r e p o r t e d Is c o n s i d e r a b l y lower tha n even the low e st e s t i m a t e . Mor e­
o v e r , t h e p r o j e c t d i r e c t o r e s t i m a t e s t h a t r o u g h l y 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e
t o t a l c a s e l o a d i s composed o f c o n s t r u c t i o n and o t h e r w o r k e r s who came
in to the a r e a over the f i r s t year follo w in g Impact. The c a t c h m e n t
a r e a f o r t h e p r o j e c t e x t e n d s be yond t h e r e s e a r c h s e t t i n g t o I n c l u d e
four c o u nties. However , f l o o d damages w e r e m o s t h e a v i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d
I n t h e a r e a o f s t u d y and c o n s e q u e n t l y , o u t r e a c h e f f o r t s w e r e a l s o
more a g g r e s s i v e i n t h i s a r e a . Of t h e 787 c l i e n t s , 560 o r r o u g h l y f o u r
p e r c e n t o f t h e n o n - c o l l e g e p o p u l a t i o n w e r e i d e n t i f i e d a s h a v i n g an
o f f i c i a l l y recorded c r i s i s re a c tio n .

Some i d e a o f t h e s e r i o u s n e s s o f t h e c r i s e s may be o b t a i n e d by
e x a m i n i n g t h e number o f r e f e r r a l s t h a t w e r e made t o p r e - e x i s t e n t
treatm ent agencies. Of t h e t o t a l c a s e l o a d , 31 w e r e r e f e r r e d t o p s y ­
c h i a t r i s t s , 14 t o t h e p s y c h i a t r i c i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t t i n g a n d 25 t o
other cen ters. The t o t a l , s e v e n t y , r e p r e s e n t s r o u g h l y h a l f o f one
p e r c e n t o f the n o n - c o l l e g e p o p u l a t i o n .

I n s p i t e o f t h e s c r e e n i n g p r o c e s s , t h e r e a r e r e l a t i v e l y few c l i ­
e n t s whose p r i m a r y p r o b l e m was l i s t e d a s d e p r e s s i o n , a n x i e t y o r a g ­
g r e s s i o n a s m i g h t be e x p e c t e d . A l c o h o l u s e , m a r i t a l and f a m i l y d i f ­
f i c u l t i e s and l i v i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s , i n t h a t o r d e r , a r e t h e m o s t com­
monly i d e n t i f i e d c r i s i s p r o b l e m s .

F i n a l l y , o b s e r v e t h e number o f c r i s i s c l i e n t s r e c e i v i n g t r e a t ­
ment e l e v e n mont hs a f t e r i m p a c t when t h e 413 p r o j e c t t e r m i n a t e d . A
t o t a l o f 79 c l i e n t s c o n t i n u e d t o r e c e i v e t r e a t m e n t : 40 c l i e n t s w e r e
s t i l l b e i n g c o u n s e l e d by t h e c r i s i s t e a m , 4 w e r e r e s i d e n t i n t h e s t a t e
p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l and 4 w e r e r e c e i v i n g a l c o h o l t r e a t m e n t I n o t h e r
in stitu tio n a l centers. T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e d e t e c t e d c r i s e s , on t h e
whole, were r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t - t e r m . Support f o r t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
i s fo un d I n t h e f i n a l r e p o r t i n w h i c h t h e p r o j e c t d i r e c t o r c o n c l u d e s :
"The p o t e n t i a l f o r f o l l o w - u p c a r e t o d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s ( n e e d i n g t r e a t ­
me nt ) i s e x c e l l e n t , a s i s t h e p r e d i c t e d o ut c o m e . I n view of the s e r ­
i o u s n e s s o f t h e d i s a s t e r and I t s e f f e c t s , I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e v i c t i m s
w i l l e f f e c t i v e l y r e c o v e r " .19

Changing E x p e c t a t i o n s

P r o j e c t p e r s o n n e l viewed t h e i r e f f o r t s as a s o c i a l ex perim ent

and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , s u s t a i n e d a sense of the " p i o n e e r s p i r i t " w ith a
marked d e g r e e o f o p e n n e s s and r e s p o n s i v e n e s s t o t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t .
Over t h e m o n t h s , t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s a nd d e f i n i t i o n s o f p r o j e c t p e r s o n n e l
 126

u n d e r w e n t some i n t e r e s t i n g c h a n g e s . The e x i g e n c i e s o f t h e d i s a s t e r
s i t u a t i o n , p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s , involvement in th e d a i l y l i v e s o f d i s a s ­
t e r v i c t i m s and t h e i n f l u e n c e o f o u t s i d e c o n s u l t a n t s u n d e r s c o r e d t h e
c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and s h o r t - s i g h t e d n e s s o f t h e i n i t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n . To
a l a r g e d e g r e e , t h e c l i n i c a l c a s e - o r i e n t e d f ra me wo r k seemed t o o c o n ­
s t r a i n i n g t o a d e q u a t e l y a d d r e s s many o f t h e p r o b l e m s a t h a n d . There
w e r e many e f f o r t s t o r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e t h e p r o b l e m i n o r d e r t o come t o
t e r m s w i t h t h e t y p i c a l p r o b l e m s o f d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s and w i t h t h e p o ­
t e n t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e t y p e s o f p r o b l e m s and t h e 413 p r o ­
ject. In r e t r o s p e c t , th e p r o j e c t d i r e c t o r s u g g e s te d what th e t y p i c a l
d i s a s t e r problem is no t.

I t ' s n ot p sy c h o sis o r s c h i z o p h r e n i a o r n e u r o s i s o r m ental

i l l n e s s o r any o f t h e l a b e l s t h a t come t o mind when you
th in k of mental h e a l t h . I t ' s j u s t not t h a t kind o f t h i n g .
Y o u ' r e g o i n g t o be o f f on t h e wr ong t r a c k i f you s t a r t o u t
t h i n k i n g t h a t way.^0

T h e r e we re o t h e r o c c a s i o n s d u r i n g t h e t e n u r e o f t h e p r o j e c t when
p o s i t i v e r e f o r m u la tio n s were s e t f o r t h . Below a r e two s t a t e m e n t s
which r e f l e c t t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e change i n r e f o r m u l a t i n g t h e p ro b lem .

We g o t a c r i s i s by d e f i n i t i o n , a d i s a s t e r , and i t a f f e c t e d t h o u ­
s a n d s o f p e o p l e and g r o u p s o f p e o p l e . And s o , i t n o t o n l y had
an e f f e c t on t h e i n d i v i d u a l s , i t had a n e f f e c t on t h e g r o u p s :
the s o c ia l p a t t e r n s ; the c u l t u r e i t s e l f . T h e r e was a c r i s i s
w ith the s o c i a l a s p e c t. T h e r e was a c r i s i s w i t h t h e c u l t u r e a s ­
pect. So we had t o i n t e r v e n e i n t h e r e t o o . T h a t ' s what I f e l t .
The c r i s i s i s m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l . And s o , y ou know, i f we f o ­
c u s e d j u s t on t h e s u i c i d a l p e r s o n o r somebody t h a t was e x h i b i t ­
i n g b i z a r r e b e h a v i o r o r s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h a t - - i f we had f o c u s e d
j u s t on t h a t , I t h i n k i t woul d b e l i k e - - w h a t ' s t h a t p r o v e r b ?
- - m is s in g th e f o r e s t f o r th e t r e e s kind o f a t h i n g .
We h a v e a m e n t a l h e a l t h c e n t e r and t h a t means s h r i n k s o r
p s y c h i a t r i s t s and t h i n g s b u t we d o n ' t h a v e a s o c i o l o g y c e n t e r o r
a c u l t u r e c e n t e r - - p e o p l e t h a t c a n s i t b a c k and l o o k a t t h e
s o c i o l o g y o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and a p p l y t r e a t m e n t t o g r o u p s o f
people. We j u s t d o n ' t r e a l l y h a v e t h o s e k i n d s o f e n t i t i e s , you
know, t h a t c a n p r o v i d e t h o s e k i n d s o f s e r v i c e s . To me i t s t i l l
f a l l s u n d e r t h e r u b r i c o f m e n t a l h e a l t h , y o u know, i n s t e a d o f
one p e r s o n o u t t h e r e t h a t ' s h a v i n g a p r o b l e m y ou m i g h t h a v e
a h u n d r e d p e o p l e , y o u know, and i t ' s c r e a t e d by a n a t u r a l d i ­
s a s te r or a d is a s te r.

I t had become c l e a r t o t h e p r o j e c t p e r s o n n e l t h a t many o f t h e

s i g n i f i c a n t p r o b l e m s , f ro m t h e v i c t i m ' s p e r s p e c t i v e , w e r e s u p r a - i n d i -
vidual in natu re. For example, c o n f u s i o n o c c u rre d b e c au se i n d i v i d u a l s
and a g e n c i e s w e re u n c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e new r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s o f
 127

d i s a s t e r r e l i e f ; r o u t i n e p r o c e d u r e s Li ke f i l l i n g o u t i ncome t a x f orms
we r e c o m p l i c a t e d i n v i e w o f t h e r e i m b u r s e m e n t p r og r a m f o r d i s a s t e r
l o s s e s ; c h i l d r e n a nd t e e n - a g e r s w e r e b o r e d b e c a u s e r e c r e a t i o n a l f a c i ­
l i t i e s h a d a l s o b e e n d e s t r o y e d i n t h e f l o o d ; and f r u s t r a t i o n s and
f a t i g u e o c c u r r e d due t o t h e u n r e l e n t i n g n e e d t o r e b u i l d a home and
s im u l t a n e o u s l y m a in t a in a sense o f o r d e r w i t h i n th e c o n fine m en t of
l i v i n g i n a t r a i l e r home. I f t h e s o u r c e o f d i s a s t e r p r o b l e m s we re
s u p r a - i n d i v i d u a l and c o n t e x t u a l t h e n , i t was r e a s o n e d , so w e r e t h e
remedies. Although the p r o j e c t c o n tin u e d to m a in ta in an i n d i v i d u a l
c a s e - o r i e n t e d a p p r o a c h t o t h e r a p y , many o f t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s r e f l e c t e d
a c h a n ge i n p e r s p e c t i v e . Fo r e x a m p l e , t h e p r o j e c t c o o p e r a t e d i n
i n t e r - a g e n c y p r o g r a ms t o s p o n s o r s e m i n a r on t a x a t i o n p r o b l e m s ; t h e y
began a f u n d - r a i s i n g d r i v e to p ro v id e r e c r e a t i o n equipment for the
t r a i l e r v i l l a g e s ; they s u p p o rte d e f f o r t s to pro v id e C h ristm a s t r e e s
and p r e s e n t s f o r d i s a s t e r f a m i l i e s ; t h e y wor ke d t o w a r d e s t a b l i s h i n g
a mobile l i b r a r y s e r v i c e ; they p a r t i c i p a t e d i n s t a f f i n g a weekly c h i l d
c a r e c e n t e r ; and t h e y became r e g u l a r a t t e n d a n t s a t l o c a l c o u n c i l m e e t ­
ings. To some d e g r e e t h e p r o b l e m s a nd t h e i r p r o p o s e d r e m e d i e s we re
s t i l l s e e n w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r f ra me wo rk o f t h e r a p y and p r e v e n t i v e me-
d i c i n e ^ l b u t t h e c h a n g e s r e p r e s e n t e d a r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e from t h e i n i ­
t i a l mode o f t h o u g h t .

Summary

An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t s u p p o r t t h e
i n i t i a l e x p e c ta tio n s concerning w id e-sp read mental h e a l t h emergencies
fo llo w in g the f lo o d . As a g e n e r a l r u l e , r e s i d e n t s d i d n o t r e s p o n d t o
t h e d i s a s t e r i n ways t h a t were s e v e r e l y d e b i l i t a t i n g o r s o c i a l l y h a r m ­
ful. Expected i n c r e a s e s in p s y c h i a t r i c a d m is s io n s , b i z a r r e b a h a v io r
or s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e behavior did not occur. There w ere, in the e a r l y
a f t e r m a t h , some h o s p i t a l r é a d m i s s i o n s a nd some s u s p e c t e d s u i c i d a l
acts. The s u s p i c i o n i s t h a t p r e - d i s a s t e r c o n d i t i o n s o f a l i m i t e d num­
b e r o f p e r s o n s w i t h p s y c h i a t r i c h i s t o r i e s w e r e e x a c e r b a t e d by t h e
f l o o d e x p e r i e n c e . 22 F a m i l i a l d i s o r d e r , a l o n g t h e l i n e s a n t i c i p a t e d ,
seemingly did not occur. A l t h o u g h t h e number o f a r r e s t s i n c r e a s e d ,
t h e r e i s no c o m p e l l i n g e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t c h a t t h i s i s a t t r i b u t a b l e
t o d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s who a r e s o d i s t r a u g h t t h a t t h e y l o s e c o n t r o l a nd
c o m p u l s i v e l y v i o l a t e communi ty s a n c t i o n e d r u l e s f o r a p p r o p r i a t e c o n ­
duct. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e number o f o f f e n s e s and c o m p l a i n t s a c t u a l l y
d e c r e a s e d a f t e r t h e f l o o d . The n umbe r, s e v e r i t y and d u r a t i o n o f d e ­
t e c t e d c r i s e s a l s o f a i l e d to reach expected p r o p o r t i o n s .

To t h e e x t e n t t h a t o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s a c t u a l l y r e f l e c t c h a n g e s
in e x p e r i e n c e , th e e x p l o r a t i o n in t h i s c h a p t e r appro ac h es the a f t e r -
mat h o f d i s a s t e r f rom a n e g a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e . T h a t i s , t h i s c h a p t e r
e x p lo r e d what th e e x p e r i e n c e s and a d j u s t m e n t s of d i s a s t e r r e c o v e r y i s
not. I do n o t w i s h t o i m p l y t h a t t h e o f f i c i a l l y d e t e c t e d p r o b l e m s a r e
i n s i g n i f i c a n t or t h a t c r i s i s c o un selin g in th e d i s a s t e r c o ntext is i r ­
relevant. From t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s a n d s e r v i c e p r o ­
v i d e r s a nd from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l t h e s e s t i l l
 128

c o i i s t i t u c e a s i g n i f i c a n t n u mb e r o f p r o b l e m s w h i c h f a l l w i t h i n t h e i r
respective ju ris d ic tio n s . Moreover, the d i s a s t e r c r e a t e s c o n d i t i o n s
wh ic h r a i s e p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s i n p r o v i d i n g s e r v i c e s a n d m a i n t a i n i n g
control. N o n e t h e l e s s , e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r w i d e - s p r e a d a n d e x t r e m e f o r ms
o f p e r s o n a l a nd s o c i a l d e v i a n c e w e r e n o t r e a l i z e d . In chapter s ix ,
t h e o p e n - e n d e d a c c o u n t s o f v a l l e y r e s i d e n t s , i n f o r m a n t r e p o r t s and
f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e u t i l i z e d t o c o n s t r u c t a p o r t r a i t o f the t y p i ­
cal d is a s te r experience.
 129

NOTES TO CHAPTER 5

1. J o h n Mehan and H o u s t o n Wood, The R e a l i t y o f E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y ,

New York: Jo hn W i l e y and S o n s , 1 975.

2. The m e n t a l h e a l t h a s s e s s m e n t was d o n e t o p r o v i d e d o c u m e n t a t i o n
o f ne ed as r e q u i r e d by t h e r e g u l a t i o n s o f P L - 9 3 - 2 8 8 , s e c t i o n 4 1 3 .
On J u n e 18, 1976 a " P l a n n i n g M e e t i n g " , s p o n s o r e d by t h e D e p a r t ­
ment o f H e a l t h and W e l f a r e , b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f
t h e LDS Ch ur ch and v a r i o u s s o c i a l s e r v i c e a g e n c i e s i n o r d e r t o
c o m p i l e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t w ou ld be o f r e l e v a n c e f o r t h e p r o p o s a l .
This m eeting a l s o p u b l i c l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i n t e n t o f t h e s t a t e
t o 1) p r o v i d e m e n t a l h e a l t h s e r v i c e s t o d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s ; 2) c o ­
o p e r a t e w i t h a b r o a d n e t w o r k o f communi ty s e r v i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s
and a g e n c i e s ; and 3) f orm a n o n - g o i n g s t e e r i n g c o m m i t t e e com­
posed o f the v a r i o u s a g e n c ie s in a t t e n d a n c e t o f a c i l i t a t e a co­
operative e ffo rt. T h i s d i s c u s s i o n r e l i e s p r i m a r i l y on t h e c o n ­
t e n t o f t h e p r e l i m i n a r y and f i n a l d r a f t o f t h e p r o p o s a l w h i c h was
su bm itte d to the F e d e r a l D i s a s t e r A s s i s t a n c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
S t a t e o f I d a h o , D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h and W e l f a r e , F . D . A . A. Men­
t a l H e a l t h P r o p o s a l , T e t o n Dam D i s a s t e r , S u b m i t t e d t o t h e N a t i o n ­
a l I n s t i t u t e o f M e n t a l H e a l t h C o n t r a c t s Management S e c t i o n , Rock­
v i l l e , M a r yl a n d , J u l y 9 , 1 9 76 .

3. A l t h o u g h t h e p r o p o s a l was w r i t t e n f o r a s i x mont h p e r i o d , a s r e ­
q u i r e d by f e d e r a l law, t h e a r c h i t e c t s o f t h e p r o p o s a l w e re t h i n k ­
i n g t h a t t h e m e n t a l h e a l t h n e e ds would p e r s i s t f o r a t l e a s t one
o r two y e a r s .

4. The e f f e c t s o f t h e Manaquan e a r t h q u a k e i s docu me nt ed by F r e d e r i c k

L. A h ea r n, "The I mpact o f a N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r on R a t e s o f M e nt a l
T l l r . e s s u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r , 1976. However, t h e a u t h o r i s v e r y
c a r e f u l t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e o f 27 p e r c e n t may w e l l
be an a r t i f a c t o f more i n t e n s i v e c a s e f i n d i n g p r o c e d u r e s and
an i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f m e n t a l h e a l t h w o r k e r s . In other
words, the a u th o r s u g g e s ts t h a t th e e a rth q u a k e p r o b a b l y d id not
c a u s e me n t al i l l n e s s . The D i r e c t o r o f t h e D i v i s i o n o f Community
R e h a b i l i t a t i o n , D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h and W e l f a r e had h ad p r i o r
e x p e r ie n c e w ith mental h e a l t h s e r v i c e d e l i v e r y f o llo w in g the
X e n i a t o r n a d o and some i n v o l v e m e n t i n p r o f e s s i o n a l m e e t i n g s w h ic h
p r e - d a t e d and l e d t o t h e s e c t i o n 413 l a w . I n many r e s p e c t s , t h i s
was a c r i t i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t i n m o b i l i z i n g t h e s t a t e ' s r e s o u r c e s
t o a s s e s s t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l damage p r o d u c e d by t h e f l o o d and i n
making th e d e c i s i o n to ap p ly f o r f e d e r a l funds u n d e r s e c t i o n
413, PL-93-288.

5. The l i n e s o f d i v i s i o n w h i c h formed a r o u n d t h i s d e b a t e a r e s t r u c ­
t u r a l In n a t u r e and c a n b e s t be u n d e r s t o o d b y d i f f e r e n t v e s t e d
i n t e r e s t s r a t h e r th an by c l i n i c a l o r n o n - c l i n i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n .
T hose who a g r e e d w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r i n c r e a s i n g m e n t a l
h e a l t h e m e r g e n c i e s and w i t h t h e ne ed f o r a s p e c i a l 413 p r o j e c t
 130

r e p r e s e n t e d s t a t e i n t e r e s t s and w e r e t h e d i r e c t b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f
f e d e r a l funds. T h o s e who t e n d e d t o d i s a g r e e v i e w e d t h e p r o j e c t
a s a n e n h a n c e m e n t o f t h e power o f t h e s t a t e i n m e n t a l h e a l t h m a t ­
t e r s and a s a n e n c r o a c h m e n t on t h e i r d o m a i n . T h i s was t r u e f o r
t h e l e a d e r s and r e s o u r c e p e r s o n n e l f o r t h e LDS C hu rc h ( p s y c h o l o ­
g i s t s , s o c i a l w o r k e r s , p r e s i d e n t s , w e l f a r e d i r e c t o r s and b i s h o p s )
and f o r t h e s t a f f o f t h e p r i v a t e l y owned and o p e r a t e d l o c a l com­
munity mental h e a l t h c e n t e r . T y p i c a l l y , m en tal h e a l t h problems
w e re s e e n , w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e LDS s t r u c t u r e , a s f a l l i n g
u n d e r t h e doma in o f t h e b i s h o p ' s a u t h o r i t y . P ro fession al psy­
c h o l o g i c a l o r p s y c h i a t r i c i n t e r v e n t i o n was t o be s o u g h t o n l y a s
a l a s t r e s o r t and i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e b i s h o p ' s c o u n s e l .
T h e r e was an i n h e r e n t c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n c h u r c h and s t a t e i n t e r e s t s
and t h i s c o n f l i c t a l s o a f f e c t e d t r e a t m e n t m o d a l i t i e s . For ex­
a m p l e , LDS l e a d e r s and t h e r a p i s t s s t r o n g l y d i s a p p r o v e d o f t h e
s t a t e ' s w i l l i n g n e s s t o c o n d o ne o r p o s s i b l y recommend d i v o r c e a s
a s o l u t i o n t o m a r i t a l p r o b l e m s a nd t h e i r u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o b a s e
" t r e a t m e n t " on s c r i p t u r a l t r u t h . The p r i v a t e c ommuni t y m e n t a l
h e a l t h c e n t e r h a d d e v e l o p e d a r e l a t i o n o f a c c o m mo d at i o n w i t h LDS
p h i l o s o p h y and t e n d e d t o v i e w t h e s i t u a t i o n a l o n g l i n e s t h a t
w e re c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e Mormon C h u r c h . But more i m p o r t a n t l y ,
w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h i s one p r i v a t e c e n t e r , a l l o t h e r m e n t a l
h e a l t h f a c i l i t i e s i n th e S t a t e o f Idaho were s t a t e o p e r a t e d .
The l o c a l c e n t e r was s t r u g g l i n g f i n a n c i a l l y t o r e m a i n v i a b l e , had
o n l y one y e a r o f f e d e r a l s e e d money r e m a i n i n g and s u s p e c t e d t h a t
t h i s 413 p r o j e c t ( i f o p e r a t e d by t h e s t a t e ) s i g n a l e d t h e d e m i s e
o f the p r iv a te c e n te r.

6. I n r e s p o n s e t o t h e s t a t e ' s p r e d i c t i o n s and a c t i v i t i e s , t h e LDS

C hu r c h l e a d e r s a p p o i n t e d a p s y c h o l o g i s t f ro m t h e c o l l e g e t o d i ­
r e c t h e a l t h ( p h y s i c a l and m e n t a l ) e f f o r t s on b e h a l f o f t h e e c c l e ­
s i a s t i c a l s t r u c t u r e , to advise bishops o f m a tte r s of importance
i n t h i s a r e a and t o m o n i t o r t h e me mb e rs h ip f o r a ny e v i d e n c e o f
c r i s e s along th e l i n e s a n t i c i p a t e d .

7. When t h e dam b r o k e t h e p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l h a d r e d u c e d t h e s t a f f
by s i x t e e n and b u d g e t by $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 f r om t h e p r e c e e d i n g f i s c a l
y e a r as p a r t o f the d e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s .

8. S a l a r y f o r t h e t h r e e e mp l o y e e s was i n c l u d e d i n t h e 413 p r o j e c t
contract.

9. Another " o u t s i d e " agency, T eton I n t e r f a i t h D i s a s t e r Task Force,

eme rge d w i t h i n t h e f i r s t week a f t e r i m p a c t t o r e s p o n d t o human
needs in a g e n e r a l s e n s e . I n t e r f a i t h was i n c l u d e d a s p a r t o f
t h e s t e e r i n g c o m m i t t e e f o r t h e 413 p r o j e c t . A d d itio n a lly , the
r o u g h l y 100 I n t e r f a i t h a d v o c a t e s who w e n t d o o r - t o - d o o r i n t h e
commu n i ty , r e c e i v e d some t r a i n i n g on how t o r e c o g n i z e and r e f e r
mental h e a lth c r i s e s .

10. T h i s d i s c u s s i o n e x c l u d e s t h e s a l e o f b e e r w h ic h i s s o l d i n l o c a l
s u p e r m a r k e t s and s t o r e s . Only t h e s a l e o f s p i r i t s and w i n e i s
 131

c o n t r o l l e d th ro u g h the s t a t e d i s p e n s a r y .

11. One company, f o r e x a m p l e , b r o u g h t I n 295 w o r k e r s f ro m o u t s i d e

t h e flood a r e a to r e p a i r u t i l i t y l i n e s . U t a h Power and L i g h t
Company, " S p e c i a l F l o o d I s s u e " , C i r c u i t , S a l t Lake C i t y , U t a h :
U t a h Power and L i g h t C o mpa ny., ( J u l y ) 1 976, p p . 2 5 - 3 0 .

12. Document ar y R e p o r t , p . 3 , s u b m i t t e d i n f u l f i l l m e n t o f c o n t r a c t
# 2 7 8 - 7 6 - 0 0 6 3 (SM) f o r C r i s i s C o u n s e l i n g S e r v i c e s t o D i s a s t e r V i c ­
t i m s and T h e i r F a m i l i e s i n t h e S t a t e o f I d a h o .

13. U s i n g p o l i c e s t a t i s t i c s i s s omewhat p r o b l e m a t i c b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e
t h r e e s e p a r a t e r e p o r t i n g p r o c e d u r e s - - one f o r i n t e r n a l , s t a t e
a n d FBI d o c u m e n t a t i o n — and t h e s t a t i s t i c s a r e n o t a l w a y s c o n ­
sistent. Whenever p o s s i b l e , I h a v e u s e d i n t e r n a l r e p o r t s s i n c e
t h a t was t h e s o u r c e f o r d e r i v i n g m o n t h l y t o t a l s . The o t h e r r e ­
p o r t i n g p r o c e d u r e s a r e a v a i l a b l e on a y e a r l y b a s i s o n l y . For the
p u r p o s e o f c h i s s t u d y , t h i s i s mo st p r o b l e m a t i c i n d i s c e r n i n g t h e
g e n e r a l p a t t e r n f o r a l l a r r e s t s c o m bi n e d. Using i n t e r n a l r e p o r t s
t h e y e a r l y t o t a l s f o r 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977 a nd 1978 a r e 3 1 8 ,
2 8 8 , 3 5 2 , 384 and 2 6 9, r e s p e c t i v e l y . I t w i l l be observed th a t
t h e number o f a l l a r r e s t s d e c l i n e s o v e r 1 975, i n c r e a s e s o v e r 1976
a n d 1977 and d r o p s b e l ow t h e 1974 t o t a l i n 1 9 7 8 . U s i n g s t a t e
r e p o r t s t h e y e a r l y t o t a l o f a l l a r r e s t s c o m b i n e d f o r 1 974, 1 975,
1976, 1977 and 1978 i s 35 8, 3 8 1 , 4 2 7 , 367 a nd 35 4, In c o n tr a s t
t o t h e f o r m e r p a t t e r n , t h e n u mb e r o f a r r e s t s i n c r e a s e s b e t w e e n
1974 and 1975. S i m i l a r to t h e former p a t t e r n , an i n c r e a s e o ccurs
b e t w e e n 1975 a nd 1976 a l t h o u g h t h e i n c r e a s e i s g r e a t e r . Unlike
t h e p r e v i o u s p a t t e r n , t h e r e i s a d e c r e a s e o v e r 1977. Like the
p r e v i o u s p a t t e r n , a d e c r e a s e o c c u r s o v e r 1978 b u t t h e y e a r l y t o ­
t a l d o e s n o t f a l l b e l o w t h e t o t a l f o r 1974. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s
i s an i r r e s o l v e a b l e p r o b l e m w h i c h o b v i o u s l y c a l l s a l l o f t h e
s t a t i s t i c s into question.

14. I n l a r g e p a r t , t h e i n c r e a s e i n a l c o h o l and t r a f f i c a r r e s t s was

m o s t p r o b a b l y due t o an i n f l u x o f p e r s o n s who v i e w d r i n k i n g a s
a r e g u l a r and n o r m a t i v e f e a t u r e o f r e l a x a t i o n a nd s o c i a l o c c a ­
sions. From a communi ty p e r s p e c t i v e t h i s d o e s r e f l e c t an i n ­
c r e a s e in conduct t h a t v i o l a t e s the law, b u t i t is n o t a t t r i ­
b u t a b l e t o r a d i c a l c h a n g e s i n c o n d u c t among v a l l e y r e s i d e n t s .

15. T h i s i s t h e c a s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y when r e f e r r i n g t o a r r e s t s i n v o l v ­
ing lo c a l re s id e n ts . There a r e re p o r te d in s ta n c e s o f r e s i d e n t s
who " f e l l o f f t h e wagon" o r who b e g a n d r i n k i n g a f t e r t h e f l o o d
b u t f o r t h e m o st p a r t t h e s e a r e i s o l a t e d c a s e s . P e r s o n s who
d r i n k p r e - d i s a s t e r t y p i c a l l y d r i n k p o s t - d i s a s t e r and t h e i r a l ­
c o h o l c o n s u m p t i o n may i n c r e a s e f o r a s h o r t t i m e b u t g e n e r a l l y ,
t h e r e i s t o o much w o r k t o b e do n e t o " o v e r - c o n s u m e " on a r e g u l a r
b asis.

16. T h e R e xb ur g P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t s t a f f f o r 1 9 7 4 , 1 97 5, 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 7 ,
1978 and 1979 i s 1 2 , 12, 1 9, 2 0 , 2 1 , and 2 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
 132

17. A g r a n t ( # 7 6 - D F - 1 0 - 002 5) o f $ 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 was a wa r d e d b y t h e U n i t ­

ed S t a t e s , D e p a r t m e n t o f J u s t i c e , Law E n f o r c e m e n t A s s i s t a n c e Ad­
m i n i s t r a t i o n ( L . E . A . A . ) , u n d e r T i t l e 1 o f t h e Omnibus Cr ime Con­
t r o l a nd S a f e S t r e e t s A c t o f 1 968, PL 9 0 - 3 5 1 .

18. S u b - c o n t r a c t u a l a g r e e m e n t s w i t h t h e p r i v a t e communit y h e a l t h
c e n t e r , c o l l e g e p s y c h o l o g i s t s and p s y c h o l o g i s t s i n t h e S t . An-
t h o n y - W i l f o r d a r e a meant t h a t t h e f o r m a l l y d e s i g n a t e d 413 p r o ­
j e c t s t a f f d i d n o t a c t u a l l y do a l l t h e c r i s i s c o u n s e l i n g . How­
e v e r , t h e c o u n s e l i n g done by o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s o r a g e n c i e s was
d oc u me n te d in t h e m o n t h l y 413 r e p o r t s .

19. D i v i s i o n o f Community R e h a b i l i t a t i o n , I d a h o D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h
and W e l f a r e , F i n a l S e r v i c e R e p o r t f o r t h e C r i s i s C o u n s e l i n g S e r ­
v i c e s t o D i s a s t e r V i c t i m s and T h e i r F a m i l i e s i n t h e S t a t e o f
I d a h o , C o n t r a c t No. 2 7 8 - 7 6 - 0 0 6 3 ( SM) , p. 24.

2 0. The e x p e c t a t i o n s d o c u m e n t i n g t h e n e e d f o r a 413 p r o j e c t c r e a t e d
an image a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m e n t a l i l l n e s s . From i t s i n c e p t i o n ,
t h e p r o j e c t w o r k e d t o c h a n g e t h i s image f o r i t was i n t e r p r e t e d
as a l i a b i l i t y .

21. I do n o t w i s h t o m islead the re a d e r. The p r o j e c t , f rom i t s i n ­

c e p tio n , adopted p r e v e n t i o n a s a major g o a l . However, t h e i n i ­
t i a l m e a ni n g o f t h i s g o a l was i n t e r m s o f s e c o n d a r y a nd t e r ­
t i a r y prevention o f l o n g - t e r m c o m p l i c a t i o n s from p s y c h o l o g i c a l
trauma.

22. T h e r e a r e some i n t e r e s t i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s made c o n c e r n i n g p e r s o n s

w i th a p r e - d i s a s t e r t r e a t m e n t h i s t o r y of mental h e a l t h problems.
A f t e r t h e c ommuni ty m e n t a l h e a l t h c e n t e r h ad c h e c k e d on t h e s t a ­
t u s o f t he o u t - p a t i e n t s i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f d i s a s t e r , t h e y c o n ­
c l u d e d t h a t " S t r a n g e l y e no u g h t h e p a t i e n t s w e re d o i n g t h e b e s t .
I t seems l i k e t h e y had a p u r p o s e f o r l i v i n g . T h e y w er e r e a l l y
functioning p r e t t y w ell. We saw a few b a c k i n t h e o f f i c e o v e r
t h e y e a r b u t i t ' s s u r p r i s i n g j u s t how few g o t i n t o t r o u b l e . " A
s i m i l a r phenomenon was n o t e d among i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d p a t i e n t s .
Some i n - p a t i e n t s we r e r e l e a s e d f r om t h e s t a t e p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i ­
t a l to a s s i s t in sa n d-b a ggin g o p e r a t i o n s around B l a c k f o r t .
O t h e r s we re e n l i s t e d t o a i d i n p r e p a r i n g an e m e rg e nc y m e d i c a l
u n i t i n t h e s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e e v e n t t h a t t h e number o f
i n j u r i e s e x c e e d e d che c a p a c i t y o f t h e l o c a l h o s p i t a l . The p r o ­
f e s s i o n a l s t a f f of the i n s t i t u t i o n f e l t t h a t the performance
l e v e l i n c r e a s e d and s y m p t o m a t i c b e h a v i o r d e c r e a s e d f o r a s l o n g
a s s i x w e e ks . T h i s i m p r ov em en t was d e s c r i b e d a s a l i f t i n mor­
a l e w h i c h comes from p r o v i d i n g a u s e f u l and m e a n i n g f u l s e r v i c e
to o t h e r s .
 CHAPTER 6

AFTERMATH OF DISASTER: REBUILDING

The T e t o n d i s a s t e r was e s s e n t i a l l y a d i s a s t e r o f p r o p e r t y damage

and s o c ia l d i s r u p tio n . W h a te v e r e l s e t h e d i s a s t e r may s i g n i f y , fro m
t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f v a l l e y r e s i d e n t s , i t m e a nt t h a t t h e i r h o m e s, f a m i l y
l i f e and c o m m u n iti e s h a d t o be c l e a n e d up and r e b u i l t . The r e t u r n
b a c k to a se n se o f o r d e r , t o s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y and t o t h e p riv acy of
home l i f e w as made p o s s i b l e w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f a so c ia lly
o rg a n iz e d re sp o n se . The e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e a f t e r m a t h , t h e o p p o r t u n i ­
t i e s and d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s , a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s and f r u s t r a t i o n s , w e r e i n ­
f l u e n c e d an d c o n s t r a i n e d by t h e r e s o u r c e s w hich l o c a l a n d o u t s i d e o r ­
g a n i z a t i o n s m o b i l i z e d a n d d i s t r i b u t e d among v a l l e y r e s i d e n t s . To u n ­
d e r s t a n d t h e a f t e r m a t h o f d i s a s t e r , from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f v a l l e y r e ­
s i d e n t s , i t i s , t h e r e f o r e , n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r s t a n d che s o c i a l f o r c e s
w h ic h g a v e o r d e r and m e a n in g t o t h e r e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s . T h is c h a p te r
b e g i n s w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e m a jo r a s p e c t s o f Che s o c i a l l y o r g a ­
n i z e d r e s p o n s e . The r e m a i n d e r o f t h e c h a p t e r d e s c r i b e s t h e e s s e n t i a l
f e a t u r e s o f t h e r e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s b y f o c u s i n g on t h e t h e m a t i c s t r a n d s
w h ic h a r e woven t h r o u g h t h e a c c o u n t s g a t h e r e d fro m t h e r e s i d e n t s o f
t h e U pper S na k e R i v e r V a l l e y

S o c i a l l y O r g a n i z e d D i s a s t e r R e sp o n se

P e r h a p s t h e s i n g l e m o st i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f t h e i n i t i a l r e s p o n s e
t o m a jo r d i s a s t e r i s t h e a l m o s t im m e d ia te c o n v e r g e n c e o f p e r s o n s a n d
reso u rces in to d is a s te r-s tric k e n area. F r i e n d s , f a m ily and n e ig h ­
b o r s , from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f r e s i d e n t s , a r e t h e m o st s i g n i f i c a n t
f ir s t a rriv a ls. T h e i r a i d and s u p p o r t i s i m m e d ia te , d i r e c t , i n t i m a t e
and u n c o n d itio n a l. From t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f com m unity l e a d e r s , and i n
t e r m s o f t h e l o n g - t e r m im p a c t o f d i s a s t e r w e l f a r e , f o r m a l o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n s , and i n p a r t i c u l a r , f e d e r a l l y f u n d e d p ro g ra m s a r e t h e m o st s i g -
n ig ic a n t a r r iv a ls . B e f o r e t h e " f e d s " a r r i v e d , h o w e v e r , com m unity
le a d e r s had c o n s o lid a te d a l o c a l resp o n se fash io n e d a lo n g th e p r i n c i ­
p l e s and d o c t r i n e o f t h e LDS C h u r c h . I n t h e w o rd s o f one c h u r c h a u ­
t h o r i t y , " t h e L o r d ' s p r o g r a m s h o u l d be u s e d t o t h e f u l l . T he Lord
e x p e c t s u s t o be a l i g h t u n t o t h e w o r l d " . LDS l o o k a f t e r t h e i r own.
From t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r c o n f l i c t a n d d i s t r u s t b e tw e e n
governm ent and c h u rc h program s e x i s t e d and in d e e d , l o c a l o f f i c i a l s
w e r e w i l l i n g to f o r e g o f e d e r a l a s s i s t a n c e u n l e s s t h e i r p r o g r a m s w e re
t a i l o r e d t o l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s and in p a r t i c u l a r , t o t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
s t r u c t u r e o f th e LDS C h u r c h .

133
 134

L o c a l R esp o n se

R ic k s C o l l e g e c o n t i n u e d t o e a r n i t s r e p u t a t i o n a s t h e r e f u g e on
th e h i l l . Many f a m i l i e s s e t t l e d t h e r e i n e m e rg e n c y l i v i n g q u a r t e r s
o v e r a p e r i o d o f s i x to t e n w e e k s . The c o l l e g e was a l s o t h e c e n t r a l
f o c u s o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t y , i n f o r m a t i o n , r e s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n and com­
m u n ity c o n t r o l i n t h e more g e n e r a l s e n s e . R e sid e n ts, b ish o p s, sta k e
p r e s i d e n t s a n d g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s c o n v e r g e d on t h e h i l l t o t a k e
s t o c k , r e s p o n d t o u r g e n t n e e d s and p l a n f o r t h e f u t u r e . The f i r s t
s t e p s to w a rd r e b u i l d i n g w h ic h w e re u n d e r t a k e n by c h u r c h a n d g o v e r n ­
m ent o f f i c i a l s was t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e i r p o w e r, r e e s t a b l i s h t h e s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e w a rd s y s te m a n d a c t i v a t e t h e w e l f a r e p ro g ra m .

C e n t r a l c o n t r o l r e p r e s e n t e d a m e r g e r o f s t a k e p r e s i d e n t s an d
c o u n t y c o m m i s s i o n e r s . The c o u n t y c o m m i s s i o n e r s h e l d p r e s t i g i o u s o f ­
f i c e s i n t h e p r i e s t h o o d , one r e p r e s e n t i n g e a c h o f t h e t h r e e i m p a c t e d
s t a k e s , a n d i n many w a y s , t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f p ow er a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s
was a l m o s t a u t o m a t i c . C o r r e l a t i o n m e e t i n g s b e g a n a t 5 : 0 0 a . m . on t h e
f i r s t Sunday a f t e r i m p a c t a n d i n c l u d e d , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r e s i d e n t s
and com m issio n ers, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f o t h e r r e l e v a n t p u b lic a g e n c ie s
and l o c a l c h u rc h e s . T h is m ee tin g e s t a b l i s h e d a p a t t e r n o f c o n tr o l
t h a t r e m a in e d in o p e r a t i o n f o r s e v e r a l m o n t h s . A f t e r t h e c o r r e l a t i o n
m e e t i n g , s t a k e p r e s i d e n t s m et w i t h w ard b i s h o p s who l a t e r m et w i t h
w ard members and l a t e r t h a t n i g h t b i s h o p s met a g a i n w i t h s t a k e p r e s i ­
d e n t s . T h i s p a t t e r n a l l o w e d f o r a tw o-w ay f lo w o f i n f o r m a t i o n from
t h e c e n t e r o f c o n t r o l t o t h e m e m b e rsh ip and b a c k t o t h e c e n t e r o f c o n ­
t r o l over a tw e n ty -fo u r hour p e rio d . Community l e a d e r s f e l t t h a t t h e
C h u rc h h a d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n t o r e a c h t h e p e o p l e , a n d a l l d i s a s t e r p r o ­
g ra m s , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r n a t u r e , s h o u l d u t i l i z e c h i s n e t w o r k o f c o n ­
tro l.

P l a n s t o r e e s t a b l i s h t h e w ard s t r u c t u r e a l s o b e g a n t h e f i r s t
Sunday m o r n in g . A g e n e r a l m e e t i n g o f v a l l e y r e s i d e n t s was h e l d on
t h e campus o f R ic k s C o l l e g e a n d p e o p l e w e r e c o u n s e l e d t o go to d e s i g ­
n a t e d a r e a s , one a s s i g n e d f o r e a c h w a r d , t o m e e t w i t h t h e i r b i s h o p .
A lt h o u g h a t t e n d a n c e a t t h i s m e e t i n g was m i n i m a l , i n f o r m a l m e s s a g e s ,
p a s s e d by w ord o f m o u th , m anaged t o r e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e t h e w ard p a t ­
t e r n w i t h i n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e . T he f r e q u e n c y o f w ard
m e e t i n g s v a r i e d d e p e n d i n g upon t h e m a g n i tu d e o f t h e dam ages w i t h i n
d i f f e r e n t w a r d s b u t many o f t h e m ost s e v e r e l y damaged met d a i l y f o r
more t h a n a m o n th . The m e e t i n g s , b o t h t e m p o r a l a n d s p i r i t u a l i n c o n ­
t e n t , w e re i n s t r u m e n t a l in m a i n t a i n i n g a s e n s e o f c o h e s i o n and m o r a l e .
T hey h e l p e d t o r e i n f o r c e t h e f e e l i n g t h a t " e v e r y b o d y i s i n t h i s t o ­
g e th e r. W e 'r e a l l i n t h e same b o a t " . T h i s theme o f op to m ism t h a t
r a n t h r o u g h t h e m e e t i n g s was a l s o r e f l e c t e d more g e n e r a l l y . F o r exam­
p l e , t h e h e a d l i n e s o f t h e f i r s t l o c a l n e w s p a p e r t h a t was p u b l i s h e d
a f t e r t h e f l o o d r e a d , " D e v a s t a t i n g F l o o d W a te r s C a n ' t Drown Our S p i r ­
i t s " . ^ B u t i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e them e o f op to m ism c o ­
e x is t e d s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith a sen se o f d isc o u ra g e m e n t.
 135

Many a s p e c t s o f t h e c h u r c h w e l f a r e p r o g r a m o c c u r r e d i n f o r m a l l y
a nd s p o n t a n e o u s l y . Even th o u g h n e a r l y 2 , 0 0 0 p e r s o n s w e re h o u s e d an d
f e d i n R ic k s C o l l e g e f a c i l i t i e s , t h e m a j o r i t y o f r e s i d e n t s fo u n d p r o ­
t e c t i o n a n d s h e l t e r i n t h e homes o f f a m i l y a n d f r i e n d s . I t is w ith
c o n s i d e r a b l e p r i d e t h a t r e s i d e n t s r e p o r t how s u c c e s s f u l t h e food
sto rag e p ro g ra m p r o v e d t o b e . I t was n o t uncommon t o b e t o l d :

T h a t was t h e r e a l t e s t . T h e re w ere e i g h t f a m i l i e s , o h , I
d o n ' t know, maybe f o r t y - t w o o r f o r t y - e i g h t o f us a l l t o g e t h e r .
We s t a y e d a t t h e ______ ' s home f o r , a h , a b o u t s i x w e e k s , I
guess. S i x w e e k s ! And we h a d good m e a l s , t o o — r i g h t from
th e ir sto ra g e . E v e r y t h i n g we n e e d e d . D i d n ' t n e e d t o go t o
t h e s t o r e o n c e . W e l l , i t ' s a good t h i n g , ' c a u s e t h e s t o r e s
w e r e n 't open.

R i c k s C o l l e g e , o f c o u r s e , was c r i t i c a l i n t h e more f o r m a l a s p e c t s
o f th e ch u rch w e l f a r e program . I t was p e r h a p s f o r t u i t o u s t h a t t h e
c o l l e g e was p r e p a r e d w i t h c l e a n rooms and l a r g e f o o d s u p p l i e s f o r a
l a r g e c o n v e n t i o n was s c h e d u l e d t o b e g i n t h e S u n d a y a f t e r i m p a c t . On
S a t u r d a y e v e n i n g , t h e f i r s t m e a l o f c r a c k e r s an d soup was s e r v e d t o
2 .0 0 0 p e r s o n s and r o u g h l y 1 ,7 0 0 p e r s o n s w e re b e d d e d down i n d o rm i­
to rie s. W ith in a p e r io d o f about te n w eeks, th e c o lle g e had s u p p lie d
a t o t a l o f 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e r s o n n i g h t s o f l o d g i n g and 3 8 6 ,2 5 0 m e a l s . The
c o l l e g e p r o g r a m p e a k e d on J u n e 1 0 t h . The maximum number o f m e a ls
s e r v e d on t h i s da y was 3 0 ,0 0 0 ^ an d t h e maximum num ber o f l o d g e r s was
3 , 0 0 0 . A f t e r J u n e 1 0 t h , t h e demand f o r s e r v i c e s d e c r e a s e d a s r e s i ­
d e n t s fou nd o t h e r m eans o f s u b s i s t e n c e . ^ The l a s t r e s i d e n t s l e f t t h e
c o l l e g e on A u g u s t 1 0 t h i n tim e f o r t h e s t a f f t o p r e p a r e f o r c o l l e g e
s t u d e n t s who w e re s c h e d u l e d t o b e g i n t h e f a l l s e m e s t e r on t h e 2 4 t h .

The c o l l e g e a l s o p r o v i d e d s p a c e to s e t up a n e m e rg e n c y B i s h o p ' s
S t o r e h o u s e w h ic h s t o c k e d a v a r i e t y o f i t e m s - - i n c l u d i n g s h o v e l s , c l e a n ­
in g s u p p l i e s , f o o d , m a t t r e s s e s , b o o t s , g e n e r a t o r s , c l o t h e s and t o o t h -
b r u s h e s - - w h i c h h a d b e e n s e n t from W e l f a r e S q u a r e i n S a l t Lake C i t y .
S p a c e was a l s o p r o v i d e d f o r t h e o n e - s t o p c e n t e r ; o t h e r d i s a s t e r - r e l a ­
t e d v o l u n t a r y a g e n c i e s s u c h a s t h e Red C r o s s ; f e d e r a l and s t a t e p r o ­
g r a m s ; an d l o c a l b u s i n e s s e s .

C h u rc h o f f i c i a l s o r g a n i z e d a s p e c i a l w e l f a r e p ro g ra m t o b r i n g
v o l u n te e r la b o r i n t o th e d i s a s t e r a r e a to h e lp r e s i d e n t s c le a n t h e i r
homes and p r o p e r t y . On T u e s d a y , J u n e 1 5 t h , t h e f i r s t v o l u n t e e r s ,
2 . 0 0 0 in n um b e r, a r r i v e d i n b u s e s . The l a r g e s t num ber on any s i n g l e
d a y , 5 , 0 0 0 , a p p e a r e d i n R e x b u rg on J u n e 1 9 t h . I n t o t a l , more th a n
3 0 . 0 0 0 v o l u n t e e r s o f f e r e d t h e i r s e r v i c e s b e f o r e t h e p ro g ra m end e d i n
A u g u st. I n a d d i t i o n , b e tw e e n 8 0 , 0 0 0 a n d 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 h o u r s o f h e a v y e q u i p ­
ment w ere d o n a te d .

F o r many r e s i d e n t s , S u n d a y , J u n e 1 3 t h was rem em bered a s t h e m ost

" s p i r i t u a l l y u p l i f t i n g " day o f a l i f e t i m e . T h a t was t h e day t h a t t h e
 136

P rophet a rriv e d to counsel v a lle y r e s i d e n t s N o t s u rp r is in g ly , h is

m e s s a g e , a l l u d i n g to t h e t r i a l s o f t h e p i o n e e r f o r e f a t h e r s , e m p h a s iz e d
t h e n e e d t o w o rk ; p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e c h u r c h p r o g r a m s an d k e e p t h e
L o r d ' s w o rk g o in g f o r w a r d ; k e e p t h e f a m i l y t o g e t h e r ; i n v o l v e t h e
c h i l d r e n i n t h e v a l u a b l e e x p e r i e n c e o f w o rk , o b s e r v e f a m i l y home e v e n ­
i n g ; t u r n t o t h e c h u r c h an d t h e b i s h o p s f o r c o u n s e l ; a n d d o n ' t t a k e
a s s i s t a n c e t h a t you h a v e n ' t e a r n e d . ^ R e s id e n ts l e f t th e m eetin g s in g ­
i n g "We Thank Thee Oh God F o r A P r o p h e t " . T he P r o p h e t ' s m e s s a g e e n ­
g e n d e r e d a t r a n s c e n d a n t s e n s e o f c om m un ity, f o r some a t l e a s t , b u t i t
a ls o c re a te d a sense of c o n fu sio n . By t h i s t i m e , o t h e r w e l f a r e p r o ­
gram s— s t a t e , f e d e r a l and p r i v a t e ^ - - h a d a r r i v e d in th e a r e a w ith v a r ­
i o u s forms o f a s s i s t a n c e i n c l u d i n g unem ploym en t b e n e f i t s ; f o o d s t a m p s ;
t r a i l e r s ; money i n t h e fo rm o f g i f t s , l o a n s a n d g r a n t s ; c l o t h i n g :
l a b o r ; c o u n s e l i n g and b u i l d i n g s u p p l i e s . What d i d t h e P r o p h e t ' s mes­
s a g e mean? Were t h e s a i n t s n o t e n t i t l e d t o r e c e i v e d i s a s t e r r e l i e f
fro m o t h e r t h a n t h e C h urch p rogram ? I t was s e v e r a l d a y s , a n d weeks
f o r some, b e f o r e t h i s i s s u e was s e t t l e d b u t c h e m ain p r o g r a m w h ic h t h e
C h u rc h c o n t i n u e d to o p p o s e was t h e food stam p p ro g ra m . In te re stin g ly ,
2 ,0 7 8 h o u s e h o l d s w e re i s s u e d f o o d s ta m p s d u r i n g t h e m onth o f J u n e .
I n J u l y , o n l y 20 h o u s e h o l d s r e c e i v e d f o o d scamps and c o u p o n s w e re a c ­
t u a l l y b e in g r e t u r n e d t o th e governm ent o f f i c e .

The b l u e p r i n t f o r t h e l o c a l r e s p o n s e , w i t h some m o d i f i c a t i o n s ,
was f a s h i o n e d o u t o f t h e p r e - d i s a s t e r s o c i a l c o n t e x t . The c h u r c h a u ­
t h o r i t y , t h e w a rd s t r u c t u r e , a n d t h e w e l f a r e p r o g ra m r e i n t r o d u c e d , t o
some d e g r e e a s e n s e o f o r d e r a n d s o c i a l c o h e s i o n . But t h e v e r y n a t u r e
o f t h e r e s p o n s e e x c l u d e d some fro m p a r t i c i p a t i o n . A l t h o u g h f o r m a l l y ,
b i s h o p s and members w e r e c o u n s e l e d t o t r e a t e v e r y o n e , members a n d n o n ­
members a l i k e , t h i s was d i f f i c u l t t o do i n p r a c t i c e . The d i f f i c u l t y
s t e m s from t h e same d i f f e r e n c e s w h ic h e x i s t e d p r e - d i s a s t e r . Some n o n ­
members p r e f e r r e d t o s l e e p o u t - o f - d o o r s on t h e lawn t h a n s t a y i n t h e
c o l l e g e dorm w h e re sm oking and c o f f e e w ere p r o h i b i t e d . Some r e f u s e d
t o a c c e p t r e l i e f b e c a u s e i t was t i e d t o t h e b e l i e f s a n d p r a c t i c e s o f
t h e LDS C h u r c h . In t h e w ords o f one r e s i d e n t :

I w ent lip t o R ic k s C o l l e g e t o g e t a p a i r o f b o o t s t o w o rk in
b e c a u s e I C e l t l i k e t h e h e l p was t h e r e f o r e v e r y o n e . I was t o l d
I ' d r e a d t h e b i s h o p o f my w ard t o s i g n t h e p a p e r . W e l l , I d o n ' t
l i v e i n a w ard and I d o n ' t h a v e a b i s h o p . I j u s t s a id , "th en
fo rg et i t . I ' l l g e t them s o m e p la c e e l s e " . T h o s e Mormons,
they p ro b a b ly th o u g h t w e l l , t h e r e goes a c ra z y p e rs o n . But
t h e f e e l i n g was g e n e r a l . I t w a s n ' t j u s t me. And, I n e v e r w e n t
back e i t h e r .

F e d e r a l R e sp o n se

At th e r e q u e s t o f I d a h o 's G o v ern o r, P r e s i d e n t Ford d e c l a r e d th e

T e t o n Dam a r e a a m a jo r d i s a s t e r on J u n e 6 , 1 97 6. W ith t h i s
 137

d e c l a r a t i o n , an d u n d e r t h e a u t h o r i z a t i o n o f t h e D i s a s t e r R e l i e f A ct
o f 1974, r o u g h l y 68 f e d e r a l c o m p e n s a to r y p ro g r a m s w e re s e t i n m o tio n
t o p r o v i d e a i d t o i n s t i t u t i o n s , g o v e rn m e n t e n t i t i e s , b u s i n e s s e s ,
f a r m e r s , f a m i l i e s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s who s u f f e r e d l o s s e s a s a r e s u l t o f
th e flo o d . These F e d e ra l program s, d e sig n e d e s s e n t i a l l y to su p p le ­
m en t t h e e f f o r t s and a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s o f s t a t e , l o c a l g o v e r n m e n ts
a n d p r i v a t e r e l i e f o r g a n i z a t i o n s , w e re c o o r d i n a t e d b y t h e F e d e r a l D i­
s a s t e r A s s is ta n c e A d m in is tra tio n (F .D .A .A .).

As i s t y p i c a l , F e d e r a l D i s a s t e r A s s i s t a n c e C e n t e r s , commonly r e ­
f e r r e d t o a s o n e - s t o p c e n t e r s , w er e s e t up t o h o u s e t h e r e p r e s e n t a ­
t i v e s o f t h e v a r i o u s r e l i e f a g e n c i e s u n d e r one r o o f . After consider­
a b l e n e g o t i a t i o n w i t h communi ty l e a d e r s , a o n e - s t o p c e n t e r was s e t
up i n R i c k s C o l l e g e on T u e s d a y , J u n e 8 t h . A lthough the a g e n c i e s a re
s p a t i a l l y c o n s o l i d a t e d i n one b u i l d i n g , t h e p r o g r a ms r e m a i n a ut onomous
e n t i t i e s w ith s e p a r a t e r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s , s e p a r a t e c r i t e r i a f o r
e l i g i b i l i t y and s e p a r a t e a p p l i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s . Individuals, there­
f o r e , w e re c o m p e l l e d t o make t h e r o u n d s f r om one a g e n c y t o a n o t h e r i n
an e f f o r t t o d i s c e r n w h i ch p r o g r a m s w e r e a v a i l a b l e t o a s s i s t them.
The number a n d t y p e s o f d i s a s t e r p ro g ra m s a v a i l a b l e a r e f a r t o o num er­
ous and c o m p l i c a t e d t o l i s t in d e t a i l b u t a few e x a m p le s a r e s u g g e s ­
t i v e o f th e ran g e: 1) V e t e r a n ' s a s s i s t a n c e , s u c h a s d e a t h b e n e f i t s ,
p e n s i o n s , i n s u r a n c e s e t t l e m e n t s , and a d j u s t m e n t s t o home m o r t g a g e s
h e l d b y t h e V e t e r a n ' s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i f a VA-i n s u r e d home h a s b e e n
damaged; 2) S o c i a l S e c u r i t y a s s i s t a n c e f o r r e c i p i e n t s o r s u r v i v o r s ,
s u c h a s d e a t h o r d i s a b i l i t y b e n e f i t s o r m o n t h l y p a y m e n t s ; 3) C r i s i s
c o u n s e l i n g an d r e f e r r a l s t o a p p r o p r i a t e m e n t a l h e a l t h a g e n c i e s t o r e ­
l i e v e d i s a s t e r c a u s e d m e n t a l h e a l t h p r o b l e m s ; 4) con su m e r c o u n s e l i n g
a n d a s s i s t a n c e in o b t a i n i n g i n s u r a n c e b e n e f i t s ; 5) d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
f o o d c o u p o n s t o e l i g i b l e d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s who a r e a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d
by u m a j o r d i s a s t e r when t h e y a r e u n a b l e t o m e e t s u c h e x p e n s e s o r
n e e d s th r o u g h o t h e r p ro g r a m s o r o t h e r m e a n s; 6) d i s a s t e r u n em p lo ym en t
a s s i s t a n c e an d jo b p l a c e m e n t a s s i s t a n c e f o r t h o s e u n e m ploy ed a s a r e ­
s u l t o f t h e d i s a s t e r ; 7) a g r i c u l t u r a l a s s i s t a n c e , i n c l u d i n g t e c h n i c a l
a s s i s t a n c e ; p a y m e n ts o f up t o 80 p e r c e n t o f c o s t to e l i g i b l e f a r m e r s
who p e r f o r m e m e rg e n c y c o n s e r v a t i o n m e a s u r e s on f a r m l a n d damaged b y
t h e d i s a s t e r ; and d o n a t i o n s o f f e d e r a l l y - o w n e d f e e d g r a i n f o r com­
m in g le d l i v e s t o c k a n d h e r d p r e s e r v a t i o n ; an d f i n a l l y , 8) d i s a s t e r
l o a n s to i n d i v i d u a l s , b u s i n e s s e s and f a r m e r s f o r f i n a n c i n g , r e p a i r ,
r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o r r e p l a c e m e n t o f damaged r e a l a n d p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y
n o t f u l l y c o v e r e d by i n s u r a n c e . From t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f r e s i d e n t s ,
th e s e o n e - s to p c e n te r s p r e s e n te d a r a t h e r c o n fu sin g " ju n g le o f red
ta p e ".

On t h e d a y a f t e r t h e o n e - s t o p c e n t e r o p e n e d . S e n a t o r s McClure
and Church i n t r o d u c e d l e g i s l a t i o n t o p r o v i d e f u l l c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r
t h e v i c t i m s o f t h e T e t o n Dam d i s a s t e r . I f th is l e g i s l a t i o n received
c o n g r e s s i o n a l a p p r o v a l , t h e new l e g i s l a t i o n and p r o g r a ms w o u l d s u p e r ­
c e d e a l l l o a n s o r a s s i s t a n c e r e c e i v e d u n d e r t h e F e d e r a l D i s a s t e r Re­
l i e f A c t and f u l l c o m p e n s a t i o n would be g r a n t e d . R e s i d e n t s were urged
t o a p p l y f o r a s s i s t a n c e u n d e r t h e e x i s t i n g p r o g r a ms i n t h e e v e n t t h a t
 138

t h e b i l l was d e l a y e d i n e i t h e r t h e House o r t h e S e n a t e . T h e r e was

some u n c e r t a i n t y among many r e s i d e n t s a b o u t w h e t h e r i t was w o r t h g o i n g
t h r o u g h t h e r e d t a p e a t t h e o n e - s t o p c e n t e r i f t h e new l e g i s l a t i o n
passed. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f t h e l e g i s l a t i o n d i d n o t p a s s , how w o u ld
t h e y manage t o r e b u i l d t h e i r homes an d b u s i n e s s e s ?

C o n g re ssm a n H a n se n i s s u e d a s t a t e m e n t i n a news r e l e a s e on J u n e
9 t h w h ic h was met w i t h a g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s i n t h e v a l l e y . "As t h e
f a c t s a r e d e v e lo p in g , I d o n 't b e l i e v e t h e r e i s any doubt a s to th e
c u l p a b i l i t y o f th e F e d e r a l G o v e rn m e n t i n t h i s t r a g e d y . " A l t h o u g h t h e
F e d e r a l G overnm ent d i d n o t a c c e p t l e g a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e dam
f a i l u r e , i t d i d a c c e p t m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and a b o u t t e n d a y s a f t e r
t h e dam c o l l a p s e d P r e s i d e n t F o rd p r o p o s e d t h a t C o n g r e s s make a v a i l a b l e
200 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s t o b e g i n r e s t i t u t i o n f o r f l o o d d a m a g e s. The a p ­
p r o p r i a t e ammendment t o t h e P u b l i c Works A p p r o p r i a t i o n A c t o f 1976
(PL 9 4 - 3 5 5 ) was s i g n e d i n t o law on J u l y 1 2 , 1 976. The B u r e a u o f Re­
c l a m a t i o n (BOR) was a s s i g n e d t o a d m i n i s t e r t h e c o n g r e s s i o n a l f u n d s
a p p ro p ria te d fo r r e s t i t u t i o n . On J u l y 1 4 th t h e BOR o p e n e d an o f f i c e
a t R i c k s C o l l e g e and b e g a n d i s t r i b u t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and c l a i m s form s
to v a lle y r e s id e n ts . T h e T e to n Dam D i s a s t e r A s s i s t a n c e A c t o f 1976
(PL 9 4 - 9 0 0 ) , e n a c t e d b y C o n g r e s s on A u g u s t 2 5 t h o f t h a t y e a r , s u p e r -
c e d e d t h e P u b l i c Works A c t and d e t e r m i n e d t h a t f u l l r e s t i t u t i o n s h o u l d
b e made s w i f t l y , in o r d e r t h a t t h e r e s i d e n t s and c o m m u n i t i e s w o u ld r e ­
tu rn to t h e i r p r e - d i s a s t e r c o n d itio n s . In t o t a l , fo u r h u n d re d m i l l i o n
d o l l a r s was a p p r o p r i a t e d f o r c o m p e n s a t i o n o f l o s s e s i n c u r r e d i n t h e
flo o d .

BOR q u i c k l y became a h o u s e h o l d w o r d . By t h e tim e t h e BOR o f f i c e

c l o s e d i t s d o o r s on May 3 , 1979, 7 ,8 8 4 d i s a s t e r c l a i m s h a d b e e n r e ­
ceiv ed . Of t h o s e , 5 , 5 3 2 w e re p r o c e s s e d f o r l e s s t h a n t h e amount
c l a i m e d . The d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e amount c l a i m e d an d a p p r o v e d was
$ 7 9 ,6 1 0 ,1 2 7 .1 6 .

One o t h e r f e d e r a l d i s a s t e r p r o g r a m , commonly r e f e r r e d t o a s HUD,

d e s e r v e s s p e c i a l m e n tio n f o r i t t o o became a h o u s e h o l d w o r d . The
H o u s in g and U rb an D e v e lo p m e n t D e p a r t m e n t (HUD) i s a u t h o r i z e d t o p r o ­
v id e tem p o rary h o u sin g w ith f r e e r e n t a l f o r a p e r io d o f one y e a r .
T h e r e w e r e t h r e e b a s i c p ro g ra m s o f f e r e d t o d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s : occu­
p an c y i n a m o b i l e home; a c c o m m o d a tio n i n a c o m m e r c i a l o r p r i v a t e r e n t ­
a l u n i t o r home; and a m in im a l r e p a i r p r o g r a m d e s i g n e d t o make dam­
a g e d homes h a b i t a b l e . Of t h o s e w hose homes w ere damaged i n t h e v a l ­
l e y , r o u g h l y 500 f a m i l i e s fo u n d p e r m a n e n t h o u s i n g w i t h o u t t h e a s s i s ­
t a n c e o f HUD. Of t h o s e f a m i l i e s who r e c e i v e d HUD a s s i s t a n c e , 526 h a d
t h e i r homes r e p a i r e d u n d e r t h e m in im a l r e p a i r p r o g r a m , 232 o c c u p i e d
p r i v a t e r e n t a l u n i t s a n d 1 ,1 1 8 l i v e d i n m o b i l e h o m es. T he f i r s t mo­
b i l e homes b e g a n a r r i v i n g i n t h e v a l l e y on J u n e 2 1 s t w i t h a n a v e r a g e
o f 50 a r r i v i n g p e r d a y . At t h e i n s i s t e n c e o f t h e LDS l e a d e r s , t h e mo­
b i l e homes w e r e d i s t r i b u t e d to m a i n t a i n t h e w ard b o u n d a r i e s so t h a t
t h e o r d e r o f com m unity l i f e w o u ld n o t b e d i s r u p t e d . In Sugar C ity a l ­
m o st e v e r y f a m i l y l i v e d i n one o f two HUD t r a i l e r p a r k s . I n R exburg,
W i l f o r d a n d t h e r u r a l a r e a s o f M ad iso n C o u n t y , m o s t r e s i d e n t s h a d
t h e i r HUD t r a i l e r p a r k e d on t h e i r p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y in c l o s e p r o x i m i t y
 139

CO t h e b u i l d i n g s i t e o f t h e i r new home. When t h e HUD p r o g ra m c l o s e d

i n O c to b e r o f 19 77, 350 t r a i l e r s w e re p u r c h a s e d by t h e o c c u p a n t s f o r
p e r m a n e n t h o u s i n g a c c o m m o d a tio n .

O t h e r R e sp o n se

T h e re w e r e many o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s , g r o u p s , a g e n c i e s a n d v o l u n t e e r
o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t became i n v o l v e d i n t h e d i s a s t e r r e l i e f r e s p o n s e .
T h e ir e f f o r t s , c o l l e c t i v e l y , served to s u s ta in a sense o f th e a l t r u i s ­
t i c community f o r a s l o n g a s a y e a r . ? But i t i s a l s o im p o r ta n t to
p o i n t o u t a n e s s e n t i a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n h e r e n t in th e a r r i v a l o f l a r g e
n u m b e rs o f o u t s i d e r s . R e s i d e n t s b e g a n t o d i s c e r n t h a t among t h e o u t ­
s i d e r s t h e r e w ere v o l u n t e e r s and v u l t u r e s , h u m a n i s t s and c h a r l a t a n s ,
b e n e f a c t o r s and e x p l o i t e r s , h o n e s t w o r k e r s and p r o f i t e e r s .

One o r g a n i z a t i o n d e s e r v e s s p e c i a l m e n t i o n . The T e t o n I n t e r f a i t h
D i s a s t e r T a s k F o r c e o r g a n i z e d a c a d r e o f a b o u t 100 a d v o c a t e s t h a t w e r e
a s s i g n e d t o t h e a r e a u n d e r s t u d y . T h ey p r o v i d e d many i m p o r t a n t s e r ­
v ic e s to v a lle y re s id e n ts . Two p ro g ra m s s p o n s o r e d b y I n t e r f a i t h seem
t o b e rem em bered by a s u b s t a n t i a l number o f d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s . In te r­
f a i t h p r o v i d e d v o l u n t e e r l a b o r and t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e i n f i l l i n g o u t
t h e BOR c l a i m s . When t h e I n t e r f a i t h p r o g r a m p h a s e d o u t i n J u l y o f
1 977, a n e s t i m a t e d one m i l l i o n h o u r s o f l a b u r h a d b e e n d o n a t e d an d
m ore t h a n 2 , 0 0 0 p e r s o n s h ad r e c e i v e d a s s i s t a n c e i n f i l i n g f o r compen­
sa tio n .

The P r o c e s s o f R e b u i l d i n g

The r e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e p h a s e s . The
f i r s t p h a s e , a r e l a t i v e l y b r i e f p e r i o d o f a b o u t t h r e e m o n th s , i s c h a r ­
a c te riz e d by u n c e rta in ty . The s e c o n d p h a s e , l a s t i n g a b o u t f o u r t e e n
m o n th s , i s b e s t d e s c r i b e d a s a s e r i e s o f o b s t a c l e s . T ranscendence,
t h e t h i r d p h a s e , r e p r e s e n t s t h e p e r i o d i n w h ic h t h e o b s t a c l e s o f d i ­
s a s t e r r e c o v e r y a r e ov erco m e a n d a more r o u t i n e p a t t e r n o f d a i l y l i v ­
in g i s r e e s t a b l i s h e d .

Uncertainty

The e a r l y weeks a n d m on th s o f t h e a f t e r m a t h r e p r e s e n t e d a p e r i o d
o f r a p i d c h a n g e . New p r o b le m s w ere d i s c o v e r e d d a i l y and new s o l u t i o n s
w ere j u s t a s r a p i d l y b e in g in tr o d u c e d . C o u n tle s s o u t s i d e r s — n a t i o n a l
g u a rd s m e n , s t a t e p o l i c e , f a m i l y , f r i e n d s , t o u r i s t s , g o v e r n m e n t o f f i ­
c i a l s , c h u r c h o f f i c i a l s , t o u r i s t s , u t i l i t y w o r k e r s , and c o n s t r u c t i o n
c r e w s — w e re h i g h l y v i s i b l e i n e v e r y se g m e n t o f t h e c o u n t y and t h e i r
p r e s e n c e c o n t r i b u t e d to a s e n s e o f c e a s e l e s s a c t i v i t y , e x c ite m e n t and
progress. " T h a t was t h e t h i n g , t o s e e p r o g r e s s . I t h e l p e d so much t o
 140

see t h i n g s g e t done." T h e i r c o l l e c t i v e e f f o r t s q u ic k ly r e s u l t e d in a
s e n s e t h a t o r d e r was b e i n g r e s t o r e d t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t .

A s e n s e t h a t t h e s o c i a l o r d e r h a d r e m a i n e d i n t a c t was r e i n f o r c e d
w ith the ascendance of e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a u t h o r i t y , the re e sta b lish m e n t
o f t h e w ar d s t r u c t u r e a nd t h e i mm e d i a t e r e s p o n s e o f w e l f a r e p r o g r a m s .
The e x i g e n c i e s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n n e c e s s a r i l y c r e a t e d c o n d i t i o n s o f com­
munal l i v i n g and w h i l e t h i s a l s o g e n e r a t e d f r u s t r a t i o n s a n d c o n f l i c t s ,
i t had the o v e r a l l e f f e c t o f h e i g h t e n i n g a sense o f p u b lic optimism.
Commitments w e r e made t o " r e b u i l d b i g g e r and b e t t e r " t h a n b e f o r e and
in p u b lic s e t t i n g s a t l e a s t , i n d i v i d u a l s p a r t i c i p a t e d in a c t i v i t i e s
and c o n v e r s a t i o n s t h a t p r o m o t e d e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r a b r i g h t e r f u t u r e .

But t h e r e was a l s o c o n f u s i o n a b o u t how t h e p r e s e n t d e s t r u c t i o n

w ou l d b e r e f a s h i o n e d i n t o a c o h e r e n t and f a m i l i a r f u t u r e . The g e n e r a l
b l u e p r i n t a l r e a d y e x i s t e d i n t h e c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s o f
p r e - d i s a s t e r c o n d i t i o n s b u t t h i s b l u e p r i n t was r a p i d l y b e i n g a l t e r e d
by new f orms o f w e l f a r e i m p o r t e d from o u t s i d e o r g a n i z a t i o n s and i n
p a r t i c u l a r , from f e d e r a l a g e n c i e s . A whole h o s t o f u n f a m i l i a r t e r m s —
t e r m s l i k e FDAA, o n e - s t o p c e n t e r , HUD, BOR, r e c l a m a t i o n , f o o d s t a m p s ,
d e m o l i t i o n c r e w s , w r i t s o f e n t r y , forms o f c o n f i d e n t i a l r e l e a s e , a s ­
s e s s o r s , v e r i f i e r s and i n s p e c t o r s —w e r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o e v e r y d a y d i s ­
course. T h e s e t e r m s , o f c o u r s e , w e r e n o t j u s t w o r d s . They r e f l e c t e d
new p r o c e d u r e s a nd r u l e s t h a t w e r e l i n k e d t o h o p e s f o r a b e t t e r f u ­
ture. I n t h e p r e s e n t , t h e y r e p r e s e n t e d a c o n s t r a i n t on d a i l y l i v i n g
and a s o u r c e o f c o n f u s i o n .

You had t o go by t h e r u l e s . F i l l o u t t h i s p i e c e o f p a p e r and

th a t piece of paper. E verything took a p ie c e of paper to get
anything. Then you h a d t o w a i t i n l i n e , and go by a' number.
I t was r e a l l y s o m e t h i n g . . . . I d i d i t , j u s t l i k e e v e r y b o d y e l s e .
You h ad t o . But I c o u l d n ' t t e l l you now who t h e y a l l w e r e o r
w h at t h e i r b u s i n e s s w a s.

The g e n e r a l commi tment t o r e b u i l d and t h e p u b l i c d i s p l a y o f o p ­

t i m i s m w e re i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s i n t h e d a i l y e x p e r i e n c e o f r e s i d e n t s .
But t h e f a c t s o f l i f e w e r e g r i m . Perhaps the o v e rrid in g concern d u r­
i n g t h i s p e r i o d was one o f e conomi c u n c e r t a i n t y . Two a c c o u n t s p r e ­
se n te d below, u n d e r s c o re t h i s concern .

T h e r e I w a s , n e v e r b r o k e a day i n my l i f e , c r e d i t good any

p l a c e I went i n t o . A l l o f a s u d d e n , d i d n ' t m a t t e r how good
y o u r c r e d i t wa s. Two d o l l a r s i n my p o c k e t a n d n o t h i n g b u t
t h e c l o t h e s on my b a c k and n i n e k i d s t o f e e d . . . . Looked
p r e t t y b l e a k , I c a n t e l l you t h a t . And, I ' m an o p t i m i s t .
N o t h i n g g e t s me down. But t h a t c an do i t . . . . I w a nt t o t e l l
y o u , i t was some d a y when we h e a r d f o r s u r e t h a t t h e
 141

r e i m b u r s e m e n t was c o m in g . I t was l o o k i n ' p r e t t y b l e a k ,

p re tty b leak . , . .

I t was a h o r r i b l e f e e l i n g . We d i d n ' t know r e i m b u r s e m e n t w o u ld

b e coming and so we t h o u g h t i t was a t o t a l l o s s . A l l t h a t mud,
t h a t h o r r i b l e , s t i c k y mud— i t was j u s t l i k e g l u e — i t w o u l d n ' t
come o f f . We w e r e so t i r e d - - t i r e d a l l t h e t i m e . . . . T h e r e
w a s n ' t much tim e t o t h i n k in t h o s e d a y s . B u t, c a n you i m a g i n e
t r y i n g t o d e c i d e w h e t h e r o r n o t you s h o u l d t a k e a l o a n ? What
t o do? I t seemed l i k e we j u s t s t o o d a r o u n d f o r two d a y s t r y ­
in g to d e c i d e . I n t h e e n d , you d o n ' t h a v e much c h o i c e . How
e l s e c a n you l i v e ? S o , you t a k e a l o a n and w o r k y o u r s e l f t o
d e a th . What i f you d o n ' t g e t y o u r jo b b a c k ? What i f you c a n ' t
make i t ? . . .

E conom ic u n c e r t a i n t y was a c o n s t a n t w o r r y i n t h e e a r l y p e r i o d a l ­
th o u g h i t was f r e q u e n t l y s u p e r c e d e d by t h e u r g e n c y o f c l e a n i n g u p ,
o r "m u dding o u t " , a s i t was c a l l e d . I t was d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n a
s e n s e o f o p t im is m when c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a t a s k t h a t seemed a l m o s t u n ­
e n d i n g and a l m o s t i n s u r m o u n t a b l e .

We w e re so e x h a u s t e d and g o t p r e t t y d e s p o n d e n t . Even me.

You j u s L f e e l l i k e s a y i n g w h a t ' s t h e u s e ? You f e e l l i k e l e a v ­
i n g , j u s t g i v i n g up a n d g o i n g some p l a c e e l s e . You g e t s o
t i r e d an d t h e r e ' s so much t o do i t seems l i k e — w e l l , i t c a n ' t
be done. See t h a t c h a i r o v e r t h e r e ? You c o u l d p i c k t h a t up
y o u r s e l f c o u l d n ' t you? S u r e ! W e l l , when a c h a i r t h a t s i z e
w as s o a k e d w i t h mud i t t o o k t h r e e men t o l i f t i t , an d e v e n
th en th ey c o u l d n 't g e t i t o u t o f th e house. W.,’ c .iop ped e v e r y ­
t h i n g up w i t h a x e s a n d t h e n c a r r i e d i t o u t i n l i t t l e p i e c e s .
O n ly way i t c o u l d be d o n e . . . . J u s t when you t h o u g h t i t was
c l e a n , you c o u l d s m e l l t h e mud a g a i n . So y o u 'd h a v e t o c l e a n
i t a g a i n , and a g a i n . T hen you c o u l d s t i l l s m e l l t h e mud. So
we to o k a p i e c e o f w a l l b o a r d o f f - - t h e r e was e v e n mud b e h i n d
th e w a lls . S t r i p p e d t h e w h o le i n s i d e s o u t ! . . . The w i r i n g
e v e n h a d t o b e c h a n g e d . . . T h e n , we d i s c o v e r e d i t was u n d e r
th e f lo o r b o ard s! Do you s e e why we j u s t f e l t l i k e g i v i n g up?

A f t e r a day o f "m u dd in g o u t " , i t w as a r e l i e f t o m e e t i n t h e ward

b u i l d i n g o r r e t u r n to R ic k s C o l l e g e s h e l t e r . As one r e s i d e n t r e c a l l s ,
" T h e r e was a s p e c i a l c l o s e n e s s and you w e r e n e v e r a t a l o s s f o r
w o r d s " . E x p e r i e n c e s w e r e s i m i l a r enough t h a t even u n f a m i l i a r r e s i ­
d e n t s no l o n g e r seemed u n f a m i l i a r . T h e s e o c c a s i o n s w e re rem em b ered
a s " p r e c i o u s " e x p e r i e n c e s when p e o p l e t r i e d to l i f t e a c h o t h e r s s p i r ­
i t s w i t h j o k e s , s t o r i e s , p r a n k s , t e s t i m o n i a l s and p r a y e r s , " T h e r e was
e n o u g h gloom t o l i v e w i t h w i t h o u t m a k i n ' some u p , s o , we t r i e d to
l i g h t e n t h i n g s u p . " B u t , t h e s e o c c a s i o n s w e r e a l s o t i m e s o f t e a r s and
d i s c o u r a g e m e n t and s e e m i n g l y , a t o l e r a n c e f o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f a
 142

b r o a d r a n g e o f human e m o t i o n s : e c s ta c y , jo y , a n g e r, d o u b t, d is c o u r ­
a g e m e n t and d e s p a i r . T h e r e was a g e n e r a l s e n s e t h a t t h e i n t e n s i t y o f
e m o t i o n s was a s s t r a n g e o r n o r m a l , d e p e n d i n g on y o u r p o i n t o f v i e w ,
a s th e c o n d itio n s o f l i v i n g .

F o r many r e s i d e n t s l i v i n g n e a r t h e dam, t h o s e w hose l o s s e s w e re

t o t a l , t h e p h a s e o f u n c e r t a i n t y was more i n t e n s e an d h a d a d i f f e r e n t
t e x t u r e . What seem s t o be o f u t m o s t im p o r t a n c e i s t h a t t h e r e w ere no
p h y s i c a l r e m n a n ts r e m a i n i n g t o b e g i n t h e w o rk o f r e s t r u c t u r i n g th e
p re se n t in to a fu tu re . T h e i r m a j o r t a s k seems t o h a v e b e e n i n r e ­
f a s h io n in g th e l i n k s w ith th e p a s t . "W e'd w a lk so m e tim e s f o r m i l e s
j u s t d i g g i n ' t h r o u g h t h e r u b b l e l o o k i n g f o r s o m e th in g t h a t b e l o n g e d t o
u s , s o m e th in g t h a t showed we e x i s t e d . " T h e r e i s p e r h a p s one o t h e r im­
p o r t a n t f e a t u r e in t h i s c o n t e x t . F a m i l i e s i n t h e W i l f o r d a r e a w ere
d i s p e r s e d f o r l o d g i n g i n p r i v a t e homes o v e r a w ide g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a .
T h e r e f o r e , s y s t e m a t i c a n d r e g u l a r w ard m e e t i n g s f a i l e d to m a t e r i a l i z e
on a d a i l y b a s i s and f a i l e d to d a i l y r e c o n f i r m t h e u n i t y o f t h e w ard
a s a tra n sc e n d e n t e n t i t y . The f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t p o i n t s o u t t h a t , f o r
some r e s i d e n t s , t h i s was a p e r i o d n o t o n l y o f u n c e r t a i n t y and u n ­
f a m i l i a r i t y , bu t of stra n g e n e s s .

We w e re j u s t v a g a b o n d s . No p l a c e t o g o . N o t h i n g to d o . No
home. . . . S t r a n g e r s i n o u r own l a n d . . . We'd j u s t k in d o f w onder
a ro u n d i n , o h , a k i n d o f s t a t e o f o b l i v i o n o r s o m e t h i n g . We
d i d n ' t know w hich way to t u r n , w here t o s t a r t . I mean when
y o u 'v e b e e n m a r r i e d f o r 2 5 , 26 y e a r s , a n ' you t h i n k y o u ' r e
s e t f o r t h e r e s t o f y o u r l i f e and s u d d e n l y , you f i n d t h a t you
d o n ' t h a v e one t h i n g on e a r t h t h a t ' s f a m i l i a r t o you. . . . Even
t h e h i l l s i d e , t h e r o c k s w h e re we u s e d t o s i t a n d m e d i t a t e o r
w h a t e v e r - - I mean t h e y w e re g o n e . And, i t was a r e a l l y s c a r e y
fe e lin g . How do y o u , how do y o u , c o m p l e t e l y s t a r t o v e r? It
was q u i t e an em pty f e e l i n g . Y ou'd f i n d y o u r s e l f , w e l l , k i n d
o f g r a s p i n g f o r t h i s a n ' t h a t , s o m e th in g t o h a n g on t o , to
s t a r t re b u ild in g ag ain .

In s p i t e o f t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o r e b u i l d and t h e g e n e r a l o v e r ­
a r c h i n g s e n s e o f p u b l i c o p t i m i s m , t h e g r im r e a l i t y o f "mudding o u t "
g e n e r a t e d a s e n s e o f f u t i l i t y and h e l p l e s s n e s s . I t was a v e r y s im p le
f a c t o f l i f e t h a t t h e s h e e r m a g n i tu d e o f t h e t a s k r e q u i r e d e q u i p m e n t ,
l a b o r , money and m a t e r i a l s , c o m m o d itie s t h a t w e re i n s h o r t s u p p l y .
From t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f r e s i d e n t s , t h e r e a l b a s i s f o r hope a r r i v e d in
t h e form o f v o l u n t e e r l a b o r and money.

V o l u n t e e r s , t h a t was t h e k e y and t h a t ' s w h a t s a v e d u s . And

you g o t t h e C hurch t o t h a n k f o r t h a t . D o c t o r s a n d n u r s e s and
law yers w o r k in ' j u s t l i k e everybody e l s e . Why, t h e y ' d g e t up
a t 3 i n t h e m o r n i n ' , d r i v e on a b u s a l l n i g h t - - p a i d f o r i t
t h e m s e l v e s t o o — g e t h e r e i n t h e m o r n in g , w ork a l l d a y , e a t
t h e i r own l u n c h - - c h e y d i d n ' t sp ong e f o r n o t h i n ' - - a n d g e t b a c k
 143

on t h e b u s l a t e a t n i g h t . And w ork! T h e r e w a s n ' t n o t h i n '

was t o o good f o r them v o l u n t e e r s . Came by t h e t h o u s a n d s ,
b u s l o a d s f u l l o f them . . . . When t h e y came h e r e an d w o rk e d
so h a r d , how c o u l d you g i v e up? You j u s t h a d t o ke e p g o i n g .

V o l u n t e e r l a b o r , m a t e r i a l s an d h e a v y e q u ip m e n t w e re c r i t i c a l in
t h e m a t e r i a l , e m o t i o n a l and s y m b o l i c a s p e c t s o f r e c o v e r y . To many,
t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e v o l u n t e e r e f f o r t s r e c o n f i r m e d t h e t r u t h o f t h e Mor­
mon way o f l i f e . O t h e r s f e l t t h a t t h e p r o g ra m o r g a n i z e d by t h e LDS
C hurch u n f a i r l y d i s t r i b u t e d v o l u n t e e r s among a c t i v e members a n d p e r ­
so n s o f pow er and p r e s t i g e . S t i l l , o th e r s f e l t t h a t th e e f f o r t s o f
o th e r v o l u n t e e r s —M e n n o n ite s, C h r i s t i a n B r e th e r n , and I n t e r f a i t h , in
p a r tic u la r — d id n 't re c e iv e a p p ro p ria te re c o g n itio n or p ra is e . To
some, t h e v o l u n t e e r p r o g r a m r e c o n f i r m e d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s o c i a l d i v i ­
s i o n w i t h i n t h e com m un ity.

As i m p o r t a n t a s t h e v o l u n t e e r s w e re in h e l p i n g t o o ve rc om e t h e
p r a c t i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s i n c l e a n i n g up t h e m e s s , t h e f e d e r a l d o l l a r s a p ­
p r o p r i a t e d f o r r e s t i t u t i o n o f f l o o d l o s s e s was t h e e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r
in r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . Money p r o v i d e s t h e w a r r a n t f o r r e a l i s t i c h o p e and
th e re s o u rc e fo r s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y .

I j u s t w a n t t o go on r e c o r d a s s a y i n g t h e f e d e r a l g o v e rn m e n t
r e a l l y p u l l e d us o u t . I sure a p p re c ia te i t . You know, you
c a n ' t do much w i t h o u t m oney, d o e s n ' t m a t t e r how h a r d y o u w o rk .

But v a l l e y r e s i d e n t s a l s o h a v e a g e n e r a l d i s t r u s t o f t h e f e d s and i t
was v e r y common to h e a r :

I was m i g h t y g l a d t o h e a r t h e money was c ornin' b u t I w a s n ' t

g o i n ' t o sp e n d i t b e f o r e I h a d i t in my h a n d . You n e v e r know
w i t h t h e g o v e r n m e n t how l o n g i t c a n t a k e o r e v e n i f t h e y ' r e
g o i n ' t o k eep t h e i r p r o m i s e .

O b stacles

A round t h e s e c o n d t o t h e t h i r d m onth a f t e r i m p a c t , t h e e s s e n t i a l
u n c e r t a i n t y and c o n f u s i o n o f t h ^ e a r l y a f t e r m a t h was b e i n g r e p l a c e d by
t e m p o r a r y c o n d i t i o n s o f a more r o u t i n i z e d a n d p r e d i c t a b l e n a t u r e . HUD
t r a i l e r s had b e e n moved i n t o t h e v a l l e y and r e s i d e n t s w ere s e t t l i n g
i n t o l i v i n g q u a r t e r s t h a t m a i n t a i n e d some c o h e r e n c e and o r d e r t o f a m i l y
life . The communal a s p e c t s o f d a i l y l i v i n g g r a d u a l l y d i m i n i s h e d and
e n e r g i e s w e re f o c u s e d on p r o b le m s o f a f a m i l y and p r i v a t e n a t u r e . The
o p e n in g o f t h e BOR o f f i c e a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e r e i m b u r s e m e n t p r o ­
gram g e n e r a t e d a s e n s e o f e c o n o m ic s e c u r i t y . Knowledge t h a t t h e
 144

l e g i s l a t i o n f o r r e s t i t u t i o n to d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s h a d r e c e i v e d c o n g r e s ­
s i o n a l a p p r o v a l e s c a l a t e d t h e number o f homes an d b u s i n e s s e s u n d e r
c o n s t r u c t i o n and th e d i s a s t e r c o n t e x t , i n t h i s p h a s e o f r e b u i l d i n g ,
was l i k e th e p r o v e r b i a l boom town.

T he p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t was d e s c r i b e d b y o n e r e s i d e n t a s s u c h a
mess t h a t " i t l o o k e d l i k e b a d g e r s w e r e d i g g i n g a l l o v e r " . In d eed , th e
c o n d u c t o f p r a c t i c a l a f f a i r s was p o s s i b l e o n l y b y a d i v e r s i o n a r y
c o u r s e th r o u g h and a r o u n d many e n v i r o n m e n t a l o b s t a c l e s . I n a n im p o r­
t a n t s e n s e , t h e p h y s i c a l o b s t r u c t i o n s w e re s y m b o l ic o f o b s t r u c t i o n s
w hich a l s o e x i s t e d i n t h e s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t .

HUD t r a i l e r s , f o r t h e m ost p a r t , w e re v ie w e d a s " a p l a c e t o c l o s e

t h e d o o r and be a f a m i l y . . . . a p l a c e t o b e p r i v a t e " . B ut t r a i l e r l i v ­
in g was n o t w i t h o u t i t s p r o b le m s . The t r a i l e r s , a b o u t 12 f e e t b y 50
f e e t , w e re c o n f i n i n g and i n many c a s e s , two t r a i l e r s w ere r e q u i r e d t o
accom modate l a r g e f a m i l i e s . The t r a i l e r s h a d b e e n t r a n s p o r t e d from
o t h e r a r e a s o f t h e c o u n t r y and many w e re i n f e s t e d w i t h r a t s ; t h e y
w ere p o o r l y w i n t e r i z e d and n o t e q u i p p e d w i t h h e a t e r s . T hey w e r e h o t
in t h e summer a n d c o l d in t h e w i n t e r . I n an e n v i r o n m e n t l i k e t h i s ,
r e s i d e n t s s a y , a s tim e p a s s e s and t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s b e g i n t o f e e l p e r ­
m a n e n t, i t i s e a s y t o a l l o w s m a l l i s s u e s to become m a g n i f i e d .

We w ere h a v i n g p r o b le m s t h a t we n e v e r d re a m e d e x i s t e d . A r­
g u i n g w i t h e a c h o t h e r , a n , some b i t t e r f i g h t i n g t o o . Because
we w ere a l l in a s t a t e o f t u r m o i l a n ' we w e r e l a s h i n g o u t a t
e v e ry th in g . . . . alw a ys b e e n a c l o s e f a m i l y . We s t a y e d
a c l o s e f a m i l y and w e ' r e p r o b a b l y e v e n c l o s e r now b u t d o n ’ t
you s e e , you a r g u e ' c a u s e t h e r e ' s s o much t o t h i n k a b o u t an d
d e c i s i o n s a n d a l l t h e t h i n g s t h a t b o t h e r e d you b e f o r e s t i l l
b o t h e r y o u . Take my h u s b a n d . He s i t s w i t h h i s f e e t up on
t h e f u r n i t u r e a n d t h a t b o t h e r s me, a l w a y s h a s . B efore, I 'd
j u s t go in a n o t h e r room o r g e t o u t my h o b b i e s and a f t e r a l l ,
w h a t do e s i t m a t t e r ? In t h a t t r a i l e r , w e l l , t h e r e was no room
t o go t o , no h o b b l e s t o p i c k u p . S o , you s a y s o m e th in g and
t h e n you a r g u e . . . . T h a t ' s c h a n g e d now. He s t i l l p u t s h i s
f e e t on t h e f u r n i t u r e and i t s t i l l b o t h e r s me. But we h a v e
o t h e r rooms and i f t h i n g s i r r i t a t e me, t h e n . I ' v e g o t some­
t h i n g t o do t h a t ' s f a m i l i a r a g a i n .

P e r h a p s o n e o f t h e h a r d s h i p s o f l i v i n g in a HUD t r a i l e r , s te m s
from t h e many i n t r u s i o n s i n t o o n e ' s p r i v a c y . I t seemed t o many t h a t
g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c e r s and i n v e s t i g a t o r s w e re c o n s t a n t l y m aking i n q u i r ­
i e s o f one t y p e o r a n o t h e r . To r e s i d e n t s , i t may h a v e made s e n s e from
a b u r e a u c r a t i c s t a n d p o i n t , b u t i t was a n u i s a n c e n o n e t h e l e s s . One
r e s i d e n t t e l l s , how, e v e n t u a l l y , h i s p a t i e n c e h a d b e e n t r i e d .

J u s t b e c a u s e you l i v e d i n a HUD t r a i l e r t h e y t h o u g h t you

was d i r t . And t h e y came in swarms t o check, up on y o u .
 145

They d i d n ' t even c a l l f i r s t . One day t h e r e was a k noc k a t t h e

door. " I w a n t t o c h e c k y o u r s t o r m w in do w s. Have you s t i l l g o t
th e m ? " Y es, I s a i d . " L e t me s e e t h e m . " T hey w o u l d n ' t t a k e
y o u r word f o r n o t h i n g . I g o t a n g r y an d t h a t t i m e I p u t my
f o o t down. D o n 't you come b a c k a g a i n u n l e s s y o u c a l l f i r s t .
You g o t a phone a n d s o h a v e I . Use i t !

As n o t e d e a r l i e r , news o f t h e p r o g ra m f o r r e s t i t u t i o n was a n o c ­
c a s io n f o r o p tim ism . F o r some, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e who h a d l e g a l o r
b u r e a u c r a t i c e x p e r t i s e , t h e p r o c e d u r e s f o r s u b m i t t i n g a c l a i m w e re
s im p ly t a k e n a s a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e . But f o r th e m a j o r i t y , th e p r o ­
c e s s w as v ie w e d a s " a h e a d a c h e " , " a h a s s l e " , " a n i g h t m a r e " o r " a n
im p o ssib ility ". B r i e f l y , r e s i d e n t s w e re e x p e c t e d t o i t e m i z e and d e ­
s c r i b e e v e r y a r t i c l e damaged o r l o s t ; i n d i c a t e t h e c u r r e n t m a r k e t
p r i c e f o r th e ite m ; su p p ly p h o to g ra p h s o f any d i s c a r d e d ite m s ; p ro ­
v i d e t i t l e s o r p r o o f o f o w n e r s h i p ; and s e c u r e t h r e e e s t i m a t e s fro m
c o n t r a c t o r s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a home o r o t h e r s t r u c t u r e . The
m e c h a n ic s o f t h e p r o c e d u r e w e re g e n e r a l l y i n t i m i d a t i n g b u t f o r many,
t h e i m p e r s o n a l i z a t i o n w h ic h a c c o m p a n ie s b u r e a u c r a t i c managem ent was
e v e n m ore u p s e t t i n g .

I g u e s s maybe i t was n e c e s s a r y , a l l t h a t r e d t a p e , b u t I t was

h a r d t o t a k e . Made you f e e l l i k e you w e r e n ' t a r e a l p e r s o n ,
(silen ce) L ik e you w e r e b e g g i n g , a s i f you h a d no p r i d e . I 'm
n o t t h e o n l y one who f e e l s t h a t w ay. . . . Oh, w e ' r e so g r a t e f u l
t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t f o r w h a t t h e y done b u t l i k e I s a y , i t was
aw ful h a rd to tak e a l l th a t red ta p e .

E x p e c t a t i o n s f o r f u l l r e im b u r s e m e n t a n d e c o n o m ic s e c u r i t y w e r e
so on c a l l e d i n t o q u e s t i o n . The e a r l i e s t c l a i m s s u b m i t t e d w e r e , f o r
th e m o st p a r t , p a i d i n f u l l . As tim e p r o g r e s s e d , t h e c r i t e r i a f o r
r e s t i t u t i o n w e re more s t r i n g e n t , more i n f l e x i b l y a p p l i e d and more
ex c lu siv e . BOR p e r s o n n e l v ie w e d t h i s a s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f an i n c r e a s ­
i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i r s t a f f and a s e v i d e n c e o f more r e ­
s p o n s i b l e m anagem ent o f t a x p a y e r s ' money. R e s i d e n t s saw t h i s a s a
s o u r c e o f i n j u s t i c e and f r u s t r a t i o n .

T he f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t i n d i c a t e s t h e e x t e n t o f ti m e and e x p e n d i ­
t u r e w h i c h was f r e q u e n t l y s p e n t on p r e p a r i n g a s i n g l e i t e m f o r t h e
claim . T h is r e s i d e n t r e c e iv e d p a r t i a l re im b u rsem en t f o r th e item b u t ,
i n t h e lo n g r u n , c o i n c o l l e c t i o n s a r e n o t e s s e n t i a l t o s u r v i v a l .

So many a r e a s t h e y j u s t b e a t you down. 1 ha d a c o i n c o l ­

l e c t i o n and I h a d t o make l o n g d i s t a n c e p hone c a l l s and t r i p s
t o g e t a p p r a i s a l s on t h e c o i n s . T hey d i d n ' t p a y f o r t h e phone
c a l l s or th e t r i p s . T hey g i v e you one q u a r t e r o f w h a t you l o s t
i n v a l u e a n d f o r t h e o n e s t h a t w e re s a v e d , one q u a r t e r o f
t h e c o s t o f t h e l a b o r t o c l e a n them u p . You h a d t o h a g g l e
 146

o v e r e v e r y penny and t h e y s t i l l won. I t was so e x a s p e r a t i n g .

I t h i n k t h e y knew a l l a l o n g how much t h e y ' d p ay yo u and t h e y
j u s t s e n t you on a w i l d g o o s e c h a s e t r y i n g t o p r o v e s o m e t h in g
t h e y w o u l d n ' t a c c e p t an yw ay. T hey d o n ' t e v e n g e t a n g r y .
T hey j u s t d i d n ' t c a r e . F i n a l l y , you g e t so w orn down you j u s t
q u i t a n d t a k e w hat t h e y g i v e y o u .

The e x p e r i e n c e t o l d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s i d e n t h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s
o f a much more s e r i o u s n a t u r e . T h i s man and h i s f a m i l y q u a l i f y a s one
o f th e " c a s u a l t i e s " of th e d i s a s t e r re s p o n s e .

My c l a i m was f o r $ 1 1 2 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 a n d a l l t h e y was g o i n ' t o g i v e

me was $ 9 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 . T r e a t you j u s t l i k e a c r o o k . Y o u 'd t h i n k
I was t r y i n ' t o s t e a l t h e money. I d i d n ' t know w h a t t o d o :
t h e y w a s n ' t l i s t e n i n ’ t o me. I n t e r f a i t h fo un d me and t h e y
knew w h a t t o do. T hey g e t a l l t h e c r e d i t . T hat la d y , s h e 's
ju s t lik e a b u lld o g . She h e l p e d me p r o v e my c l a i m and t h e
n e x t tim e th e y o f f e r e d $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 .0 0 and t h e t h i r d tim e $ 6 9 ,0 0 0 .0 0 .
. . . We w e n t a s f a r a s we c o u l d go a n d t h e n i t h a d t o go t o an
a p p e a l w i t h la w y e r s a n d e v e r y t h i n g . W e l l , I ' m r e t i r e d a n d I
c o u l d n ' t h o l d o u t a l l t h a t ti m e and l a w y e r s f e e s c o s t a l o t
o f m oney. B u t t h a t ' s n o t t h e r e a l r e a s o n . T hey j u s t w o re
me down. I c o u l d n ' t f i g h t a n y m o re . Seemed l i k e you h a d t o
h a g g le over e v e ry th in g . And I was t o o w orn o u t t o do i t a n y ­
m o r e . . . Now, we l i v e i n t h i s HUD t r a i l e r w i t h e v e r y t h i n g
s t a c k e d up e v e r y w h e r e . The w i f e , s h e d o e s n ' t l i k e i t , b u t
w h a t e l s e c a n we do? We h a d t o s p e n d some o f t h a t money j u s t
t o l i v e a n d now t h e c o s t o f e v e r y t h i n ' i s so b la m e d h i g h you
c a n ' t b u i l d a h o u se f o r t h a t a n d s t i l l l i v e . . . . a n d , now t h e y
t e l l me I h a v e t o b u y b a c k a l l my m a c h i n e r y . W e l l , I 'm n o t
f a r m i n ' t h e same a s I was t h e n . . . . J u s t d o e s n ' t make s e n s e .
. . . And t h i s c a p i t a l g a i n s . T h e y w a n t t o t a k e my money b a c k
' c a u s e t h e y t h i n k I g o t s o m e th in g f r e e I g u e s s . . . . J u s t
d o e s n ' t make s e n s e .

As t h i s g e n tle m a n m e n t i o n s a t t h e e n d o f h i s a c c o u n t , c a p i t a l
g a i n s t a x e m e rg ed a s a n i s s u e f o r r e s i d e n t s w hose l i f e - s t y l e h a d
changed s in c e th e d i s a s t e r . The p h i l o s o p h y b e h i n d t h e r e i m b u r s e m e n t
p ro g r a m was t h a t e v e r y i t e m s h o u l d b e r e p l a c e d , u n d e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n
t h a t f a m i l i e s and c o m m u n itie s w o u ld b e r e s t o r e d t o t h e i r p r e - d i s a s t e r
sta te . F a i l u r e t o comply w i t h t h i s r e g u l a t i o n h a d s e r i o u s i m p l i c a ­
t i o n s . R e im b u rse m e n t n o t s p e n t on r e p l a c e m e n t was t r e a t e d a s p r o f i t
i n much t h e same way a s i f a s s e t s h a d b e e n v o l u n t a r i l y l i q u i d a t e d .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e i m b u r s e m e n t money was s u b j e c t t o a c a p i t a l g a i n s
tax . A lt h o u g h t h e c a p i t a l g a i n s t a x i s n o t g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s t o o d , a s
t h e woman i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t m akes c l e a r , t h e r e i m b u r s e m e n t
p h i l o s o p h y h a s a f u n d a m e n t a l flo w w h ic h was c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z e d .
 147

I t 's ju st not f a ir . T h is c a p i t a l g a i n s , I t h in k you c a l l

it. We u s e d to h a v e a n e e d f o r l o a d e r s and s o r t e r s a n d t r a c ­
t o r s and a l l k i n d s o f t h i n g s b u t we d o n ' t n e e d them an ym ore.
What a r e we g o i n g t o do w i t h t h a t now? We g o t a g r a v e l p i t ,
n o t a f a r m . And t h e y ' r e t r y i n ' t o make us bu y t h e same t h i n g s
we h a d b e f o r e t h e f l o o d . T h a t's th e id e a . R ep lace e v e r y th in g ,
i t e m f o r i t e m , j u s t t h e way i t was b e f o r e t h e f l o o d . What
t h e y d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d i s i t ' l l n e v e r be t h e same a g a i n . We
c a n n e v e r grow p o t a t o e s a g a i n so why s h o u l d we b u y b a c k a l l
t h a t m a c h i n e r y . . . . Do you know w h a t t h e v e r i f i e r t o l d me?
" J u s t b u y i t and s e l l i t t h e n e x t d a y . " . . . I t ' s j u s t n o t
fa ir. Do you t h i n k i t ' s r i g h t ? T h ey pay us t h e money b e ­
c a u s e t h e i r dam b r o k e and r u i n e d o u r l a n d . And now t h e y ' r e
g o in g to ta k e h a l f o f i t back. I d o n 't th in k t h a t 's j u s t i c e ,
do you?

T h e r e w e r e many t h i n g s t o be g r a t e f u l a b o u t c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e i m ­
b u r s e m e n t p r o g r a m . C la im s w e re p r o c e s s e d q u i t e r a p i d l y , many o f t h e
v e r i f i e r s w e r e c o n g e n i a l p e r s o n s and some a c t u a l l y h e l p e d r e s i d e n t s
in i d e n t i f y i n g l o s s e s t h e y h ad f a i l e d t o i n c l u d e . A lt h o u g h a l a r g e
p e r c e n t a g e o f s u b m i t t e d c l a i m s w ere n o t r e i m b u r s e d f o r t h e t o t a l a -
mount c l a i m e d , t h e r e was a g e n e r a l s e n s e o f u r g e n c y t o f i n a l i z e t h e
p r o c e s s and g e t on w i t h r e b u i l d i n g . To some d e g r e e , t h e p r e - d i ­
s a s t e r p e r s p e c t i v e on t h e c o s t o f l i v i n g was s t i l l o p e r a t i v e and t h e
a m ou nts o f money r e c e i v e d fro m t h e BOR o f f i c e s eem ed, a t f i r s t g l a n c e ,
su b sta n tia l.

Have you e v e r b e e n h a n d e d a c h e c k f o r $ 8 7 ,0 0 0 . 0 0 ? I 'd never

s e e n so much money b e f o r e . You t h i n k y o u ' r e r i c h . You know
y o u ' r e n o t , b u t you f e e l r i c h and t h e n you s t a r t s p e n d in g
as i f you w e re r i c h . The p r i c e s j u s t s k y r o c k e t e d a r o u n d
here. You t h o u g h t you c o u l d buy a n i r o n f o r $ 9 . 0 0 a n d a l l
o f a s u d d e n i t c o s t $ 1 5 . 0 0 . And t h a t ' s t h e way i t was w i t h
ev ery th in g . You p u t one t h i n g down on y o u r c l a i m b u t you
c o u l d n ' t buy i t f o r t h a t when you w e n t s h o p p i n g .

The i l l u s i o n o f a f f l u e n c e q u i c k l y d i s s i p a t e d a s r e s i d e n t s r e a l ­
ized t h a t i n f l a t i o n h a d a r r i v e d w i t h t h e w i n d f a l l o f money. The i n ­
c r e a s i n g c o s t o f l a b o r was a m a j o r i t e m f o r a l t h o u g h t h e f e d e r a l gov­
e r n m e n t s p o n s o r e d many p r o g r a m s , t h e w o rk was c o n t r a c t e d t o p r i v a t e
i n d u s tr y a t u n io n w ages. P r i o r t o t h e d i s a s t e r , t h e a v e r a g e wage o f
a t r u c k o p e r a t o r , f o r e x a m p l e , was $ 3 . 5 0 a n h o u r . Im m ed iately a f t e r
t h e d i s a s t e r , t h e wage h a d i n c r e a s e d t o a b o u t $ 8 . 5 0 an h o u r . T h i s
i n c r e a s e was g e n e r a l i z e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e economy and r e s i d e n t s w e re
s u r p r i s e d t o d i s c o v e r t h a t t h e r e i m b u r s e m e n t money was i n s u f f i c i e n t
to re p la c e t h e i r lo s s e s .
 148

Now, t h e c o s t o f c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s j u s t w e n t o u t o f s i g h t .
N ot j u s t c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s b u t t h a t was t h e b i g t h i n g .
I j u s t f i n i s h e d b u i l d i n g t h i s same h o u s e t h e y e a r b e f o r e t h e
d isa ste r. C o s t me a b o u t $ 4 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 . To h a v e i t r e b u i l t ,
e x a c t l y t h e sam e, t h e l o w e s t b i d was a l m o s t $ 6 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 . It
i s n ' t f i n i s h e d y e t and I a l r e a d y know t h a t I ' m owing a few
th o u san d e x t r a . D o n 't know how much more i t w i l l c o s t i n t h e
end. B ut I c a n t e l l y ou t h i s . We w o n ' t h a v e much f u r n i t u r e
i n i t and t h e r e w o n 't be a n y c a r p e t s f o r a w h i l e .

The c o s t o f r e b u i l d i n g was h i g h b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y , many d i s c o v ­

e r e d t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t was o f t e n low . T h e r e
was a s a y i n g i n t h e v a l l e y t h a t I h e a r d many t i m e s . " I f you h a d a
hammer i n y o u r b a c k p o c k e t you c o u l d c a l l y o u r s e l f a c a r p e n t e r a n d i f
you h a d a g r e a s y r a g , you w e r e a m e c h a n i c . " E x c e p t f o r p lu m b e r s a n d
e l e c t r i c i a n s , t r a d e s p e r s o n s w e r e n o t r e q u i r e d t o be l i c e n s e d , a n d
t h a t , sa y s th e g e n tlem an , in th e fo llo w in g p a ssa g e ;

was w h e re t h e p r o b le m s t a r t e d . L o c a l l a b o r had a l l t h e y c o u l d
d o , an d m o re . Nobody c o u l d k e e p up w i t h t h e w o r k . S o, you
h a d t o d e p e n d on p e o p l e you d i d n ' t know. . . . $ 4 5 0 .0 0 h e w a n t e d
to b u i l d me a c a b i n e t . I c o u l d h a v e done i t b e f o r e f o r $ 6 5 .0 0
a t t h e m o s t. B ut t h a t ' s w h e re t h e y g o t y ou — o v e r a b a r r e l .
You c o u l d n ' t do i t a l l y o u r s e l f a n d t h e y knew i t . . . . And
when h e b r o u g h t t h e c a b i n e t i n i t w o u l d n ' t f i t . Too b i g .
Used t h e w rong m a t e r i a l t o o . T h a t w a s n ' t w h at I p a i d f o r b u t
i t ' s to o l a t e th e n . $ 4 5 0 .0 0 a n d i t w a s n ' t e v e n r i g h t .

T h e r e w e re p e r s o n s in t h e v a l l e y who came t o b e r e g a r d e d a s v u l ­
tu r e s , scavengers a n d /o r p r o f i t e e r s . G e n e ra lly , th is d e sig n a tio n r e ­
f e r s t o " o u t s i d e " c o n t r a c t o r s who a r e s u s p e c t e d o f " f o l l o w i n g d i s a s ­
t e r s t o p r e y on p e o p l e when t h e y ' r e do w n". The te r m i s a l s o u s e d in
i t s more i n c l u s i v e s e n s e t o r e f e r t o a n y o n e who e x h i b i t e d s i g n s o f
greed. I t was c u s t o m a r y i n t h e v a l l e y to c o n t r a c t w o rk o u t t o f a m i l ­
i a r p e r s o n s and in many i n s t a n c e s , " c o n t r a c t s " w ere s i m p l y " g e n t l e ­
m a n 's a g r e e m e n t s " . The e x i g e n c i e s o f t h e d i s a s t e r c o n t e x t p r e c l u d e d
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e v e r y o n e h a v i n g w o r k done b y f a m i l i a r p e r s o n s . Un­
f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e w e re no l e g a l p r o v i s i o n s t o h a v e c o n t r a c t o r s b on d e d
an d a l t h o u g h f o r m a l c o n t r a c t s w ere g e n e r a l l y i n s t i t u t e d , t h e c o n t r a c ­
t u a l a g reem en ts d id n o t in c lu d e a c o n s e n t o f r e l e a s e . These c o n d i ­
t i o n s '. l l o w e d f o r some r e s i d e n t s t o become t h e v i c t i m s o f s e c o n d a r y
d isa ste rs.

The f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t i s t o l d by an e l d e r l y widow w hose home was

s e v e r e l y dam aged. She h a d u n d e r s t o o d t h a t h e r home was r e p a i r a b l e ,
mudded i t o u t a n d d i s c o v e r e d t h a t i t h a d t o b e d e m o l i s h e d . The c l a i m
s h e s u b m i t t e d i n c l u d e d t h e c o s t s o f r e p a i r b u t she d i d n ' t r e s u b m i t a
c l a i m " b e c a u s e I h a d some s a v i n g s a n d I d i d n ' t t h i n k i t was r i g h t t o
a s k f o r t o o much".
 149

I t ' s so m orb id . I j u s t d o n 't want to t a l k about i t . . . .

I t ' s n o t t h a k i n d o f e x p e r i e n c e you w a n t t o s h a r e . . . . W e l l ,
y e s , i t was d i f f i c u l t ( t o f i n d a c o n t r a c t o r ) b u t t h e n t h i s
n i c e guy o p e n e d up an o f f i c e h e r e a n d s a i d h e ' d do i t and
t h i s i s w h e re my s t o r y g e t s s o m o r b i d , . . . I l o s t a b o u t
$ 3 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 - $ 3 0 , 6 6 6 .0 0 . He was su c h a n i c e f e l l o w t o o and h e
was g o i n g t o p u t i t (my h o u s e ) up f o r $ 4 7 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 and I g a v e
him t h e f i r s t i n s t a l l m e n t and t h e n I w a n te d w h i t e b r i c k and
he s a i d h e ' d h a v e t o go t o B o i s e b u t n e e d e d a n o t h e r $ 1 5 ,0 0 0 . 0 0
and e v e n t h e n I t h o u g h t h e was s u c h a n i c e f e l l o w , s o , I g av e
him t h e s e c o n d i n s t a l l m e n t a n d h e l e f t to w n . T h e n , t h e r e
was a l i e n on t h e p lu m b in g a n d a l i e n fro m t h e lu m b e r company.
T hey s a i d h e d i d n ' t e v e n do $ 1 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 w o r t h o f w o r k . S o,
t h a t ' s why I s a y I l o s t a b o u t $ 3 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 . You j u s t h a v e t o
s t a r t from s c r a t c h . . . . I t ' s j u s t an a w f u l a d j u s t m e n t . T h en ,
when i t came tim e t o b u y f u r n i t u r e , why, I d i d n ' t h a v e any
money. So, I j u s t h a v e t o do w i t h o u t t h e t h i n g s I h a d . You
have to le a r n to liv e w ith i t ,

T h i s w om an's a t t i t u d e i s q u i t e p h i l o s o p h i c a l . O th er r e s i d e n t s ,
who w e re a l s o v i c t i m i z e d b y t h e " v u l t u r e s " , a r e s i m i l a r l y r e l u c t a n t
t o s h a r e t h e e x p e r i e n c e b u t u n l i k e t h e abov e woman, g e n e r a l l y e x p r e s s
more a n g e r and b i t t e r n e s s . The f o l l o w i n g e x c e r p t i s fro m a r e s i d e n t
w hose r e s p o n s e i s more t y p i c a l .

I 'm r e a l l y b i t t e r , I know i t m ig h t n o t b e r i g h t b u t I f e e l
b i t t e r a g a i n s t th e c o n t r a c t o r s , th e c i t y , th e c o u n ty , th e
m e r c h a n t s — w e l l , e x c e p t one an d I n e v e r h e a r d a b a d w ord
a g a i n s t h im . S om etim es I l a y i n b e d a n d I go t h r o u g h e v e r y ­
th in g a l l o v e r a g a in and I j u s t c a n ' t s l e e p . I t ' s a l l been
su c h a h a s s l e . I g u e s s I h a v e a n i c e r home ( w i t h two m o r t ­
g a g e s ) — I h a v e new c a r p e t s , d r a p e s , and some f u r n i t u r e , b u t ,
I l o o k a r o u n d and I h a t e the m . They h a v e no m e a n in g , none
of i t , th e c i t y , th e c o u n ty , none o f i t .
So m e tim e s I h a v e a few b e l t s — a n d , you know, I d o n ' t
d r in k — b u t I have a co u p le o f d r in k s and th e n I j u s t t e l l
p e o p l e w h a t I t h i n k o f them . You d o n ' t f e e l p r o u d a f t e r , you
know. You f e e l l i k e you d e g r a d e d y o u r s e l f a n d you d o n ' t f e e l
p ro u d f o r d o i n g i t . . . .
W e l l , I j u s t f e e l l i k e I h a d t h e s c r e w s p u t t o me.
T h a t ' s n o t a n i c e way t o s a y i t b u t t h a t ' s how I f e e l . . . .
I f t h e y o f f e r e d me $ 4 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 r i g h t now I t h i n k I ' d
s e l l and j u s t l e a v e i t a l l . I t ' s been n o t h i n g b u t a p ro ­
b le m . And I u s e d to l o v e my h o u s e b u t i t s b e e n n o t h i n g
but tro u b le .
 150

Transcendence

The l e v e l o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t y was s t i l l h i g h e r t h a n n o r m a l
i n t h e f a l l o f 1977 b u t t h e a r e a g e n e r a l l y h a d a more t y p i c a l a p p e a r ­
ance: c r o p s w ere g ro w in g i n t h e f i e l d s ; r o a d s a n d h ig h w a y s w e re r e ­
b u i l t ; t h e dumping s i t e s f o r d e b r i s r e m o v a l w e r e no l o n g e r v i s i b l e ;
t h e c o m m e r c i a l d i s t r i c t was v i g o r o u s ; an d a l l b u t t h r e e h u n d r e d a n d
f i f t y t r a i l e r s h a d b e e n rem oved fro m t h e v a l l e y . How ever, t h e com­
m u n i t i e s , h a v i n g j u s t h a d a m a j o r " f a c e l i f t " , w o uld n e v e r be t h e same
a g a i n . H i s t o r i c a l la n d m a r k s w e re g o n e , t h e l a n d s c a p e h a d c h a n g e d ,
p h y s i c i a n s o f f i c e s moved t o t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l p l a z a , some " o l d - t i m e r s "
d i d n ' t r e o p e n t h e i r b u s i n e s s e s , some new b u s i n e s s e s o p e n e d on Main
S t . , a n d many s h o p s r e o p e n e d b u t i n new l o c a t i o n s . N e ig h b o r h o o d r e l a ­
t i o n s h a d a l s o c h a n g e d , t o some d e g r e e , f o r t h e f l o o d h a d s e e m i n g l y
p r o v i d e d many w i t h t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o r n e c e s s i t y t o r e l o c a t e . The p r e ­
d i s a s t e r tr e n d o f r e s i d e n t i a l encroachm ent i n t o th e urban a r e a s and
d e v e l o p m e n t on t h e h i l l in R e x b u rg i n t e n s i f i e d a n d many r e s i d e n t s d i s ­
c o v e r e d t h a t t h e i r n e i g h b o r h o o d s w e r e no l o n g e r t h e same.

The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f r e s i d e n t s w e re s e t t l e d b a c k i n t o t h e s a n c ­
t i t y o f a home a n d i n t o a more t y p i c a l r o u t i n e o f d a i l y l i v i n g . The
e v e n t s o f J u n e 5 , 1976 and t h e u n c e r t a i n t y and h a s s l e s w h ic h f o l l o w e d
i n t h e a f t e r m a t h w e re b e c o m in g a p a r t o f h i s t o r y , b u t , " i t w i l l n e v e r
b e t h e same a g a i n " . L i f e was somehow d i f f e r e n t and t h e r e was a g e n e r ­
a l s e n s e t h a t t h e p e o p l e w e r e d i f f e r e n t to o b u t t h e c h a n g e s a r e s u b t l e
a nd d i f f i c u l t t o a r t i c u l a t e . " I t ' s h a r d to p u t i n t o w o r d s , b u t some­
t i m e s I l o o k a t my f r i e n d s i t t i n g i n h e r h o u s e — e v e r y t h i n g b e a u t i f u l
a n d n e w - - a n d I t h i n k , you d o n ' t l o o k r i g h t . You d o n ' t b e l o n g h e r e . "
O t h e r r e s i d e n t s commonly e x p r e s s t h e d i f f e r e n c e by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o f a new home and h a b i t u a l a c t s .
" I ' l l be n e e d i n g a hammer a n d I go o u t t o t h e s h e d t o g e t i t and a l l o f
a s u d d e n , I t h i n k , now t h a t ' s f o o l i s h , t h e s h e d i s n ' t t h e r e a n y m o re .
T h a t was b e f o r e t h e f l o o d . "

T h e r e seems to b e a g e n e r a l f e e l i n g t h a t t h e f l o o d e x p e r i e n c e
b r o u g h t p e o p l e c l o s e r t o g e t h e r and f a m i l i e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r . T h i s i s
n o t t r u e in a l l c a s e s , o f c o u r s e , an d some d i v o r c e s a n d d i v i s i o n s in
e x t e n d e d f a m i l y n e t w o r k s a l s o o c c u r r e d . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e comments o f
t h e r e s i d e n t be low a r e t y p i c a l o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f m o st r e s i d e n t s .

F o r a l o n g tim e p e o p l e w e r e f e e l i n g c l o s e r t o g e t h e r . P e o p le
w e re more c o n c e r n e d and t h o u g h t f u l and I t h i n k some o f t h e
concern is s t i l l around. Some h a d r e c e i v e d h e l p fr o m o t h e r s
an d t h a t g a v e th em t h e i d e a t h a t t h e y n e e d e d t o r e t u r n t h i s
t h o u g h t f u l n e s s t o o t h e r s . . . . You know, i t r e a l l y b r o u g h t f a ­
m i l i e s c l o s e r t o g e t h e r — s o n s , d a u g h te r s , n i e c e s , nephew s, s e ­
cond c o u s i n s — p e o p l e you d i d n ' t e v e n c o n s i d e r t o b e c l o s e
t h o u g h t a b o u t you and made c o n t a c t . You n e v e r f o r g e t t h a t .
I t ' s a p re c io u s b l e s s i n g th e f lo o d w a te rs b ro u g h t i n t o th e
v a lle y .
 151

At t h e same t i m e , t h e r e i s a l s o a s e n s e t h a t t h e f l o o d e x p e r ­
i e n c e h a s h a d c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t a r e s o c i a l l y d i v i s i v e . T he f e e l i n g s
e x p r e s s e d by t h e r e s i d e n t b e lo w a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h i s c o n t r a ­
d ic to ry a sp e c t of so c ia l r e la tio n s .

Do you know w hat h u r t s ? S o m e tim e s , i t makes me f e e l b i t t e r

and r e s e n t f u l . When y ou h e a r p e o p l e s a y , " I w i s h I ' d b e e n i n
th a t flo o d . I w is h I ' d l o s t e v e r y t h i n g and r e p l a c e d i t w i t h
b r a n d new t h i n g s . " I t r e a l l y h u r t s when p e o p l e s a y t h a t .
They o n l y s e e from t h e o u t s i d e b u t t h e y d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d t h e
m e n t a l a n g u i s h you go t h r o u g h . T hey t h i n k you j u s t go o u t
and g e t e v e r y t h i n g new . T hey n e v e r s t o p t o t h i n k o f w h a t
you had t o go t h r o u g h . I t ' s a s i f t h e y ' r e t a i l i n ' you you
g o t i t f o r n o t h i n g a s i f you d o n ' t d e s e r v e i t .

V i s i b l e s i g n s o f m a t e r i a l a f f l u e n c e m arked t h e v a l l e y ' s t r a n s c e n ­
dence o v er th e o b s t a c l e s i n h e r e n t in th e p re c e d in g phase o f r e b u i l d ­
in g . I n d e e d , many had p r o s p e r e d e c o n o m i c a l l y . New jo b o p p o r t u n i t i e s
w e re c r e a t e d , c e r t a i n w ages i n c r e a s e d and s u b s t a n t i a l p r o f i t s w e re
made in s e l e c t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e econom y. F o r many, t h e d i s a s t e r
" g a v e u s b a c k o u r f r e e a g e n c y " an d p r o v i d e d t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n w h ic h i t
was p o s s i b l e t o make m a jo r l i f e c h a n g e s .

W e 'r e s e t now. What t h e f l o o d d i d i s i t sh o o k u s l o o s e , you

know. Once I s t o p p e d t r y i n g t o r e s u r r e c t t h e p a s t ; o n ce I
l e t g o , I was a b l e t o s t a r t r e a l l y r e b u i l d i n g o u r l i v e s t o ­
g e th e r. I mean i t was a v e r y t r a u m a t i c t h i n g , a n d I ' m n o t
gonna p u t t h a t down a t a l l . I mean, i t was j u s t , w e l l , t h e r e ' s
n e v e r b e e n a n y t h i n g q u i t e so h o r r i b l e f o r u s . B ut a f t e r
t h e f l o o d , i t was s o r t a l i k e a r e a l b o o t in t h e r e a r - e n d t o
g e t me g o i n ' . I was s e t t i n ' i n t h i s j o b t h a t w a s n ' t g o i n '
a n y p l a c e . . . . I t was h a r d l i v i n g t h a t w ay. We w e r e s c r a p i n g
t o g e t b y . B ut i n a s e n s e , i t was c o m f o r t a b l e . You knew
w h a t t h e n e x t day h e l d . . . . B u t , a f t e r t h e f l o o d , I s t a r t e d
t a k i n ' w h at I t h o u g h t was a few c h a n c e s on d i f f e r e n t t y p e s
o f j o b s and r e a l l y t r y i n ' t o go s o m e p l a c e . And, a s a r e s u l t ,
I now h a v e a r e a l l y goo d j o b . . . . T u r n e d t h i n g s a r o u n d f o r u s .

The e a r l i e r s e n s e o f o p t i m i s m a n d t h e p r e v a i l i n g e t h i c t o " r e ­
b u i l d b i g g e r and b e t t e r " was i n many r e s p e c t s , s u p p o r t e d by a p e r i o d
o f e c o n o m ic g ro w th and p r o s p e r i t y . P erh ap s, th e se c o n d itio n s acco u n t
f o r t h e c h a n g e in c o n s u m p ti o n p a t t e r n s and f o r w h a t some c r i t i c a l r e ­
s i d e n t s s e e a s t h e " f o o l i s h d e s i r e t o h a v e y o u r d re a m h o u s e " . At
a n y r a t e , many r e s i d e n t s h a d a c h i e v e d a s t a n d a r d o f a f f l u e n c e t h a t was
d i f f i c u l t t o s u s t a i n , g i v e n t h e wage s t r u c t u r e o f t h e v a l l e y .
 152

R i g h t now I 'm j u s t p r a y i n g t o H e a v e n ly F a t h e r t h a t I can

keep t h i s house. B efo re t h e flo o d » I p a id a b o u t $ 1 2 0 ,0 0 a
y ear in ta x e s. T h i s y e a r I p a i d , u h , $ 4 8 0 . 0 0 . I f i t was
j u s t t h e t a x e s , I c o u l d manage b u t $ 6 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 a y e a r d o e s n ' t
go v e r y f a r w i t h t h e p r i c e o f e v e r y t h i n g g o i n g u p . Seems
l i k e t h e o n l y t h i n g t h a t d i d n ' t go up a f t e r t h e f l o o d i s o u r
w a g e s . . . . I d o n ' t know w h a t t o do b e c a u s e t h e h o u s e s a r e n ' t
s e l l i n g on t h e m a r k e t . T h e r e ' s l o t s o f them f o r s a l e b u t t h e
h o u s e s a r e a l l so e x p e n s i v e now a n d p e o p l e j u s t c a n ' t a f f o r d
them. . . . P e o p l e ' s w ag es a r o u n d h e r e a r e n ' t v e r y h i g h you
know. I p r o b a b l y c o u l d n ' t b u y a c h e a p e r one and r e n t s a r e
h i g h e r t h a n my h o u s e p a y m e n ts . I d o n ' t know w h a t I 'm g o in g
to d o .

The p e r i o d o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e s i g n a l e d a r e t u r n t c t h e more t y p i ­
c a l c o n c e r n s and s t r u g g l e s o f e v e r y d a y l i v i n g . As one r e s i d e n t d e ­
s c r i b e s i t , " th e w o rld g o t b i g g e r a g a in " . But th e r e b u i ld i n g p ro c e s s
had i n t r o d u c e d new c o n c e r n s and e l e m e n t s i n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . A l­
th o u g h w o r r i e s o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a r e c e s s i o n w e re e x p r e s s e d on a
n a t i o n a l s c a l e , t h i s i s s u e had a h e i g h t e n e d s e n s e o f u r g e n c y i n t h e
d is a s te r area. The b u i l d i n g boom h a d s t a r t e d i t s d e c l i n e in t h e w in ­
t e r o f 1977 and by t h e summer o f 1978 d i s a s t e r l o s s e s h a d b e e n r e ­
p l a c e d , new c o n s t r u c t i o n c e a s e d , c o n su m e r s p e n d i n g came t o a h a l t and
t h e l o c a l economy h a d slu m p e d i n t o a r e c e s s i o n . The c o s t o f l i v i n g
c o n t i n u e d t o i n c r e a s e , p r o p e r t y t a x e s i n c r e a s e d , a n d r e s i d e n t s w e re
b e g i n n i n g t o w ond er i f t h e p r o s p e r i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e w i n d f a l l o f
d i s a s t e r money m ig h t h a v e d i r e e c o n o m ic c o n s e q u e n c e s o v e r t h e lo n g
term .

Summary

The d i a g r a m b e lo w , f i g u r e 2 1 , s u m m a r iz e s t h e m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d
in t h i s c h a p t e r . I t o u t l i n e s t h e a f t e r m a t h o f d i s a s t e r sho w in g t h e
t h r e e phases o f th e r e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s , the p ro g re s s o f r e c o n s tr u c tio n
as a c o l l e c t i v e phenomenon and t h e s o c i a l l y o r g a n i z e d c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t
w ere o p e r a t i v e d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d u n d e r s t u d y .

The f i r s t p h a s e , l a s t i n g r o u g h l y two a n d a h a l f t o t h r e e m o n th s ,
is c h a r a c t e r i z e d e s s e n t i a l l y by u n c e r t a i n t y . The c a s c a d e o f e x i s t e n ­
t i a l p r o b le m s l e f t i n t h e wake o f t h e f l o o d w e re o f a m a g n i t u d e t h a t
f a r s u r p a s s e d t h e r e s o u r c e s and e n e r g i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l r e s i d e n t s and
t h e i r f a m i l i e s and t h e u n d e r l y i n g s e n s e o f e c o n o m ic u n c e r t a i n t y was
m a g n i f i e d b y a s e n s e o f f u t i l i t y and h e l p l e s s n e s s . P a ra d o x ic a lly ,
t h i s was a l s o a p e r i o d o f o p t i m i s m a n d r e a s s u r a n c e e n g e n d e r e d by i n ­
f o r m a l and f o r m a l s o u r c e s o f m a t e r i a l a n d s o c i a l s u p p o r t . In p a r t i ­
c u l a r , t h e c o n j o i n t e f f o r t s a n d c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f power on t h e p a r t o f
t h e LDS C h u rc h and C o u n ty G o v ernm en t r e s u l t e d i n t h e r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t
o f t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p r e - d i s a s t e r c o n t e x t . The LDS
s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e tr a n s c e n d e d th e s p a t i a l d i s o r d e r c r e a t e d by th e
Unce r t a i n t y Transcendence

B u i l d i n g B n n iii

1976 1977 1978

LDS C h u r c h

C o u n t y Government

Interfaith ___

HUD 6 1% _69,%
( trailers vacated)

BOR 25% 50% 75%

(p ay m en ts r e c e i v e d )

Ln
w
F i g u r e 21 A fterm ath of D is a s te r ; T he R e b u i l d i n g P r o c e s s
 154

d i s a s t e r a n d i m m e d i a t e l y r e i n s t i t u t e d a p a t t e r n o f a c t i v i t y and mean­
in g c o n s t r a i n e d by t h e w ard s y s t e m . The c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e C hurch
and C ounty G overnm ent w e re m ost i n t e n s e l y e x p e r i e n c e d d u r i n g t h i s e a r ­
l y p e r i o d a l t h o u g h t h e r e was some c o n t i n u a t i o n o f d i s a s t e r - s p e c i f i c
i n v o lv e m e n t i n t o t h e e a r l y p a r t o f 1977. T h e r e a f t e r , t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s
r e m a in e d i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e r e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s .

T h i s was a l s o a p e r i o d o f r a p i d c h a n g e a n d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
f e d e r a l l y s p o n s o r e d d i s a s t e r w e l f a r e p r o g r a m s . T h e s e new e l e m e n t s i n
t h e s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t b r o u g h t an a l m o s t i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e s e t o f new
r u l e s and p r o c e d u r e s , c o n f u s i o n an d m ost i m p o r t a n t l y , money w h ic h p r o ­
v i d e d t h e g ro u n d s f o r h o p e .

The s e c o n d p h a s e , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e o b s t a c l e s w h ic h r e b u i l d i n g
p o s e d , l a s t e d r o u g h l y f o u r t e e n m o n th s . I t s h o u ld b e n o t e d t h a t t h e
LDS C h urch o r g a n i z a t i o n and d o c t r i n e c o n t i n u e s to p r o v i d e t h e o v e r ­
a r c h i n g s t r u c t u r e w h ic h g i v e s m e a n in g to d a i l y l i f e . H ow ever, t h e s e
a r e n o t , f o r t h e m o st p a r t , p r o b l e m a t i c a s p e c t s i n l i v i n g . The p r o ­
ble m s o f r e b u i l d i n g a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s o u r c e s o f h e l p — HUD a n d
t h e BOR—w h ic h a r e m o st p r o m i n e n t i n t h i s p h a s e . Many o f t h e p r o b le m s
in l i v i n g and i n r e b u i l d i n g s te m from t h e c o n f i n e m e n t o f l i v i n g in
t r a i l e r s a n d from t h e r i g i d i t y o f t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c m anagement o f d i ­
s a s t e r c o m p e n s a t i o n . A d d i t i o n a l l y , p r o b le m s a r i s e from t h e l a c k o f
c o n s t r a i n t s on t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y .

T h i s i s a p e r i o d when I n t e r f a i t h , i n p a r t i c u l a r , em e rg e d a s an
im p o rtan t s o c i a l r e s o u r c e . T hey w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s t r u m e n t a l in
g u id in g r e s i d e n t s th ro u g h th e ard u o u s ta s k of p r e p a r in g , s u b m ittin g
and a p p e a l i n g c l a i m s t o r e c e i v e r e s t i t u t i o n f o r l o s s e s .

As a c o l l e c t i v e phenom enon, t h e p h a se te rm e d o b s t a c l e s , e n d s a -
ro und O c t o b e r o f 1 977. L ik e a l l c u t - o f f p o i n t s , t h i s i s a n a r b i t r a r y
d e s i g n a t i o n b u t i t seems r e a s o n a b l e i n v ie w o f t h e f a c t t h a t r o u g h l y
69 p e r c e n t o f t r a i l e r o c c u p a n t s h a d r e s e t t l e d i n p r i v a t e homes and
more t h a n 75 p e r c e n t o f a l l f l o o d c l a i m s had b e e n p r o c e s s e d .

T h i s s e c o n d p h a s e r e p r e s e n t s t h e p e r i o d i n w h ic h m a t e r i a l c o n ­
s t r u c t i o n was m o st h e a v i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d an d " o u t s i d e r s " w e r e m ost v i ­
sib le . A lth o u g h i t i s a p e r i o d o f o b s t a c l e s , i t i s a l s o a p e r i o d o f
p r o s p e r i t y and g r o w t h . C o n stru c tio n a c t i v i t y le v e ls o f f d u rin g th e
r a t h e r s e v e r e w i n t e r o f 1978, i n c r e a s e s s l i g h t l y o v e r t h e summer a n d
plummets i n t h e f a l l o f t h a t y e a r . The a c t i v i t y i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
i n d u s t r y r e f l e c t s , f a i r l y c l o s e l y , t h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n i n t h e economy
as a w h o l e .

P a r a d o x i c a l l y , s o c i a l l i f e d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d i s b o t h p r i v a t e and
p u b lic . I t i s p r i v a t e in t h e s e n s e t h a t a l l e n e r g i e s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d
on i n d i v i d u a l e f f o r t s t o r e e s t a b l i s h n o r m a lc y to f a m i l i a l l i f e . I t is
a l s o p r i v a t e in th e se n s e o f b e in g c o n fin e d w i t h i n th e c o n s t r a i n t s o f
15 X 50 f o o t w a l l s and i n f l e x i b l e r u l e s . N o n e th e le s s , i t i s a l s o pub­
l i c i n t h a t s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s a r e s h a r e d by t h e m a j o r i t y o f v a l l e y
r e s i d e n t s a f f e c t e d by t h e f l o o d . I t is a lso p u b lic in th e sense th a t
 155

o f f i c i a l a u t h o r i t i e s seem ing ly have th e r i g h t to i n tr u d e i n t o th e p r i ­

v a c y o f t h e home on t h e p r e t e x t o f o f f i c i a l b u s i n e s s .

T h i s p h a s e seems t o b e t h e p e r i o d when " c a s u a l t i e s " o f t h e f l o o d

are c r e a t e d as a consequence o f th e s o c i a l l y o rg a n iz e d re sp o n se to d i ­
sa ste r, The l o s s e s i n c u r r e d fro m t h e f l o o d i t s e l f a r e m i n i m iz e d b y
th e f a c t t h a t th e y a r e e x p e r i e n c e d by " e v e r y b o d y " an d b y t h e p r e s e n c e
of s o c i a l p ro c e sse s d esig n ed to m itig a te t h e i r e f f e c t s . L osses in ­
c u rre d as a consequence o f th e reco v ery p ro cess a re in d iv id u a l lo s s e s
f o r w h ic h t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t f a i l s t o p r o v i d e r e m e d i a l a c t i o n . The
same s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s w h ic h p r o m o te r e c o v e r y f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f r e s i ­
d e n t s a l s o s e r v e t o d i s a d v a n t a g e o t h e r s a n d t r a p them i n a " h o l d i n g "
p a t t e r n w h ic h p r e c l u d e s them fro m a d v a n c i n g t o t h e p h a s e o f t r a n s c e n ­
dence .

T ra n sc e n d e n c e , th e f i n a l s t a g e o f th e r e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s , r e p r e ­
s e n t s t h e p e r i o d i n w h ic h t h e o b s t a c l e s o f r e b u i l d i n g a r e o v e rc o m e .
The p a s t , t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f l i f e w h ic h e x i s t e d p r i o r t o t h e f l o o d , c a n
n ev er be r e s u r r e c t e d . F a m ily a n d com m unity l i f e a r e n e v e r t h e same
a g a i n b u t a new s e n s e o f r o u t i n e an d o r d e r a r e r e f a s h i o n e d o u t o f a
c o m b i n a t i o n o f p r e - d i s a s t e r an d d i s a s t e r e l e m e n t s .

The e c o n o m ic p r o s p e r i t y , o r t h e i l l u s i o n o f p r o s p e r i t y , e v i d e n t
in t h e p r e c e d i n g p h a s e i s c h a l l e n g e d w i t h t h e more t y p i c a l s t r u g g l e s
o f m a k in g e n d s m e e t . By n e c e s s i t y , and s o m e tim e s a s a r e s u l t o f e x ­
c e s s i v e co n su m p tio n , r e s i d e n t s a r e faced w ith a s ta n d a rd of l i v i n g
t h a t becom es p r o b l e m a t i c t o s u s t a i n i n v ie w o f a wage s t r u c t u r e t h a t
is fu n d a m e n ta lly unchanged.

I n t h i s p h a s e , t h e s a l i e n c e o f t h e d i s a s t e r and i t s e f f e c t s , r e ­
c e d e s i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d a s a p a r t o f o n e ' s p e r s o n a l and f a m i l i a l
h isto ry . O th e r a s p e c t s o f " t h e s o c i a l w o r ld " — m is s io n a r y w ork, s ta k e
c o n f e r e n c e s , v a c a t i o n s , c u r r e n t e v e n t s an d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s — r e -
em erg e a s i s s u e s o f i n t e r e s t an d c o n c e r n . Many o f t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s
and c o n f l i c t s t y p i c a l o f s o c i a l l i f e becom e, o nce a g a i n , p r o b l e m a t i c
fe a tu re s of d a ily liv in g . To some d e g r e e , t h e s e n s e o f c l o s e n e s s b e ­
tw een f a m i l y a n d f r i e n d s r e m a i n s a l t h o u g h new d i v i s i v e e l e m e n t s a r e
in te rw o v e n i n t o th e b r o a d e r p a t t e r n o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
 156

NOTES TO CHAPTER 6

1. S t a n d a r d J o u r n a l , J u n e 1 0 , 1976.

2. In a d d i t i o n to t h e m e a ls w h ic h w e re s e r v e d i n t h e c a f e t e r i a ,
lu n ch boxes w e re a l s o p r e p a r e d f o r r e s i d e n t s t o t a k e w i t h them t o
t h e i r homes e a c h m o r n in g when t h e y w ent to w ork. O u ts id e w o rk e rs
who came i n t o t h e a r e a t o h e l p w e re a l s o f e d a t R i c k s C o l l e g e u n ­
t i l p r i v a t e r e s t a u r a n t s w e re a b l e t o r e o p e n .

3. Many s e r v i c e s w e r e p r o v i d e d f o r v a l l e y r e s i d e n t s i n c l u d i n g c h i l d
care, f i r s t a i d , m o v i e s , an d o t h e r fo rm s o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t .

4. Only one P r o p h e t h a d e v e r v i s i t e d t h e U pper Snake R i v e r V a l l e y

b e f o r e a n d t h a t was P r e s i d e n t T a y l o r who came t o s u r v e y t h e a r e a
as a s i t e f o r c o l o n i z a t i o n .

5. The F i r s t P r e s i d e n c y s e n t a l e t t e r t o t h e S t a k e P r e s i d e n t s and
B i s h o p s , d a t e d J u n e 15, 1 976. T h i s l e t t e r b a s i c a l l y , r e p e a t s t h e
same m e s s a g e a n d r e q u e s t s t h a t b i s h o p s i n f o r m t h e m em bership o f
t h e C h u r c h 's p o s i t i o n a g a i n on t h e f o l l o w i n g S u n d a y .

6. A f a i r l y co m p reh en siv e, a lth o u g h n o t e x h a u s tiv e , l i s t of th e v a r ­

io u s o u t s i d e a g e n c i e s in v o lv e d in th e d i s a s t e r r e s p o n s e a p p e a rs
i n A p p e n d ix E.

7. T h i s was a p e r i o d i n w h ic h many fo rm s o f a i d a n d s u p p o r t w e re d o ­
n ated . F o r e x a m p le , t h e F i r e D e p a r tm e n t o f a n e a r - b y c i t y s e n t
t h e i r f i r e t r u c k s t o c l e a n t h e mud f ro m t h e s t r e e t s , a c i t y i n
M ontana d e c l a r e d i t s e l f a " s i s t e r " c i t y and s p o n s o r e d a d r i v e f o r
money and c l o t h i n g , a n e a r - b y c i t y s e n t t h e i r f l o a t s so t h a t t h e
f lo o d r e s i d e n t s c o u ld c e l e b r a t e J u l y 2 4 th ( t h e day th e p io n e e r s
s e t t l e d in t h e w e s t ) w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p a r a d e ; one man b a k e d a
h u g e b i c e n t e n n i a l c a k e f o r t h e r e s i d e n t s who w e r e s h e l t e r e d a t
R i c k s C o l l e g e ; p r i v a t e b u s i n e s s e s s e n t in t r u c k l o a d s o f g o o d s ;
a n d v a r i o u s w a r d s p l a y e d h o s t t o a d i s a s t e r w ard w i t h a p o t l u c k
supper.
 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

T h is r e s e a r c h r e p o r t c o n c lu d e s w ith a d i s c u s s i o n of t h r e e g e n e r a l
to p ic s. F i r s t , t h e m a j o r f i n d i n g s o f t h e c a s e s t u d y a r e s u m m a r iz e d .
S econ d, t n e g e n e r a l i s s u e s r a i s e d e a r l i e r l a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e m edi­
c a l m etap h o r a re reexam ined i n l i g h t o f th e f i n d i n g s g e n e r a te d by t h i s
stu d y . F i n a l l y , th e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f th e stu d y a r e d is c u s s e d .

Summary o f F i n d i n g s

From t h e o f f i c i a l LDS p o i n t o f v i e w , J u n e 5 , 1 9 7 6 , r e p r e s e n t s a
day o f h i s t o r i c a l p r o p o r t i o n s a n d , i n t h i s c o n t e x t i n p a r t i c u l a r , a
day t h a t h a s o v e r t o n e s o f b i b l i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . A lth o u g h t h e dam
b r e a k i s v ie w e d a s a man-made d i s a s t e r , t e s t i m o n y t o t h e I m p e r f e c t i o n s
o f human t e c h n o l o g y a n d human i n s t i t u t i o n s , i t i s a l s o v ie w e d a s a
" t e s t " p u t b e f o r e t h e S a i n t s a s p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e Arm ageddon. As
s u c h , i t s e r v e s a s a r e m i n d e r t h a t t h e Kingdom o f God, a s y e t incom­
p l e t e , r e q u i r e s r e n e w e d com mitment a n d d e v o t i o n . N o n e th e le s s , th e
e v e n t s o f t h e s u c c e e d i n g m o n th s and y e a r s s i n c e t h e f l o o d a r e a l s o
i n t e r p r e t e d a s t e s t i m o n y t o t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e Mormon way o f l i f e ,
t h e s p i r i t o f t h e S a i n t s and t h e t r u t h o f t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l s t r u c t u r e .
In t h i s r e s p e c t , t h e o f f i c i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n n e c t s t h e d i s a s t e r and
th e a f t e r m a t h to th e l a r g e r o v e r a r c h in g s o c i o - r e l l g l o u s c o n t e x t of
m ean in g .

From a common s e n s e p e r s p e c t i v e , J u n e 5 , 1 9 7 6 , i s rem em bered v a r ­

i o u s l y a s a n i g h t m a r e , an i n c r e d i b l e e x p e r i e n c e , a n u n f o r g e t t a b l e d a y ,
a s h o c k , and a day o f u t t e r d e s t r u c t i o n . The e v e n t s o f t h a t day a r e
s t i l l , a l m o s t t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , rem em b ered w i t h d e t a i l o f a m a z in g
e x a c t i t u d e and v i v i d Im agery t h a t c o n t i n u e s to evoke s t r o n g e m o tio n s .
J u n e 5 t h i s rem em b ered a s a d a y o f t h e p a s t , a d a y t h a t p r o d u c e d a n
a f t e r m a t h o f a v a s t num ber a n d a r r a y o f e x i s t e n t i a l p r o b le m s which
c h a lle n g e d th e s t r e n g t h , t e n a c i t y , and courage o f v a lle y r e s i d e n t s .

I n t h e e a r l y a f t e r m a t h o f d i s a s t e r , t h e r e was a g r e a t d e a l o f
s p e c u l a t i o n an d c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e l o n g - t e r m a f f e c t s an d t h e s o c i a l -
p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o s ts o f th e f lo o d . The m a t e r i a l d e s t r u c t i o n and s o c i a l
d i s r u p t i o n w as o f s u c h a m a g n i t u d e t h a t some p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s s u s p e c t e d
t h a t p s y c h o l o g i c a l t r a u m a , o f n e c e s s i t y , w ould s u r f a c e i n t h e form o f

157
 158

w i d e s p r e a d p e r s o n a l d i s a b i l i t y an d s o c i a l d e v i a n c e . T h is v ie w , b ased
upon a p r e s u m p t i o n o f i l l n e s s o r m e n t a l h e a l t h e m e r g e n c i e s , r e p r e s e n t s
an o r i e n t a t i o n t h a t i s d o m i n a n t i n t h e s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y o r i e n t e d
d isa ste r lite r a tu r e .

The s p e c i f i c e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e , p e r s o n a l l y d e b i ­
l i t a t i n g and s o c i a l l y d e v i a n t c o n d u c t, p r e d i c a t e d on t h e a s s u m p tiv e
fram ew ork o f t h e m e d i c a l m e t a p h o r , w e re r e v i e w e d . O ffic ia l s t a t i s t i c s ,
g a th e re d o v e r a p e r io d o f t w o - a n d - a - h a l f t o t h r e e y e a r s p r e - and p o s t ­
d i s a s t e r , w e re e x a m in e d . I t was fo u n d t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n s ,
t h e r e was no o b s e r v a b l e i n c r e a s e i n o f f i c i a l l y d e t e c t e d c a s e s o f t h e
fo llo w in g ty p e: 1) a d m i s s i o n t o p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l ; 2) c o m p l a i n t s
to p o l i c e f o r " s t r a n g e , b i z a r r e o r m e n ta l b e h a v io r " ; 3) s u s p e c t e d s u i ­
cid e; 4) a lc o h o l s a le s ; 5) p o l i c e r e p o r t s o f d o m e s t i c c a l l s ;
6) c h i l d a b u s e ; o r 7) d i v o r c e . A lt h o u g h t h e r e was no d i s c e r n i b l e i n ­
c re a se , th e p a tte r n of o f f i c i a l d e te c tio n i s i n t e r e s t i n g . W ith few
e x c e p t i o n s , t h e im m e d ia te a f t e r m a t h o f d i s a s t e r shows a g e n e r a l d e p r e s ­
s i o n f o l l o w e d by r e t u r n t o n o r m a l a c t i v i t y b e tw e e n t w e l v e t o e i g h t e e n
m o n th s f o l l o w i n g i m p a c t .

The o f f i c i a l d a t a c o n c e r n i n g l e g a l d e v i a n c e i s a l i t t l e more com­

p l i c a t e d a l t h o u g h g e n e r a l l y , t h e r e i s no c o m p e l l i n g e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t
an i n c r e a s e . T h e r e i s no i n c r e a s e i n r e p o r t e d o f f e n s e s o r c o m p l a i n t s
to p o l i c e i n th e a f te r m a th o f th e f lo o d . How ever, t h e r e i s a n i n c r e a s e
i n p o l i c e a r r e s t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y s u b s t a n c e a b u s e r e l a t e d a r r e s t s , and
t h i s i n c r e a s e , c o n s i s t e n t w ith e x p e c t a t i o n s , o c c u rs im m ed iately a f t e r
im p a c t a n d i s s u s t a i n e d f o r o n e - a n d - a - h a l f t o two y e a r s p o s t - d i s a s t e r .
The w e i g h t o f t h e e v i d e n c e seem s t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s i n c r e a s e i s
a t t r i b u t a b l e t o an i n f l u x o f o u t s i d e w o r k e r s and i n c r e a s e d p o l i c e s u r ­
v e illa n c e .

T h e r e w e r e a n um ber o f c r i s i s e p i s o d e s t r e a t e d on a n o u t - p a t i e n t
b a s i s by t h e d i s a s t e r m e n t a l h e a l t h te a m , a l t h o u g h t h e num ber f a i l e d
to reach ex p ected p r o p o r tio n s . As a g e n e r a l r u l e , t h e s e v e r i t y and
d u r a t i o n o f t h e d e t e c t e d c r i s e s seemed t o be o f a r e l a t i v e l y m in o r a n d
sh o rt-te rm n a tu re . In f a c t , b e f o r e th e end o f th e f i r s t y e a r o f th e
a f t e r m a t h , t h e c r i s i s tea m c o n c l u d e d t h a t " t h e v i c t i m s w i l l e f f e c t i v e ­
ly re c o v e r."

The t y p i f i c a t i o n o f d i s a s t e r a f t e r m a t h a s a p e r i o d c h a r a c t e r i z e d
b y p s y c h o l o g i c a l craum a a l o n g t h e l i n e s e x p e c t e d by m e n t a l h e a l t h
p r o f e s s i o n a l s a p p e a rs to have been a m is c o n c e p tio n . From t h e p e r s p e c ­
t i v e o f v a l l e y r e s i d e n t s , a t l e a s t , th e flo o d a fte rm a th i s m ost accu­
r a te ly c h a ra c te riz e d as a p erio d of re b u ild in g . In a p r a c tic a l sense,
t h e c o n c e r n s and d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s o f r e s i d e n t s w e r e o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d
r e s t o r i n g a s e n s e o f o r d e r and c o h e r e n c e t o d a i l y l i f e . The s i n g l e
g o a l i n r e s t o r i n g o r d e r , i n p e r s o n a l an d s o c i a l t e r m s , was t o r e b u i l d
t h e l i v e s , t h e homes a n d t h e c o m m u n it ie s t h a t h a d b e e n damaged by t h e
flo o d w a te r s .
 159

One o f t h e m o s t n o t a b l e f e a t u r e s o f t h e d i s a s t e r a n d i t s a f t e r -
m ath i s t h a t i t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a c o l l e c t i v e phenom enon. E v e r y o n e i n
t h e v a l l e y , i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , was a f f e c t e d by t h e f l o o d . F o r some,
t h e p e r s o n a l and f a m i l y l o s s e s w ere a l m o s t t o t a l , o t h e r s w e r e a f f e c t e d
o n l y i n d i r e c t l y by t h e l o s s e s o f i m m e d ia te f a m i l y o r f r i e n d s , some temr-
p o r a r i l y l o s t t h e i r j o b s , o t h e r s became i n v o l v e d o n l y i n p r o v i d i n g
a s s i s t a n c e , and a l l w e re a f f e c t e d by t h e d i s r u p t i o n t o t h e p a t t e r n e d
f l o w o f g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s w h ic h c h a r a c t e r i z e c om m unity l i f e . There
w e re r e l a t i v e l y few d e a t h s o r i n j u r i e s c a u s e d by t h e f l o o d and c o n s e ­
q u e n tly , th e n etw o rk o f p rim a ry o r i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s tra n s c e n d e d th e
p h y sical d iso rd e r. M o re o v e r, t h e LDS s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , b a s e d fundam en­
t a l l y on t h e w ard s y s t e m , was q u i c k l y r e i n s t i t u t e d and r e s t o r e d a s e n s e
o f o r d e r and u n i t y b a s e d upon a p a t t e r n o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t
was f a m i l i a r and p r e d i c t a b l e . A d d ito n a lly , a v a r ie ty of s o c ia l o rg a n i­
z a t i o n s a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , f e d e r a l a g e n c i e s , c o n v e r g e d on t h e d i s a s t e r
a r e a w ith r e s o u r c e s to a id in th e p ro c e s s o f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n .

T h r e e a n a l y t i c a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e p h a s e s e m e rg ed fro m a n a n a l y s i s
o f th e a c c o u n ts to p ro v id e a p a t t e r n to th e r e b u ild in g e x p e rie n c e .
Each p h a s e was d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a s e t o f e x i s t e n t i a l p r o b le m s and c o n ­
t r a d i c t i o n s , by t h e dom inance o f a p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e o f t h e s o c i a l l y
o r g a n i z e d c o n t e x t , and by t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e r e b u i l d i n g e f f o r t a s a
c o l l e c t i v e background f e a t u r e .

The f i r s t p h a s e , u n c e r t a i n t y , was c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y eco n o m ic u n c e r ­

t a i n t y a n d a p a r a m o u n t c o n c e r n f o r t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e p a s t and f u ­
tu re . S o c i a l p r o c e s s e s e n g e n d e r e d a s e n s e o f o p t i m i s m , a s s u r a n c e , and
s e l f - r e l i a n c e , b u t t h e g r im r e a l i t y o f m a t e r i a l c o n d i t i o n s e n g e n d e r e d a
s e n s e o f f u t i l i t y , f a t i g u e , and h e l p l e s s n e s s . The r e m e d i e s , embedded
i n t h e s o c i a l l y s t r u c t u r e d c o n t e x t , a r r i v e d i n s e v e r a l f o r m s . The
t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f t h e LDS s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e p r o v i d e d a s e n s e o f o r d e r ,
m e a n in g , and c o n t i n u i t y w i t h t h e p a s t . Money, a p p r o p r i a t e d b y C o n g r e s s
f o r f u l l r e s t i t u t i o n , p ro v id e d th e w a rra n t f o r hope. Labor and m a te r­
i a l s v o l u n t e e r e d from a v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s m arked t h e a r r i v a l o f h e l p
t o d e a l w i t h t h e e n o r m i t y o f t h e t a s k s w h ic h t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e
p re s e n t posed. T h i s p e r i o d w a s , s e e m i n g l y , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n t e n s e
e m o t i o n a l h i g h s a n d low s and b y a d e g r e e o f t o l e r a n c e and s u p p o r t f o r
w ide v a r i a t i o n s . I t was a l s o a p e r i o d o f r a p i d c h a n g e a n d c o n f u s i o n a s
new s o c i a l fo rm s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n w e re i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e com munity
co n tex t.

The s e c o n d p h a s e , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e o b s t a c l e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e
r e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s , l a s t e d r o u g h l y f o u r t e e n m o n t h s . F o r some i n d i v i d ­
u a l s who w e re f o r t u n a t e enough t o bu y a home on t h e m a r k e t a n d s u b m it a
c l a i m e a r l y , t h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s may h a v e b e e n t r u n c a t e d o v e r t h r e e
m o n th s . At t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e , r o u g h l y t h i r t y p e r c e n t e x p e r i e n c e d t h i s
se c o n d s t a g e f o r m ore t h a n f o u r t e e n m o n th s and f o r r o u g h l y f i v e t o t e n
p e r c e n t , t h i s s t a g e e x t e n d e d b e y o n d two y e a r s . B u t, t h e t y p i c a l l e n g t h
o f t h i s s t a g e w as a r o u n d f o u r t e e n m o n th s .
 160

T h i s s t a g e was d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a s e n s e o f e c o n o m ic p r o s p e r i t y o r
s e c u r i t y an d a r e t u r n t o a m ore i n d i v i d u a l and p r i v a t e l i f e w i t h i n t h e
c o n t e x t o f a t e m p o r a r y home. What i s i n t e r e s t i n g a b o u t t h i s s t a g e i s
t h a t t h e s o c i a l f o r c e s o rg a n iz e d to p r o v id e a s s i s t a n c e i n th e re c o v e ry
e f f o r t w ere s im u lta n e o u s ly t h e s o u r c e o f f u r t h e r o b s t a c l e s . Among t h e
o u t s i d e r s who c o n v e r g e d on t h e d i s a s t e r a r e a w e r e s i n c e r e w o r k e r s and
p r o f i t e e r s , v o lu n te e r s and v u l t u r e s , a l t r u i s t s and c h a r l a t a n s . The
money a n d f e d e r a l p ro g r a m s o f r e l i e f w h ic h p r o v i d e d t h e w a r r a n t f o r
hop e a n d a p r o s p e r o u s f u t u r e a l s o i m p o r t e d h i g h e r wages and i n f l a ­
tio n a ry p ro cesses. The r u l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s w h ic h w e re a t t a c h e d to
t h e d i s a s t e r p r o g r a m s w e re a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p r o m i s e o f s e l f - s u f f i ­
c i e n c y and a n e n t a n g l e m e n t o f r e d t a p e w h ic h seem ed b ey o n d t h e com pre­
h e n s i o n a n d c o n t r o l o f m any. The t e m p o r a r y h o u s i n g w h ic h a l l o w e d f o r
p r i v a c y a n d f a m i l i a l u n i t y a l s o g a v e r i s e to p u b l i c i n t r u s i o n , c o n f i n e ­
m e n t, and new f o r m s o f m a t e r i a l , p e r s o n a l , and s o c i a l d i s c o m f o r t s .
T h i s w a s , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , a p e r i o d o f e c o n o m ic s e c u r i t y , h o p e , and r e a l
p r o g r e s s a s w e l l a s a p e r i o d o f f r u s t r a t i o n , a n g e r , h a s s l e s , and a
s e n s e t h a t many f o r c e s w e r e o p e r a t i n g b e y o n d o n e ' s c o n t r o l . I t was a
p e r i o d o f new o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n w h ic h some im p ro v e d t h e i r l i f e c h a n c e s ,
and a p e r i o d i n w h ic h some w e r e d i s a d v a n t a g e d b y t h e r u l e s f o r d i s t r i ­
b u tin g d is a s te r r e l i e f . Q u e s tio n s o f j u s t i c e , e q u i t y , and p e r s o n a l
r i g h t s w ere c e n t r a l .

T h o se who w e r e d i s a d v a n t a g e d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e s o c i a l l y
o rg a n iz e d re sp o n se to d i s a s t e r w ere, i n a s e n s e , v ic tim s o f secondary
d isa ste rs. T h e se d i s a s t e r s , u n l i k e t h e f l o o d , w e r e p r i v a t e r a t h e r t h a n
c o l l e c t i v e phe n om e n a. The e x p e r i e n c e o f a s e c o n d a r y d i s a s t e r a p p e a r e d
as a p ro c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n , t h a t i s , as th e consequence o f s o c i a l
p r o c e s s e s w h ic h s i n g l e d o n e o u t f o r a p e c u l i a r h a r d s h i p d i s t i n c t from
th e t y p i c a l reco v ery e x p e rie n c e . The v i c t i m s o f t h e s e d i s a s t e r s , I
b e l i e v e , a r e more l i k e l y t o b e l e f t w i t h f e e l i n g s o f b i t t e r n e s s , r e ­
s e n tm e n t, a n g e r, d i s t r u s t and a r e a l l o s s in term s o f l i f e c h a n c e s .
The d a t a s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e v i c t i m s o f a s e c o n d a r y d i s a s t e r — i n e q u i t y
i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f d i s a s t e r money, t h e e f f e c t s o f i n f l a t i o n , o r
c o n s u m e r f r a u d , f o r e x a m p le — a r e m ore l i k e l y to b e l o c a t e d i n s o c i a l ­
l y m a r g i n a l p o s i t i o n s by v i r t u e o f a g e , m a r i t a l s t a t u s , r e l i g i o u s ,
eth n ic or so c ia l c la ss p o sitio n . D u rin g th e l a t e r p a r t o f th it, s t a g e ,
t h e d i s a s t e r was b e c om ing h i s t o r y a n d a t i r e s o m e s u b j e c t , a n d t h e v o l ­
u n t e e r d i s a s t e r - s p e c i f i c p ro g ra m s o f a s s i s t a n c e w ere d e - e s c a l a t i n g o r
h a d a l r e a d y w ith d r a w n fro m t h e s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t . In s h o r t , th e re
w e re few r e s o u r c e s o r fo r m s o f s o c i a l s u p p o r t t o w h ic h s e c o n d a r y v i c ­
t i m s c o u l d t u r n f o r a re m e d y . To some e x t e n t , t h i s c o n d i t i o n re s e m ­
b l e s a h o l d i n g p a t t e r n i n w h ic h t h e h a r d s h i p s p r e v e n t e d one fro m r e ­
c o v e r i n g f u l l y from t h e d i s a s t e r , r e l a t i v e t o m o s t members o f t h e
c o m m u n ity .

T r a n s c e n d e n c e , t h e f i n a l s t a g e , r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t a g e i n w h ic h
t h e o b s t a c l e s o f t h e p r e c e e d i n g p e r i o d a r e r e s o l v e d and a m ore r o u t i n e
an d p r e d i c t a b l e p a t t e r n o f d a i l y l i v i n g i s r e - e s t a b l i s h e d . The im p o r­
t a n t t h i n g i s t h a t l i f e a s i t was l i v e d p r i o r t o t h e d i s a s t e r w i l l
n e v e r be t h e same a g a i n . T h i s i s a l s o a p e r i o d when one h a s t h e
 161

l u x u r y t o r e f l e c t on t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e p r e c e e d i n g m o n th s a n d t o
p l a c e t h e d i s a s t e r and t h e p r o c e s s o f r e b u i l d i n g w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r p e r ­
sp ectiv e. To some d e g r e e , t h e r e i s t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t new e x p e r ­
i e n c e s , new c o m p e t e n c i e s , a n d new o p p o r t u n i t i e s r e s u l t e d fro m m e e t i n g
a s i t u a t i o n t h a t a t t i m e s se e m ed f u t i l e a n d i n s u r m o u n t a b l e . T here
a r e many e x p r e s s i o n s o f p r i d e and a s e n s e o f a l m o s t e l a t i o n a t h a v i n g
endured c o n d itio n s o f a d v e r s i t y . P e r h a p s t h e f o l l o w i n g comment c o n ­
v e y s t h i s phenom enon. "We b u i l t t h i s b a c k o u r s e l v e s . We d i d i t a l l
a lo n e . We h a d n e v e r d o n e a n y t h i n g l i k e i t b e f o r e . When we go t o bed
a t n i g h t , s o m e tim e s my h u s b a n d s a y s , ' I l o v e t h i s h o u s e . ' " B u t, a t
t h e same t i m e , t h e r e i s a s e n s e o f a m b i v a l e n c e a b o u t t h e c o s t o f t h e
" b l e s s i n g s . " T h i s i s m o st f r e q u e n t l y e x p r e s s e d a s a s e n s e o f h a v i n g
"grow n o l d e r . "

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e g r a p h s s h o w in g t h e p a t t e r n o f o f f i c i a l ­
l y d e t e c t e d c a s e s o f d e v i a n c e h a v e some r e l a t i o n t o t h e s t a g e s o f t h e
re b u ild in g p ro c e ss as o u tlin e d . The d e p r e s s i o n w h ic h a p p e a r e d i n new
a d m i s s i o n s t o p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l s , r e p o r t s o f s t r a n g e , b i z a r r e and
m e n t a l b e h a v i o r , d o m e s t i c c a l l s , s u s p e c t e d s u i c i d e , and d i v o r c e h a v e
a r o u g h c o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o t h e f i r s t two s t a g e s o f t h e r e b u i l d i n g p r o ­
cess. T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e s o c i a l c o n te x t i s g e n e r a l ly s u p p o r tiv e
and t h a t t h e f r u s t r a t i o n s a n d f e e l i n g s o f a n g e r a n d o f b e i n g h a s s l e d
a r e v ie w e d a s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e and r e a s o n a b l e w i t h i n t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f
th e s i t u a t i o n . I t w ould a p p e a r t h a t d u r i n g t h e p h a s e o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e ,
when l i f e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t a k e on t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a m o re r o u t i n e a n d
f a m i l i a r p a t t e r n , p r o b le m s become i n d i v i d u a l i z e d a n d o f f i c i a l s o l u ­
t i o n s a r e more l i k e l y t o be s o u g h t f o r e x t r e m e fo rm s o f b e h a v i o r t h a t
a r e view ed a s d i s r u p t i v e o r i n v i o l a t i o n o f s o c i a l l y s a n c tio n e d r u l e s
o f a p p r o p r ia te c o n d u ct.

G eneral Issu e s

As d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r o n e , t h e d o m in a n t o r i e n t a t i o n t o u n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g d i s a s t e r phenomena o f a s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l n a t u r e i s i n ­
fo rm e d by t h e m e d i c a l m o d e l. The a d o p t i o n o f t h e m e d i c a l m e t a p h o r and
i t s e x t e n t i o n t o t h e d i s a s t e r c o n t e x t r e s t s on a n a s s u m p t i v e fra m e w o rk
w h ic h d i r e c t s a t t e n t i o n a l o n g c e r t a i n l i n e s . The m e d i c a l m e t a p h o r
s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s i g n i f i c a n t p r o b l e m s o f d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s a r e s y m b o lic
and e m o t i o n a l i n c o n t e n t ; t h a t t h e y o c c u r i m m e d i a t e l y up on i m p a c t and
in th e e a rly a fte rm a th of d i s a s t e r ; t h a t th ey a r e lo c a te d p rim a rily in
th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l s t r u c t u r e of th e p e r s o n a l i t y ; t h a t th e y a re e x p la in ­
a b l e by r e f e r e n c e t c d i s t u r b a n c e s i n i n t e r n a l h o m e o s t a t i c m e c h a n is m s ;
and t h a t t h e re m e d y r e q u i r e s a s y m b o l i c r e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e d i s a s t e r
e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a t h e r a p e u t i c o r c o m m u n i c a tiv e m o d el
of in te rv e n tio n .

B a s ed up o n t h e d a t a g e n e r a t e d by t h i s c a s e s t u d y , t h e m e d i c a l
m e ta p h o r i s c o r r e c t i n i t s c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n in g t h e e m o tio n a l and
sy m b o lic s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i s a s t e r . I t i s a lso c o rre c t th a t v ic tim s
 162

o f d i s a s t e r f i n d a s s u r a n c e and c o m f o r t i n t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e d i s a s t e r
w ith f r i e n d s , fa m ily , n e ig h b o rs , and s t r a n g e r s . D ia lo g u e does p ro v id e
t h e s y m b o l i c medium t h r o u g h w h ic h r e s i d e n t s come t o t e r m s w i t h a n d make
s e n s e o f an e v e n t t h a t seem s u n b e l i e v a b l e . I t is a ls o th e c a se th a t
t h e e x p e r ie n c e o f d i s a s t e r im pact g i v e s r i s e t o f e e l i n g s o f h e l p l e s s ­
n e s s , h o p e l e s s n e s s , w o r r y , a n x i e t y , g r i e f , f r u s t r a t i o n , and c o n f u s i o n ,
f e e l i n g s t h a t a r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y c a te g o r iz e d under th e r u b r i c o f m en tal
h e a lth pro b lem s. T h is , how ever, a p p e a rs t o be th e e x t e n t o f t h e u t i ­
l i t y o f th e m e d ic a l m e ta p h o r.

From t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f v a l l e y r e s i d e n t s , t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t
p r o b l e m s o f d i s a s t e r a r e n o t t o r m e n t i n g m e m o rie s o f d i s a s t e r i m p a c t
w h ic h a r e c o m p u l s i v e l y r e l i v e d on a d a i l y b a s i s . The m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t
p r o b le m s a r e t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f e x i s t e n t i a l p r o b le m s w hose s o l u t i o n s
p o s e u n r e l e n t i n g dem ands o n t i m e , e n e r g y , and r e s o u r c e s . The p r o b l e m s ,
e s s e n t i a l l y p roblem s o f r e b u i l d i n g , o c c u r th ro u g h o u t t h e a f t e r m a t h o f
d isa ste r. W h ile t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f r e b u i l d i n g g i v e s r i s e t o f e e l i n g s o f
h e l p l e s s n e s s , c o n f u s i o n , f u t i l i t y , f a t i g u e , w o r r y , and f r u s t r a t i o n ,
t h e r e a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s w h ic h g i v e r i s e t o f e e l i n g s a t
th e o p p o s ite end o f th e contin u u m . The e s s e n t i a l p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d
w ith t h e d i s a s t e r a f t e r m a t h a r e l o c a t e d w i t h i n th e s o c i a l and m a t e r i a l
c o n t e x t o f d a i l y l i v i n g a n d t h e i r e x p l a n a t i o n d e r i v e s f ro m a n u n d e r ­
s ta n d in g of th e s o c i a l l y s t r u c t u r e d c o n te x t. T h e re a r e " c a s u a l t i e s , "
i f yo u w i l l , w h ic h o c c u r l a t e r i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f d i s a s t e r , a n d t h e s e
a r e p r o d u c e d , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , by t h e same c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h a c c o u n t f o r
th e re c o v e ry o f th e m a jo r ity of d i s a s t e r v ic tim s . The rem edy t o d i s a s ­
t e r - r e l a t e d p r o b l e m s t a k e s t h e fo rm o f r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l o r d e r ,
money, l a b o r , r e s o u r c e s , s i m p l i f i e d r u l e s and p r o c e d u r e s , i n f o r m a t i o n ,
l e g a l a d v i c e , and p r o t e c t i o n from e x p l o i t a t i o n .

B a s i c a l l y , t h e a s s u m p t i v e fra m e w o rk on w h ic h t h e m e d i c a l m odel
r e s t s l e a d s t o an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h ic h o b s c u r e s t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and
e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e d i s a s t e r e x p e r i e n c e and p r o c e s s o f r e c o v e r y .
The m e d i c a l i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l pheno m e n a , a s n o t e d by o t h e r s , ! h a s two
b a s i c s h o r t c o m i n g s w h ic h seem t o a c c o u n t f o r t h i s t e n d e n c y t o o b s c u r e
th e im p o rta n t f e a tu r e s o f s o c i a l e v e n ts . The a d o p t i o n o f t h e m e d i c a l
m e ta p h o r t o e x p l a i n s o c i a l c o n d u c t o v e r - p s y c h o l o g i z e s a n d d e p o l i t i c i z e s
s o c i a l phenom ena.

W ith in t h e c o n t e x t o f th e m e d ic a l a p p ro a c h , th e p ro b lem s o f d i s a s ­
t e r t e n d t o b e v ie w e d a s i n d i v i d u a l and p r i v a t e p r o b l e m s w h o se s o u r c e
i s a f f e c t i v e , c o g n itiv e , and e m o tio n a l in n a tu r e . F o r exam ple, r e c a l l
t h e c a s e o f t h e g e n t l e m a n who, h a v i n g s u b m i t t e d a c l a i m f o r $ 1 1 2 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 ,
was i n i t i a l l y o f f e r e d $ 9 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 f o r c o m p e n s a t i o n . T h i s e x p e r i e n c e l e d
to f e e lin g s o f f r u s t r a t i o n , b i t t e r n e s s , h o p e le ssn e ss, h e lp le s s n e s s ,
a n g e r , and s e l f - d o u b t . M o r e o v e r , i t i n t e r f e r e d w i t h h i s and h i s
f a m i l y ’ s a b i l i t y t o r e b u i l d i n b o t h a n e m o t i o n a l and m a t e r i a l s e n s e .
T h i s e x p e r i e n c e a l s o l e d t o a v i c i o u s c y c l e i n w h ic h t h e f a m i l y f e l t
t r a p p e d and p o w e r l e s s t o e s c a p e . From a m e n t a l h e a l t h p e r s p e c t i v e , a
s e n s e o f p o w e r l e s s n e s s , h o p e l e s s n e s s , and l o s s o f s e l f - e s t e e m a r e
c r i t i c a l e l e m e n t s i n t h e phenom enon o f c l i n i c a l d e p r e s s i o n . T he t h r u s t
 163

o f t h e m e d i c a l a p p r o a c h i s t o f o c u s on t h e e m o t i o n a l a s p e c t s , t h e r e b y
l o c a t i n g t h e s o u rc e o f t h e problem w i t h i n th e i n d i v i d u a l . The l o g i c a l
re m e d y , t h e r e f o r e , i s t o t r e a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l by h e l p i n g him o r h e r
come t o t e r m s w i t h t h e f e e l i n g s an d t o a c c e p t t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f l i f e .

What i s m i s s i n g fr o m t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e ­
tw e e n i n d i v i d u a l c o n d u c t a n d t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t . A s e n s e o f s e l f ­
e s t e e m , e f f i c a c y , and h o p e , a s o t h e r s h a v e p o i n t e d o u t , 2 d e p e n d s upon
t h e e x e r c i s e o f pow er w i t h i n a s o c i a l c o n t e x t t h a t i s a t l e a s t m i n i ­
m a l l y r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e e f f o r t s t c a c t on o n e ’ s own b e h a l f . In t h i s
c a s e , th e m is ta k e s , a r b i t r a r i n e s s , and i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s b u i l t i n t o th e
b u r e a u c r a t i c r u l e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s f o r r e s t i t u t i o n w e r e f o r c e s t h a t w e re
u n m a n a g e a b le a n d bey on d t h e c o n t r o l o f i n d i v i d u a l r e s i d e n t s .

In a d d i t i o n to o v e r - p s y c h o l o g i z i n g , th e m e d ic a l m etaphor a l s o
t e n d s to d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e and d e p o l i t i c i z e s o c i a l p henom ena. In a t t r i ­
b u t i n g t h e c a u s e o f p r o b le m s t o i m p e r s o n a l f o r c e s a n d a b s t r a c t s t r e s s ­
o r s a n d s t r a i n s , s o c i a l phenomena a r e b y d e f i n i t i o n , d i v o r c e d fro m
t h e s o c i a l - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t a n d fro m s u c h i s s u e s a s p o w e r, e q u i t y ,
j u s t i c e , a n d r i g h t s . To r e t u r n t o t h e e x a m p le a b o v e , t h e g e n tl e m a n
f e l t p o w e r l e s s t o a l t e r a c o n d i t i o n w h ic h h e f e l t was u n j u s t a n d un ­
fa ir. From h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , a t l e a s t , h i s p r o b le m was n o t a m e n t a l
h e a l t h p r o b l e m , b u t , r a t h e r , a p r o b l e m t h a t w as p o l i t i c a l and e t h i c a l
in n a tu re . From t h e c r i s i s o r t r a u m a o r i e n t a t i o n , h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
may b e s y m p to m a ti c o f a p o s t - d i s a s t e r phenom enon r e f e r r e d t o a s " p a r a ­
n o i d r e a c t i o n s to w a r d g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s . "3

By i g n o r i n g t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t a n d by f o c u s i n g o n t h e c a u s a l
p r i m a c y o f d i s a s t e r i m p a c t , t h e m e d i c a l m e ta p h o r l e a d s t o a m i s u n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f a t l e a s t some o f t h e p o s t - d i s a s t e r p r o b ­
le m s w h ic h h a v e i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s . I t also
f a i l s to r e c o g n i z e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e m o st e f f i c a c i o u s s o l u t i o n t o
some d i s a s t e r p r o b l e m s may r a s i d e i n c h a n g e s i n p u b l i c p o l i c y a n d i n
i n t e r v e n t i o n aimed a t c h a n g i n g a s p e c t s o f t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .

I m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y

T here a r e c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n s i n h e r e n t i n a l l c a s e s t u d i e s t h a t
c a u tio n a g a i n s t unw arran ted g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . T h i s c a s e s t u d y was
u n i q u e i n a t l e a s t two i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s . The p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e Up­
p e r Snake R i v e r V a l l e y i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y Mormon a n d t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n ­
is m , s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and s o c i a l c o h e s i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s
p o p u l a t i o n may w e l l a c c o u n t f o r t h e s p e e d w i t h w h ic h a s e n s e o f s o c i a l
o r d e r w as r e e s t a b l i s h e d . A l s o , t h i s d i s a s t e r waa c a u s e d by t h e f a i l ­
u r e o f a f e d e r a l l y owned dam an d t h i s l e d t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
l a r g e sums o f money w h i c h C o n g r e s s a p p r o p r i a t e d f o r t h e r e s t i t u t i o n
of flo o d l o s s e s . U n d o u b te d ly , t h e am o u n t o f money w a s , i n l a r g e p a r t ,
re sp o n sib le fo r th e r e la tiv e ly sh o rt recovery p e rio d .
 164

A l th o u g h t h e a r e a s e l e c t e d f o r f i e l d r e s e a r c h i s u n i q u e i n some
r e s p e c t s , i t i s t y p i c a l i n o t h e r s . W ith few e x c e p t i o n s , com m unity-
w id e d i s a s t e r s i n N o r t h A m e r ic a t e n d t o b e p r i m a r i l y d i s a s t e r s o f p r o p ­
e r t y damage a n d s o c i a l d i s r u p t i o n . The T e t o n Dam f a i l u r e , l i k e m ost
N o r th A m e ric a n d i s a s t e r s , was a d i s a s t e r o f p r o p e r t y damage a n d s o c i a l
d isru p tio n . S i m i l a r t o o t h e r l a r g e - s c a l e d i s a s t e r s l a r g e a m o u n ts o f
r e l i e f - - m o n e y , p e r s o n n e l a n d r e s o u r c e s - - c o n v e r g e d on t h e a r e a t o p r o ­
v id e a s s is ta n c e to flo o d v ic tim s . A ls o , l i k e o t h e r m ajo r d i s a s t e r s ,
r e s i d e n t s i n t h e p a t h o f t h e T e t o n Dam f l o o d w e r e t h e r e c i p i e n t s o f a
v a s t a r r a y o f f e d e r a l c o m p e n s a t o r y p ro g ra m s a u t h o r i z e d b y t h e D i s a s t e r
R e l i e f A ct.

T he r e s e a r c h s e t t i n g was i m p o r t a n t i n t h a t t h e r e w e re i n t e n s i v e
and e x t e n s i v e e f f o r t s by m e n ta l h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n a l s to u n c o v e r v i c ­
tim s s u f f e r i n g from p s y c h o l o g i c a l t r a u m a . I n v ie w o f t h i s e m p h a s i s ,
i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s do n o t s u p p o r t t h e e x p e c ­
t a t i o n s f o r l o n g - t e r m p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l d i s a b i l i t y p r e d i c a t e d on
t h e a s s u m p t i v e fra m e w o rk o f t h e m e d i c a l m e t a p h o r . I t seems r e a s o n a b l e
t o s u g g e s t , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h i s m e ta p h o r f a i l s t o p r o v i d e d i r e c t i o n
f o r d i s c o v e r i n g k n o w le d g e t h a t w i l l e n h a n c e o u r g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f d i s a s t e r e x p e r i e n c e a s a s o c i a l l y m e a n i n g f u l phenom enon.

T h is r e s e a r c h s u g g e s ts t h a t f u tu r e s tu d ie s o f a s o c i a l p sy ch o lo ­
g i c a l n a t u r e s h i f t th e fo c u s to in c lu d e h i s t o r i c a l and c o n t e x t u a l f e a ­
t u r e s w h ic h c o n s t r a i n a n d g i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e t o human e x p e r i e n c e . It
i s p e r h a p s i r o n i c t h a t s u g g e s t i o n s a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s w e re a f f i r m e d
t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s a g o b y two s c h o l a r s whose w o rk s w are s e m i n a l c o n t r i ­
b u t i o n s t o t h e o r i e n t a t i o n g ro u n d e d i n t h e m e d i c a l m e t a p h o r . W a lla c e
p o i n t s t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e "common maze"4, t h e c o l l e c t i v e p a t ­
t e r n o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t y an d s h a r e d m e a n in g , i n d e t e r m i n i n g b o t h th e
co n seq u en ces o f d i s a s t e r e x p e r ie n c e and th e d i r e c t i o n o f d i s a s t e r r e ­
c o v e r y . B u t, i t was T y h u r s t , a p s y c h i a t r i s t , who p l a c e d t h e e s s e n c e
o f d i s a s t e r e x p e r ie n c e w i t h i n th e l a r g e r s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t.
R e f e r r i n g t o t h e d i s a s t e r e x p e r i e n c e a s a l a c k o f c o n g r u i t y b e tw e e n
e x i s t e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n s c a u s e d b y im p a c t and t h e l a r g e r s o c i o - c u l t u r a l
map o f r e a l i t y , T y h u r s t e x p l a i n s :

We d a i l y e x p e r i e n c e c h a n g e , b u t we do so w i t h i n t h e s u p p o r t i n g
fra m e w o rk o f a c o h e r e n t s y s te m o f c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l v a l u e s ,
assum ed r o l e s , d e f i n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n s and r e s p o n s e s w h ich we
t a k e f o r g r a n t e d . We may come up a g a i n s t c h a n g i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,
b u t o u r v ie w s o f t h e w o r ld and o u r r e l a t i o n to i t a r e n o t a f ­
fected . We d e a l w i t h t h e new s i t u a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f t h e
p r e m i s e s and v a l u e s w h ic h a r e n o t q u e s t i o n e d . Change te n d s
t o be s u b j e c t i v e l y e x p e r i e n c e d m o st i n t e n s e l y when t h e p e r s o n s '
prem ises a r e c a l l e d i n t o q u e s t i o n .^

I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h i s in s i g h t le d T yhurst to re c o n c e p tu a liz e
d i s a s t e r e x p e r i e n c e from t h e c a t e g o r y o f a b n o r m a l phenomenon t o n o r m a l
o r s o c i a l phenomenon d r a w i n g on a s y n t h e s i s o f i d e a s p r e s e n t e d i n
 165

S c h ü t z ' w o rk on t h e s t r a n g e r , M a n n h e im 's c o n c e p t o f " c r i s i s i n v a l u a ­

t i o n " , P a r k ' s c o n c e p t o f t h e " m a r g i n a l m a n", W. I . Thomas' d u a l n o t i o n s
o f " c r i s i s " and " d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n " a n d t h e p a r a l l e l n o t i o n s
o f " h i t c h " an d " a s s u m p t i v e fo r m w o r l d " o f Ames a n d C a n t r i l .

T h i s r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t s t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o e x a m in in g t h e s o c i o ­
c u l t u r a l co m p le x o f m e a n in g , f u t u r e r e s e a r c h m u s t a l s o f o c u s on t h e
m a t e r i a l s u b s t r a t u m o f e c o n o m ic f o r c e s an d t h e r o l e o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l
p r o c e s s e s o f r e l i e f w h ic h a r e e x t r a n e o u s t o t h e l o c a l m i l i e u . The
u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e a f te r m a th o f d i s a s t e r and th e p ro c e ss o f re c o v e ry
r e q u i r e s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n d i s a s t e r e x p e r ­
i e n c e an d t h e l a r g e r s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t b y e x a m in in g t h e m e d i a t ­
in g in f lu e n c e s or th e f e d e r a l l y o rg a n iz e d r e s p o n s e , v o l u n ta r y p r i v a t e
o r g a n i z e d fo rm s o f r e s p o n s e , t h e p o l i t i c a l economy and i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
th e c o n stru c tio n in d u stry . I f th e e x p e r ie n c e o f r e s i d e n t s in th e
U p p e r Snake R i v e r V a l l e y i s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e r e c o v e r y p r o c e s s i n
o t h e r U, S. d i s a s t e r - s t r i c k e n co m m u n ities, th e s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s of
a i d a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e s o u r c e o f new o b s t a c l e s .

I n c o n c l u s i o n , I w o uld l i k e t o e n g a g e i n some s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t
t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e B u f f a l o C r e e k dam b r e a k t o s u g g e s t t h e p o t e n t i a l
b e n e f i t s o f e n l a r g i n g t h e s c o p e o f i n q u i r y a l o n g th e l i n e s s u g g e s t e d .
You w i l l r e c a l l t h a t t w o - a n d - a - h a l f y e a r s a f t e r t h e f l o o d , p s y c h i a ­
t r i s t s c o n c l u d e d t h a t more ch a n 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e l i t i g a n t s d i a g n o s e d ,
s t i l l s u f f e r e d from t r a u m a t i c n e u r o s i s . T h e y e x p r e s s e d s i g n s o f h e l p ­
l e s s n e s s , h o p e l e s s n e s s , a n g e r , a n x i e t y and d i s t r u s t ; f e l t t h e w o r l d
was s t r a n g e ; and h a d l o s t a s e n s e o f c o m m u n a lit y . M o r e o v e r , two y e a r s
a f t e r t h e dam b r e a k , d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s s t i l l " c o u l d n o t m o b i l i z e t h e i r
e n e r g y o r t h e c o n v i c t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o s t a b i l i z e t h e i r own l i v e s o r t o
r e b u i l d t h e c o m m u n iti e s i n w h ic h t h e y h a d i n v e s t e d s o m u c h ". The
e x p l a n a t i o n , o f c o u r s e , was t h a t t h e f l o o d e x p e r i e n c e h a d c a u s e d p s y ­
c h i c a n d c o l l e c t i v e tr a u m a w h ic h p r o d u c e d l o n g - t e r m p e r s o n a l an d s o ­
c ia l d isa b ility . I t is im p o rtan t to p o in t o ut th a t th e r e s id e n ts
w e r e n o t w a rn e d a n d a b o u t o n e h u n d r e d and t w e n t y - f i v e p e r s o n s , m o s t l y
women and c h i l d r e n , d ro w n e d . T he e x p e r i e n c e , a s d e s c r i b e d b y t h e
s u r v i v o r s , was h o r r i f y i n g a s t h e y p h y s i c a l l y s t r u g g l e d t o s u r v i v e t h e
f o r c e of th e flo o d w a te r s and w atch ed as o t h e r s in t h e i r fa m ily f a i l e d
t o s u r v i v e . T h i s t y p e o f d i s a s t e r e x p e r i e n c e a l o n e may a c c o u n t f o r
t h e r e p o r t e d c o n s e q u e n c e s a s p r e d i c t e d b y t h e m e d i c a l m o d e l. H ow ever,
t h e r e may b e o t h e r f a c t o r s t o c o n s i d e r .

F i r s t , t h e s u r v i v o r s w e r e t e m p o r a r i l y h o u s e d i n HUD t r a i l e r s b u t
u n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r u l e s f o r a s s i g n m e n t w e r e b a s e d on
a f i r S t - c o m e - f i r S t - s e r v e b a s i s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s o c i a l o r d e r and
n e i g h b o r h o o d s w h ic h w e r e m a i n t a i n e d p r e - d i s a s t e r by s e v e n t e e n communi­
t i e s a l o n g t h e h o l l o w was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i s r u p t e d . T he w o r l d w a s , in
f a c t , s t r a n g e and w i t h o u t d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e a n d f a m i l i a l c o m m u n itie s as
c consequence of s o c i a l p o lic y . S econd, th e S t a t e governm ent d e c id e d
t h a t t h i s was a good o p p o r t u n i t y to c o n s i d e r c o n s t r u c t i n g a m a jo r
h ig h w a y t h r o u g h t h e h o l l o w . U n f o r t u n a t e l y ; two y e a r s p a s s e d b e f o r e
t h e d e c i s i o n was f i n a l i z e d . To some d e g r e e , t h i s p u b l i c a c t i o n may
 166

h a v e d e l a y e d t h e d e c i s i o n o f some r e s i d e n t s t o r e b u i l d i n an e f f o r t t o
a v o i d b e i n g u p r o o t e d a se c o n d tim e when t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s w e re e x p r o ­
p r i a t e d f o r p u b lic u se . T h ir d , th e s i x hundred and tw e n ty - f iv e l i t i ­
g a n t s d i a g n o s e d w e re i n v o l v e d in l e g a l a c t i o n t o su e t h e c o a l com­
pan y f o r n e g l i g e n t an d i r r e s p o n s i b l e c o n d u c t i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
t h e dam w h ic h f a i l e d . The c o r p o r a t i o n s u c c e s s f u l l y d e l a y e d l e g a l p r o ­
c e e d i n g s f o r m ore t h a n two and a h a l f y e a r s b e f o r e t h e c a s e was f i n a l l y
s e t t l e d b e f o r e i t w ent to t r i a l . I n t h e m e a n tim e , t h e l i t i g a n t s w e re
on h o l d , w a i t i n g f o r c o m p e n s a t i o n o f dam ages w h ic h may h a v e b e e n
a w a rd e d b y t h e c o u r t s ^ t h e y w e re s u c c e s s f u l . The ju d g e m e n t on t h e
p a r t o f s u r v i v o r s t h a t t h e s i n g l e m ost i m p o r t a n t e m p lo y e r i n t h e
h o l l o w was g u i l t y o f c o r p o r a t e h o m o c id e an d t h e lo n g h i s t o r y o f e x ­
p l o i t a t i o n p r o v id e d g ro u n d s f o r d i s t r u s t and a n g e r .

I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o assum e t h a t s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e a b o v e
n a t u r e may c o n t r i b u t e to o b s t r u c t i o n s i n t h e r e c o v e r y p r o c e s s and t o
r e a l i s t i c f e e lin g s of d i s t r u s t , a n g e r, a n x ie ty , h e lp le s s n e s s , hope­
l e s s n e s s , d i s o r d e r and l a c k o f c o m m un ity. T he m ost e n l i g h t e n i n g e x ­
p l a n a t i o n f o r l o n g - t e r m " d i s a b i l i t y " may n o t be b y r e f e r e n c e t o p s y ­
c h i c o r c o l l e c t i v e " t r a u m a " . T h i s i s s p e c u l a t i o n , o f c o u r s e , and i t
d o e s n o t d i s m i s s t h e im p o r t a n c e o f t h e human m i s e r y o r h a r d s h i p im­
p o s e d by su c h c o n d i t i o n s . I t d o e s s u g g e s t , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e remedy
r e q u i r e s s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and l e g a l c h a n g e r a t h e r t h a n o r i n a d d i ­
t i o n t o c l i n i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n . What i s i m p o r t a n t i s t h a t i s s u e s o f
t h i s n a t u r e n o t b e p r e c l u d e d from e m p i r i c a l an d t h e o r e t i c a l e x a m in a ­
t i o n and from p r a c t i c a l m o d i f i c a t i o n .
 167

NOTES TO CHAPTER 7

1. Renee C. Fox, "T he M e d l c a l i z a t l o n an d D e m e d i c a l i z a t l o n o f Amer­

i c a n S o c i e t y " , D a e d a l u s , 106: 9 -2 3 ; Iv a n I l l i c h , M ed ical
N e m e sis: The E x p r o p r i a t i o n o f H e a l t h , L ondon: P a n t h e o n B o o k s ,
1976.

2. W i l l i a m R yan, " P r e v e n t i v e S e r v i c e s i n t h e S o c i a l C o n t e x t : P o w e r,
P a t h o l o g y and P r e v e n t i o n " , P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e M e n t a l H e a l t h I n ­
s t i t u t e , S a l t L ake C i t y , May 3 1 - J u n e 2 , W e s te r n I n t e r s t a t e Com­
m i s s i o n F o r H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n , B o u l d e r , C o l o r a d o , 1969; B r e w s t e r
M. S m ith , "C o m p eten ce a n d S o c i a l i z a t i o n , " i n J o h n E. C l a u s e n
( e d . ) S o c i a l i z a t i o n and S o c i e t y , L i t t l e , Brown a n d Company,
1968: 270-320.

3. C a l v i n J . F r e d e r i c k , " E f f e c t s o f N a t u r a l v s . H u m an -In d u c e d
V i o l e n c e Upon V i c t i m s " , E v a l u a t i o n and C h a n g e , S p e c i a l I s s u e ,
M in n e a p o lis , M in n eso ta: Program E v a l u a t i o n R eso u rce C e n te r ,
M i n n e a p o l i s M e d i c a l R e s e a r c h F o u n d a t i o n , I n c . , 1980 : 72.

4. A nthon y F .C . W a l l a c e , "Mazeway D i s i n t e g r a t i o n : The I n d i v i ­

d u a l ' s P e r c e p t i o n o f S o c i o - C u l t u r a l D i s o r g a n i z a t i o n " , Human
O r g a n i z a t i o n , v o l . 16, n o . 2 , 1957: 23-27.

5. J . S . T y h u r s t , "T he P o l e o f T r a n s i t i o n S t a t e s - I n c l u d i n g D i­
s a s t e r s - I n M e n t a l I l l n e s s " , Symposium on P r e v e n t i v e and S o c i a l
P s y c h i a t r y , W a l t e r Reed Army I n s t i t u t e o f R e s e a r c h , W a s h in g t o n ,
D .C ., 19 57, A p r i l 1 5 - 1 7 .
APPENDICES

168
 169

APPENDIX A

FIELD GUIDE FOR IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWING

O pen-E nded Q u e s t i o n s

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RESEARCHER: The o b j e c t i v e o f i n - d e p t h i n t e r ­

v i e w i n g i s t o i n t r o d u c e a minimum o f s t r u c t u r e i n t o t h e i n t e r v i e w
s e t t i n g t o a l l o w t h e p a r t i c i p a n t t o r e c o n s t r u c t h i s / h e r own e x p e r i ­
e n c e s f r o m h i s / h e r own p e r s p e c t i v e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e s e a r c h e r
p a r t i c i p a t e s m i n i m a l l y i n t h e d i a l o g u e m a i n t a i n i n g an a t t i t u d e o f
a c tiv e lis te n in g . To a c c o m p l i s h t h i s o b j e c t i v e , a v o i d I n t e r j e c t i n g
com m ents o r q u e s t i o n s , f o r t h i s i n t e r r u p t s t h e I n t e r n a l c o h e r e n c e
a nd f l o w o f i d e a s . Use s i l e n t p r o b e s a n d g e s t u r a l c u e s t o i n d i ­
c a t e a n a c t i v e l i s t e n i n g s ta n c e - , When n e c e s s a r y , w a i t f o r a n a t u r a l
b r e a k i n t h e f l o w and a s k f o r e l a b o r a t i o n o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n u s i n g t h e
p a r t i c i p a n t s te rm in o lo g y o r n e u t r a l p h ra s e s .

1. I t w o u ld h e l p me t o u n d e r s t a n d b e t t e r i f you w ou ld t e l l me
a l i t t l e a b o u t t h e y e a r b e f o r e t h e dam b r o k e . V?hat k i n d o f
a y e a r w as i t f o r you a n d y o u r f a m i l y , g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g ?

2. Do y o u rem em ber w h a t you w e r e d o i n g on J u n e 5 , 1 976? What

happened on t h a t day?

3. Why d o n ' t you j u s t c o n t i n u e w i t h y o u r e x p e r i e n c e s a n d g i v e me

a h i s t o r y o f w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d up t o t h e p r e s e n t ?

NOTE: As a n u m ber o f i n t e r v i e w s h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e d , i t
may become a p p a r e n t t h a t c e r t a i n t y p e s o f e v e n t s h a v e
g re a te r th e o re tic a l sig n ific a n c e . In t h i s c a se , ta k e a
m o re a c t i v e r o l e a n d f o c u s on s e l e c t i v e a s p e c t s . T h is
d e c i s i o n , h o w e v e r , w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y b e made i n t h e f i e l d .

Q u e s t i o n s E x p e c t e d To Be A nsw ered i n t h e A c c o u n t

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RESEARCHER: L i s t e n f o r t h e a n s w e r s t o t h e

fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s . I f th e answ ers a re n o t c o n ta in e d i n th e r e ­
c o n s t r u c t i o n , w a it u n t i l t h e in t e r v ie w i s co m p leted and a s k f o r t h e
a p p ro p ria te in fo rm a tio n . P l e a s e n o te w h ich , i f an y , ite m s a r e
so lic ite d .
 170

1. What w as t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t ' s h o u s e h o l d at
th e tim e o f th e d i s a s t e r ? Now?

2. How l o n g h a d t h e p a r t i c i p a n t l i v e d I n t h e c om m unity a n d I n
t h a t p a r t i c u l a r h o u seh o ld b e f o r e t h e d i s a s t e r o c c u rre d ?

3. Does t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t i l l l i v e on t h e same p r o p e r t y a s before

th e d is a s te r ?

4. D id t h e p a r t i c i p a n t h a v e a n y p r e v i o u s d i s a s t e r e x p e r i e n c e o r
preparedness tra in in g ?

5. Does t h e p a r t i c i p a n t h a v e a n y o t h e r f a m i l y m embers who l i v e d

I n t h e com m un ity a t t h e t i m e o f t h e d i s a s t e r ? How e x t e n s i v e
a r e t h e s o c i a l and f a m ily t i e s I n t h e a re a ?

6. What l o s s e s w ere I n c u r r e d a s a r e s u l t o f th e d i s a s t e r ?

7. What l o s s e s . I f a n y , w e re r e i m b u r s e d ? D id t h e r e i m b u r s e m e n t
c o v e r th e c o s t s o f rep lacem en t?

8. What I s t h e e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d o f th e p a r tic ip a n t?

9. What I s t h e o c c u p a tio n of th e p a r t i c i p a n t a n d /o r th e head o f

t h e h o u s e h o l d ? Has t h e r e b e e n a n y c h a n g e s i n c e t h e d i s a s t e r ?

10. What w a s t h e t o t a l h o u s e h o l d in c o m e a t t h e t i m e o f t h e d isa ste r?

Has t h e r e b e e n a n y c h a n g e s i n c e t h e d i s a s t e r ?
 171

APPENDIX B

VITAL STATISTICS (DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND WELFARE, STATE

OF IDAHO) FOR MADISON COUNTY, 1 9 7 4-19 78

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

V ita l S t a t i a t l c i
Number R ate Number Race Number Rate Number Race Number Rate

P o p u la tio n 7/1 13,800 ---- 17,000 ------ 18.000 17,600 18,600 ....

N atu ral Xncraaia 313 1 9 .8 ' 372 21,3 382 21.2 660 26.1 SOS 27.6

Live B lrc h i 395 2 5 .0 663 25.9 676 26.3 569 31.2 587 31.9
Sax: Hale 200 255 262 286 312 ....
F ta a la 195 - IBS .... 212 ------ 263 275 ....

Out *of*vad lock 6 1 5 .2 6 13.5 6 12.7 9 16.6 9 15.3

P r* n atu ra 3 9 8 .7 25 55.4 18 38.0 21 38.8 37 63.0

In fa n t Daatha 3 7 .6 6 13.5 9 19.0 8 16.6 5 8.7

N eonatal 3 7 .6 6 13.5 6 12.7 2 3.6 2 3.6
P o itn a o n a ta l ------ ----- .... 3 6.3 6 10.9 3 5.1

P e r in a ta l Deaths 7 17 . 7 11 24.8 9 19.0 6 7.3 8 13.6

fe c a l Deaths 6 10 .1 5 11.7 6 8.6 2 3.6 6 10.2

Deaths 82 5 .2 71 4.2 92 5.1 89 5.1 82 6.5

Sex; Male 68 61 -- -» 56 51 •••• 62 ....
Fena • e 36 ------ 30 ------ 38 ----- 36 60 ....

H eart D isease 33 208. o 22 127,a 29 161.1 33 187.5 33 179.3

Cancer 15 96 9 10 58 5 9 50.0 6 36.1 7 38.0
C ereb ro v ascu lar D isease 9 5 7 .0 15 87.7 8 66.6 11 62.0 11 59.8
A ccidents 6 5 0 .6 9 52.6 11 61.1 13 73.9 6 32.6
In f lu * “ia and Pneumonia 1 6 .3 •••• 6 22.2 6 22.7 •••• . . . .
A r te r io s c le r o s is 2 1 2 .7 9mm m •mmm mm mm 1 5.7 ....
S u ic id e \ 5.8 m m mm ....
D iabetes H e llltu s 2 12. 7 3 17.5 6 22.2 --- 3 16.3

M arriag es 96 6 .1 83 6.9 92 5.1 102 5.8 91 6 9

D ivorces 69 5 .6 111 6.5 68 3.8 79 6 .5 73

 172

APPENDIX C

STATISTICAL SUMMARIES OF REXBURG

POLICE DEPARTMENT REPORTS

T ab le 9 Summary o f A c t i v i t y f o r R e x b u rg P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t ,
19 74 -19 78

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

a ;
fo U c « A c tiv ity 5

ARRESTS
1
1
g 1
1 g 3 £
s
g 1
1 g 3
Î I

L irc tn y 40 IS » 29 29 58 35 34 69 IS 33 51 9 8 17
V y h lcu U r Th«lt 0 4 « 2 0 2 2 0 2 1 1 J 0 7 7
S to le n P ro p erty 0 0 0 9 2 11 0 0 0 1 0 » u 0 4

Ai i a u U 0 0 0 9 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 6
Murder 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Ripe 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ,0 0

Robbery 1 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 5 0 0 0
Areon 0 0 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 * 0 0 0
V endeU ea I 5 6 2 0 2 4 0 4 6 9 15 s 9 14
B urglary 6 3 9 7 1 8 4 2 6 12 11 23 9 2 11
Weapon# 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 1 0 1

Fraud 0 0 0 3 0 3 1 0 1 2 0 2 0 0 0
Forgery 7 2 9 2 6 8 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
C n b e c te la rn t 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 1

DWI 12 0 12 36 0 36 66 1 67 54 4 58 30 2 32
L iquor Law# 12 29 «1 13 36 49 6 28 34 33 SO 83 9 61 70
Drunkcnnea# 18 0 18 20 1 21 19 0 19 0 2 2 0 0 0

Drugs 24 20 44 0 6 6 71 13 84 27 20 47 33 3 36

Sex O ffenaea 0 1 1 5 0 5 2 0 2 4 0 4 0 0 0

D is o rd e rly Conducw 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 2 8
Vagrancy 1 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Curfew 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Family and C hild 0 0 0 27 0 27 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Runaway 0 16 16 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 3 3
All O ther SB 20 78 28 10 38 47 14 61 70 14 84 46
(ex cep t t r a f f i c )
------ J
TOTAL 201 117 218 196 92 288 257 95 352 237 147 384 160 109 269

TRAFFIC CONTROL
T r a f f ic Cl t a t Iona - - — 1018 - 1282 - - — 1297 •- - 1183 •• — 1260
P a rk in g C ita tio n s •- 1127 -- - - 1317 •• - - 1299 •• - 1916 -m — 2963
W arnings Issu ed — 1660 •• — 2495 — — 2484 — - 2276 — “• 2604

A ccid en ts Reported •• 491 •• mm 582 mm 602 611 •• 585

C ita tio n s on - — •• 146 mm mm 151 —» mm 124 mm mm 166 mm •• 159
A ccid en ts
P erson I n ju r e d / •• •• 72 mm •• 51 mm mm 18 mm mm 79 mm mm 76
A ccid en ts
 173

T a b l e 10 A r r e s t s , O f f e n s e s and C o m p l a i n t s R e c o rd e d by Rexburg
P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t , 1974-1978

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

A rre sts 358 381 427 367 354

O ffenses 2301 2698 2028 2423 2329

C o m p lain ts 4101 5165 4068 3970 3688

Table 11 In d e x C rim e s and A r r e s t s R e p o rte d by
R exburg P o l i c e D e p a rtm e n t, 1975-1978

Index 1975 1976 1977 19 7 8

C rim e O ffense A rre s t O ffense A rre s t O ffense A rre st O ffense A rre st
B u rg lary 46 8 56 6 71 23 57 11

L arceny 401 58 345 69 332 51 307 17

Armed R o b b e r y 0 0 1 0 2 5 0 0

M o to r V e h i c l e 32 2 24 2 16 2 20 7
T heft

A ssa u lt 25 9 10 0 26 0 30 6

R ape 1 0 1 0 1 0 5 0

H o m o c id e 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

TOTAL 505 77 437 77 448 81 410 42

 175

APPENDIX D

COURT FILINGS FOR MADISON COUNTY, 19 74-1978

COURT PILING 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

CIVIL COURT
O o o c itlc S il a t l o n s 174 172 123 153 151
P erso n al In ju ry /P ro p e rty Damage 16 19 7 14 23
Support Proceedings 0 12 6 11 19
Ocher C o ap la lo ts and P é titio n s 218 242 219 294 337
Small Claims 112 83 _73 109 192
TOTAL 502 528 428 579 722

CRIMINAL COURT
felo n y
Drug n /a 12 20 « 3
OVI n /a IB 5 8 2
O ther 99 198 94 116 85
TOTAL - 228 119 130 90
Misdemeanor
Drug n /a 27 68 28 39
owi n /a 109 141 142 93
O ther 428 451 512 457 454
TOTAL - 587 711 627 586
All DVI 53 127 146 150 95
A il Drug 32 39 88 34 42
T r a f fic (c a ce p t DWI) 2.534 2.309 &W5 1.825
TOTAL 2.657 3.233 2.930 3.012 3.359

TOUTW RCHABZLITATZOK PROCEEDINGS

Drug 5 18 4 10 0
DWI 0 0 0 0 0
Other 2U 104 45 49 0
TOTAL 29 122 49 59 0

SPECIAL PROCEEDINGS
C hild P r o te c tiv e cases 0 2 1 1 0
Adoption 16 21 16 25 21
G u ard ian sh ip of Minors 2 3 4 2
G u ard ian sh ip of In c a p a c ita te d P ersons 5 2 1 2 3
Formal E s ta te 38 13 13 12 9
Habeus Corpus 0 0 1 0 0
A ll O ther 9 14 6 4 4
TOTAL 70 56 41 48 39

TOTAL (ALL COURTS) 3,278 4.074 3.687 3.908 4.285


DISASTER RELIEF BY TYPE OF AGENCY, TASK, AND FUNDING SOURCE
D i s a s t e r R e l i e f T a s k by F e d e r a l Agency and F u n d in g S o u r c e
AGENCY
A g r ic u ltu r a l
S e a b U ls a tlo n and
C o n acrv atio n S arv ice
Bureau o f ta c la a a c lo n
Corpa o f E nginaera
Oefanaa C iv il
P reparadoaaa Agency
Economic Development Admin.
Farm Home A d m ln lacratio n
F ed eral D la a a te r A aalacance Ad.
F ederal Highway A d a ln la tra e io n
Food aixl N u tr itio n S ervice
General S e rv ic e s Admin.
H ealth Education and W elfare
H ousing and Urban Development
In te rio r
I n te r n a l Revenue S erv ice
Lav Enforcement A ssista n ce Admin. D ept, of J u s t i c e
Labor FDAA
N a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e o f
Mental H ealth
O ffic e o f E ducation
Small B u sin ess A d m in is tra tio n
S o c is l S e c u rity A d m in is tra tio n
S o il C o n se rv a tio n Service
U .S. Army
V eteran s A d m in is tra tio n
176
APPENDIX E
SOURCE OF
FUNDS TASK
FDAA Removal o f d e b r is .
Emergency Replacement o f liv e s to c k and c ro p s.
C o nservation M easures P r o v isio n of fe e d .
Low Y ield A ss is ta n c e Income M aintenance
FDAA W ater c o n tro l f a c i l i t i e s . Adminis­
t r a t i o n o f F e d e ra l Reimbursement
Program (7,666 claim s p ro c e ss e d ),
r e s t o r a t i o n o f the i r r i g a t i o n c a n a ls .
FDAA D eb ris c le a r a n c e and d e m o litio n of
b u ild in g s . Damage survey re p o rts
and In sp e c tio n of com pleted work.
P u blic Law 86-99 Channel work
FDAA One person to sancge d i s a s t e r c e n te r
KPA Three people t o a s s i s t lo c a l Idaho
o ffic e s .
D ept, of C oanercf Funds f o r Economic Adjustment Program.
FDAA Farm Hoose Loans (150 approved and c lo s e d ) .
P r e s id e n ts Emergency Fund Funds f o r d iv e rs e emergencv a c t i v i t i e s .
FDAA E ngineers to a s s e s s damage
Dept, of A g ric u ltu r e Food Stamp Funds to S ta te .
FDAA Support s e r v ic e s - O ffic e s , phones
FDAA One person to in s p e c t lib r a r y
FDAA Temporary Housing
FDAA Support S e rv ic e s f o r T ra n sp o rta tio n
D ept, of T reasu ry One person to in s p e c t lib r a r y
G ran ts to Law Enforcem ent Agencies
Funds f o r unemployment compensation
f o r one week w a it p e rio d .
FDAA t r i a l s c o u n se lin g
D ept, of H .E .tf. A id to School D i s t r i c t s
SEA R e s id e n tia l lo a n s (1,181 approved and
c lo s e d ) . B usiness/C oam arcial loans
(310 approved and c lo s e d ) .
SSA Replacement o f about 250 d estroved
ch ec k s. P ro c e ssin g o f change of
a d d re s s e s . P ro c e s sin g o f flo o d - r e la te d
s o c ia l s e c u r it y claim s (about 30).
FDAA Emergency c le a n -u p , r i v e r work
S ectio n 216 W atershed p r o te c tio n m easures
G ravel rem oval, r ip r a p , dike r e p a i r ,
and re v e g c ta tlo n .
FDAA Emergency c la a n -u p
V eteran R e l ie f Funds Food and c lo th in g vo u ch ers.
 177

D i s a s t e r R e l i e f by S t a t e Agency and F u n d in g S o u rc e

(OUtCE OP
ACZKCT nWDS TASK

A g ric u ltu re FDAA iu d g e t P u b lic b u ild in g s and equipment

A tto rn e y G eneral Kudget Legal a s s is ta n c e

Employment TDAA v ia la b o r
Iu d g e t
n a h and Game TDAA P r o te c tiv e m easures
lo a d system s
P u b lic b u ild in g s and eoulpment
P u b lic u t i l i t i e s

H ealth and W elfare TDAA P r o te c tiv e mss a u ra s

D la a a te r Tood Stamp
Program Tood stamps to 3,709 households
Emergency M edical Program fW dlcal Aid to 21 households
N a tio n a l I n s t , o f M ental
H ealth C r i s i s C ounseling
Lav Enforcem ent LEAA P r o te c tiv e M sssuras
P u b lic b u ild in g s and equip»»»,:
Kudget
M ilita r y D lv. (N a tio n a l Guard) Budget S e c u rity , heavy equipment
Parks A S e e re s tlo n Budget
P u b lic U t l l l t l a s Coem lsslon Budget Emergency S erv ice
lev en u e and T ax atio n Budget T echnical A ssista n c e

T r a n s p o rta tio n TDAA Road systams

P u b lic b u ild in g s and equipment
Budget
U n iv e rs ity o f Idaho Budget Guidance and te c h n ic a l a s s is ta n c e to
fa rm e rs , businessm en, and r e s id e n t s .
Water X esources TDAA W ater c o n tro l f s c l l l t l e s
Budget

D i s a s t e r R e l i e f T a s k s by V o l u n t e e r P r i v a t e O r g a n i z a t i o n s

ORCAWaTIOK TASK
A acrlcao lUd C ro is MsdlcaX s l d , s n s r;s n c y s u p p lie s ,
food.
C lc lx if li' Sind R sdlo Group Q a sr|sn c y C o m n l c a t l o n s .
C h r l i t l i o S ifo rm id Church T tc h n lc s l s s s t s t s n c a , o f f ic e
s u p p lie s , s d o l n l s t r s t l v e p e rs o n n e l.
Church o f J is u s C h r is t o f fo o d , c lo th in g , household goods,
U t c s r Dsy S a in ts Isb o r.
C m e illo dc N lf r s n ts i t A s s ls ts n c s t o m ig ran t w r k s r s .
Id sh o , In c .
E s s ts r n Idsho S p ic la l S ir v lc s s A ss is ta n c e to E ld e rly flo o d v ic tim s .
A |sn c r
M sdlson County Comsunlty E ducation and k c r u a t l o n .
Council
M snnonlts D l s s s t s r S u rv ies V o lu n ts sr la b o r .
Kicks C o lls fs H eals and lo d g in g , f a c i l i t i e s sod
ep ic e to a g e n c ie s and v o lu n te e r
g ro u p s.
S alvstlon A ny Provided fo o d , c lo th in g , and
lo d g in g .
T sto n I n t u r f s l t h D is a s te r A ss is ta n c e In c la im f i l i n g , advocacy
Task Tores In fo rm a tio n and r e f e r , la b o r.
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F red erick , C alvin J . , " C u rr e n t T h inking a b o u t C r i s i s o r P s y c h o lo g ic a l

1977 I n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e U n it e d S t a t e s " , Mass E m e r g e n c i e s ,
v o l. 2, 43-50.

F r e d e r i c k , C a l v i n J . , " E f f e c t s o f N a t u r a l v s . H um an-Ind uced V i o l e n c e

1980 Upon V i c t i m s " , E v a l u a t i o n a n d C h a n g e , S p e c i a l I s s u e ,
pp . 7 1 - 7 5 , M i n n e a p o l i s , M i n n e s o t a : P rogram E v a l u a t i o n
R esource C e n te r , M in n e a p o lis M e d ic a l R esearch
F o u n d atio n , In c .

F r i e s e m a , H. P a u ' , J a m e s C a p o r a s o , C e r a l d G o l d s t e i n , R o b e r t L i n e b e r r y ,
1979 R i c h a r d M c C le a r y , A f t e r m a t h : C o m m u n itie s a f t e r N a t u r a l
D i s a s t e r s , B e v e r l y H i l l s , C a l i f o r n i a : Sage P u b l i c a t i o n s .

F r i t z , C h a r l e s K., " D i s a s t e r " , p p . 6 5 1 -6 9 4 i n R .K . M e rto n and R.A.

1961 N i s b e t ( E d s . ) , C o n te m p o r a r y S o c i a l P r o b l e m s , New Y ork:
Ila rc o u rt,

F r i t z , C h a r l e s E. and E l i S. M a r k s , "T he NORC S t u d i e s o f Human

1954 B e h a v i o r i n D i s a s t e r " , The J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l I s s u e s ,
v o l . 10, 2 6 - 4 1 .

Funk W ie b e , K a t i e , Day o f D i s a s t e r , S c o t t d a l e , P a : H e r a ld P r e s s .
1976
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C a r f l n k e l , H a r o l d , S t u d i e s I n E t h n o n e t h o d o l o g y , Englewood C l i f f s ,
1967 N .J .: P re n tic e -H a ll, Inc.

G e r o n t o l o g y P r o g r a m , S e r v i c e P r i o r i t i e s f o r t h e E l d e r l y in N a t u r a l
1976 D i s a s t e r s , A R esearch R e p o rt, U n iv e r s ity of N ebraska,
Omaha, N e b r a s k a .

G ibb s, J a c k P . , S o c i o l o g i c a l Theory C o n s t r u c t i o n , I l l i n o i s : The

1972 D ryden P r e s s , I n c .

G i d d e n s , A n t h o n y , New R u l e s o f S o c i o l o g i c a l Me t hod: A P o s i t i v e
1976 C r i t i q u e o f I n t e r p r e t i v e S o c i o l o g i e s , New Y ork: B a s i c
Books, I n c .

G l a s e r , B a r n e y G. a n d Anselm L. S t r a u s s , The D i s c o v e r y o f G rou nd ed

1967 T h e o r y ; S t r a t e g i e s f o r Q u a l i t a t i v e R e s e a r c h , C h ic a g o :
A l d i n e P u b l i s h i n g Co.

G o l d s t e i n , A r n o l d , " R e a c t i o n s t o D i s a s t e r " , P s y c h i a t r i c C o m m u n ic a tio n s ,

1960 v o l. 3 , 47-58.

G o u l d n e r , A l v i n W., The Coming C r i s i s o f W e s te r n S o c i o l o g y , New Y ork:

1970 Avon B o ok s.

G r e a t e r I d a h o F a l l s Chamber o f Commerce, "T he T e to n Dam F l o o d , "

1977 S p e c i a l I s s u e , Idaho E a s t , Idaho F a l l s , Id ah o : G r e a te r
I d a h o F a l l s Chamber o f Commerce.

G u r n e y , P a t r i c k J . , "The T h e r a p e u t i c Community R e v i s i t e d : Some

1977 S u g g e s t e d M o d i f i c a t i o n s and T h e i r I m p l i c a t i o n s " ,
D i s a s t e r R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , The O hio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
P r e l i m i n a r y P a p e r No. 39.

H a a s , A la n D . , "M ending Minds a t F lo o d T i d e " , I n f o r m a t i o n B u l l e t i n ,

1973 n o . 2 8 2 , 1 - 4 . D e f e n s e C i v i l P r e p a r e d n e s s Age nc y,
December 17.

H a a s , J . E ug en e , R o b e r t W. K a t e s , M a r t y n . Bowden ( E d s . ) ,
1977 R e c o n s t r u c t i o n F o l l o w i n g D i s a s t e r , C a m b rid g e ,
M a s s a c h u s e t t s : The MIT P r e s s .

H a a s , J . Eugene and Thomas E. D r a b e k , "Community D i s a s t e r and System

1970 S t r e s s : A S o c i o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e " , pp. 264-286 in
J o s e p h McGrath ( E d . ) , S o c i a l and P s y c h o l o g i c a l F a c t o r s
i n S t r e s s , New Y or k: H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W i n s t o n .

H a b e r m a s , J u r g e n , Knowl edge and Human I n t e r e s t s , B o s t o n : Beacon

1971 P ress.

H a l l , P h i l i p S. and P a t r i c k W. L a n d r e t h , " A s s e s s i n g Some Long Term

1975 C o n s e q u e n c e s o f a N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r " , Mass E m e r g e n c i e s ,
v o l . 1, n o . 1, 55 -61.
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H a r s h b a r g e r , D w ig h t, " P i c k i n g Up t h e P i e c e s : D i s a s t e r I n t e r v e n t i o n
1974 and Human E c o l o g y " , Omega, v o l . 5 , n o . 1 , 5 5 - 5 9 .

H e f f r o n , Edward F . , P r o j e c t D i r e c t o r , P r o j e c t O u t r e a c h , F i n a l R e p o r t
1975 s u b m itte d to th e N a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e o f M en tal H e a lth ,
C o n t r a c t No. l-M H -4-00 08 .

H em pel, C.G. and K. O ppenheim , " T h e o r y o f S c i e n t i f i c E x p l a n a t i o n "

1953 i n H. F e i g e l and M. B r c d b e c k ( E d s . ) , R e a d in g s i n The
P h i l o s o p h y o f S c i e n c e , New Y o rk : M a c M illa n .

H i n c k l e y , E l d e r Gor do n B . , What o f t h e Mormons? , S a l t Lake C i t y ,

1972 U tah : D e s e re t P r e s s .

H o c k in g , F . , " P s y c h i a t r i c A s p e c t s o f E x tre m e E n v i r o n m e n t a l S t r e s s " ,

1970 D i s e a s e o f N e rv o u s S y s t e m , v o l . 3 1 , 5 4 2 - 5 4 4 .

H o r o w i t z , M a rd i J . , " P s y c h i c Trauam a: R e t u r n o f Im a g e s A f t e r a
1969 S t r e s s F ilm , A rch iv es of G e n e ra l P s y c h i a t r y , v o l. 20,
552-559.

H o r o w i t z , M ., " S t r e s s R e s p o n se S y n d r o m e s " , A r c h i v e s o f G e n e r a l
1974 P s y c h i a t r y , v o l . 31, 7 6 8 - 7 8 1 .

House R e p o r t No. 9 4 - 1 6 6 7 , 9 4 th C o n g r e s s , 2d S e s s i o n , T e t o n Dam

1976 D i s a s t e r , T h i r t i e t h R e p o r t by t h e C o m m itte e on
G ov ernm ent O p e r a t i o n s , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : U .S .
Gov e rn me n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e .

House R e p o r t No. 9 5 - 2 3 , 9 5 t h C o n g r e s s , 1 s t S e s s i o n , O v e r s i g h t - T e to n
1977 Dam D i s a s t e r , H e a r i n g s B e f o r e t h e S u b c o m m itte e on
E n e rg y R e s e a r c h and D e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e C o m m ittee on
E n e rg y and N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e
t o R e c e i v e I n f o r m a t i o n A bout P o s s i b l e C a u s e s o f t h e
F a i l u r e o f t h e T e to n Dam, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : U .S .
G overnm en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e .

House R e p o r t No. 9 5 - 3 5 , 9 5 t h C o n g r e s s , 1 s t S e s s i o n , T e to n Dam F a i l u r e ,

1977 P r e p a r e d a t t h e R e q u e s t o f F r a n k C h u rc h f o r t h e
S u b c o m m it te e on E n e r g y , R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e
C o m m itte e on E n e rg y and N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s o f t h e U n i te d
S t a t e s S e n a t e , W a s h in g to n , D . C . : U . S . G ov ern m en t
P r in tin g O ffic e ,

Howard, S te p h e n J . an d Norma S. G o rd o n , M e n t a l H e a l t h I n t e r v e n t i o n
1972 i n a M a jo r D i s a s t e r , F i n a l P r o g r e s s R e p o r t , S m a ll
R e s e a r c h G r a n t , MH21649-01.

H u e r t a , Faye C . , R o b e r t L. H o r to n and L e o n a r d K o v i t , O l d e r A m eric a n s

1977 and t h e N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r , R e s e a r c h R e p o r t , T i t l e I I I
M odel P r o j e c t , E a s t e r n I d a h o S p e c i a l S e r v i c e s A g ency,
I n c . , Idaho F a l l s , Idaho.
 184

Idaho C o u r ts , Annual R e p o r t , B o is e , I d a h o : The A d m i n i s t r a t i v e O f f i c e

1978 of th e C o u rts.

I l l i c h , I v a n , M e d ic a l N e m e s is : The E x p r o p r i a t i o n o f H e a l t h , London:
1976 P a n th e o n Books.

I n d e p e n d e n t P a n e l t o R eview Cause o f t h e T e to n Dam F a i l u r e , R e p o r t

1976 t o U .S. D e p a r tm e n t o f t h e I n t e r i o r and S t a t e o f Idaho
on F a i l u r e o f t h e T e t o n Dam, W a s h i n g to n , D .C .: U .S .
G overnm ent P r i n t i n g O f f i c e .

J a n i s , I r v i n g L . , S t r e s s and F r u s t r a t i o n , New York: H a r c o u r t Brace

1971 Jo v an o v ich .

J o h n s o n , J o h n M ., Doing F i e l d R e s e a r c h , New Y ork: t h e F r e e P r e s s .

1975

K a p la n , A braham , The C o n d u c t of I n q u i r y , S c r a n t o n , P . A . : C h a n d l e r
1964 P u b l i s h i n g Co.

K e e r d o j a , E i l e e n and P e t e r S. G r e e n b e r g , "Boom A f t e r t h e B u r s t " ,

1977 Newsweek, v o l . 89, n o . 2 3 , p . 9 , J u n e 6 .

K e p h a r t , W i l l i a m M ., "T h e Mormons", C h a p t e r 5 , i n E x t r a o r d i n a r y
1976 G ro u p s: The S o c i o l o g y of U n c o n v e n t i o n a l L i f e - S t y l e s ,
New Y ork: S t . M a r t i n ' s P r e s s .

K i n s t o n , W arren and R a c h a e l R o s s e r , " D i s a s t e r , E f f e c t s on M e n t a l and

1974 P h y s ic a l S t a t e " , J o u r n a l of P sy ch o so m atic R e s e a r c h ,
v o l . 18, 4 3 7 - 4 5 6 .

K i r n , S te v e n P . , "Community M e n ta l H e a l t h C e n t e r s and D i s a s t e r :
1975 C o n s i d e r a t i o n s R e g a r d in g R e sp o n se D u rin g t h e P o s t -
Im pact P e r i o d " , P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e S o u t h e a s t e r n
P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , A t l a n t a , G e o r g i a , M arch 2 8 .

K lim a n , Ann S . , "The C o r n i n g Flood P r o j e c t : P s y c h o l o g i c a l F i r s t Aid

1973 F o l l o w i n g a N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r " , U n p u b lis h e d p a p e r .

K oranyi, E . , "Psychodynamic T h e o r i e s o f the ' S u r v iv o r Syndrome'",

1969 C a n a d ia n P s y c h i a t r y J o u r n a l , v o l . 14, 1 6 5 - 1 6 9 .

K n au s, R o n a ld L , , " C r i s i s I n t e r v e n t i o n i n a D i s a s t e r A r e a : The
1975 P e n n s y l v a n i a F lo o d i n W i l k e s - B a r r e " , J o u r n a l o f
O s t e o p a t h i c A s s o c i a t i o n , v o l . 75 , 2 9 7 - 3 0 1 .

K r y s t a l , Henry ( E d . ) , M a s s i v e P s y c h i c T ra u m a , New Y ork: In te rn a tio n a l

1968 U n iv ersity P ress.

K u n reu th er, Howard, R e c o v e r y from N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r s , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . :

1973 A m e ric a n E n t e r p r i s e I n s t i t u t e f o r P u b l i c P o l i c y
R esearch.
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K u tak , R . I . , " S o c i o l o g y o f C r i s i s : The L o u i s v i l l e F lo o d o f 1 9 3 7 ",

1938 S o c ia l F o r c e s , v o l . x v i i , 66-72.

L i f t o n , R o b e r t J a y and E r i c O l s e n , "The Human M eaning o f T o t a l

1976 (, D i s a s t e r : The B u f f a l o C r e e k E x p e r i e n c e " , P s y c h i a t r y ,
v o l . 34, 1-18.

L e o p o l d , R .L . and H. D i l l o n , " P s y c h o - a n a t o m y o f a D i s a s t e r : A L o n g -
1963 te r m S tu d y o f P o s t - t r a u m a t i c N e u r o s e s i n S u r v i v o r s o f
a M a r in e E x p l o s i o n " , A m erican J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y ,
v o l . 12 0, 9 1 3 -9 1 7 .

L in d e m a n n , E r i c h , " S y m p to m a to lo g y and Management o f A c u te G r i e f " ,

1944 A m e ric a n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , 101: 1 4 1 - 1 4 8 .

L o f l a n d , J o h n F . , " N o te s on N a t u r a l i s m i n S o c i o l o g y " , K a n sa s J o u r n a l
1967 o f S o c io lo g y , 3 , n o . 2, 4 5 -6 1 .

L o f l a n d , J o h n P . , A n a l y z i n g S o c i a l S e t t i n g s : A G u id e t o Q u a l i t a t i v e
1971 O b s e r v a t i o n and A n a l y s i s , B e lm o n t, C a l i f o r n i a :
W adsworth P u b l i s h i n g Co.

L o g u e , J a m e s N . , H o lg e r H an sen and Elm er S t r u e n i n g , " E m o t i o n a l and

1979 P h y s i c a l D i s t r e s s F o l l o w i n g H u r r i c a n e Agnes i n Wyoming
V alley of P e n n s y lv a n ia " , P u b lic H e a lth R e p o r ts , v o l.
94, no. 6, 495-502.

Long, Thomas A . , " D i s a s t e r S y n d ro m e ", C i n c i n n a t i H o r i z o n s , 7, n o . 1,

1977 6-10.

Lyman, S t a n f o r d M. and M a r v in B. S c o t t , A S o c i o l o g y o f t h e A b s u r d ,
1970 New Y ork: A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s .

M a tz a , D a v i d , Becoming D e v i a n t , Englewood C l i f f s : New J e r s e y .

1969

M a x w e ll, A . E . , A n a l y s i n g Q u a l i t a t i v e D a t a , L ondon: Chapmon & H a l l .

1961

McGee, R i c h a r d K . , "T he R o le o f C r i s i s I n t e r v e n t i o n S e r v i c e s i n
1973 D is a s te r R ecovery", Paper p re s e n te d a t th e N a tio n a l
I n s t i t u t e o f M en tal H e a lth M e etin g .

M ehan, J o h n and H o u sto n Wood, The R e a l i t y o f E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y , New

1975 Y o rk: J o h n W iley & S o n s .

M e r t o n , R o b e r t K . , S o c i a l T h e o ry an d S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e , E n l a r g e d
1968 E d i t i o n , New Y o rk : The F r e e P r e s s .

M i c h a e l , V au ghn , " G r i e f R e a c t i o n s R e l a t e d t o L o s t P o s s e s s i o n s " ,

1974 U npublished p a p e r.
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M i l l e r , D e l b e r t C . , Handbook o f R e s e a r c h D e s ig n and S o c i a l M e a s u r e m e n t,
1970 2nd E d i t i o n , New Y o rk : David McKay C o . , I n c .

M i l l s , C. W r i g h t , The S o c i o l o g i c a l I m a g i n a t i o n , New Y o rk : O x fo rd
1959 U n iv e rsity P ress.

M o d l i n , H . C . , "The Traum a i n ' T r a u m a t i c N e u r o s i s ' " , B u l l e t i n o f t h e

1960 M e n n in g e r C l i n i c , v o l . 24, 4 9 -5 6 .

M o ore, H a r ry E s t i l l , "Some E m o t i o n a l C o n c o m it a n ts o f D i s a s t e r " ,

1958 M e n ta l H y g i e n e , v o l . 4 2 , 4 5 - 5 0 .

M oore, H a r r y E s t i l l , T o r n a d o e s Over T e x a s : A S tu d y o f Waco and San

1958b A n gelo in D i s a s t e r , A u s t i n : U n i v e r s i t y o f T e x as P r e s s .

M oore, H a r r y E s t i l l and H . J . F r i e d s a m , " R e p o r t e d E m o t i o n a l S t r e s s

1959 F o l l o w i n g a D i s a s t e r " , S o c i a l F o r c e s , v o l . 38 ( D e c ) ,
1 3 5 -1 3 9 .

M o r r i s , J a c k H . , " S u r v i v a l Syndrom e: M e n ta l A n g u is h B e s e t s Many

1974 V i c t i m s o f D i s a s t e r " , W a ll S t r e e t J o u r n a l , v o l . 183,
n o . 3 , p . I and 13, J a n u a r y 3 .

M u l l e n , R o b e r t , The L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s : The Mormons Y e s t e r d a y an d

1966 T o - d a y , G a rd e n C i t y , New Y o rk : D o u b le d a y Books.

Murphy, L e o n a rd M ., San F e r n a n d o . C a l i f o r n i a . E a r t h q u a k e o f
1973 F e b r u a r y 9 , 1 9 7 1 , V o l. I I , U t i l i t i e s , T ran sp o rtatio n
and S o c i o l o g i e : 1 / s p e c t s , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : U .S .
D e p a r tm e n t o f Commerce, N a t i o n a l O c e a n ic and
A tm o s p h e r i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and E n v i r o n m e n t a l R e s e a r c h
L a b o ra to rie s.

N a g e l, E r n e s t , The S t r u c t u r e o f S c i e n c e : P r o b le m s i n t h e L o g ic o f
1961 S c i e n t i f i c E x p l a n a t i o n , New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e &
W o rld , I n c .

N o r b e r g , J o h n , "EMS E f f o r t s M in im iz e L oss o f L i f e i n T e to n Dam

1976 D i s a s t e r " , Emergency P r o d u c t News, v o l . 8 , n o . 6 ,
22-24.

N u g e n t, Tom, D e a th a t B u f f a l o C r e e k : The S t o r y B eh in d t h e West

1973 V i r g i n i a F lo o d D i s a s t e r o f 1 9 7 2 , New Y ork: W.W. N o rto n
and C o . , I n c .

O 'D e a , Thomas F . , The Mormons, C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic ag o P r e s s .

1957.

O 'K u r a , P a t r i c k K . , " M o b i l i z i n g i n R e s p o n s e t o a M a jo r D i s a s t e r " ,

1975 Community M e n ta l H e a l t h J o u r n a l , v o l . 1 1 , 1 3 6 - 1 4 4 .
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Omaha T o rn a d o P r o j e c t , Omaha T o rn a d o ' ^ n j e c : - i n a l R e p o r t , p r e p a r e d

1976 f o r F e d e r a l D i s a s t e r A s s i s t a n c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , NIMH,
fay E a s t e r n N e b r a s k a Humar. S e r v i c e s Agency.

O ' N e i l l , J o h n , S o c i o l o g y a s a S k in T r a d e r E s s a y s Toward a R e f l e x i v e
1972 S o c i o l o g y , New Y o rk : H a r p e r c Row P u b l i s h e r s ,

P a r a d , Howard J . , " C r i s i s I n t e r v e n t i o n " , E n c y c l o p e d i a o f S o c i a l 1,'ork,

1971 1 6 th E d i t i o n , v o l . 1, p p . 1 9 6 - 2 0 2 , Nev Y o rk : N a t i o n a l
A s s o c ia tio n o f S o c i a l W orkers.

P a r a d , Howard J . , H . L .P . R e s n i c k and L i b b i e C. P a r a d , Emergency end

1976 O i s a s t e r M anagem ent: A Ment a : H e a l t h S o u rc e Book, Bowie,
M a r y la n d : The C h a r l e s P r e s s P u b l i s h e r s , I n c .

P e n i c k , E l i s a b e t h C . , S te p h e n W. L a r s o n and B a r b a r a J . P o w e l l ,
1974 F i n a l R e p o r t : .Lt:. C o v e r n o r ' s T a s k F o r c e , M e n t a l H e a l t h
S y ste m s i n Time o f d i s a s t e r , S t . L o u i s , M i s s o u r i : S t .
L o u is S t a t e H o s p i t a l .

P e n i c k , E l i z a b e t h C . , S te p h e n W. L a r c e n , J a n e E. B r o w n s to n e , Ann F.
1974b Nord and B a r b a r a J . P o w e ll, L e a d e r ’ s M anual: M e n ta l
H e a l t h and D i s a s t e r R e l i e f , A Workshop by t h e J e f f e r s o n
M i s s o u r i D e p a r tm e n t o f M e n t a l H e a l t h i n C o l l a b o r a t i o n
w i t h t h e A m e ric a n Red C r o s s M id w e s te r n A r e a , S t .
L o u is, M is s o u ri, J e f f e r s o n , M isso u ri: M isso u ri
D epartm ent o f M en tal H e a lth .

P e n i c k , E l i z a b e t h C. , B a r b a r a J . P o w e ll and W i l l i a m S i e c k , " M e n ta l
1976 H e a l t h P ro b le m s a n d N a'.:ural D i s a s t e r : T o rn a d o V i c t i m s " ,
Jn u ~ n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , v o l. 4, n r . 4, 64-67.

P e r r y , R o n a ld W. and M ic h a e l K. L i n d e l l , "Tiic. P s y c h o l o g i c a l
1978 C o n s e q u e n c e s o f N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r : A Review o f R e s e a r c h
on A m erican C o m m u n it ie s " , Mass E m e r g e n c i e s , v o l . 3 , 1 0 5 -1 1 5 .

P h i l l i p s , D erek L . , Knowledge From What? T h e o r i e s and M eth o d s i n

1971 S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , C h ic a g o : Rand M cNeilv and Company.

P h i l l i p s , Derek L. , A band on in g M ethod , London; .J o s s e v - P .-s s P u b l i s h e r s .

1973.

P o u l s h o c k , S . y . .and E . S . Co h e n, "The E l d e r l y fn t h e A f r e m i a t h o f a
1975 D isa ste r", C e ro n to lo g is t, v o l. 15, 3 5 7 -5 6 1 .

P o w e l, J o h n H . , f.ames D. Hr,aman and C l a y t c r F . F o r s g r e n , A d ju s tm e n :

1977 P ro g ra m f o r t h e T e t o n D i s a s t e r .Area, v o l . 1 , E x e c u t i v e
Summary and F i n a l R e p o r t , P r e p a r e d by -h e C c .a s u lc a n t
D i v l s i o n , B o e in g Com puter S e r v i c e s , I n c . , S e a t l i e ,
W a s h in g to n and F o r s g r e n , P e r k i n s and A src e l a t e s , P . A . ,
R exburg, Id aho.
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P r i n c e , Samuel H . , C a t a s t r o p h e and S o c i a l C h a n g e , New Y o rk : Colum bia

1920 U n iv e rsity P re ss.

P s a t h a s , G eo rg e ( E d . ) , P h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l S o c i o l o g y : I s s u e s and
1973 A p p l i c a t i o n s , New Y ork: J o h n W iie y & S o n s.

Q u a ra n te lli, E . L . and R u s s e l l p.. D y n e s , ' ' R e s p o n s e t o S o c i a l C r i s i s

1977 and D i s a s t e r " , A n n u a l Review o f S o c i o l o g y , v o l . 3, 2 3 - 4 9 .

Q u a ra n te lli, E .L . ( E d . ) , D i s a s t e r s : 'I'heorv an d R e s e a r c h , London, U .K .:

1978 Sage P u b l i c a t i o n s L td ,

R a n g e i l , L eo, " D i s c u s s i o n o f t h e b u f f a l o C r e e k D i s a s t e r : The C o u r s e

1976 o f P s y c h i c T ra u m a ", M e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y ,
v o l . 133, n o . 3, 3 1 3 - 3 1 6 .

R e i n h a r a , S h u l a m i t , On Becoming a S o c i a l S c i e n t i s t : From S u rv ey
1979 R e s e a r c h and P a r t i c i p a n t O b s e r v a t i o n t o E x p e r i e n t i a l
. A n a l y s i s , San F r a n c i s c o : J o s s e y - B o s s , I n c . , P u b l i s h e r s .

R e l i e f S o c i e t y C o u r s e s o f S tu d y 1 9 7 8 -1 9 7 9 , T he C hurch o f J e s u s C h r i s t
1977 o f L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s , S a l t Lake C i t y : U ta h .

R i c h a r d , W .C ., " C r i s i s I n t e r v e n t i o n S e r v i c e s F o l l o w i n g N a t u r a l
1974 D i s a s t e r : The P e n n s y l v a n i a R e c o v e r y P r o j e c t " , J o u r n a l
o f Community P s y c h o l o g y , v o l . 2 , 2 1 1 -2 1 9 .

R o s s i , P e t e r 11., Jam es D. W r i g h t , S o n ia R. W r i g h t and E l e a n o r

1978 W e b e r - B u r d in , "A re T h e r e Long Term E f f e c t s o f A m erican
N a tu ra l D is a s te rs ? E s tim a tio n s o f E f f e c ts of F lo o d s,
H u r r i c a n e s , and T o r n a d o e s O c c u r i n g 1960 t o 1970 on
II.S. C o u n t i e s and C en sus T r a c t s in 1 9 7 0 " , Mass
E m e r g e n c i e s , v o l . 3 , 1 1 7 -1 3 2 .

Ryan, W i l l i a m , " P r e v e n t i v e S e r v i c e s i n t h e S o c i a l C o n t e x t : P ow er,

1969 P a t h o l o g y and P r e v e n t i o n " , P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e M e n ta l
H e a l t h I n s t i t u t e , S a l t Lake C i t y , May 31 - J u n e 2 ,
W e s te rn I n t e r s t a t e Commission f o r H ig h e r E d u c a t i o n ,
B o u l d e r , C o lo r a d o .

S a f r a n , C l a i r e , "How M e n ta l F i r s t Aid Can P u l l You T h ro u g h a C r i s i s " ,

1973 T o d a y 's H e a l t h , 51 , n o . 9, p p . 4 4 - 5 , 6 7 - 8 .

S a r b i n , T h e o d o r e R , , "On t h e F u t i l i t y o f t h e P r o p o s i t i o n T h a t Some
1967 P e o p l e Be L a b e le d 'M e n t a l l y 1 1 1 ' " , J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g
P s y c l i o l o g y , 31 , 4 4 7 - 4 5 3 .

S e l y e , Hans, The S t r e s s o f L i f e , New York: M c G r a w - H i l l .

1956

S c h a tz m a n , [,c o n a r d and Anselm L. S t r a u s s , F i e l d R e s e a r c h : S t r a t e g i e s

1973 f o r a N a t u r a l S o c i o l o g y , Englewood C l i f f s , N . J . :
P r o n tic e - H a ll, Inc.
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S c h ü t z , A l f r e d , The Phen o me no l og y o f t h e S o c i a l W o r l d , C h i c a g o :
1967 N o rth w estern U n iv e r s ity P r e s s .

Sch ü tz, A lf r e d , C o lle c te d P a p e rs , I , The Hague: M a r t i n u s N i j h o f f .

1973

S e l b y , E a r l and Mir iam S e l b y , "The Day t h e T e t o n Dam B r o k e " , R e a d e r ' s

1977 D ig est, January.

S h a f f i r , W i l l i a m B . , R o b e r t A. S t e b b i n s , A l l a n T u r o we t z ( E d s . ) ,
1980 F i e l d w o r k E x p e r i e n c e : Q u a l i t a t i v e A p p ro a c h e s to S o c i a l
R e s e a r c h , New Y ork; S t . M a r t i n ' s P r e s s .

S m a r t , B a r r y , S o c i o l o g y , P h e n om e no l o g y and M a r x i a n A n a l y s i s : A
1976 C r i t i c a l D i s c u s s i o n o f t h e T h e o ry and P r a c t i c e o f a
S c ie n c e o f S o c i e t y , L ondon: R o u t l e d g e & Kegan P a u l .

S m it h , B r e w s t e r M ., "C o m p ete n c e a n d S o c i a l i z a t i o n " i n J o h n E.

1968 C la u s e n ( E d . ) , S o c i a l i z a t i o n and S o c i e t y , L i t t l e ,
Brown and Company, 2 7 0 - 3 2 0 .

S m i t h , J o s e p h , The Book o f Mormon, S a l t Lake C i t y , U t a h : The Church

n.a. of J e s u s C h r i s t of L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s .

S m i t h , J o s e p h , D o c t r i n e a nd C o v e n a n t s , S a l t Lake C i t y , Uta h: The

n.a. Church o f J e s u s C h r i s t o f L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s .

S m i t h , J o s e p h , P e a r l o f G r e a t P r i c e , S a l t Lake C i t y , U t a h : The
n.a. Church o f J e s u s C h r i s t o f L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s .

S m i t h , L a r r y L . , "A Re vi ew o f C r i s i s In te rv e n tio n Theory", Social

1978 C a s e w o rk , 5 9 , no . 7 , 3 9 6 - 4 0 5 .

S t a t e o f Iclalio, D e p a rtm e n t o f H e a l t h and W e l f a r e , F .D .A .A . M e n ta l

1976 H e a l t h P r o p o s a l , T e t o n Dam D i s a s t e r , S u b m itte d to t h e
N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f M e n ta l H e a l t h C o n t r a c t s Management
S e c t i o n , R o c k v i l l e , M a r y la n d , J u l y 9 .

S t e r n , C o r a l d , The B u f f a l o Cr ock D i s a s t e r , New Yor k: V i n t a g e Books.

1976

S t e r n , G e r a l d , "From Chaos t o R e s p o n s i b i l i t y " , /American J o u r n a l o f

1976 P s y c h i a t r y , v o l . 1 3 3 , n o . 3 , 3 0 0 -3 0 1 .

S u n d e l , M a r t i n , " P r o b le m s F a c in g a Community M e n ta l H e a l t h C e n t e r
1975 in D e l i v e r y o f M e n ta l H e a l t h S e r v i c e s t o a D i s a s t e r
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N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f Community M e n ta l H e a l t h C e n t e r s ,
W a s h in g to n , D.C.

Susman, J a c k , " P r o j e c t O u t r e a c h : Luzerne-W yom ing C oun ty M e n t a l H e a l t h /

1973 M e n ta l R e t a r d a t i o n J o i n d e r " , F i n a l R e p o r t t o N a t i o n a l
I n s t i t u t e o f M e n ta l H e a l t h , B u f f a l o : Community M e n t a l
H ealth R esearch .d D e v e lo p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n .
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1975 H e a l t h V ie w " , p . 2 5 6 , in Howard J . P a r a d , H.L. R e s n i c k
and L i b b i e G. P a r a d ( E d s . ) , E m ergency and D i s a s t e r
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M a r y la n d : C h a r l e s P r e s s P u b l i s h e r s , I n c .

S z a s z , Thomas S . , The Myth oT M e n t a l I l l n e s s : F o u n d a t i o n s o f a T h e o ry

1974 o f P e r s o n a l C o n d u c t , New Y ork: H a r p e r & Row.

T a y l o r , V e r t a , "Good News About D i s a s t e r " , P s y c h o l o g y T o -D a y ,

1977 O cto b er, pp. 93-94, 124, 126.

T a y l o r , V e r t a A ., (I. A l e x a n d e r Ross and E .L . Q u a r a n t e l l i , D e l i v e r y

1976 o f M e n t a l H e a l t h S e r v i c e s i n D i s a s t e r s : The X e n ia
T o rn a d o and Some I m p l i c a t i o n s , The D i s a s t e r R e s e a r c h
C e n t e r Book and M onograph S e r i e s , 11, The Ohio S t a t e
U n iv ersIty .

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Thomas, J a n e t , B e r n i c e McCowin, Mary T i n g e y and M a r g a r e t Thomas

1977 ( E d s . ) , T h a t Day In J u n e : R e f l e c t i o n s On The T e to n Dam
D i s a s t e r , R e x h u rg , I d a h o : R ic k s C o l l e g e P r e s s .

T i e r n e y , K a t h l e e n J . and B a r b a r a B a i s d e n , C r i s i s I n t e r v e n t i o n
1979 P ro g ra m s For D i s a s t e r V i c t i m s : A S o u r c e Book and M anual
f o r S m a l l e r C o m m u n itie s , DHEW P u b l i c a t i o n No. (ADM)
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T itc h n e r, J . , "M anagem ent and S tu d y o£ P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e sp o n se to

1970 T ra u m a " , J o u r n a l o f T ra u m a , v o l . 10, 9 7 4 - 9 8 0 .

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1976 and The S t a n d a r d J o u r n a l , I d a h o .

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1974 S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , R e a d i n g , M a s s . : A d d is o n - W e s le y
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1950 N a t u r a l H i s t o r y oT P s y c h i a t r i c Ph e n o me n a" , -Imerican
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1957 C a n a d i a n M e d i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n J o u r n a l , v o l . 76 , 3 8 5 - 3 9 3 .

T y h u r s t , J . S . , "The R o le o f T r a n s i t i o n S t a t e s — I n c l u d i n g D i s a s t e r s —
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1977 F a i l u r e o f t h e T e t o n Dam: A R e p o r t o f F i n d i n g s ,
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U ta h Power a n d L i g h t Company, " S p e c i a l F lo o d I s s u e " , C i r c u i t , S a l t

1976 Lake C i t y , U ta h : U ta h Pow er and L i g h t C o . , J u l y .

V a r n e r , Van, "The T e to n Dam B r e a k : A Time When H e ro e s A re Born"

1977 G u i d e p o s t s : A V i s i t w i t h B i l l y G raham , November.

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1979 L td .

W a l l a c e , A n th o n y F . C . , T o rn a d o i n W o r c l i e s t e r : An e x p l o r a t o r y s t u d y
1956 o f i n d i v i d u a l and community b e h a v i o r i n a n e x tr e m e
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W a l l a c e , A n th o n y I ' . C . , "Mazeway D i s i n t e g r a t i o n : The I n d i v i d u a l ' s

1957 P e r c e p t i o n o f S o c i o - C u l t u r a i D i s o r g a n i z a t i o n " , Human
O r g a n i z a t i o n , 16, n o . 2 (su m m e r), 2 3 - 2 7 .

W e b e r, Max, The T h e o ry o f S o c i a l and Economic O r g a n i z a t i o n , New

1947 Y ork: O x fo rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

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1974 P ress.

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1972 Wyoming V a l l e y A r e a o f P e n n s y l v a n i a " , U n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r .

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1975 C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : MIT Press.

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1954 M a c m i lla n .

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1957 I l l i n o i s : F re e P r e s s .
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1979 B u r d i n , A f t e r t h e C l e a n - u p ; Long Range E f f e c t s o f
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