Week 10

ENG 103
Engineering Materials 2

Electrical Properties
Week 8
(Chapter 19)
Chapter 19 - 1
 Types of Semiconductor

Semiconductor

Intrinsic Extrinsic

Chapter 19 -
 Example of intrinsic semiconductor

• Pure semiconductors without significant amount of impurities.

• Concentration of electrons (n) is equal to the concentration of holes (h) in the
material
n= p=n i
• ni is intrinsic carrier concentration, which is a constant for each material.
• ni equals the electron or hole concentration in an intrinsic material.

Bonding Model

Chapter 19 -
 Intrinsic Semiconduction in Terms of
Electron and Hole Migration

• Concept of electrons and holes:

valence electron hole electron hole
electron Si atom
pair creation pair migration

- + - +

No applied Applied Applied

electric field electric field electric field
Adapted from Fig. 19.11,
• Electrical Conductivity given by: Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
# holes/m3
σ = n e µe + p e µ h
hole mobility
# electrons/m3 electron mobility
Chapter 19 - 4
 Number of Charge Carriers
Intrinsic Conductivity
σ = n e µe + p e µ h

• for intrinsic semiconductor n = p = ni

\ σ = ni|e|(μe + μh)

• Example GaAs
σ 10−6 (Ω ⋅ m)−1
ni = =
e (µe + µ h ) (1.6 x 10−19 C)(0.85 + 0.45 m2 /V ⋅ s)

For GaAs ni = 4.8 x 1024 m-3

Chapter 19 - 5
 Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Conductivity vs T
• Data for Pure Silicon:
-- σ increases with T
-- opposite to metals
σ = ni e (µe + µ h )

−Egap /kT
ni ∝ e

material band gap (eV)

Si 1.11
Ge 0.67
GaP 2.25
CdS 2.40
Selected values from Table 19.3,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Adapted from Fig. 19.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 19 - 6
 Example of Extrinsic Semiconductor (Si)
n type
• n type dopant: e.g. P, As, Sb (Column V elements)
• The n-type dopants serve to increase the electron concentration in
the conduction band.
• The n type dopants are called Donor

Bonding Model

Chapter 19 - Sli
 Example of Extrinsic Semiconductor (Si)
p type
• p type dopant: e.g. B, Ga, In, Al (Column III elements)
• The p-type dopants serve to increase the hole concentration in the
valence band.
• The p type dopants are called Acceptor.

Bonding Model

Chapter 19 - Sli
 Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Conduction
• Intrinsic:
-- case for pure Si
-- # electrons = # holes (n = p)
• Extrinsic:
-- electrical behavior is determined by presence of impurities
that introduce excess electrons or holes
-- n ≠ p
• n-type Extrinsic: (n >> p) • p-type Extrinsic: (p >> n)
Phosphorus atom Boron atom
hole
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ conduction 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
σ ≈ n e µe electron σ ≈ p e µh
4+ 5+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 3+ 4+ 4+
valence
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ electron 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

Adapted from Figs. 19.12(a)

no applied Si atom no applied
& 19.14(a), Callister & electric field electric field
Rethwisch 9e. Chapter 19 - 9
 1.3.2 Donor and Acceptor in the Band
Model

Ionization energy of selected donors and acceptors in silicon

Donors Acceptors
Dopant Sb P As B Al In
Ionization energy, E c –E d or E a –E v (meV) 39 44 54 45 57 160

Chapter 19 -
 Visualization of donor action
by using energy band model

• The dopant atom

Ec
can be ionized to
give the extra + +
electron to the Donor levels
conduction band.

Ev

Chapter 19 -
 Visualization of acceptor action by using
energy band model
Carriers from the thermal activation of
electrons from valence band to conduction
• The acceptor atom can Ec
be ionized by accepting
electrons from
neighboring atoms ,
leaving holes in the
valence band

_ _ Acceptor levels

Ev

Holes arising from electrons in the valence

band occupying the acceptor levels
Chapter 19 -
 Impact of Temperature
• At T = 0 K all the donors or acceptors are neutral.
• As T increases, we will begin to see the ionization of the
donors and acceptors.
• Typically at room temperature all the donors and acceptors
are ionized.

n type

p type

Chapter 19 -
 Extrinsic Semiconductors
Conductivity vs. Temperature
• Data for Doped Silicon: doped
-- σ increases doping undoped
-- reason: imperfection sites 3
lower the activation energy to

concentration (1021/m3)
Conduction electron
produce mobile electrons.

freeze-out
2

extrinsic

intrinsic
• Comparison: intrinsic vs
extrinsic conduction... 1
-- extrinsic doping level:
1021/m3 of a n-type donor 0
impurity (such as P).
-- for T < 100 K: "freeze-out“, 0 200 400 600 T (K)
thermal energy insufficient to
Adapted from Fig. 19.17, Callister & Rethwisch
excite electrons. 9e. (From S. M. Sze, Semiconductor Devices, Physics
-- for 150 K < T < 450 K: "extrinsic" and Technology. Copyright © 1985 by Bell Telephone
Laboratories, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley
-- for T >> 450 K: "intrinsic" & Sons, Inc.)

Chapter 19 - 14
To be continued

Chapter 19 - 15
 Hall Effect
A Hall effect experiment can
determine the material’s
(i) majority charge carrier type,
(ii) concentration,
(iii) and mobility.
• This Hall effect is a result of
the phenomenon by which a
magnetic field applied
perpendicular to the direction
of motion of a charged particle
exerts a force on the particle Schematic demonstration of the Hall effect.
Positive and/or negative charge carriers
perpendicular to both the that are part of the Ix current are deflected
magnetic field and the particle by the magnetic field Bz and give rise to the
Hall voltage, VH.
motion directions.

Chapter 19 - 16
 Hall Effect
• In response to an externally applied E-field, the
electrons and/or holes move in the x direction and
give rise to a current Ix.
• When a B-field is imposed in the positive z
direction (denoted as Bz), the resulting force on
the charge carriers causes them to be deflected in
the y direction—holes (positively charged
carriers) to the right specimen face and electrons
(negatively charged carriers) to the left face.
• Thus, a voltage, termed the Hall voltage VH, is
established in the y-direction.
• The magnitude of VH depends on Ix, Bz, and the
specimen thickness d as

• RH is the Hall coefficient, which is a constant for a given

material. Remark: VH has different
• For metals, in which conduction is by electrons, RH is negative polarity for positive and
and is given by negative charge carriers

Since Then Chapter 19 - 17

 Semiconductor Devices
Why semiconductor materials are important in electronic devices?
• The unique electrical properties of semiconductors permit their
use in devices to perform specific electronic functions (e.g.
amplification, switching).
• Diodes and transistors are two familiar examples which have
replaced old-fashioned vacuum tubes.
What are the advantages of semiconductor devices (solid-state
devices)?
• Small size, compact, low power consumption.
• Vast numbers of extremely small circuits, each consisting of
numerous electronic devices, may be incorporated onto a small
silicon chip.
• The invention of semiconductor devices is responsible for the
advancement and extremely rapid growth of a host of new
industries in the past few years. Chapter 19 - 18
 p-n Junction
• It is the building block of semiconductor devices.
• It forms an important part of many different devices such as bipolar
junction transistors, junction field effect transistors, LEDs, LASERs,
detectors, solar cells. acceptor ions

What is a p-n junction ? p type

• A p-region is made by diffusing n type

p-type dopant into an n-type
semiconductor.
• At the surface the semiconductor
will by p-type.
• Deeper in the semiconductor
where Nd > Na the semiconductor
is n-type.
• The dividing line between the two
regions is where Nd = Na, is
known as the metallurgical
junction. Chapter 19 -
 p-n Rectifying Junction
• Allows flow of electrons in one direction only (e.g., useful
to convert alternating current to direct current).

p-type n-type
è No applied potential: + + + - -
no net current flow. + + -
- -
Recombination zone
è Forward bias: carriers
flow through p-type and p-type + - n-type
+ + -
n-type regions; holes and ++- - -
electrons recombine at + -
p-n junction; current flows.

n-type -
èReverse bias: carriers + p-type
flow away from p-n junction; - + + - - +
junction region depleted of + + - -
carriers; little current flow.
Adapted from Fig.
19.21, Callister & Chapter 19 - 20
Rethwisch 9e.
 Energy band structure of a p-n junction
a)
Ef is constant at
equilibrium
b)
Ec and Ev are known
relative to Ef

c) Ec and Ev are smooth,

the exact shape to be
determined.

d) A depletion layer
exists at the PN
junction where n » 0
and p » 0.

*Depletion layer means that the layer is depleted of electrons and holes Chapter 19 -
 Properties of Rectifying Junction

Fig. 19.22, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. Fig. 19.23, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
*Remark: At very high reverse bias voltage, a large
number of carriers are generated, which gives rise to a
very abrupt increase in current. This is called breakdown. Chapter 19 - 22
 Transistor
• Transistors, which are extremely important semiconducting
devices in today’s microelectronic circuitry, are capable of
two primary types of function.
• First, they can perform the same operation as their
vacuum-tube precursor, the triode—that is, they can
amplify an electrical signal.
• In addition, they serve as switching devices in computers
for the processing and storage of information.
• The two major types are
èthe junction (or bimodal or bipolar) transistor.
èthe metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor
(abbreviated as MOSFET).
• Three terminals devices; use of the voltage between 2
terminals to control the current flow in the third terminal.
Chapter 19 - 23
 Junction Transistor
• The junction transistor is
composed of two p–n
junctions, either the n–p–n or
the p–n–p configuration.
• A very thin n-type base
region is sandwiched between
p-type emitter and collector
regions.
• The circuit that includes the
emitter–base junction
(junction 1) is forward
biased, whereas a reverse bias Fig. 19.24, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
voltage is applied across the
base–collector junction
(junction 2). (Active Mode)
Chapter 19 - 24
 Junction Transistor
• Because the emitter is p-type and junction 1 is
forward biased, large numbers of holes enter the
base region.
• These injected holes are minority carriers in the n-
type base, and some combine with the majority
electrons. However, if the base is extremely
narrow (thin), most of these holes will be swept
through the base without recombination, then
across junction 2 and into the p-type collector.
• Then, the holes become a part of the emitter–
collector circuit.
• A small increase in input voltage within the
emitter–base circuit produces a large increase in
current across junction 2.
• This large increase in collector current is also
reflected by a large increase in voltage across the
load resistor, which is shown in the circuit in the
previous slide.
Chapter 19 - 25
 MOSFET
• (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field
Effect Transistor) MOSFET
• The conductivity of the channel is
varied by the presence of an
electric field imposed on the gate.
• e.g. Imposition of a positive field on
the gate drives charge carriers (in
this case holes) out of the channel,
Fig. 19.26, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
thereby reducing the electrical
conductivity.
• A small alteration in the field at the
gate produces a relatively large
variation in current between the
source and the drain.

*The MOSFET described here is a depletion-mode p-type

Chapter 19 - 26
 Applications of Transistors
• In computers
è Transistors also act as switching devices.
è A feature used for arithmetic and logical operations, and also for information
storage in computers.
è Computer numbers and functions are expressed in terms of a binary code (0, 1).
è Transistors within a digital circuit operate as switches (on and off).
è Thus, a single number may be represented by a collection of circuit elements
containing transistor) when they are appropriately switched.
• Flash (Solid–state Drive) Memory
è Information is stored on a chip composed of a
very large number of memory cells.
è Each cell consists of an array of transistors similar
to the MOSFETs.
è The primary difference is that flash memory
transistors have two gates instead of just one as for the MOSFETs
• Microelectronic Circuitry
è Integrated circuits
è Small, compact, low cost
Chapter 19 - 27
To be continued

Chapter 19 - 28
 Electrical properties of Polymer
• Most polymeric materials are poor conductors of electricity due to the unavailability
of large numbers of free electrons to participate in the conduction process.
• Conducting polymers can be synthesized with conductivities as high as 1.5×107
(ohm m)-1
• Each of these polymers contains a system of alternating single and double bonds
and/or aromatic units in the polymer chain.
• The valence electrons associated with the alternating single and double chain-bonds
are delocalized, which means they are shared among the backbone atoms in the
polymer chain.
• They have band structures similar to semiconductors/insulators.
• They become conductive when doped with appropriate impurities such as AsF5,
SbF5, or iodine etc.
• The mechanism by which large number of free electrons and holes are generated in
conducting polymers is complex and not well understood.
• Advantages: Lightweight, flexible, bandgap tunable, low costs.

Chapter 19 - 29
 Dielectric Behavior
• A dielectric material is one that is electrically
insulating and exhibits or may be made to exhibit an
electric dipole structure.(i.e. a separation of positive
and negative electrically charged entities on a
molecular or atomic level.

• As a result of dipole interactions with electric fields,

dielectric materials are used in capacitors.

Chapter 19 - 30
 Capacitance
• When a voltage is applied across a capacitor, one plate
becomes positively charged and the other negatively
charged, with the corresponding electric field directed
from the positive to the negative plates.
• The capacitance C is related to the quantity of charge
stored on either plate Q by

where V is the voltage applied across the capacitor.

• The units of capacitance are coulombs per volt, or
farads (F).

Chapter 19 - 31
 Capacitance
• Consider a parallel-plate capacitor with a vacuum in the region
between the plates.
• The capacitance can be computed from the relationship

Chapter 19 - 32
 Capacitance
If a dielectric material is inserted into the region within
the plates then

which is greater than unity;

represents the increase in charge-
storing capacity upon insertion of
the dielectric medium between the
plates
Chapter 19 - 33
 Field Vectors and Polarization
• Every electric dipole, there is a separation between a positive and a
negative electric charge.
• An electric dipole moment p is associated with each dipole as
follows:

• where q is the magnitude of each dipole charge

and d is the distance of separation between
them.
• A dipole moment is a vector that is directed
from the negative to the positive charge.
• In the presence of an electric field 𝓔, which is
also a vector quantity, a force (or torque) comes
to bear on an electric dipole to orient it with the
applied field;
• The process of dipole alignment is polarization. Chapter 19 - 34
 Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance

• The surface charge density D, or quantity of charge per unit area of

capacitor plate (C/m2), is proportional to the electric field.
• When a vacuum is present, then

• For the dielectric case,

• D is also called the dielectric displacement.
• Vacuum situation (Fig. a)—where a charge of +Q0 is stored on the top plate and
-Q0 on the bottom plate.

Chapter 19 - 35
When a dielectric is introduced and an electric field is applied:
• The entire solid within the plates becomes polarized (Fig. c).
• As a result of this polarization, there is a net accumulation of
negative charge of magnitude –Q’ at the dielectric surface near the
positively charged plate.
• A net accumulation of +Q’ charge at the surface near to the negative
plate.
• The induced charge from the dielectric (+Q’ or –Q’ ) can be thought of
as nullifying some of the charge that originally existed on the plate
for a vacuum (– Q0 or +Q0).
• Thus, the charge on each plate is now Q0 +Q’, having been increased
by an amount Q’.

The increased charge-storing capacity

The dipole arrangement in an resulting from the polarization of a
unpolarized dielectric dielectric material. Chapter 19 - 36
• In the presence of a dielectric, the charge density between the plates
can be expressed as:

where P is the polarization, or the increase in charge density above

that for a vacuum because of the presence of the dielectric; P=Q’/A,
where A is the area of each plate. The units of P are the same as for
D (C/m2).
As we know and

Then P is proportional to 𝓔 (E-Field)

Chapter 19 - 37
Primary and Derived Units for Various Electrical
Parameters and Field Vectors

Chapter 19 - 38
 Type of Polarization
• The polarization is the alignment of permanent or
induced atomic or molecular dipole moments with
an externally applied electric field.
• There are three types of polarization
èElectronic Polarization
èIonic Polarization
èOrientation Polarization
• Dielectric materials typically exhibit at least one
of these polarization types, depending on the
material and the manner of external field
application.
Chapter 19 - 39
 Electronic Polarization
• It results from a displacement of the center of the negatively
charged electron cloud relative to the positive nucleus of an
atom by the electric field.
• This polarization type is found in all dielectric materials and
exists only while an electric field is present.

Chapter 19 - 40
 Ionic Polarization
• Ionic polarization occurs only in materials that are ionic.
• An applied field acts to displace cations in one direction and
anions in the opposite direction, which gives rise to a net
dipole moment.

No E-Field Apply E-Field

Chapter 19 - 41
 Orientation Polarization
• Orientation polarization, is found only in substances
that possess permanent dipole moments.
• Polarization results from a rotation of the permanent
moments into the direction of the applied field.
• This alignment tendency is counteracted by the thermal
vibrations of the atoms, such that polarization
decreases with increasing temperature.
No E-Field Apply E-Field

The total polarization P of a substance is equal to the sum of

the electronic, ionic, and orientation polarizations.
Chapter 19 - 42
 Frequency Dependence of the
Dielectric Constant
• In ac, with each direction reversal,
the dipoles attempt to reorient with
the field.
• This process requires some time.
• The reorientation time depends on Dipole orientations for (a) one polarity of an
the ease with which the particular alternating electric field and (b) the reversed
polarity.
dipoles are capable of realignment.
• The relaxation frequency is taken as
the reciprocal of this minimum
reorientation time.
• A dipole cannot keep shifting
orientation direction when the
frequency of the applied electric
field exceeds its relaxation
frequency and, therefore, it will not Variation of dielectric constant with frequency
make a contribution to the dielectric of an alternating electric field. Electronic, ionic, and
constant. orientation polarization contributions to the dielectric
Chapter 19 - 43
constant are indicated.
 Dielectric Strength
• When very high electric fields are applied across
dielectric materials, large numbers of electrons may
suddenly be excited to energies within the conduction
band.
• The current through the dielectric by the motion of these
electrons increases dramatically;
• This phenomenon is known as dielectric breakdown.
• The dielectric strength, also called the breakdown
strength, represents the magnitude of an electric field
necessary to produce breakdown.

Chapter 19 - 44
Dielectric Materials

Chapter 19 - 45
 Other Electrical Characteristics of Materials
Ferroelectricity
• The group of dielectric materials called ferroelectrics exhibit
spontaneous polarization— (i.e polarization in the absence of an
electric field.
• Example: BaTiO3
Piezoelectricity
• Electric polarization (i.e., an electric field or voltage) is induced
in the piezoelectric crystal as a result of a mechanical strain
(dimensional change) produced from the application of an
external force.
• Inverse piezoelectric effect: a mechanical strain results from the
imposition of an electric field.
• Example: Perovskites such as BaTiO3, PbZrO3 etc.
Chapter 19 - 46
 Ferroelectric Materials
• Experience spontaneous polarization
• The dipole moment results from the relative displacements of the O2- and Ti4+ ions
from their symmetrical positions. (because the unit cell is in tetragonal symmetry)
• BaTiO3 exhibits ferroelectric below 120 ℃.
• The unit cell becomes cubic above 120 ℃ and ferroelectric behaviors ceases.

Fig. 19.35, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 19 - 47
 Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectricity
– application of stress induces voltage
– application of voltage induces dimensional change
σ

stress-free with applied

σ stress
Adapted from Fig. 19.36, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(© 1989 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.)

https://www.explainthatstuff.com/piezoelectricity.html Chapter 19 - 48
 Summary
• Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
-- material parameters
-- geometry independent
• Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...
-- differ in range of conductivity values
-- differ in availability of electron excitation states
• For metals, resistivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- addition of imperfections
-- plastic deformation
• For pure semiconductors, conductivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- doping [e.g., adding B to Si (p-type) or P to Si (n-type)]

Chapter 19 - 49
 Summary
• p-n junction
-- I-V characteristics at forward and reverse bias
-- BJT, MOSFET
-- Significance in electronic devices and applications
•Electrical Properties of Polymers
-- Band structure: LUMO, HOMO
-- Advantages of using conducting polymers in semiconductor devices
•Dielectric Materials
--Effect of Dielectric behavior on capacitance
-- Types of polarizations
-- Impact of frequency on the dielectric constant
-- Dielectric Breakdown
• Other electrical characteristics
-- ferroelectricity
-- piezoelectricity

Chapter 19 - 50