Syllabus Unit-I: Unit-I Introduction To Measurement Systems and Passive Sensors

Syllabus UNIT-I
UNIT-I
Introduction to Measurement Systems and Passive Sensors
Introduction to Measurement Systems
 General Concepts and Terminology
 Measurement Systems
 Sensors Classification
 General input-output Configuration
Passive Sensors
1. Resistive Sensors
 Potentiometer
 Strain Gages
 Resistive Temperature Detectors
 Thermistors
 Light Dependent Resistors
 Resistive Hygrometers
2. Capacitive Sensors
 Variable Capacitor
 Differential Capacitor
3. Inductive Sensors
 Reluctance Variation Sensors
 Eddy current Sensors
 Linear Variable Differential Transformers
 Magneto Elastic Sensors
 Electromagnetic sensors
Touch Sensors
Proximity Sensors
Textbooks to be referred:
1. Sensors and Signal Conditioning, Ramon Pallas-Areny, John G. Webster, 2nd Edition.
2. Measurement Systems – Applications and Design – by Doeblin E.O., 4/e, McGraw Hill
International, 1990.
3. Principles of Industrial Instrumentation – Patranabis D. TMH. End edition 1997
4. Electronic Instrumentation by H. S. Kalsi
MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

Introduction Measurement Systems UNIT-I
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Sensor:
The word sensor is originated from the Latin word ―Sentire‖, which means Perceive.
Sensor is a device which responds to an input quality by generating processable outputs. The
input and output is related through the measurements.
Or
Sensors are devices that detect the feature quantity of a measurement object and
convert this quantity into a readable signal, which is displayed on an instrument.
1.1.2 Technology:
The word technology is derived from the Greek word ―Tekhnologia‖, which means
systematic treatment.
Technology is the way we apply the scientific knowledge for practical purpose.
Or
Transformation of the techniques studied for real time applications.
1.1.3 Sensor Technology:
Technology that uses sensors to acquire information by detecting the physical,
chemical, or biological property quantities and convert them into readable signal.
Figure 1.1: Different types of Sensors

1.2 General Concepts and Terminology

1.2.1 Measuring:
Measuring is basically a process or operation used to monitor or the controlling
process.
1.2.2 Measurand:
The Physical Quantity which is used to measure.
1.2.3 Measurement:
The process of determining the amount, degree, or capacity of a measurand with the
accepted standards of the system units.
1.2.4 Instrument:
A device or mechanism used to determine the present value of the quantity under
measurement.
1.2.5 Problems with instruments:
 The major problem encountered with any measuring instrument is the error.
Therefore, it is obviously necessary to select the appropriate measuring instrument
and measurement method which minimizes error.
 To avoid errors in any experimental work, careful planning, execution and evaluation
of the experiment are essential.
 A knowledge of the performance characteristics of an instrument is essential for
selecting the most suitable instrument for specific measuring jobs.
 It consists of two basic characteristics—static and dynamic.
1.2.6 Static Characteristics:
The static characteristics of an instrument are, in general, considered for instruments
which are used to measure an unvarying process condition.
Accuracy:
The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to the expected
(desired) value.
Resolution:
The smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will respond.
Precision :
A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements.

i.e. successive reading do not differ. (Precision is the consistency of the instrument output for
a given value of input).
Precision can also be expressed mathematically as
P = 1- |(Xn -Xn)/Xn| where Xn = value of the nth measurement
Xn = Average of all measurements
Expected value:
The design value, i.e. the most probable value that calculations indicate one should
expect to measure.
Sensitivity:
The ratio of the change in output (response) of the instrument to a change of input or
measured variable.
Error:
The deviation of the true value from the desired value.
Error may be expressed either as absolute or as percentage of error.
Absolute error may be defined as the difference between the expected value of the
variable and the measured value of the variable.
e = Yn – Xn
where e = absolute error Yn = expected value Xn = measured value
% Error = [(Yn – Xn ) / Yn ] x 100
It is more frequently expressed as a accuracy rather than error.
Therefore A = 1 – |(Yn – Xn ) / Yn |
where A is the relative accuracy.
Accuracy is expressed as % accuracy
a = 100% – % error = = A x 100 %
where a is the % accuracy.
1.2.7 Dynamic characteristics:
Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes in the measured variables.
Speed of Response:
It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the measured
quantity.
Dynamic Error:
It is the difference between the true value of a quantity changing with time and the
value indicated by the instrument, if no static error is assumed.

Fidelity:
The ability of the system to reproduce the output in the same form as the input. It is
the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable without
dynamic error (faithful reproduction).
Lag:
It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the
measured variable.
1.2.8 Gain:
Gain means amplification. If a signal is applied to a circuit such as the amplifier shown in
Figure 1.2 and the output of the circuit has greater amplitude than the input signal, the circuit
has gain. Gain is simply the ratio of the output to the input.
Figure 1.2: Amplifier

 Gain in terms of voltage, GV = Vout/Vin
 Gain in terms of Current, GI = Iout/Iin
 Gain in terms of Power, GP = Pout/Pin
 Power = Voltage X Current
For cascaded systems the Overall Gain will be product of individual Gains.
The gain of a circuit is usually expressed in decibels (dB), a unit of measurement that
was originally created as a way of expressing the hearing response of the human ear to
various sound levels.
 The formulas for computing the decibel gain of a circuit are
 GV = 20 log(Vout/Vin)
 GI = 20log(Iout/Iin)
 GP = 10log(Pout/Pin)

1.3 Measurement Systems

This section develops the concept of the functional elements of an instrument or
measurement system.
Consider Figure 1.3, which represents a possible arrangement of functional elements
in an instrument and includes all the basic functions considered necessary for a description of
any instrument.
Figure 1.3: Functional elements of an instrument or a measurement system

Primary Sensing Element:
Receives energy from the Measuring medium and produces an output depending in
some way of measurand.
Variable Conversion Element:
For an instrument to perform the desired function, it may necessary to convert
variable from one form to another form.
Variable Manipulation Element:
An element performs changes in the numerical value according to some definite rule
and preserves the physical nature of the variable.
Data Transmission Element:
Sometimes observer locates at another location so we need to transmit the measured
information.
Data Storage/Play back Element:
Store the measured value.
Data Presentation Element:
Displaying, Monitoring and controlling of the measured variable can be done through
Data Presentation element.
Figure 1.4 shows the in detail functions, dataflow and control of a measurement
system.

Figure 1.4: Functions and data flow in a measurement and control system
Transducers, Sensors, and Actuators:
A transducer is a device that converts a signal from one physical form to a
corresponding signal having a different physical form. Therefore, it is an energy converter.
Transducers are two types: Sensors and Actuators.
Devices offering an electric output are called sensors/detectors. Most measurement
systems use electric signals, and hence rely on sensors.
Actuators are transducers used to present the data for display means which converts
electrical signal into appropriate signal which can understand by the observer.
Signal Conditioning and Display:
Signal conditioners are measuring system elements that start with an electric sensor
output signal and then yield a signal suitable for transmission, display, or recording, or that
better meet the requirements of a subsequent standard equipment or device.
Transmission: Includes Amplification, Modulation, Demodulation
Display: The display of measured results can be in an analog (optical, acoustic, or tactile) or
in a digital (optical) form.
Recording: The recording can be magnetic, electronic, or on paper.
A/D Converters: sensor output signals, which may have amplitude in the millivolt range,
must be conditioned before they can be applied to the ADC.

Interfaces, Data Domains, and Conversion:

Some authors use the term interface to refer to signal-modifying elements that operate
in the electrical domain, even when changing from one data domain to another, such as an
ADC.
A data domain is the name of a quantity used to represent or transmit information.
The concept of data domains and conversion between domains helps in describing sensors
and electronic circuits associated with them. Figure 1.5 represents the classification of data
domains.
Figure 1.5: Classification of Data Domains
1.4 Sensor Classification

A great number of sensors are available for different physical quantities. In order to
study them, it is advisable first to classify sensors according to some criterion.
In considering the need for a power supply, sensors are classified as modulating or
self-generating. In modulating (or passive) sensors, most of the output signal power comes
from an auxiliary power source. The input only controls the output. Conversely, in self-
generating (or Active) sensors, output power comes from the input.

In considering output signals, we classify sensors as analog or digital. In analog

sensors the output changes in a continuous way at a macroscopic level. The information is
usually obtained from the amplitude, although sensors with output in the time domain are
usually considered as analog. The output of digital sensors takes the form of discrete steps or
states. Digital sensors do not require an ADC, and their output is easier to transmit than that
of analog sensors. Digital output is also more repeatable and reliable and often more accurate.
But regrettably, digital sensors cannot measure many physical quantities.
In considering the operating mode, sensors are classified in terms of their function
in a deflection or a null mode. In deflection sensors the measured quantity produces a
physical effect that generates in some part of the instrument a similar but opposing effect that
is related to some useful variable. For example, a dynamometer to measure force is a sensor
where the force to be measured deflects a spring to the point where the force it exerts,
proportional to its deformation, balances the applied force. Null-type sensors attempt to
prevent deflection from the null point by applying a known effect that opposes that produced
by the quantity being measured. There is an imbalance detector and some means to restore
balance. In a weighing scale, for example, the placement of a mass on a pan produces an
imbalance indicated by a pointer. The user has to place one or more calibrated weights on the
other pan until a balance is reached, which can be observed from the pointer's position.
TABLE 1.1: Sensor Classifications According to Different Exhaustive Criteria
Criteria Sensor Classes Example
Self generating(Active) Thermocouple

Based on Power Supply
Modulating(Passive) Thermistors
Analog Potentiometer
Based on Signal
Digital Position encoder
Deflection Deflection accelerometer

Based on operation mode
Null Servo-accelerometer

1.5 General Input and Output Configuration

In a measurement system the sensor is chosen to gather information about the
measured quantity and to convert it to an electric signal. A priori it would be unreasonable to
expect the sensor to be sensitive to only the quantity of interest and also to expect the output
signal to be entirely due to the input signal. No measurement is ever obtained under ideal
circumstances; therefore we must address real situations. The output signal may effects by
different inputs as shown in figure 1.6. Which are as follow:
Figure 1.6: Generalized input-output configuration

Desired Input:
Quantity that specifically intended to measure.
Interfering Input:
Quantity to which the measuring system is unintentionally sensitive.
Modified Input:
Quantity that causes change in input and output relations for the desired and
interfering inputs.
The above concepts can be clarified by means of specific examples. Consider the
mercury manometer used for differential-pressure measurement as shown in figure 1.7. The
desired inputs are the pressures ρ 1 and ρ 2 whose difference causes the output displacement x,
which can be read off the calibrated scale. Figures 1.7 b and c show the action of two possible
interfering inputs. In Fig. 1.7 b the manometer is mounted on some vehicle that is
accelerating. A simple analysis shows that there will be an output x even though the

differential pressure might be zero. Thus if you are trying to measure pressures under such
circumstances, an error will be engendered because of the interfering acceleration input.
Similarly, in Fig. 1.7c, if the manometer is not properly aligned with the gravity vector, it
may give an output signal x even though no pressure difference exists. Thus the tilt angle ɵ is
an interfering input. (It is also a modifying input.)
Figure 1.7: Spurious Inputs of Manometer

Modifying inputs for the manometer include ambient temperature and gravitational
force. Ambient temperature manifests its influence in a number of ways. First, the calibrated
scale changes length with temperature; thus the proportionality factor relating ρ1 - ρ2 to x is
modified whenever temperature varies from its basic calibration value. Also, the density of
mercury varies with temperature, which again leads to a change in the proportionality factor.
A change in gravitational force resulting from changes in location of the manometer, such as
moving it to another country or putting it aboard a spaceship, leads to a similar modification
in the scale factor. Note that the effects of both the desired and the interfering inputs may be
altered by the modifying inputs.
From figure 1.7 a we say that ρ1-ρ2 = gx(pm-pf) which is desired input.
From figure 1.7b we say that ρ1-ρ2 = ρ1-ρ1 = 0 But x ≠ 0 , Here Acceleration is Interfering
Input.
Modifying inputs are Ambient Temperature and Gravitational Force .

1.6 Methods of correction for interfering and modifying inputs

In the design and/or use of measuring instruments, a number of methods for nullifying
or reducing the effects of spurious inputs are available.
1. Method of Inherent Insensitivity
2. Method of High Gain Feedback
3. Method of calculated output corrections
4. Method of Signal Filtering
5. Method of Opposing Inputs
1.6.1 Method of Inherent Insensitivity:
Instrument is designed so that elements of the instrument should inherently be
sensitive to only the desired inputs.
Example:
Temperature is the interfering input of the strain gage. A material is chosen so that
exhibits an extremely low temperature coefficient of resistance while retaining its sensitivity
to strain.
Main problem is this method is finding the suitable material for insensitive to other inputs.
1.6.2 Method of High Gain Feedback:
The method ofhigh-gain feedback is exemplified by the system shown in Fig. 1.8b.
Suppose we wish to measure a voltage e; by applying it to a motor whose torque acts on a
spring, causing a displacement X0 , which may be measured on a calibrated scale. By proper
design, the displacement X0 might be made proportional to the voltage e; according to
X0 = KMO KSP ei
Where KMO and KSP are appropriate constants. This arrangement, shown in Fig. 1.8a, is called
an open-loop system. If modifying inputs iM1 and iM2 exist, they cause changes in KMo and
KSP that lead to errors in the relation between ei and x0. These errors are in direct proportion
to the changes in KMO and KSP. Suppose, instead, we construct a system as in Fig. 1.8b. Here
the output X0 is measured by the feedback device, which produces a voltage e0 proportional
to X0. This voltage is subtracted from the input voltage ei, and the difference is applied to an
amplifier which drives the motor and thereby the spring to produce x0. We may write

Figure 1.8: Use of feedback to reduce effect of spurious inputs

Suppose, now, that we design KAM to be very large (a "high-gain" system), so that
KAMKMOKSPKFB >> 1, Then Xo = (ei/KFB).
The significance of above is that the effect of variations in KMO, KSP, and KAM (as a
result of modifying inputs iM1, iM2, and iM3) on the relation between input ei and output X0 has
been made negligible. We now require only that KFB stay constant (unaffected by iM4) in
order to maintain constant input-output calibration as shown by above equation.
1.6.3 Method of calculated output corrections:
The method of calculated output corrections requires one to measure or estimate the
magnitudes of the interfering and/or modifying inputs and to know quantitatively how they
affect the output. With this information, it is possible to calculate corrections which may be
added to or subtracted from the indicated output so as to leave (ideally) only that component
associated with the desired input.
Example:
In the manometer the effects of temperature on both the calibrated scale's length and the
density of mercury may be quite accurately computed if the temperature is known. The local
gravitational acceleration is also known for a given elevation and latitude, so that this effect
may be corrected by calculation.

1.6.4 Method of signal filtering:

The method of signal filtering is based on the possibility of introducing certain
elements ("filters") into the instrument which in some fashion block the spurious signals, so
that their effects on the output are removed or reduced.
The filter may be applied to any suitable signal in the instrument, be it input, output, or
intermediate signal as shown in figure 1.9.
Figure 1.9: General principle of filtering

1.6.5 Method of opposing inputs:
The method of opposing inputs consists of intentionally introducing into the
instrument interfering and /or modifying inputs that tend to cancel the bad effects of the
unavoidable spurious inputs as shown in figure 1.10.
Figure 1.10: Method of Opposing Inputs

Example:
In strain gage introducing dummy gage in adjacent arm of Wheatstone bridge to
eliminate interfering temperature effect.

Resistive Sensors UNIT-I
1.7 Resistive Sensor

1.7.1 Resistance:
Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric
charge. This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is
represented by the symbol R. The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional
area A depends on A and its length , as shown in Fig 1.11.
Figure 1.11: Resistor

We can represent resistance in mathematical form: R = ρl/A
Where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material. Units are ohm-meters.
1.7.2 Ohm’s Law:
Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current i
flowing through the resistor.
v α i ; v = i R ; R = v/i
Units of resistance is ohms denoted as Ω
1.7.3 Resistive Sensor:
Sensors based on the variation of the electric resistance of a device are Resistive Sensors. The
variation is because many physical quantities affect the electric resistance of a material.
Different Types of resistive sensors are:
1. Potentiometer ( Displacement is physical quantity and ‘l’ varies)
2. Strain Gages(Strain is physical quantity and ‘l/A’ varies)
3. Resistive Temperature Detectors( Temperature is Physical Quantity and ‘ρ’
Varies)
4. Thermistors ( Temperature is Physical Quantity and ‘ρ’ Varies)
5. Light Dependent Resistors ( Light is Physical Quantity and ‘ρ’ Varies)
6. Resistive Hygrometers ( Humidity is Physical Quantity and ‘ρ’ Varies)

1.8 Potentiometer
A resistive potentiometer (pot) consists of a resistance element provided with a sliding
contact, called a wiper. The motion of the sliding contact may be translatory or rotational.
Some have a combination of both, with resistive elements in the form of a helix which are
shown in figure 1.13.
Symbol of ‘Pot’ is shown in figure 1.12a where Arrow indicates that the resistance
variation responds to a mechanical action. The wiper can also be connected to an end
terminal to obtain a variable resistor (rheostat) as shown in figure 1.12b.
Figure 1.12: a) POT symbol b) Rheostat
Figure 1.13: a) Linear POT b) Rotational POT

c) HELIPOT (Combination of Linear and Circular POT)
1.8.1 Working of Linear Pot:
It is based on the principle of Conversion of mechanical displacement into an electrical
signal. Consider the Linear POT as shown in Figure 1.14.
Figure 1.14: Linear POT

VO = IRA 1.8.1
But by voltage Divider rule
I = VS/(RA+RB) 1.8.2
VO = VS RA/(RA+RB) 1.8.3
We know that Resistance R = ρl/A
For Linear POT Area of cross section is constant and resistivity is constant only varied
quantity is length. So VO can be written as
VO = VS lA/(lA+lB) 1.8.4
From 1.8.4 we can say that Output voltage is depends on the Linear Displacement of the
potentiometer.
1.8.2 Advantages of Potentiometer:
 They are inexpensive.
 Simple to operate and are very useful for applications where the requirements are not
particularly severe.
 They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.
 Electrical efficiency is very high, and they provide sufficient output to allow control
operations.
1.8.3 Disadvantages of Potentiometer:
 When using a linear potentiometer, a large force is required to move the sliding
contacts.
 The sliding contacts can wear out, become misaligned and generate noise.
1.8.4 Applications of potentiometer:
 Elevators
 Liquid-level assemblies
 Fork lift trucks
 Automobile
 Printing
 Spraying
 Robotics.
1.8.5 Specifications:
 Range: 2mm to 8m
 Resistance: 20Ω to 220KΩ
 Resolution: 50μm

1.8.6 Level sensor based on potentiometer:

Figure 1.15 shows a level sensor with response to αR (0 ≤ α ≤1) but with no wiper.
There is a stainless steel base strip with a gold contact stripe on one side. A gold-plated
nichrome wire is precisely wound to form a resistance helix. When the tape is immersed in
liquid, hydrostatic pressure makes the helix wire contact the gold contact stripe and reduces
the output resistance.
Figure 1.15: Level sensor based on potentiometer
1.9 Strain Gage

1.9.1 Strain:
Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force.
or
More specifically, strain is defined as the fractional change in length.
or
When a force is applied to a structure, the components of the structure change slightly in their
dimensions and are said to be strained. Mathematically Strain is Elongation or compression
per unit length.
1.9.2 Strain Gage:
Devices to measure these small changes in dimensions are called strain gages.

1.9.3 Types of Strain Gage:

1. Wire Strain Gage
a. Unbonded Strain Gage
b. Bonded Strain Gage
i. Grid type
ii. Rossette type
iii. Torque type
iv. Helical type
2. Foil Strain Gage
3. Semi Conductor Strain Gage
Figure 1.16: Unbonded Strain Gage
Figure 1.17: Bonded Strain Gages a) Grid b) Rossette c) Torque d) Helix
Figure 1.18: a) Foil Strain Gage b) Semi conductor Strain Gage

 Strain gages are wire or film resistors deposited on a thin, flexible carrier material. The
wire or film is very thin, so it can easily be stressed as shown in figure 1.16.
 Early strain gages were made of thin wires that are folded to obtain high sensitivity in
one direction, while keeping the total dimensions within practical limits as shown in
figure 1.17.
 More popular are the foil gages a thin film of conducting material is deposited on an
insulating backing material and etched to create a meander like structure (the grid) as
shown in figure 1.18a.
1.9.4 Working of Strain Gage:
Principle: Change in the value of the resistivity of the conductor when subjected to strain, a
property called the piezo-resistive effect. Therefore, resistance strain gages are also known as
piezo resistive gages.
The sensitivity of a strain gauge is expressed in relative resistance change per unit of strain.
𝑑𝑅 𝑅
𝐾= 1.9.1
𝑑𝑙 𝑙
Axial Strain, ϵa = dl/l 1.9.2

Transversal Strain, ϵt = dD/D 1.9.3
Poisson's Ratio , v = - ϵt / ϵa 1.9.4
Where K is Gage Factor. We know that: R = ρl/A 1.9.5
Apply logarithm on both sides ln R = ln ρ + ln l – ln A 1.9.6
Now Differentiate dR/R = d ρ/ ρ + dl/l – dA/A 1.9.7
Area of the Conducting material is given by
𝜋𝐷 2
𝐴= 1.9.8
4
Differentiate A w.r.t D
𝑑𝐴 2𝜋𝐷 𝜋𝐷
= = 1.9.9
𝑑𝐷 4 2
𝜋𝐷
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝐷 1.9.10
2
From 1.9.10 and 1.9.8 calculate dA/A

𝑑𝐴 2𝑑𝐷
𝐴= 𝐷 1.9.11
Now Substitute 1.9.11 in 1.9.7
dR/R =d ρ/ ρ + dl/l – 2dD/D
Now divide dR/R with dl/l
(dR/R)/(dl/l) = (d ρ/ ρ )/(dl/l)+1-2 (dD/D)/(dl/l)
K = 1+2 v + (d ρ/ ρ )/ ϵa

1: Resistance change due to change in length

2 v : Resistance Change due to change in area
(d ρ/ ρ )/ ϵa : Resistance change due to Piezo resistive effect
The Poisson ratio in ideal case, ν = 0.5.
For metals of which the strain dependency of the resistivity can be neglected,
K = 1+2 ν
So the gauge factor of a metal strain gauge is K = 2.
In otherwords: the relative resistance change equals twice the strain.
1.9.5 Advantages of Strain Gages:
 Strain gauges have a high gauge factor of about + 130.
 This allows measurement of very small strains, of the order of 0.01 micro strains.
 Strain gauges can be very small in size, ranging in length from 0.7 to 7.0 mm.
 They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.
 Better heat dissipation.
 More Accurate
1.9.6 Disadvantages of strain gages:
 They are very sensitive to changes in temperature.
 They are more expensive.
1.9.7 Applications of strain gage:
 Cantilever beam with an active gage
 Sense shearing strain.
 Pressure
 Flow
 acceleration
1.9.8 Specifications of Strain Gage:
 Range: 0.1 μϵ to 50,000 μϵ
 Gage factor 1.8 to 4.5
 Resistance: 1000 to 5000 Ω
 Active Grid Length: 3 to 10 mm

1.10 Temperature Sensors

The electrical resistance of various materials changes in a reproducible manner with
temperature, thus forming the basis of a temperature-sensing method.
Materials in actual use fall into two main classes:
i) conductors (metals)
ii) semiconductors.
Conducting materials historically came first and traditionally have been called resistance
thermometers or Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD’s)
Semiconductor types appeared later and have been given the generic name Thermistors.
1.10.1 Resistance Temperature detectors:
An RTD (resistance temperature detector) is a temperature detector based upon a variation in
electric resistance.
Figure 1.19 shows the symbol for RTDs. The straight line diagonally crossing the resistor
indicates that it changes linearly and Figure 1.20 different types of RTDs
Figure 1.19 a) Two terminal RTD b) Three Terminal RTD c) Four Terminal RTD.
Figure 1.20 a) Wound type RTD b) Film Resitive RTD

RTDs rely on the positive temperature coefficient for a conductor's resistance.
Working of RTD:
 Platinum, nickel and copper are the metals most commonly used to measure
temperature.
 The resistivity of platinum tends to increase less rapidly at higher temperatures than
for other metals, hence it is a commonly used material for resistance thermometers.
 The temperature range over which platinum has stability is 260–1100°C.
 In a conductor the number of electrons available to conduct electricity does not
significantly change with temperature.

 But when the temperature increases, the vibrations of the atoms around their
equilibrium positions increase in amplitude.
 This results in a greater dispersion of electrons, which reduces their average speed.
Hence, the resistance increases when the temperature rises.
 This relationship between temperature and resistance can be written as
 R = R0(1 + a1 T + a2 T2 + · · · + an Tn)
 where R0 is the resistance at the reference temperature T = 0.
 a1, a2 …. is temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR)
 The number of terms necessary depends on the material, the accuracy required, and
the temperature range to be covered.
 For copper one term, platinum two terms and nickel three terms.
 For Copper RTD Probe, R = R0(1+aT)
 a = (R100-R0)/100°C(R0)
 The sensing element Rs is made of a material having a high temperature coefficient,
and R1, R2, and R5 are made of resistances that are practically constant under normal
temperature changes.
 When no current flows through the galvanometer, the normal principle of
Wheatstone’s bridge states the ratio of resistance is R1/R2 = Rs/R5
 In normal practice, the sensing element is away from the indicator, and its leads have
a resistance, say R3, R4.
 Therefore, R1/R2 = R3+R4+Rs/R5
 Now it resistance Rs changes, balance cannot be maintained and the galvanometer
shows a deflection, which can be calibrated to give a suitable temperature scale.
Figure 1.21 a) RTD Structure b) Bridge Circuit

Advantages of RTD’s:
 The measurement is very accurate.
 The temperature sensitive resistance element can be easily installed and replaced.
 The resistive element response time is of the order of 2 to 10s
 Stability of performance over long periods of time.
 The size of the resistive element may be about 6 – 12 mm in diameter and 12 – 75
mm in length.
Disadvantages of RTD’s:
 High cost
 Need for bridge circuit and power source
Applications of RTD’s:
 Fire Detectors
 Coolant Sensors
 Engine Temperature measurements
Specifications of RTD’s:
1.10.2 Thermistors:
Thermistor comes from ``thermally sensitive resistor'' and applies to temperature dependent
resistors that are based not on conductors as the RTD but on semiconductors.
They are designated as NTC when having a negative temperature coefficient and as PTC
when having a positive temperature coefficient.
Figure shows their respective symbols where the horizontal line at one end of the diagonal
line indicates that the resistance variation is not linear.
a) PTC Thermistor
b) NTC Thermistor
Figure 1.22: a) PTC b) NTC

Thermistors are available commercially in the form of beads, Washer, rods, and disks.
However, most temperature-sensing applications will employ ready-made Probes.
Figure 1.23: Different types of Thermistors

Working of Thermistors:
 Thermistors were made of manganese, nickel, and cobalt oxides which were milled,
mixed in proper proportions with binders, pressed into the desired shape, and sintered.
 Thermistors are based on the temperature dependence of a semiconductor's resistance,
which is due to the variation in the number of available charge carriers and their
mobility.
 When the temperature increases, the number of charge carriers increases too and the
resistance decreases, thus yielding a negative temperature coefficient.
 This dependence varies with the impurities; and when the doping is very heavy, the
semiconductor achieves metallic properties.
1 1
𝐵 −
 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 𝑒 𝑇 𝑇0
 where R0 is the resistance at T0

 B is called the characteristic temperature of the material
Advantages of Thermistors:
 Small size and low cost.
 Good sensitivity in the NTC region.
 The resistive element response time is of the order of 2 to 10s
 Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence of resistance on absolute
temperature.
 Fast response over narrow temperature range.
Disadvantages of Thermistors:
 Unsuitable for wide temperature range.
 Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc. due to high resistance.

Applications of Thermistors:
 Ovens
 Refrigerators
 Digital thermometers
Specifications of Thermistors:
1.10.3 Differences between RTD’s and Thermistors:

RTD’s Thermistors
Made up metals Made up of semi conductors
Has Positive Temperature Coefficient Has Negative Temperature Coefficient
Produces Linear Characteristics Produces Non Linear Characteristics
High Cost Less Cost
Low amount of Self Heating High amount of Self Heating
Highly stable Less Stable
1.11 Light dependent resistors

LDR’s also known as Photo Resistors or photo conductive cells rely on the variation
in electric resistance in a semiconductor caused by the incidence of optical radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation with wavelength from 1 mm to 10 nm and frequency ranges from
300 GHz to 30 PHz. The designing of LDR’s can be done by using Semi-conductor Materials
to allow light are CdS, CdSe, PbS, InS, HgCdTe.
Figure 1.24: LDR a) Symbol b) Structure

1.11.1 Working principle of LDR:

A LDR works on the principle of photoconductivity. Photo conductivity is an optical
phenomenon in which the material Conductivity reduces when light is absorbed by the
materials. When light falls i.e., when the photons fall on the devices, the electrons in the
valence band of the semiconductor material are excited to the conduction band. These
photons in the incident light should have energy greater than the band gap of the
semiconductor material to make the electron jump from the valence band to the conduction
band.
This relationship between photon energy and radiation wave length can be written as
λ = c/v; E = hv ; then λ = ch/E Where c = 3 x 108 ms velocity of light
h = 6.62607004 × 10-34 m2 kg / s Planck’s constant , E is the photon Energy.
The relationship between resistance and illumination is given as
R = AE-α where A, α are constants depends on the material
1.11.2 Advantages of LDR:
 Less Expensive
 Sensitivity is High
 Need very less power
1.11.3 Disadvantages of LDR:
 Response time is very slow
 Less accurate when temperature alters
1.11.4 Applications of LDR:
 Fire Alarm
 Automatic Street Light
 Light Sensors
1.11.5 Specifications of LDR:

1.12 Resistive Hygrometers

 Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in a gas.
 Moisture is the amount of water absorbed or adsorbed in a liquid or solid.
 The mass of water vapor contained in a given volume of gas is called absolute
humidity (g/m3).
 RH is ratio of vapor pressure of the moist air to its saturation vapor pressure at given
temperature and expressed in percentages.
 RH = (e/es) x 100 %
 To Measure Relative humidity we use resistive Hygrometers also known as
Humistors.
Figure 1.25: Resistive Hygrometer a) Structure b) Symbol

1.12.1 Working of Resistive Hygrometer:
 Humistor works on the principle that the Resistance of the material varies when the
material absorbs the moisture.
 Most electrical insulators show a marked decrease in resistivity when their water
content increases.
 To increase the resistivity we add a hygroscopic medium to the insulators those are
salt ((LiCl, BaF2, P2O5), conductive polymer, or treated surface.
 Conductive polymers have superseded salts. They become ionized when permeated
by water, and the ions can move inside them.
 Sensors based on bulk polymer resistance changes are resistant to surface
contamination because the contaminant cannot penetrate the polymer, accurate at high
RH.
1.12.2 Advantages of Resistive Hygrometer:
 Small size
 Low cost.
 Suitable for remote operations.

1.12.3 Disadvantages of Resistive Hygrometer:

 Sensitive to chemical vapors also.
 The output readings may shifted if used with water soluble products
1.12.4 Applications of Resistive Hygrometer:
 Air Conditioners
 Refridgerators
 Ventilators
 Paper Dryers
 Infant Incubators
 Food Storage transport Devices
1.12.5 Specifications of Resistive Hygrometer:

Capacitive Sensors UNIT-I
1.13 Capacitive Sensor

1.13.1 Capacitor:
A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in its electric field. Capacitors are
used extensively in electronics, communications, computers, and power systems. A capacitor
is typically constructed as depicted in Fig 1.26. A capacitor consists of two conducting plates
separated by an insulator (or dielectric). In many practical applications, the plates may be
aluminum foil while the dielectric may be air, ceramic, paper, or mica.
Figure 1.26: Capacitor a) Symbol b) variable c) Structure

1.13.2 Working of Capacitor:
When a voltage source is connected to the capacitor, as in Fig 1.27, the source deposits a
positive charge q on one plate and a negative charge on the other. The capacitor is said to
store the electric charge.
Figure 1.27: Capacitance

The amount of charge stored, represented by q, is directly proportional to the applied
voltage so that q = CV where C, the constant of proportionality, is known as the capacitance
of the capacitor. The unit of capacitance is the farad (F). Capacitance is the ratio of the charge
on one plate of a capacitor to the voltage difference between the two plates, measured in
farads (F). 1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt.

1.13.3 Types of Capacitors:

 Fixed Capacitor
 Variable Capacitors
Figure 1.28: Different types of Capacitors

1.13.4 Capacitive sensors:
Sensors based on the variation of the Capacitance of a device are Capacitive Sensors. The
variation is because many physical quantities affect the Capacitance of a material. Different
Types of Capacitive sensors are:
 Variable Capacitor Sensor
 Differential Capacitor Sensor
1.13.5 Working of variable capacitive sensors:
Capacitance does not depend on q or v. It depends on the physical dimensions of the
capacitor.
The capacitance for two plates is given by C = ϵA/d 1.13.1
For ‘n’ plates C = ϵA(n-1)/d 1.13.2
Where A is the surface area of each plate. d is the distance between the plates
ϵ = ϵ0ϵr where ϵ is the permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates.
where ϵ0 =8.85 pF/m is the permittivity of the vaccum, where ϵr is the relative permittivity.
three factors determine the value of the capacitance:
 The surface area of the plates—the larger the area, the greater the capacitance.
 The spacing between the plates—the smaller the spacing, the greater the capacitance.
 The permittivity of the material—the higher the permittivity, the greater the capacitance.

Figure 1.29: Variable capacitor sensor arrangements

1.13.6 Sensitivity w.r.t Change in area:
Sensitivity of a variable capacitor w.r.t change in area is given as
Ka = dC/dA 1.13.3
From 1.13.2 we can determine K by differentiating them with A
dC/dA = ϵ(n-1)/d
Therefore Sensitivity, Ka = ϵ(n-1)/d 1.13.4
1.13.7 Sensitivity w.r.t Change in distance:
In this configuration one plate is fixed and another plate is movable as shown in figure 1.30.
Figure 1.30: Sensitivity w.r.t Change in Distance arrangement

Initial Capacitance is given as C0 = ϵA/d 1.13.5
Capacitance at distance z is given as Cz = ϵA/z 1.13.6
Overall capacitance is given as C = ϵA/(d+z) 1.13.7
Sensitivity w.r.t change in distance is given by Kd = dC/dz 1.13.8
Differentiate 1.13.7 w.r.t z
dC/dz = - ϵA/(d+z)2 Let x =z/d
dC/dz = -ϵA/d2(1+ x)2
dC/dz = -C0/d(1+x)2
Therefore Sensitivity w.r.t Distance is given by, Kd = (-C0/d)(1-2x+3x2-4x3------------) 1.13.9

1.13.8 Differential Capacitive Sensor:

A differential capacitor consists of two variable capacitors so arranged that they
undergo the same change but in opposite directions. The arrangement is as shown in below
figure 1.31.
Figure 1.31: Differential Capacitor

From Figure 1.31 C1 = ϵA/d+z 1.13.10
C2 = ϵA/d-z 1.13.11
V1 = Vr(C2/C1+C2) 1.13.12
V2 = Vr(C1/C1+C2) 1.13.13
Differential Voltage V1-V2 = Vr(C2-C1)/(C1+C2) = Vr z/d 1.13.14
1.13.9 Sensitivity w.r.t Change in area for Differential Capacitive Sensor:
Figure 1.32: Differential Capacitor by varying area

From figure 1.32 Initial Capacitance is given as C0 = ϵwZ0/d 1.13.15
C1 = ϵw(Z0 - Z)/d 1.13.16
w.r.t 1.13.15 rewrites 1.13.16 as
C1 = C0(Z0 - Z)/Z0 1.13.17
C2 = ϵw(Z0 + Z)/d 1.13.18
w.r.t 1.13.15 rewrites 1.13.18 as
C2 = C0(Z0 + Z)/Z0 1.13.19

1.13.9 Advantages of Capacitive Sensor:

 It is lower in cost.
 It can detect through containers of certain types also.
 It has higher sensitivity and can be operational with small magnitude of force.
1.13.10 Disadvantages of Capacitive Sensor:
 It is very much sensitive to changes in environmental conditions such as temperature,
humidity etc. This will affect the performance.
 The measurement of capacitance is hard compare to measurement of resistance.
1.13.11 Applications of Capacitive Sensor:
 Force
 Pressure
 Humidity
 Touch
 Position of an object

Inductive Sensors UNIT-I
1.14 Inductive Sensor

1.14.1 Inductor:
An Inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in its Magnetic field.
Any conductor of electric current has inductive properties and may be regarded as an
inductor. But in order to enhance the inductive effect, a practical inductor is usually formed
into a cylindrical coil with many turns of conducting wire, as shown in Figure 1.33.
If current is allowed to pass through an inductor, it is found that the voltage across the
inductor is directly proportional to the time rate of change of the current.
V = -L (di/dt)
where L is the constant of proportionality called the inductance
The unit of inductance is the henry (H).
Figure 1.33: Inductor

Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to the change of current
flowing through it. The inductance of an inductor depends on its physical dimension and
construction.
L = N 2μA/l
where N is the number of turns, l is the length, A is the cross-sectional area, and μ is the
permeability of the core.
μ = μ0 μr, where μ0 = 4π x 10-7 H/m
Figure 1.34: Inductor Symbol a) Air Gap b) Iron c) Variable d) Structure

1.14.2 Self Inductance:

 When a Coil carries a current it establishes a magnetic flux.
 When the current in the coil changes, the magnetic flux linking with the coil also
changes.
 The Property of the coil by which it opposes the change in the value of current or flux
through it due to production of self induced emf is called Self-Inductance.
 nΦ = LI
 Where Φ Magnetic Flux, n: No.of Turns
 L Self Inductance or simply Inductance
 I current Through Coil.
 Magnetic Flux is defined as the number of magnetic field lines passing through a
given closed surface.
Figure 1.34: Self Inductance

1.14.3 Mutual Inductance:
 When the current in the coil changes, The induced emf is set up in neighbouring coil.
This process is called Mutual Inductance.
 N2Φ 2= MI1
 Where Φ2 Magnetic Flux generated in 2nd Coil
 M is Mutual Inductance
 I current Through Coil 1.
 Relation between M & L is given as 𝑀 = 𝐾 𝐿1 𝐿2 Where K : Magnetic Coupling
Coefficient.
Figure 1.35: Mutual Inductance

1.14.4 Inductive sensors:

Sensors based on the variation of the Inductance of a device are Inductive Sensors. The
variation is because many physical quantities affect the Inductance of a material. Different
Types of Inductive sensors are:
1. Reluctance variation sensor
2. Eddy current sensor
3. Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs)
4. Magneto elastic sensor
5. Electromagnetic sensor based on Faraday’s Law
i. AC Tachometer
ii. DC Tachometer
iii. Linear Velocity Transducer
iv. Search Coil Magnetometer
v. Electromagnetic Flowmeter
1.15 Reluctance variation Sensor

1.15.1 Reluctance:
The Reluctance of a circuit indicates the amount of magnetic flux it links, due to an electric
current.
Or
Reluctance is defined as Resistance due to the Magnetic Field.
ℜ = (n.I/Φ) 1.15.1
L = N2 /ℜ 1.15.2
ℜ = l/ μA 1.15.3
Relation between ℜ and L is inversely proportional.
 When length (l) varies ℜ varies so L varies.
 When Area (A) Varies ℜ varies so L varies.
 When μ varies ℜ varies so L varies.
1.15.2 Working:
A transducer of the variable type consists of a coil wound on a ferromagnetic core.
The displacement which is to be measured is applied to a ferromagnetic target. The target
does not have any physical contact with the core on which it is mounted. The core and the
target are separated by an air gap, as shown in Figure 1.36. The reluctance of the magnetic
path is determined by the size of the air gap.

Figure 1.36: Reluctance Variation Sensor

The self inductance of the coil shown in figure 1.36 is given as
L = N2 /(ℜi + ℜg) 1.15.4
Where ℜi: Target Reluctance and ℜg: Air gap Reluctance
ℜi is negligible compared with ℜg then L = N2 /ℜg 1.15.4
But ℜg = lg/ μ0Ag 1.15.5
Substitute 1.15.15 in 1.15.4 then L = (N2 μ0Ag )/ lg 1.15.6
The inductance of the coil depends upon the reluctance of the magnetic circuits.
Hence L is proportional to 1/l, from the equation 1.15.6 i.e. the self inductance of the coil is
inversely proportional to the length of the air gap. When the target is near the core, the length
is small and therefore the self inductance large. But when the target is away from the core the
reluctance is large, resulting in a smaller self inductance value. Hence the inductance of the
coil is a function of the distance of the target from the core, i.e. the length of the air gap.
1.15.3 Advantages:
 Less expensive.
 Able to use at high temperatures.
1.15.4 Disadvantages:
 Need additional circuitry to recover the useful signal.
 Sensor is proportional to the target speed; it is difficult to design circuitry to
accommodate low speed signals.
1.15.5 Applications:
 Strings in Guitar.
 Speed sensors in automobile engine.
 Proximity Sensors.

1.16 Eddy Current Sensors

1.16.1 Eddy current:
When a Metal body is moved in a magnetic field in such a way that the flux through it
changes or it placed in a changing magnetic field, induced currents circulates throughout the
volume of the body is known as Eddy current.
They produce unwanted heat, so normally they are minimized by, for instance,
increasing the resistance of the bulk material. Eddy current can only flow in the plane of the
plates, but cannot cross the boundary between two adjacent plates. These currents produce a
magnetic field that counteracts the original field from the coil. Hence the flux produced by
the coil will reduce and the self-inductance decreases due to the presence of the conductive
object.
1.16.2 Working:
Variation of Inductance of the Sensor due to the Eddy Current. To use this principle as a
measurement method, the target in which eddy currents are induced must be thick enough
compared with the penetration given by
1
𝛿= 1.16.2
𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎
where σ is the conductivity for the target,

μ its permeability and f the frequency of the supply voltage.
Figure 1.37: Eddy Current Sensor

The change in impedance is higher for closer targets and also depends on the
conductivity and permeability of the target. Therefore it will also be sensitive to their
changes.

1.16.3 Advantages:
 Less in size.
 Accurate Conductive Measurements.
 Sensitivity to Surface defects.
 Not suitable to large areas.
 Very Susceptible to magnetic permeability changes.
 Only effective on conducting materials.
 Position sensors
 Detecting Gaps
 Measuring thickness
1.17 Linear Variable Differential Transformer

1.17.1 LVDT:
The differential transformer is a passive inductive transformer. It is also known as a
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT). The transformer consists of a single
primary winding P1 and two secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on a hollow cylindrical
former. The secondary windings have an equal number of turns and are identically placed on
either side of the primary windings. The primary winding is connected to an ac source. A
movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and therefore affects the magnetic
coupling between the primary and the two secondaries.
Figure 1.38: LVDT

1.17.2 Working:
It is based on the variation in mutual inductance between a primary winding and each
of two secondary windings when a ferromagnetic core moves along its inside, dragged by a
nonferromagnetic rod linked to the moving part to sense.
When the primary winding is supplied by an ac voltage, in the center position the
voltages induced in each secondary winding are equal. When the core moves from that
position, one of the two secondary voltages increases and the other decreases by the same
amount. Hence the output voltage of the sensor is the difference of the two voltages.
Therefore the differential output voltage Eo = ES1 - ES2.
When the core is at its normal position, the flux linking with both secondary windings
is equal, and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Hence, at null position ES1 = ES2. Since
the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages, the output voltage
Eo is zero at null position.
Now, if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links with winding
S1 and less with winding S2. Hence, output voltage ES1 of the secondary winding S1 is
greater than ES2. The magnitude of the output voltage of the secondary is then ES1 – ES2, in
phase with ES1.
Now, if the core is moved to the Right of the null position, more flux links with
winding S2 and less with winding S1. Hence, output voltage ES2 of the secondary winding S2
is greater than ES1. The magnitude of the output voltage of the secondary is then ES2 – ES1, in
phase with ES2.
1.17.3 Advantages:
 Linearity
 High Sensitivity
 High Ouput
 Low Power Consumption
 Large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.
 The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on ac signals.
 Temperature also affects the sensor.
 Aircrafts
 Materials testing

1.18 Magneto Elastic Sensor

Magneto elastic sensors are inductive sensors that differ from sensors described in the
previous sections because they are not based upon a change of geometry or on the position of
conductive or magnetic materials but on the effect of the measurand on the magnetic
permeability.
1.18.1 Principle:
It works on Villari Effect. We know that all the Ferromagnetic Materials exhibits
change in size and shape due to the magnetization Changes. This effect is known as Joule
Effect.
Villari Effect is the Opposite action of the Joule Effect when Strain is applied material
exhibits changes in Magnetic Flux.
Figure 1.39: Villari Effect

1.18.2 Working:
Figure 1.40: Magneto Elastic Sensor Arrangement

The Relationship between stress and Magnetic Permeability is given as σ = k/μr. This
dependence results from the internal mechanical stress that prevents the growing of magnetic
domains and their orientation along the applied external field. The change in coil inductance
is proportional to the load. The configuration has a magnetic flux distribution that changes in
two directions in the same plane when exerting stress. This is due to the different
modification that an isotropic magnetic material experiences in the direction of the applied
effort and in the transverse direction, thus becoming magnetically anisotropic.

1.18.3 Advantages:
 High Accuracy
 High Stable
 Easy to Install
 High Cost.
 Measure Force
 Measure Pressure
 Measure Torque
 Steel Rolling
 Dam Brake
1.19 Electromagnetic sensors based on Faraday’s law

1.19.1 Faraday’s Law:
In 1831 Michael Faraday reported that in any coil consisting of ‘N’ turns linking a
magnetic Flux Φ, Φ changes with time, induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of
Φ.
e = -N(dΦ/dt)
The Flux Φ can be variable in itself or the position of the circuit can be made to
change with respect to a constant magnetic Flux.
1.19.2 Electromagnetic Sensor:
The Sensors where a Physical quantity can result change in magnetic or electric field
without implying a change in Inductance or capacitance are known as Electromagnetic
Sensors.
Based on Faraday’s Law Electromagnetic Sensors are classified as follows:
i) AC Tachometer
ii) DC Tachometer
iii) Linear Velocity Meter
iv) Search Coil Magnetometer
v) Electromagnetic Flowmeter

1.19.3 AC Tachometer:
AC Tachometer works on principle, The Voltage induced in a circuit N turns moving
with an angular speed ‘n’ with respect to a constant Magnetic field with a flux density B.
e = -N(dΦ/dt)
= -N(dBAcosθ/dt)
= NBAsinθ(dθ/dt)
w.k.t ω = 2πn = dθ/dt
θ = ∫ ωdt
e = NBA ω sin ∫ ωdt
e = NBA 2πn sin2πnt
From the Above Equation Output voltage varies for both amplitude and frequency.
Practically it is not possible because at low rotating speeds amplitude will be low.
Figure 1.41: AC Tachometer

The arrangement shown in Figure 1.41 yields variable amplitude but a constant
frequency. It has two windings placed at 90 as in a two-phase induction motor, but it works
as a single-phase motor. One winding is for excitation and the other for detection.
The rotor has the form of a squirrel cage, with all wire turns around a drum short-
circuited. Applying an ac voltage having a variable amplitude and a frequency f = ω/2π to the
excitation coil yields a current of frequency f that creates a magnetic Flux density B.
According to Faraday’s law B induces a voltage E in the rotor given as E =k ωnsin(ωt+ ϕ).

1.19.4 DC Tachometer:
Dc tachometers or tachometer dynamos are similar to ac units, but the output voltage
is rectified as in dc voltage generators. They consist of a permanent magnet based on
proprietary alloys and formed by sintering, which creates a constant magnetic Flux, and on a
multiturn coil turning inside the Field at the speed to measure. The variable magnetic Flux
seen by the coil induces a voltage in it.
1.19.5 Linear Velocity Transducer:
Linear velocity sensors directly measure linear velocity. A conductor having a length l
and moving with a linear velocity v defines a time-varying area. If the conductor is
perpendicular to a magnetic field having a Flux density B and moves in a direction
perpendicular to l and B, the voltage induced on that conductor from the Faraday’s law is
given as
e = Blv
Which implies a direct proportionality between voltage and velocity. The velocity to be
measured moves the coil inside a fixed permanent magnet
Figure 1.41: Linear Velocity Transducer

1.19.6 Search coil Magnetometer:
Search-coil or induction-coil magnetometers are simple magnetic field sensors based
on Faradays' law. They consist of a coil around a ferromagnetic core (a rod) that gathers
magnetic Flux lines to increase Flux density.
According to faradays law the output voltage depends on the number of turns, the
relative permeability of the core, the area of the coil, and the rate of change of the magnetic
Flux. Search coils have no dc response but can detect dc fields by rotating the sensor.
Figure 1.42: Search Coil Magnetometer

1.19.7 Electromagnetic Flowmeter:

Electromagnetic Flowmeter rely on a conductive, nonmagnetic liquid that moves
inside an exciting magnetic Field created by two external coils. Then a small induced voltage
based on Faraday’s Law is detected by two electrodes placed at 90 with respect to the flow
and the field.
Figure 1.43: Electromagnetic Flowmeter

Touch Sensors UNIT-I
1.20 Touch Sensor

1.20.1 Touch Sensor:
Touch is considered one of the five senses of the human body. It is also referred to as
tactile perception. The sense of touch can be perceived in several ways, like pressure, skin
stretch, vibration, and temperature.
The perception of a stimulus can be categorized as
i) cutaneous/tactile perception( due to Skin, Muscles and Organs Neurons are activated)
ii) proprioception/kinesthetic perception(due to movement of the Body parts)
iii) haptic perception (Applying force through the body parts)
Touch Sensors are classified as follows:
1. Capacitive Touch Sensors
2. Resistive Touch Sensors
3. Magnetic Touch Sensors
4. Ultrasonic Touch Sensors
5. Piezoelectric Touch Sensors
6. Tunnel Touch Sensors
1.21 Capacitive Touch Sensor

1.21.1 Introduction:
Capacitive touch works on the ability to measure a change in capacitance. This
change in capacitance based on the touch is relative to the parasitic capacitance of the system.
These are classified as follows:
1. Self Capacitance or Absolute Capacitance Sensor
2. Mutual Capacitance Sensor
Figure 1.44: Capacitive Touch Sensor

1.21.2 Self Capacitance Touch Sensor:

Here the touching object increases the capacitance with respect to ground. It consists
of one electrode as one of the capacitor plate. The other plate is formed by the touching
object (such as a finger). When this touch object approaches the capacitor plate, it results in
increase in capacitance by Ctouch .
Figure 1.45: Self Capacitance Touch Sensor

1.21.3 Mutual Capacitance Touch Sensor:
Here the touching object changes the mutual coupling of the two electrodes.
Figure 1.46: Mutual Capacitance Touch Sensor
1.21.4 Array type mutual Capacitance Touch Sensor:

The mutual capacitors are arranged in an array and voltage applied to the rows and
columns of this array. When a touch object comes closer to the array, there is a change in
capacitance of the array. Through such arrays multiple touch contacts can be detected at the
same time. The capacitance change at each separate point in the array is measured to
determine the touch location.

Figure 1.47: Array Capacitance Touch Sensor

Cmutual is first measured using the row and column decoders.
Voltage Vstep is applied to row electrode of the sensor to charge the capacitor.
When Vstep is switched to ground, the capacitor charge is transferred to CF and the change in
output voltage is given by:
Δvoutput = - ΔVstep x(Cmutual/Cfeedback)
1.21.5 Advantages of Capacitance Touch Sensor:
 No force required.
 Accurate Touch Recognition
 Multi touch (Zooming) is possible.
1.21.6 Disadvantages of Capacitance Touch Sensor:
 Price is very high.
 Touch sensing does not work with all materials.
1.21.7 Applications of Capacitance Touch Sensor:
 Smartphone’s.
 Tablets.
 Touch Lamps.

1.22 Resistive Touch Sensor

Resistive touch sensors use the change in resistance of the sensing material to detect
and measure touch or contact. The change in resistance can be measured differently
depending on the type of resistive sensor.
Types of Resistive touch Sensor is:
1. Potentiometer Based Touch Sensor
2. Piezo Resistive effect Based Touch Sensor
1.22.1 Potentiometer based Touch Sensor:
If the sensor is made of two flexible sheets coated with resistive material placed one
on top of the other and separated by air or an insulating material. When the two sheets are
pressed against each other through touch, the second sheet acts as a slider on the
potentiometer shown in Figure 1.48.
Figure 1.48: Resistive Touch Sensor

Second sheet helps measure the voltage as the distance along the first sheet, thus providing an
X-coordinate. Vxout = Vx Rx2/(Rx1+Rx2)
Similarly the first sheet helps measure distance in terms of voltage on the second sheet, thus
providing a Y-coordinate Vyout = Vy Ry2/(Ry1+Ry2)
Based on Vxout, Vyout co-ordinates we can measure position of Touch.
Figure 1.49: Equivalent Circuit of Potentiometer Touch Sensor

1.22.2 Piezo resistive effect based Touch Sensor:

Strain Gage is based on piezo resistive effect means when ever external force (stress
or strain) on a sensor their will be change in resistance due to variation in the dimensions of
the sensor. Touching means applying force so strain gage can be used as Touch Sensor.
Figure 1.50: Piezo resistive effect based Touch Sensor

To design a touch screen array the strain gages are interconnected to the NMOS
transistor. Whenever force applied on Gage lines it activates NMOS transistor and remaining
gages also get strain.
Figure 1.51: Piezo resistive effect based Touch Screen array

1.22.3 Advantages of Resistive Touch Sensor:
 Less Cost.
 Touch sensing work with all materials.
1.22.4 Disadvantages of Resistive Touch Sensor:
 More prone to Scratching.
 High force is required.
 Multi touch(Zooming) is not possible.
1.22.5 Applications of Resistive Touch Sensor:
 Laptop Touchpad.
 Fingerprint machine.

Proximity Sensors UNIT-I
1.23 Proximity Sensor

1.23.1 Proximity Sensor:
A proximity sensor is a device that can detect or sense the approach or presence of
nearby objects and for this it does not need physical contact. There are different kinds of
proximity sensors.
Inductive: This type of sensor is used to detect nearby metallic objects.
Capacitive: This type of sensor is used for detection of metallic and nonmetallic objects.
Photoelectric: This type of sensor is used to detect objects. A light source and receiver are the
main components of such sensors.
Magnetic: This type of sensor uses an electrical switch that is operated based on the presence
of permanent magnets in a sensing area.
1.23.2 Inductive Proximity Sensor:
This type of proximity sensor works on the principle of inductance and generation of
eddy currents.
Figure 1.52: Inductive Proximity Sensor

1.23.3 Capacitive Proximity Sensor:
A capacitive proximity sensor is similar to an inductive proximity sensor except that
an electrostatic field is produced in a capacitive proximity sensor instead of an
electromagnetic field. Thus it is possible to sense metallic and nonmetallic objects (such as
liquids, paper, cloth, and glass) in the sensing field.
Figure 1.53: Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Proximity Sensors UNIT-I
1.23.4 Photo electric proximity sensor:

In this type both the light transmitter and receiver are in the sensor and it uses the
light deflected directly from the target object for detection. Hence it is crucial that the
transmitted light/radiation is reflected off the object and reaches the receiver.
Figure 1.54: Photoelectric Proximity Sensor

1.21.5 Electromagnetic proximity sensor:
A magnetic proximity sensor consists of a reed switch. The reed switch is an electrical
switch operated by an applied magnetic field. It contains a pair of magnetizable metal reeds
whose end portions are separated by a small gap when the switch is open. The reeds are
hermetically sealed in opposite ends of a tubular glass envelope.
Figure 1.55: Reed Switch

A magnetic field (from an electromagnet or a permanent magnet) will cause the reeds
to come together and complete an electrical circuit. When the reed switch is turned on, the
sensor is turned on.

UNIT-I
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Sketch the block diagram of a Measurement system and explain the function of each block.
2. Explain in detail about static and Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement System.
3. Categorize the types of sensors based on different criteria. Compare and Contrast Analog and
Digital Sensors.
4. Sketch the generalized input and output configuration of the measurement system and explain
about those inputs with one example.
5. Explain different ways of correcting the interfering and modifying inputs of Measurement
System.
Resistive Sensors
6. Explain the working of the Potentiometer?
7. Relate the Strain and change in Resistance of the Strain Gage.
9. Explain the working of the LDR?

10. Explain the working of the Resistive Hygrometer.
Capacitive Sensors
11. Categorize the types of capacitive transducers and explain them with the help of equivalent
circuit.
Inductive Sensors
12. of Electromagnetic induction is utilized for the development of
sensors. Describe the sensors in detail.
13. Explain the working of Reluctance variation Sensor.
14. Explain the working of Magneto Elastic Sensor.
15. Explain the working of LVDT.
Touch and Proximity Sensors
16. Explain the working of the Capacitive Touch Sensor.
17. Explain the Working of the Resistive Touch Sensor.
18. Explain how Eddy current sensor can be used as the Proximity sensor.
19. Explain the working of the Photoelectric Proximity sensor.
Choose the Correct Answers
1. The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to the expected (desired)
value is known as
a) Accuracy b) Error c) Resolution d) Sensitivity [a]
2. The Output of a sensor is
a) Chemical Signal b) Electrical Signal c) Mechanical Signal d) All the Above [b]
3. Which of the following is Digital Sensor
a) Potentiometer b) Thermistor c) Position Encoder d) Accelerometer [c]
4. Which of the following is the modifying input of Manometer
a) Ambient temperature of Mercury b) Gravitational force c) Acceleration d) Both a & b [d]
Resistive Sensors
5. Variation of Resistance of a device due to changes in the physical Quantity is known as
a) Inductive Sensor b) Capacitor Sensor c) Proximity Sensor d) Resistive Sensor [d]
6. Resistor with Sliding Contact is refer as [c]
a) Position Encoder b) Thermistor c) Potentiometer d) Accelerometer
7. Amount of Deformation of the body due to applied force or pressure is known as [b]
a) Resistance b) Strain c) Capacitance d) Inductance
8. Which of the following Temperature sensor is made up of Metals or conductors
a) Resistance Temperature Detectors b) Thermistor c) Potentiometer d) Accelerometer [a]
9. Relation between Temperature and Resistance in Thermistor is [a]
a) b) R = R0 T) c) R = R0(1- T) d) None
10. LDR works on the Principle of

a) Piezo Resistivity b) Photo Conductivity c) Photo Inductivity d) Piezo electric Effect [b]
11. Potentiometer with wiper can movable and also rotated is known as [c]
a) Linear Potentiometer b) Rotational Potentiometer c) Helipot d) Circular Potentiometer
Capacitive Sensors
12. Sensitivity with respect to Change in area of Variable Capacitive Sensor is given by [d]
a) dC/dz = - A/(d+z)2 b) dC/dz = - A/(d+z) c) dC/dA = (n+1)/d d) dC/dA = (n-1)/d
Inductive Sensors
13. Reluctance of an inductor is given by
b) = N2/L c) l
14. Current induced in a metallic plate when placed in a magnetic field is known as [c]
a) Alternating current b) Direct Current c) Eddy Current d) None of the above
15. How many secondary coils are available for LVDT [b]
a) one b) two c) three d) four
16. which of the following inductive sensor which affects the geometry or magnetic field is [a]
a) Magneto Elastic Sensor b) LVDT c) Eddy current Sensor d) Reluctance Variation Sensor
17.
a) Linear Velocity sensor b) LVDT c) Eddy current Sensor d) Reluctance Variation Sensor
Touch and Proximity Sensors
18. Multi touching is possible in
a) Resistive Touch b) Capacitance Touch c) Inductive Touch d) None [b]
19. Insulating material used in Resistive Touch sensor is
a) Air b) Spacer Dots c) both a & b d) None [c]
20. Which of the following sensors can be used as Proximity sensors [d]
a) IR sensors b) Eddy current Sensors c) Capacitive Sensors d) All the Above
Fill in the Blanks

1. In method of opposing inputs we intentionally introducing into the instrument interfering and
/or modifying inputs that tend to cancel the bad effects of the unavoidable spurious inputs.
2. Quantity to which the measuring system is unintentionally sensitive is interfering input.
3. Actuators are Also Known as Effectors
4. Passive Sensors are also known as Modulating sensors
Resistive Sensors
5. Symbol of Potentiometer-
6. Symbol of Strain Gage-
7. Symbol of RTD-
8. Symbol of Thermistors
9. Symbol of LDR-
10. Symbol of Resistive Hygrometer-
11. Strain Gage Factor :

Capacitive Sensors
12. Sensitivity with respect to Change in distance of Variable Capacitive Sensor is given by
dC/dz = - A/(d+z)2
Inductive Sensors
13. Inductance of the Reluctance variation Sensor is based on variation of Reluctance
14. The original magnetic field is opposed by Induced Eddy current due to a metal plate place
in magnetic field.
15. In LVDT when the Core rod is in Null position then output voltage is zero.
16. Magneto Elastic sensor works on principle Villari Effect.
e = -N(d /dt)
Touch and Proximity Sensor
18. Parasitic capacitance also known as Steady state capacitance
19. Touch sensor is also known as Tactile Sensor
20. Proximity sensor is used for identifying the nearby objects.

Syllabus Unit-I: Unit-I Introduction To Measurement Systems and Passive Sensors

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Syllabus UNIT-I

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

Figure 1.1: Different types of Sensors

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

1.2 General Concepts and Terminology

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

Figure 1.2: Amplifier

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

1.3 Measurement Systems

Figure 1.3: Functional elements of an instrument or a measurement system

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

Interfaces, Data Domains, and Conversion:

Figure 1.5: Classification of Data Domains

1.4 Sensor Classification

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

In considering output signals, we classify sensors as analog or digital. In analog

Criteria Sensor Classes Example

Self generating(Active) Thermocouple

Deflection Deflection accelerometer

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

1.5 General Input and Output Configuration

Figure 1.6: Generalized input-output configuration

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

Figure 1.7: Spurious Inputs of Manometer

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

1.6 Methods of correction for interfering and modifying inputs

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

Figure 1.8: Use of feedback to reduce effect of spurious inputs

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

1.6.4 Method of signal filtering:

Figure 1.9: General principle of filtering

Figure 1.10: Method of Opposing Inputs

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

1.7 Resistive Sensor

Figure 1.11: Resistor

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

Figure 1.12: a) POT symbol b) Rheostat

Figure 1.13: a) Linear POT b) Rotational POT

Figure 1.14: Linear POT

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

1.8.6 Level sensor based on potentiometer:

Figure 1.15: Level sensor based on potentiometer

1.9 Strain Gage

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

1.9.3 Types of Strain Gage:

Figure 1.16: Unbonded Strain Gage

Figure 1.17: Bonded Strain Gages a) Grid b) Rossette c) Torque d) Helix

Figure 1.18: a) Foil Strain Gage b) Semi conductor Strain Gage

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

Axial Strain, ϵa = dl/l 1.9.2

From 1.9.10 and 1.9.8 calculate dA/A

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

1: Resistance change due to change in length

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

1.10 Temperature Sensors

Figure 1.20 a) Wound type RTD b) Film Resitive RTD

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology

Figure 1.21 a) RTD Structure b) Bridge Circuit

MRITS/III-II/Basics of Sensors Technology