DRIER BY DESIGN – DESIGNING TO KEEP WATER OUT

COURSE CONTENT

INTRODUCTION

Over time, I have read various quotes on how long it would take, should mankind suddenly cease to be,
for natural elements to succeed in erasing all trace of our existence here on this planet. Those estimates
have ranged from an improbable two hundred years to over ten thousand years. In fact, I once read that
should all other geological activities cease, such as earthquakes, plate movement and glacier activity, at
the end of that ten thousand years, the Earth would be a completely smooth sphere. In all these
predictions, the driving force behind such drastic surface modification is water.

One thing is certain. With erosion paths cut into solid rock as solid evidence, water in various forms
contains immense power to eat away or destroy whatever is in its path. The Grand Canyon offers mute
testimony to the chances of anything else withstanding its onslaught. The ability to quarry rock, using
only water poured into cracks atop a cliff face, demonstrates the power and force of water expanding as it
turns to ice. Steam simply goes wherever the slightest opening allows its pressure to be alleviated.

One other thing is certain. Whether it takes a year, two hundred or ten thousand, without intervention,
water can and will destroy our man-made structures. If a problem develops that opens a pathway for
intrusion, one rainy season can render a building unsuitable for human use. That is why flashing, seals, air
intentional pressure differentials and other means have been developed and implemented. They are
preventive measures in our battle to keep water and ice from destroying our built environments.

The purpose of this course is to ensure one thing. By the time water shows up on the inside of our
buildings, we want to make sure it’s had to work very hard to get in. At the very least, that it’s had to
bypass our best efforts and best materials to get there.

Glossary of Terms Regarding Water Intrusion

Air Barrier: Material(s) meant to control movement of air across or through an exterior wall system or
assembly

Air Handler: Equipment with a blower or fan, and related equipment such as controls, condensate drain
pans and air filters, not including ductwork, registers or grilles, or boilers and chillers, designed to move
air across or through heating or cooling coils to temper it before forcing it into building spaces

Alligatoring: Deep cracks that appear in bituminous surfaces of built-up or smooth surface roofing,
giving it the appearance of an alligator’s hide. The cracks often result from by material shrinkage

ASHRAE: An anacronym for the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc.

Asphalt: A viscous material created by distilling petroleum. Besides its use in roadway surfaces, its
composition from oil makes it useful in water-proofing built-up roofs and wall surfaces

ASTM: An anacronym for the American Society for Testing and Material

Ballast: Heavy material, such as rock, gravel or pavers, used to hold roofing and roofing membranes
down and prevent wind uplift forces from removing them

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Bitumen: A common word for asphalt or coal tar pitch

Blister: Raised portion of a roofing surface, created by pressure from trapped air or water vapor benath
it

Built-up Roofing (BUR): Continuous roof covering, comprised of layers of saturated or coated roofing
felt, laid alternately with layers of bitumen

Cant Strip: A triangular strip at the base of a joint between a horizontal deck or other surface, and a
vertical wall or other surface, used to provide a more gradual transition between flashing and roof
membrane(s)

Capillary Break: A groove creating too large a gap to be bridged by a drop of water, thereby preventing
water movement through capillary action

Chase: A groove or opening through framing or sheathing materials, created to form a clean pathway
through which to run electric or plumbing lines

Cladding: Materials applied over other surfaces to increase durability, weathering, corrosion, infiltration
or impact resistance

CMU: An anacronym for a concrete masonry unit

Commissioning: Procedures implemented prior to occupancy of a structure, that often include testing
and adjusting HVAC, electrical, plumbing and other systems, and instructing building representatives in
the use of the building, its systems and its maintenance

Coping: Material(s) used to cap off or finish the tops of walls, piers, pilasters or chimneys, sloped to shed
water and intended to waterproof and make more weather resistant, the structures they cap

Crack: A break in a roofing membrane or other exterior cladding, that allows the passage of moisture

Cricket: Flashing on the uphill side of a chimney or other vertical roof penetration, shaped to form a
small ridge, to divert flowing rainwater around the penetration

Drainage or Drain Plane: Building components exposed to weather at the plane separating “wet” and
“dry” sides of a building enclosure. These stop incoming water and allow it to drain back outside the
building envelope.

Dry Well: A deep hole, usually covered and often filled with rocks, created to hold water till it naturally
soaks into the ground.

Eave: A protective overhang at the lower edge of a sloped roof

Enthalpy: A measurement representing the total energy of a thermodynamic system. It includes energy
required to create a system and energy required to displace its environment

EPDM: An anacronym for ethylene propylene diene monomer, a synthetic rubber single-ply roof
membrane

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Expansion Joint: A gap created between two surface areas, to allow expansion and contraction or
separate movement between the two surfaces with no resulting damage

Fascia: Finish material creating the vertical face at the end of a flat or sloping roof, or roof overhang

Fishmouth: An opening created between lapped layers in built-up roofing, when the adhesion between
them fails

Flashing: Sheet materials used to connect or span gaps between membrane joints, drains, gravel stops
and other places where membranes are interrupted. Base flashing normally extends up from one surface
and counterflashing normally extends down from another, over the base flashing, to create surfaces
resisting infiltration with positive water flow

Forebay: A depressed area, created before and lower than the inlet of a storm basin or other storm water
management facility, that acts as a storage area where sediment and heavy pollutants can be trapped and
settle out, before drainage reaches the main basin

Gravel Stop: A flanged sheet metal strip, installed with the top edge slightly higher than the roof surface,
to prevent loose aggregate from washing off. It also provides a finished edge detail for roofs

HVAC: An anacronym for heating, ventilation and air conditioning

Hygrothermal: Referring to heat and humidity

Impervious: Does not allow water or moisture to pass through

Micromanometer: An instrument designed to measure minute differences in pressure

Modified Bitumen: Asphalt with modifiers added to increase flexibility in cold temperatures and stability
and resistance to flow in warm temperatures

OSB: An anacronym for Oriented Strand Board. A panel formed of strand-type flakes, deliberately
aligned in specific directions to make the product stronger and stiffer, resulting in improved properties
over a similar panel with random flake orientation

Parapet: The portion of a wall assembly extending above an adjacent roof

Plenum: Space between a ceiling and floor above, often containing mechanical and electrical equipment,
sometimes used for air distribution

Ponding: Shallow pools of water that collect on the surface of a roof

PVC: An anacronym for polyvinyl chloride and a generic term for single-ply plastic sheet membrane with
overlapping seams that are welded through application of solvents or hot air

R-value: Time required for one Btu of energy to penetrate one square foot of a material, for each degree
of temperature difference on opposite sides of the material. It is a measure of the resistance of a material
to allow heat to pass through

Scupper: An opening for draining otherwise trapped water through a vertical face like a parapet, from off
the top of an adjacent intersecting plane

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Section: A drawing showing how various components of a structure would appear, if cut through by a
plane

Shingle-wise: Overlapping materials, as is done with shingles, so potentially invasive water like
rainwater, will run harmlessly down and away

Slope: The ratio between the measured vertical rise and horizontal span of an angled surface

SMACNA: An anacronym for the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association

Soffit: The finish face on the underside of a roof overhang

Spall: A fragment detached from a larger mass by a blow, weathering, pressure or expansion within the
larger mass

Stem Wall: Vertical portion of a retaining wall

Sump Crock: A hole or pit, placed to collect water or other fluids for ejection, usually by a pump within

Swale: An open channel designed to direct runoff, designed for a specific anticipated water volume

TAB: An anacronym for test, adjust and balance

Tensiometer: Used to measure surface tension of liquids

Vapor Barrier: Material used to retard water movement into and through walls, applied over the warm
side of exposed walls, independently or as an integral part of an insulation material

WBDG: An anacronym for the Whole Building Design Guide

Weep Holes: Small openings left in masonry to act as outlets for water trapped behind surface materials
and move it back outside the wall

Water Behavior

General Water Infiltration

Almost eighty percent of all construction-related claims in America are related to water infiltration.
Before we can properly design better roof and envelope systems, we must first understand where invasive
water originates and how it penetrates inward.

We know water penetrates through envelopes in various ways. depending on the affected water control
system. Drained walls, barrier walls, or mass wall systems are three basic water control systems used in
construction.

Only a very small percentage of the total surface area of a building envelope needs to fail, to create a
serious water problem. Vulnerable areas differ, based on the specific system used to create the building
envelope. There are documented historical problems common to the use of specific materials. This
knowledge is helpful to both design for prevention, or to better locate and repair points of failure.

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Historical data presents us with probable culprits for failure points. The failure of older glass and metal
curtain walls to deflect water is usually marked by sub-frame corrosion. But masonry veneer walls utilize
mass to resist moisture, so infiltration through these often happens at horizontal copings, sills and
cornices. Water penetration of EIFS envelopes usually occurs because of problems with flashings over
windows or doors, joint sealant decay and improper drainage planes. Such known issues become starting
points in our search for water problem sources.

Hitting a Moving Target

A fascinating video exists showing expanding ice moving in from the surface of a lake, sliding up on
shore and crushing houses in its path. It looks like a small glacier in action. But whether in the form of
ice, water or vapor, all water tends to move.

If not bound in other materials which absorbed it or frozen in place as ice, free water moves using four
basic mechanisms. These are vapor diffusion, vapor convection in moving air, capillary action of liquid
water through porous materials and gravity flow. Wind also drives water through available openings.

Vapor diffusion moves water vapor from areas of high humidity to areas of lower humidity. It can move
through the air either outside or inside porous materials. Vapor barriers can prevent this transfer, if
installed on inside surfaces in cold climates and outside surfaces in hot, humid climates. When rainwater
is absorbed by exterior surfaces, heat from the sun can drive it inward as vapor. If interior materials are
impermeable, that moisture winds up trapped inside the envelope unless permitted somehow to escape.

Outside of actual leaks through a building envelope, vapor convection is the primary way water vapor is
moved in and out of spaces. It takes very little air movement to carry a lot of water inside, especially
immediately after precipitation. Significant air barrier systems must be used to control vapor convection,
as well as sealing air ducts that penetrate to the exterior and balancing supply and exhaust fans.

Capillary action creates a slow but steady movement of moisture, sucking liquid into low areas of
concentration from those which are higher. The smaller the holes in a porous material, the slower the flow
and more powerful the suction. Contact with wet soil can create a flow of moisture lasting for years. Air
gaps or non-porous barriers interrupt that flow.

Gravity moves huge quantities of water down through openings within seconds. It requires larger
openings than small pores of saturated materials but can flow through openings as small as a screw or nail
hole in a wall. Driven by wind, it can also flow just fine through foundation cracks, leaky windows and
poorly installed flashing to cause damage.

We can easily design to combat individual points of vulnerability. The problem is that moisture transport
mechanisms usually operate in tandem. For example, water from a crawl space wicks upward through
materials, evaporates upward through a crawl space floor, condenses on top of ducts, seeps into the
ductwork to be transported throughout the structure by air movement, and then driven into wall cavities
by the pressurized building environment, creating mold and deterioration concerns. Every stage of the
movement of that moisture is of concern, but the initial source of the water is probably the first place to
begin implementing a remedy.

How long buildings last, how well they function, and the welfare of their users is our concern. It is of
interest that every transport system causing moisture problems can also be harnessed to eliminate them, to
channel moisture through and back out of our buildings. A thorough understanding of primary moisture
movement mechanisms can only make us more effective

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But There are Rules

Water that manages to enter buildings, can evaporate from liquid into vapor, condense from vapor into
liquid or freeze into ice. In differing states of existence, it behaves differently.

Liquid water follows certain rules. Even in pipes and vessels, it migrates from higher pressure to lower
pressure, making a leak from a pressurized pipe far worse than a gravity powered leak. Gravity causes
liquid to flow downhill, but molecular attraction will also cause it to wick upwards through tiny openings.
Until air can dry out the water, its attraction to the sides of the pore will be stronger than the pull of
gravity. That same molecular attraction causes water to cling to the bottom and sides of other materials
and run along them. Liquid from a leak might travel many feet before enough collects as a drop that
gravity will cause it to fall. Likewise, condensation clings to vertical surfaces until droplets combine and
become big enough to fall.

Water vapor also follows rules. In the air, it goes where the air goes, from areas of high pressure to areas
with lower pressure. If humid air enters a dry environment, it adds humidity. If dry air enters a humid
environment, it dries it out. Given opportunity, vapor will be absorbed by solid materials, entering by
diffusion, moving through the molecules of the host, also going from high pressure to lower pressure
areas. The more porous the material, the faster it does so. The speed of migration is measured in ‘perms,’
with a higher number indicating more permeability.

Water vapor comes from many sources. It evaporates from open containers, sprays, sinks, toilets, spills,
etc... Exposed wet materials, like earth in crawl spaces, wet concrete and wet paint, all lose moisture to
the air while drying. People, plants and animals exude humidity. In offices and churches, breathing people
are the primary source of such humidity.

Available moisture evaporates into the built environment at varying speeds. The more humid the existing
air, the slower it accepts additional moisture. The more impermeable the surface, the faster water
evaporates from it because capillary action doesn’t need to be overcome. Air temperature also alters the
rate of absorption. Air movement speeds up the process, as does increased surface area. It is not easy to
predict where or when humidity levels will increase in our buildings.

We do know that when air becomes humid and we create the right conditions, it will condense into liquid.
When surface temperatures are cooler than the dew point of the air around them, humidity in the air will
coalesce as drops on the cool surface. Pipes, air ducts, air conditioning coils all sweat and drop moisture
formerly bound up in air around them. That transformed and dripping liquid can cause damage.

Ice doesn’t really move at all. It does expand, crush and break materials around it that inhibit its
expansion.

Under Pressure to Admit It

When considering the vulnerability of older structures, it will be beneficial to consider each method of
moisture transport, including vapor diffusion, capillary action and water infiltration. Whether water enters
up from the ground, in through the walls or roof or is generated from inside, the source of the problem
will need to be addressed.

Many basic mechanisms, by which water in any state moves into and through buildings, are directly
powered by differentials in pressure. Warm moist air migrates from a high-pressure area to a lower
pressure area with drier or cooler air. Liquid water changes position due to differences in hydrostatic or

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wind pressure. In either event, it is differences in pressure that cause the moisture to migrate. The simple
mechanism of gravity is also enough to drive water down through available openings.

One school of thought on how to resolve moisture issues centers on that pressure differential. In this
approach to the problem, the first step taken is to reduce differences in pressure between interior and
exterior. This is crudely accomplished by adding over-pressurized HVAC systems. But adding new
sources of internal air pressure and sealing a building can damage aging buildings that were built with
older methods and materials never intended to contain such pressure.

Another approach lies in the addition of impermeable barriers. How successfully envelope materials resist
migration and how long it takes the water to enter, depends on two factors. How permeable are those
materials when in contact with liquid or vapor? How much and how quickly they will absorb moisture?

Older structures dealt with moisture naturally, because of the way they were built. Raised roof structures
let rising hot air vent out, creating a natural chimney effect that pulled humid air through and out
buildings. Air spaces between interior and exterior wall faces gave humidity laden air a place to
condensate and a path through which to drain accumulating moisture. Radiators below windows
evaporated moisture before it could condense on panes and run down to rot lower sills and wood trim.

Many of these buildings have been ‘modernized’ over time. New mechanical solutions have been
implemented to replace natural processes. Older structures are now being asked to deal with moisture
intrusion, in far different ways than when they were built.

Different Problems in Different States

In all its states of existence, moisture destroys our built environments. Ice, expanding as it freezes, splits
gutters and downspouts, widens cracks, tears the face off masonry and shatters water pipes. Liquid from
melting ice sometimes works its way across great distances and follows structure, pipes, ducts, and other
surfaces before making its presence known. Deterioration occurs all along the path taken.

The consequences of unplanned moisture can take a toll on the building users as well. That is the subject
of an entirely different course.

The interface between unique sites and unique buildings, requires the design for moisture resistance of
each structure to also be unique. Whether a building presents a solid face or a glass curtain wall to storms
coming in off a great lake, will change how much water can potentially penetrate the exterior. Absorbent
untreated concrete will quickly absorb water, but how much damage will then occur depends on whether
it sits in Arizona or Minnesota. Buildings are sometimes shaded by deciduous trees dropping leaves to
block gutters and redirect rainwater inside buildings. Numerous potential environmental sources of water
require envisioning worst-case scenarios and designing to prevent them.

Moisture infiltration occurs for multiple reasons. Wind can push it in, it can be sucked in by fans and
pulled upward by a chimney effect. Sometimes it isn’t liquid water, but humidity in the air around the
structures. Leaky buildings historically helped control moisture by moving air out as easily as it was
drawn in. Newer, tighter buildings have lower rates of infiltration and fewer natural air exchanges.
Moisture entering with air has longer to saturate materials, increasing humidity inside the building. Such
damp air will deteriorate many internal building materials. To stop penetration and entrapment of
humidity, we seal joints and cracks, making the building even more airtight. Then controlled air
exchanges are initiated using an HVAC system. It is a bit of a balancing act, because a building that
cannot breathe at all, will quickly become an unhealthy building to occupy.

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Moisture trapped inside materials, is attracted to the solid faces, where it rises through capillary action.
This is especially a problem when building materials like masonry are in contact with wet ground.
Moisture travelling via capillary action is not easy to control. Its source can even be underground springs
or leaking pipes near the foundation. Making itself evident as a water mark or stain above grade, excess
moisture may eventually evaporate back out through the face of the wall. Salt crystals tend to be left
behind, making penetrated materials even more susceptible to moisture infiltration, this time from
surrounding air. The best response to capillary rise, is to find and protect the building from the
reoccurring source of rising water.

Vapor diffusion is the ongoing movement of vapor under pressure, passing through other materials.
Humidified interior air will try to get to cooler exteriors. Hot moist air from the outside will try to get into
cooler, dryer (air-conditioned) interiors. This natural process does not concern us, unless the dewpoint
temperature is reached and the moisture in that moving air condenses inside layers of a wall or on interior
surfaces. The more layers in the wall, the more potential for trapped condensation, usually on a surface
where there is a change in material permeability.

Various solutions have emerged to control vapor diffusion. As mentioned earlier, introducing new air
conditioning systems into older buildings can destroy them. That increased pressure forces damp air
entering from the exterior, outward into perimeter walls. There, it can create significant structural damage
and foster mold growth. Moisture barriers in crawl spaces are used to slow diffusion from the ground up
into older buildings, but expert opinions differ as to material choices and their placement. If windows
don’t open, a wholistic approach involves active mechanical means to equalize air pressure between
interior and exterior, so as to eliminate air movement between them. Since both environments can vary
dramatically throughout a day, this is easier envisioned than done.

Adding insulation in wooden frame structures, is a standard weatherization treatment with a disastrous
effect on historic buildings. The process of installing it destroys historic siding or plaster, while doing
little to establish a tight vapor barrier. While insulation has the benefit of increasing energy efficiency by
blocking transfer of temperature-controlled air, it does not eliminate surfaces on which damaging
moisture can condense. With insulated residential frame structures, an obvious sign of a moisture
diffusion problem is peeling paint on wooden siding, even after proper repainting. Vapor retarders in cold
and moderate climates generally help slow vapor diffusion where it is not wanted. A better approach to
controlling diffusion is to eliminate entrapment of condensation, using vapor barriers installed in
conjunction with ventilated cavities. These will allow trapped vapor to escape.

Moisture Problems

Searching for a Source

The pervasive nature of water makes often makes it difficult to pinpoint a reoccurring and problematic
source for water.

Moisture generated from inside a building can stem from many sources. People breathe out humidity.
They bathe, wash clothes and use sinks, adding humidity and sometimes steam to the atmosphere. Open
sump pumps, hot tubs, aquariums and pools, if indoors, become tremendous fountains of moisture. Indoor
plants must be watered continually, because they also continually evaporate the water they contain into
the indoor air.

Water also diffuses in through the exterior building envelope. Because of higher pressure on the outside
than on the inside, or more humidity on the outside than on the inside, water vapor makes its way right

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through the envelope materials. Nature is always seeking to balance itself. The greater the permeability of
the materials, the faster the equalization occurs.

Rainwater also wanders in whenever possible, through the envelope. Even if it occurs only during heavy
storms, or when storms of an unusual nature blow rain against the building from an atypical direction,
cracks or available routes will let a lot of water enter the envelope in a very short amount of time. Even
slower and more persistent leaks, when powered simply by gravity, will allow a lot of water to enter.
Melting snow or surface water that is sucked into the building by a difference in air pressure trying to
equalize, will carry water in through every crevice and crack in a roof or wall joint covered by flashing. If
air can get through to balance pressure, it will carry moisture in with it from the exterior.

Water pipes, even those without joints, tend to leak over time. Water pressure inside pipes needs only
small pinholes to result in some serious leaks. Joints under pressure fail often, especially in older steel or
iron pipes. When ponding occurs around a plumbing fixture, the location of that leak is obvious. Not so
obvious is when the drainage system fails out of sight, down below in a crawl space or basement. Ice
trapped in sealed joints will widen them and cause more visible failure. When liquid in the pipes
themselves freezes, like pipes inside building walls containing inadequate insulation, or pipes on the cold
side of that insulation, the expansion will likely split the sides of the pipes. Plain old natural corrosion can
also penetrate pipes from the outside inward.

Moist air enters buildings through intentionally created openings like windows and doors, through
unintentional openings like envelope failures and through necessary penetrations like those used to
introduce fresh air into HVAC systems. Once inside, humidity can be harmlessly absorbed in some
building materials, wiped off what is impervious, cause mold growth on others, corrode or rot yet other
components and condense on colder surfaces to materialize as also damaging liquid.

Groundwater making its way into crawl spaces and basements is a common occurrence. Rainwater or
melting snow can saturate ground outside the walls and find its way through any weakness in below grade
waterproofing. It can diffuse through the concrete or masonry and materialize inside to be dealt with
there. If not treated and eliminated there, the now moist environments inside these unoccupied spaces will
penetrate up through ducts, cracks, pipe chases, etc. into occupied space above. Drainage systems and
pumps can successfully be installed to evacuate unwanted moisture from these spaces, so long as they are
maintained in good working order.

Moisture can also be trapped in a building during and because of its construction processes. Cast in place
concrete cures by releasing its contained moisture. Paint and spackling compound used to finish drywall
will do the same. Over time, lumber used for framing continues to dry. Either a plan is put in place to
evacuate this evaporating moisture or it will continually moisten the building environment until all curing
and drying processes have been completed.

Moisture problems occur when water moves from its source to a part of the building that should be dry.
Damage occurs when accumulated moisture exceeds the ability of moisture sensitive materials to safely
contain it.

Mold Growth in Buildings

One dangerous effect of water damage, at least to building inhabitants, is the potential growth of mold.
There are entire courses written on this subject.

Molds are part of nature. Outside, they break down organic matter in the ground, on trees and other plants
and on decaying matter. Spores from molds become airborne when the wind blows across them and

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allows them to propagate. More than 1,000 different kinds of mold can usually be found indoors in
minute amounts in our buildings. But given favorable conditions like moisturized food sources, they can
grow beyond safe quantities. When their food source includes parts of our structures and their spores
move into airstreams within our HVAC systems, they will degrade our health. Fulfilling their role in
nature, they will also attack the structure of our buildings.

Wet by Design

This seems simplistic, but one way to control moisture intrusion into a building is use of materials that
can be exposed to moisture without damage, in areas expected to be exposed to moisture. For example,
water resistant or impervious materials should be specified for perimeter walls in a car wash. Impervious
finishes work best above a counter in a kitchen, where water is liable to be splashed. It is common sense.
Use moisture tolerant materials in places that will get wet and where materials will likely be exposed to
moisture.

We’ve been designing buildings long enough to recognize where water and materials will probably meet.
These include walls, floors and sometimes ceilings in locker rooms, vestibules, indoor pools, whirlpools
(with huge amounts of vapor), locker rooms, showers and bath rooms, kitchens, janitor closets, laundry
facilities and mechanical rooms with water treatment equipment. These can be expected to become wet.
So too can floors, bases and lower walls in areas that will periodically need to be mopped.

Other spaces are historically likely to be exposed to moisture by accident and proximity. Any place
containing fixtures that use water will have hidden pipes susceptible to springing a leak. Floor levels
immediately above basements and crawl spaces may encounter moisture trying to wick upwards. Floors
near grade will always be danger from ground water flooding in heavy rain or wind conditions. This is
especially true when there are exterior slabs at, or close to, the floor levels inside. Areas around envelope
penetrations like doors, windows, vent pipes and chimneys will take the first hit from surface flaws at
joining materials that come under pressure from wind driven water.

In areas like this, materials should be specified with certain qualities. Preferred materials will either resist
moisture penetration and entrapment or will dry quickly. Many materials can handle moisture with no
damage, so long as they can dry out quickly. Metals and ceramics simply don’t absorb water at all.
Certain metals, like stainless steel and aluminum, can get wet and still not corrode. Many impermeable
materials will not support growth of bacteria or mold. There is a reason such materials are usually
specified in wet areas.

Materials known to be vulnerable to moisture damage should not be specified in these areas. Paper
surfaced gypsum board, not treated to be moisture resistant, should be avoided. Composite panels like
OSB and MDF sheeting, are subject to delamination when wet. Basically, materials that quickly absorb
and hold moisture, contain nutrients supporting mold and bacteria growth, contain no anti-microbial
features or delaminate, dissolve or deform when wet, should be avoided. When in doubt, other materials
can be substituted for the typical use of these more susceptible components. Sometimes a slight increase
in initial material cost is much less expensive than the cost or demolition and replacement, once moisture
destroys the more economical but poorer choices.

Should we choose susceptible materials in areas likely to meet with moisture, we can expect deterioration
to occur. Sooner or later the water will find its way in. When such damage occurs, knowing what we do
by now about material characteristics, we will be hard pressed to claim ignorance of risk that was
willfully assumed.

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 PREVENTION THROUGH DESIGN

Under the concept that prevention is the best cure for disease, better planning is the best cure for moisture
damage to our built environments. Different material choices can be made by later participants in the
building process, but material selection begins in the design portion.

Those selecting details of building assemblies must consider many variables, not the least of which are
reasonably expected weather and climate conditions. Expected temperatures, humidity normally
experienced, average amounts of rain and snow, the prevailing directions from which these come and
where drifts normally occur are all pieces of predictable weather conditions. Depending on available
financing, unusual occurrences like tornadoes, hurricanes, 50-year and 100-year floods can also be
planned for during the design process. The direction each wall will face and existing drainage patterns on
the site, which hopefully direct water away from the building, will affect design choices for exterior wall
detailing. Even where vapor barriers need to be specifically located within wall and roof systems, will
vary based on prevailing climate conditions.

Selecting building materials should be done with a team approach. All disciplines and experts involved in
the planning process should be working with the same criteria in mind. There are multiple software
programs on the market that can recommend material choices, based on inputted climate and site
conditions. When stock plans are used as a starting point for design, they need to be customized to
recognize specific site conditions and minimize potential moisture infiltration through the envelope.

Recommendations for Design

Listed below are several rules of thumb used to determine where to specifically locate vapor resistant
materials in roofs and walls. These are general concepts and should be revised if other site and
environmental factors require further consideration.

Basements and crawl spaces are always susceptible to water accumulation, but precautions can be put in
place to minimize the risk. Grade should be sloped away from the structure to prevent groundwater from
standing against it. Downspouts should be extended above or below grade to discharge points well away
from a building, with connections checked on a regular basis. Gutters and downspouts should be kept
clean. Below grade walls should be sealed to resist moisture intrusion. Drains and sump pumps can be
installed below floor levels to capture and expel any moisture that does make it inside the space. If
installed and depended upon, proper operation of these pumps should be tested on a regular basis.

Walls will be either face sealed or drained cavity assemblies. Those which are drained, like masonry
veneered walls, should have a secondary barrier installed behind the first face. At the bottom of this
secondary cavity should be materials and methods to collect unwanted water and redirect it from the
interior, back out to the exterior. Those which are sealed on their faces only, like EIFS finishes, have only
one barrier with which to resist water penetration. Unless very close attention is paid to detailing during
installation, these type finishes are very likely to fail.

Humid air moving into and through roof and wall cavities is a major transport mechanism of moisture. In
cold climates, warm moist inside air should be kept from exfiltrating out of the envelope. In hotter
climates, warm moist air must be kept from infiltrating inside. Pressurization and depressurization of the
interior in response to exterior pressure changes, can help slow down that air movement, even in high-rise
construction that creates a stack effect.

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The most common moisture transport mechanisms into walls are rainwater leaks and saturation of
permeable exterior cladding. Deeper overhangs and water-resistant exterior finishes are good ways to
minimize those problem sources.

Especially around openings, joints between components are extremely susceptible to leaks. Appropriate
sealants, applied and checked regularly, can prevent water penetration at those points.

Provisions for field quality control and inspection should be included in specifications, especially if there
are external environmental conditions in which sealants or other materials should not be installed, if a
specific performance is desired from those sealants. Temperature and present moisture impact the
installation of sealants.

Vapor barriers in roof and wall systems should be on the warm side of the exterior insulation in cold
climates. Some define a cold climate as one containing 8,000 heating degree days or more. Vapor barriers
in roof and wall systems should be on the exterior side of the exterior insulation in warm climates where
the greater demand on the HVAC system is for cooling. A surface or cladding material impermeable to
vapor is a good idea in such warm climates.

If heating and cooling loads for buildings in a region are roughly balanced, some choose to omit a vapor
barrier altogether from wall and roof assemblies. They focus instead on balancing air pressure inside and
out and minimizing air leakage.

This makes a certain amount of sense. As a rule, it’s better not to have a vapor barrier than to install one
in the wrong location. A good (bad) example of this is vinyl wallcovering on the inside of outside walls in
warm climates. It becomes a damaging place for condensation to occur during cooler night temperatures.

Careful material choices are necessitated by potential moisture intrusion. New innovative materials that
are new, exciting and seemingly cutting edge, usually have no historical data regarding performance and
compatibility with other materials. A reputation for being in the forefront in material choices can easily
become replaced by a reputation for having designed failing structures.

The possibility of water vapor condensing in a building assembly can be combated in multiple ways.

 Seal joints in the building assembly to prevent air from entering wall and roof system cavities.
Seal around anything like ducts, pipes or conduits that penetrate these barriers.
 Install vapor barriers in the correct location for differing climates, to inhibit transfer of warm
humid air in either direction.
 Prior to construction, protect stored building materials from moisture until they can be
incorporated in the building.
 Reduce the number of open water sources in the building, whenever possible.
 Set and utilize the HVAC system to maintain an indoor humidity level between thirty and fifty
percent, while approximately matching the air pressure on the exterior.

Construction Methods Used to Exclude Moisture

There are three primary components to keeping water out of our built environments. One is good
maintenance. One is good construction. This portion focuses on good design. This involves precautions
which can be implemented on the drawing board to prevent infiltration.

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One example of this is taking care not to create thermal bridges which negate the effectiveness of a
thermal envelope. Thermal bridges are structures and components that extend continuously through
building envelopes. They allow transfer of cold to the inside portions. Inside, the mistake creates a great
opportunity for condensation on cold interior surfaces. Cantilevered beams, cantilevered balconies and
cantilevered soffits are all construction methods that tend to result in thermal bridges. A break or
expansion joint, in the continuity of a slab or material that extends from inside to the outside, is always a
good idea when possible. This helps with both thermal performance and condensation control.

The effectiveness of vapor and air retarders is badly compromised when penetrations and gaps through
them are left unsealed. These barriers must be continuous to work well. Specifications in design
documents must include a requirement to check and seal such gaps. When coatings to be applied are
intended to be impermeable, all joints and cracks should be sealed to prevent water and air infiltration.

When the project is a retrofit and a moisture barrier was not installed originally, vapor resistant paints
become a good option, if the designer can recommend their placement in the proper location. Multiple
coats of a glossy acrylic paint could be one such option.

Tools for Analysis and Design

During the design stage of a building, a manual or computer-based moisture analysis can be completed
that will somewhat predict amounts of moisture expected to penetrate the envelope in the future. These
steady-state calculations are based on specific parameters set by the designer. Conditions are best selected
for various seasons in the locale where the building is located. These gross calculations are done for
‘typical’ wall sections and materials and do not account for finer design details like flashings and thermal
breaks. Manual methods include use of Dew Point, Glaser or Kieper diagrams. Computer models include
MOIST and WUFI, which incorporate actual weather data and model moisture infiltration over a one-two
year cycle. Most computer models do not; however, allow much input by the user.

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 SOURCES OF WATER

Water makes its way through various building components, usually despite our best efforts.

Incoming

Unwanted moisture will enter buildings in previously mentioned ways. One is water coming through
building envelope penetrations or plumbing leaks. One is water vapor that enters as humidity from
outside or is generated by user activities or processes inside. A third is liquid or vapor rising from soil
outside or below the building. A fourth is moisture prematurely trapped in materials used during
construction or embedded in goods brought inside by building users. Damage from each of these can be
somewhat mitigated in the design phase.

Both plumbing leaks and building gaps allowing precipitation to enter, quickly result in plenty of
unwanted water. Roofs are the primary sources of leaks from the exterior, but windy conditions combined
with water flowing down the building face, can also drive water inside through very small openings.

It doesn’t take much of a leak to do serious damage. One drop of water per hour on a drywall ceiling, can
create and sustain rapid mold growth. A serious problem leak and the damage quickly escalates. There are
many sources of such moisture. Careful selection of envelope materials and detailing of joints and
flashing is the best approach to blocking this infiltration source in the design phase.

Though resulting in less moisture, water vapor is almost as much a problem as liquid infiltration. It enters
through openings or ventilation systems. The table below also lists sources of water vapor from occupants
and processes inside buildings. Indoor pools and hot tubs are obvious generators, but much humidity is
generated by masses of people assembled together. Regardless of how it enters, humidity condensing on
cool surfaces rapidly converts such vapor to liquid. Typical generated quantities are listed below.

SOURCE MOISTURE PRODUCED PER DAY (liters)

Evaporation (per person) 0.75 (sedate), 1.2 (average), 5(during heavy work)
Humidifier 2-20+
Hot tub, Whirlpool 2-20+
Firewood, per cord 1-3
Washing floors, etc. 0.2
Dish washing 0.5
Cooking for 4 0.9-2 (3 with gas range)
Frost free refrigerator 0.5
Typical bathing/ washing (per person) 0.2-0.4
Shower (each) 0.5
Bath (each) 0.1 +
Unvented gas appliance 0.15 kg/kWh (natural gas) 0.10 kg/kWh (Kerosene)
Seasonal drying of new materials 3-8 depending on house construction
Plants / Pets 0.2-0.5 (Five plants or one dog)

Choices made during design can help reduce levels of indoor humidity. Proper venting can be specified in
areas where users will be generating humidity. Careful design of the HVAC system to maintain a slightly
positive indoor air pressure, will help repel exterior humidity seeking entrance.

Moisture in soil is a never-ending problem, both in liquid and vapor states. That soil is near or in direct
contact with floors, foundations, basements, crawl spaces and footings. It will evaporate upwards,
penetrate up through cracks and wick inside through porous materials. Underground water tables hold

14
huge, basically inexhaustible reservoirs of water. Crushed stone normally used below slabs and as crawl
space surfaces provides little obstruction to vapor diffusion or evaporation. Hindering these processes
requires some sort of vapor barrier. Luckily, multiple choices in vapor barrier are available to be specified
and detailed during the design phase.

Built-in moisture is problematic in the first couple years following construction. Roughly half the water in
concrete components will eventually be released again as vapor. Wood framing gives back about ten
percent of its weight in moisture to the drier building interior. Some water in paints, caulk, drywall
compound and adhesives will also contribute to internal humidity. Specifying the allowable moisture
content of installed materials will motivate implementation of controls by manufacturers and contractors
to protect such materials from environmental sources, adding more moisture than is allowed.

Suggestions to these various moisture problems can be implemented, one by one.

Site Drainage Issues

Great design choices are made that result in just keeping water away from the structure. Groundwater
flowing against and under a building is a disaster waiting to happen. The easiest way to avoid that is to
design final grading of the land to direct water away from the building. It’s an ounce of prevention,
spending pennies to save dollars.

Water should not be allowed to pond in low areas, except in the case of intentional retainage. If possible,
finished floors should be higher than surrounding grade. These simple concepts are illustrated below.

15
Almost all municipalities now have minimum requirements regarding control of groundwater, written as
erosion, sediment control and storm water management regulations. Most methods to capture, contain or
direct site water are governed by the EPA or local and state storm water management ordinances. Grading
of stream buffers, wetlands, springs, soils prone to erosion, forest conservation areas, steep slopes and
runoff infiltration areas will be controlled or prohibited. Exposing soils will be done in manageable
phases and stabilized against erosion. Silt carried by runoff will need to be contained.

At project’s end, the amount of water leaving a site can be no greater than before construction. We can’t
dump on our neighbors. We must retain or improve the previous capacity of the site to contain water
falling on it, regardless of how much new impervious surface was built.

Every impervious surface placed on site reduces the prior capacity of the land to absorb precipitation.
Permeable paving, suitable for areas with light traffic, allows some precipitation to penetrate through it to
the soil. An underlying stone / base reservoir can store runoff till it is finally absorbed. Modular porous
pavers can also replace normal paving. Even alternative paving materials, like cobblestones, brick, gravel
or stone, allow water to penetrate through joints to the soil below.

The faster water moves across land, the less absorption and the higher the volume of water that must be
still contained. Grading changes can be used to selectively slow water runoff, giving soil below more time
to accept runoff. Planting strips between paving areas also interrupt and slow runoff. Undisturbed,
existing slopes absorb water better than newly shaped land.

Other site features can control, direct or hold water well away from buildings. Open, vegetated drainage
swales can direct runoff to new detention or retention basins, meanwhile absorbing some volume.
Retention basins hold water till it can be absorbed. They allow sediment to settle and algae to take up
nutrients. Rain gardens hold water like retention ponds but do so under a level of vegetation. Infiltration
trenches, which are rock filled trenches without outlets, hold water for eventual absorption. Dry detention
basins only hold water for a short period to let sediment settle. Catch basins and storm drains capture
runoff from roofs and paving, directing it to municipal storm sewers or site ponds.

Irrigation systems add water to a site and must be controlled. Even with drip irrigation systems, grade
should direct irrigation water away from walls and even the ground near a building foundation. Prevailing
wind directions should be considered to direct irrigation spray away. Systems should be checked to insure
they shut off as intended and leaks are quickly detected. Choosing landscaping based on its ability to

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grow and thrive in the climate of the site without irrigation, will obviously reduce moisture needing to be
supplied by sprinklers.

Site drainage plans should include the construction phase. Runoff during building should be controlled
and an erosion control plan implemented. Dirt stockpiles near the building should be shaped to direct
water away from the building. Stored materials must be protected and dried out, should they become wet.
Erected portions of the building must remain dry while additional construction proceeds. Finally,
temporary erosion control methods should be removed upon project completion.

Lists are also helpful when managing site water. Municipal storm water system requirements should be
available to any construction manager needing use of storm sewers. A list of construction details designed
to control site water will be useful. Inspections should be scheduled before, during and after construction,
with parties responsible and reports created. Finally, necessary maintenance for installed site water
systems should be listed and distributed.

Entrapped Moisture

Building materials containing large amounts of moisture will simply continue to dry after installation.
Since almost all occupied building interiors will be dryer and under less pressure than their exteriors,
trapped excess moisture will evaporate into interior environments.

Water absorption by building materials can occur multiple ways. They can become saturated while stored
at manufacturer’s locations, while transported to a site or while stored on site. Since mold spores can
attach to materials touching earth, mold can subsequently be built right into the finished building with
contaminated materials. Materials should be dried by the manufacturer, securely protected while in
transport and be kept tightly covered above grade while on site. If materials like drywall and composite
wood sheathing have absorbed moisture, they should be dried and verified to be mold free before
installation. Otherwise, they should be discarded and replaced.

Materials still absorb water after installation, if exposed to weather and humidity. If an enclosure is not
kept watertight during construction, (done in very few building projects), rain or very humid air can get to
installed materials. If they are absorptive, mold growth can begin and become sealed into the completed
building. Drywall, wood trim, OSB and other composite materials are sources of such trouble. An
inspection of substrates, prior to applying finish materials and coatings, should be mandated. If any mold
is found, the materials should be replaced, not covered.

More difficult to deal with is moisture deliberately introduced into materials during construction. Water
added to concrete to allow it to flow is still present while concrete is curing. The concrete mix, and
whether additives are specified, will determine mandated drying time before fresh concrete can safely be
encapsulated. Sealants, paints, mastics, adhesives and mortars all contain moisture that will be released as
they dry. All that moisture can wind up contained in the building environment, if adequate time to dry is
not specified.

Other sources of moisture during the construction process are purely accidental. If water gets spilled on
absorptive materials, after the spill has been cleaned, moisture is still in those materials. Leaks in pipes
release impressive quantities of water. If affected materials remain wet for at least forty-eight hours, mold
growth can begin. All such materials should be inspected and dried to acceptable levels of moisture
content, before work commences.

Specified quality control measures during construction only temporarily protect the building from
moisture. Once construction is complete, there are still plenty of other water sources to create issues,

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Reasons Why Envelopes Leak

Primary causes for failing building envelope should be addressed during design.

Unless ongoing thermal expansion and contraction of materials is accommodated, it can gradually tear
holes in an envelope. All materials expand and contract as they warm up and cool down. This creates
increasing weakness where materials join. Too much material installed monolithically will crack outward,
because it has nowhere else to go during periods of expansion. Stone, concrete and masonry surfaces are
especially susceptible to such stress cracks, if inevitable expansion is not accommodated with expansion
joints. Cracks in monolithic surfaces or between materials, allow additional water entry. When moisture
trapped thereby turns to ice, it widens cracks and can shatter surrounding materials.

Water intrusion through envelopes also happens with improperly specified materials, especially around
frequently used openings. Seal assemblies around truck dock doors begin failing when hit too hard by
drivers. Improper flashing and weep holes get installed above openings. Control joints may be substituted
for necessary expansion joints. The wrong material in the wrong place at the wrong time is a future
probable leak.

Envelope failure often occurs at points where water is meant to drain. Failed or plugged gutters and
downspouts no longer direct water away from the building. Instead, accumulating water intrudes through
every nearby joint and is sometimes pulled into structures with low internal air pressure. What doesn’t
come through the roof, drains down the building where it can be absorbed through the foundation and
slab. Internal rooftop drains become serious potential leaks when they fail. Ponding water has nowhere to
go and what does not evaporate can work its way inside. Sump pump failures result in standing water in
crawl spaces and basements. If sloped incorrectly, pump and pipe systems meant to drain water away,
may direct groundwater inside when pumps fail. Any system meant to collect and drain water must be
maintained in working order, especially those with mechanical components.

Though not an initial design issue, a fourth problem with envelopes involves poor maintenance of
buildings. Improper gutter replacement and repair creates leaks. One true life example of badly thought
out repairs involves weep holes in brick veneer, installed above lintels over large windows in a local
school. Somewhere in the past, to solve a concern about deteriorating mortar between the lintel and the
brick above, someone placed a heavy bead of caulk in front of that mortar. This dressed up the
appearance and sealed the joint against outside precipitation. It also sealed previously installed weep
holes above the lintel. That stopped wind driven water coming through cracked mortar, from exiting the
cavity behind the veneer as designed. Water trapped in the block substrate and window surrounds, froze
and shattered the block and rotted window surrounds. Walls had to be rebuilt and the windows replaced.
But the outside looked nice for a while.

A final strong source of future leaks is a compatibility problem between dissimilar materials. Steel
fasteners and aluminum siding should not physically touch each other. The same is true for copper
roofing and galvanized steel. In what is called galvanic corrosion, one metal will begin eating the other.
This creates holes around fasteners leaving materials no longer actually attached. Loose cladding creates
plenty of entry points for moisture. Certain plastics don’t respond well to certain coatings, creating similar
issues. It is a very good idea, when specifying dissimilar materials to be in contact, to check
manufacturers recommendations for the use and limitations of such materials.

Defining a Building Envelope?

The ‘envelope’ of a building is made of the roof, walls above grade, walls below grade and a floor. The
outside envelope, separating interior environment from exterior, gives the building its shape. Envelopes

18
include elements forming the foundation and floor where buildings meet earth, exterior walls and roofs
that protect from precipitation, cantilevered floors extending out, penetrations like doors and windows
and sealing systems to make necessary joints airtight and / or watertight.

Besides containing internal environments, envelopes must be designed to prevent moisture intrusion.
Otherwise damage can occur to the building, its contents and its occupants. A successful design reduces
probability of mold and other environmental contaminants entering to threaten occupant’s health. With a
long history of bad examples to learn from, we can plan against frequent causes of infiltration. These are
summarized below.

 Water moves through foundations and into basements. Poor construction, poor material choices,
failure to seal walls, failed or non-existent systems to drain water away and site issues with
groundwater drainage paths or high-water tables, all result in intrusion.
 Water enters through roofs that are poorly designed, poorly built or poorly maintained, especially
at joints and interfaces between materials.
 Door and window openings are poorly sealed. If air can get in around their edges, it will carry in
moisture or moisture laden air. Failures occur because of errors in design, in sealant and flashing
installation or maintenance.
 Properly detailing bottoms of walls and veneers is also critical. Openings must be created and
maintained to allow water blown through or condensing inside the wall, to exit. At the same time,
bottoms of walls must be designed to prevent ground moisture, or water draining across the site
or adjacent slabs, from entering.
 Diligent inspection, maintenance and necessary repair of building envelope elements must occur
on a regular basis. Otherwise, little problems will rapidly evolve into major issues.

Methods and Materials Meant to Exclude Water

Know methods and materials can be used to deny water access to building interiors. The following list is
not all-inclusive but will give some idea of ways to combat this invasive source of destruction.

 Positive Site Drainage Away from Buildings

 On-Site Systems to Collect and Drain Surface Water
 Foundation Walls and Slabs
 Below Grade Liquid Membrane
 Below Grade Sheet Membrane
 Below Grade Injection Systems
 Below Grade Bentonite
 Below Grade Chemical Grouting
 Below Grade Crystalline (negative-side waterproofing)
 Below Grade Drainage Systems
 Lining Systems
 Vapor Barriers
 Floor Leveling Compounds
 Cement Fills for Cracks
 Flooring Underlayment that Excludes Water
 Flooring Impervious to Water
 Curtain Walls
 Exterior Wall Systems
 Veneers Impervious to Moisture
 Other Claddings Impervious to Moisture

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  Building Paper & Flashings
 Elastomeric Wall Coatings
 Vapor and Moisture Barriers
 Liquid Sealers
 Sealants & Caulking
 Window & Door Flashings
 Impervious Deck and Balcony Materials
 Balconies that Shed Water Away from Buildings
 Decks & Balcony Coatings
 Roofs Designed to Properly Shed Water
 Impervious Roofing Materials
 Roof Coatings that Repel Water
 Proper Adhesives Between Composite Roof Layers
 Roof Drainage Accessories
 Flashing at Edges and Parapets
 Proper Material Combinations to Prevent Corrosion
 Cement-Plaster & Finishes
 Paint & Coatings
 Clear Sealers
 Stains
 Epoxies
 Polyester
 Polyurethane
 Penetrants
 Acrylics
 Silicones

Reviewing the above arsenal, it seems it would be easy to win our war against water. But we still seem to
be practicing architecture.

Known Problems with Wall Systems

Wall cladding is intended to exclude moisture and isolate environments. But almost all claddings and
exterior surfacing materials eventually allow some form of moisture inside. So, most are designed with a
secondary internal barrier to stop water coming into the wall cavity, collect or capture it and expel it back
out the wall’s exterior. This hopefully happens before invasive moisture can be absorbed by interior
materials. When that secondary protection fails, and water is neither stopped, collected or expelled,
serious problems result.

It is difficult to install an effective secondary barrier when using stucco installed on wire mesh lath. When
thermal expansion and contraction cracks stucco, penetrating water is supposed to be trapped, drained and
expelled at the base by a weep screed. But poorly designed or installed weep screeds can wind up buried
in subsequently constructed concrete walks, blocked by sealant or mortar or even positioned below grade.
Then water remains in the cavity (since stucco is water resistant in both directions) until it makes its way
inside. Improper flashings at windows, doors and joints will also allow water into a stucco wall cavity
with the same result.

EIFS (Exterior Insulation Finishing System) is a synthetic stucco system, intended to be waterproof. In
early installations, no secondary barriers were even installed to protect against intruding water, since it
was believed none would get inside. But water did. Poor installations, wind damage from buckling under
pressure, windblown debris punctures, cracking under thermal expansion and adhesive failures all created

20
cracks in the system. Newer installations are now vented and allow for moisture to escape at the bottom.
New EIFS system design was made necessary by too much successful litigation.

Despite components made of impervious clay, brick veneer walls are quite pervious. Unless they are
periodically resealed, mortar joints do not repel moisture. They absorb it. Masonry veneer flexes under
the force of wind, cracking connections between mortar and brick. Those cracked joints allow wind
driven rain free entry. Unless weep systems and flashing are properly installed, maintained and not
blocked during construction by mortar droppings (or well-intentioned sealants), water will accumulate
inside the cavity. There it will either infiltrate inward or freeze to expand and further crack the veneer.

Fiber-cement siding is comprised of cement, sand and cellulose. These components all absorb and hold
moisture. Moisture will saturate fiber-cement siding in the manufacturer’s yard, in transit or while stored
at a job site. Priming the product on all its faces will help. But if installed incorrectly, moisture will still
penetrate the siding. Even if all sides are primed, the interior surfaces of nail holes created by installation
will not resist moisture. Even if all these problems are overcome, there should still be a drainage plane
installed between it and wood framing, A waterproof membrane over the framing and behind flashing
should create a path for trapped moisture to be vented back outside.

Any siding carries the same built-in weakness, whether natural wood, engineered wood or fiber-cement
siding. Additionally, natural wood will absorb water and expand to warp. Even solid cedar siding can
absorb moisture and warp, if not primed on all sides and properly installed.

Using Envelope Diagnosis to Find Leaks

The first step in combatting water intrusion is to find and seal the leak, a process fraught with potential
error. It’s been verified there is no leak at the roof and it’s not coming up through the foundation. The
problem has been narrowed down to an issue with the integrity of the walls. Now what? Are there clues
we can use to find a such leak?

One is determining the way the walls were intended to fight moisture. There are two types of wall
systems, two ways to combat the intrusion of moisture. Barrier walls are those intended to prevent
leakage by blocking movement of water coming inward. A water managed wall is one intended to control
and discharge water that penetrates exterior surfaces. One repels the water, the other captures and
discharges water. Some walls incorporate both methods of protection, but all utilize one or both.

Another clue lies in a knowledge of historical trends. Older buildings have load-bearing masonry walls
that act as barrier walls, absorbing and evaporating water. Eventually masonry veneers became supported
by steel structures that were jeopardized by a moist environment. So subsequent curtain wall design
created envelopes with water managed walls, letting water in, but then channeling and redirecting it back
outside the envelope. Knowing the period of construction can offer immediate clues as to how control of
water intrusion was probably supposed to occur.

If available, existing drawings of the building can identify strengths and weaknesses of the water barriers
we call walls. Especially if detailed wall sections are available. Vague details mean craftsmen had to
make field decisions, making the actual wall composition uncertain. If actual visible details don’t match
what was drawn, that is a cause for concern. That would be a good time to determine if the building was
altered or repaired.

Building users are valuable sources of when and where leakages occur. Tenants and maintenance staff
can be interviewed about the history of water problems in the structure. Warranties for building

21
components should be reviewed, if they are still on file. Certain building assemblies may have required
submission of shop drawings and those may still be on file in maintenance offices.

No other available resources will eliminate the need for a thorough inspection of the envelope. The phases
of such an inspection can be characterized as follows.

Our senses are a necessary first step in our investigations. We can visually determine how the building is
constructed, how roofs are surfaced and terminated, details at parapets, how foundations are laid and if
there is any visual evidence of leakage. Does the roof still slope to drains and scuppers or does ponding
occur? Verify that scupper outlets are not above vertical material joints. Failed sump pumps and even
mold can be detected by smell. Excessive dampness, airborne or on surfaces, can be felt as well as
smelled. Use information that can easily be provided by our own senses. Especially during, or right after,
a rainstorm.

Inspecting building interiors helps pinpoint leakage sources. Indicators are above and below ceiling stains
on walls, damaged ceilings and the insulation above them, damaged window and door trim, dirt or water
stains in window tracks, compromised wall treatments, interior cracking, water stains around HVAC
units, water stains on the floor, odors and visible manifestations of mold. Such signs can be followed
upward till evidence of water damage ends. Then a correlating problem area should be sought outside at
that level on the building envelope. The potential for horizontal water travel from a point of leakage
should also be considered.

Spalling, cracking and bulging are three obvious indications of a leak in a wall. But there are other visual
indicators of trouble.

 On-site water flows toward the building.

 Structures meant to carry water away, just dump it onto grade near the building.
 Flashing called for in drawings should be visible to the naked eye. If not, it was probably installed
incorrectly or eliminated.
 Weep holes should not be caulked over.
 Rust is visible outside of embedded steel items.
 Counterflashing / roofing up parapet walls has come loose or pulled out from under coping or
reglets, intended to cover and secure it.
 Railing posts inserted in concrete allowed water in and subsequent cracking occurred.
 Shattering, spalling, rust, efflorescence, a white haze, craze cracking or other discoloration
indicates leaks in stone or masonry veneer.
 Mortar joints show signs of rust or smeared caulking, or a lot of them have popped out.
 Cracks in veneer go through both masonry and mortar.
 Compressed building sealant at expansion joints.
 Capstones or terra cotta have joints caulked or painted shut.
 Cracks are visible in a stepped pattern extending from edges of lintels.
 EIFS shows signs of cracking.
 Curtain walls or windows have been sealed after the fact.
 Windows and doors show signs of racking, have condensation on the glass, have rusting or rot on
the frames, or have glass to metal glazing that has shrunk back from the frame, breaking the seal.
 Horizontal concrete surfaces have exterior carpet glued on them, usually to cover cracks.
 Roofs have splitting seams, surface membrane cracking, incomplete expansion joints or have had
surface applied termination bars tying them to cavity walls

If any exterior signs of damage correspond with the location of interior signs, that envelope problem
needs immediate attention. Obvious exterior problems with no corresponding interior symptoms, just

22
means interior damage will soon appear. Being proactive now, will save more expensive repair costs
later.

Ultimately, lessens should learned on where and how damage occurs. Then detailing should be created or
modified for future buildings, to minimize the chance of those problems reoccurring.

Pen Test

Detailing a water-resistant building is best done by the designer imaging themselves to be a drop of water
seeking entry. Then make sure a continuous barrier is present, from the highest point of the roof to the
lowest part of the foundation, to repel it.

A drawing technique used by designers to check for envelope barrier continuity, is sometimes called a
‘pen test.’ Using a pen, it should be possible to follow the path of any water drop downward over a
succession of waterproof layers, till it reaches a point where the water flows away, or is carried away,
from the building. It should not be necessary to lift the pen. This can also be done to verify the integrity of
barriers to air transfer and thermal loss.

Such a continuous system of moisture barriers can include, but is not limited to: layers of roofing, flashed
joints between parapets and roofs, metal coping caps and fascia, drip edges at fascia tops to channel water
away, capillary breaks between the drip edges and the building faces, water-resistant barriers behind
building faces, head flashing above penetrations, weep holes to let trapped water out, flashing below
penetrations, base flashing, sill sealers to form capillary breaks, sealant on exposed foundation faces,
moisture barriers below slabs and systems below grade to capture and divert rising moisture in soil. In
any location, well designed flashing should direct trapped water back outside layers of the envelope,
before it can do significant damage.

The drawing below illustrates such a use of a graphic “pen” test.

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Common Reasons for Envelope Failure

Many water problems can be traced to five root causes.

 Poor design resulting in water trapped with nowhere to go or being literally redirected back into
the building. One example of this is when roof slopes dead-end into the side of another roof or a
vertical wall. Another is when parapets surrounding a flat roof wind up being the sides of a pool
when internal roof drains become plugged.
 Use of the wrong material in the wrong location.
 Poor workmanship, with water-proofing barriers not being installed properly.

24
  Moisture generated from building users deteriorating the internal environment (not a barrier
problem).
 Poor ongoing maintenance of the building allowing minor issues to quickly grow in magnitude
(neither a design nor construction problem).

Invading water comes from sources easily addressed, once identified.

 Rainwater driven in by gravity or wind, can be stopped with a water-resistive barrier and
flashings and weep holes to drain out water stopped before total penetration.
 Water absorbed through capillary action from wet conditions, can be repelled using barriers and
coatings to prevent absorptive materials from contacting moisture.
 Rain screens offset from vulnerable facing materials can prevent capillary flow through them.
 Humidity being drawn inside with outside air, can be addressed by continuous breathable wraps
around building envelopes, sealing envelope penetrations, and increasing internal air pressure.
 Moisture entering via diffusion, from high humidity areas to those of lower concentrations, can
be fought with vapor retarders installed correctly for that climate.

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 WATER AND BUILDING COMPONENTS

Buildings from Wood

Wood is not as susceptible to water as imagined. Some wood structures have been standing for hundreds
of years, even in wet climates. Everyone has seen numerous examples of this in historical homes
preserved for tours. The same wood framing and same wood siding as when the home was constructed,
sometime hundreds of years ago. Given the propensity of wood to absorb water, why is this true?

Wood can absorb small amounts of water, quickly dry out and remain undamaged. Alternately, wood can
stay submerged in water for long periods of time without damage. Problems occur when wood repeatedly
becomes saturated and then dries, or when it is exposed to small amounts of water and cannot dry
quickly. In the first case like wood pilings, rot will begin at the water line. In the second case, wood with
an elevated moisture content (as low as 15%, definitely at 22%) becomes an organic source for mold to
grow.

Wood fibers in dimensional lumber have natural glue binding them. But products like OSB and laminated
products rely on other resins and glues to hold them together. Those adhesives deteriorate with moisture
and dimensional stability issues arise. Such engineered products therefore require a higher level of
protection against moisture than dimensional lumber.

Thinking Through Building Components

Structural Framing Design

Rough framing of a building consists of the outer shell with; roofing in place, outside sheathing in place,
openings closed in by windows and doors and installed insulation. That is a “dried in” structure.

Before reaching “dried in” status, certain components should have been installed. A waterproof seal
should have been placed between the framing and the foundation. Wood should never be in contact with
wet soil or groundwater. Building wrap, sheathing, insulation or any other barrier behind exterior
cladding, must be designed with the prevailing climate conditions in mind. Water cannot wind up trapped
within the system, with its only outlet being to the inside of the structure.

Vapor barriers are currently referred to as vapor diffusion retarders. These stop inward movement of
airborne vapor inside a wall cavity. They are to be installed on the side of the cavity consistently exposed
to the highest vapor pressure. In very hot or very cold climates, that choice is easy. In more temperate
climates, that decision becomes difficult.

Only one vapor barrier, or material that acts as one, should be placed in a wall or roof system. Otherwise,
moisture becomes trapped between the separate barriers. Plastic sheeting, Kraft paper, foam plastic
sheeting / insulation, solid vinyl wall covering, and asphalt-impregnated building paper are all known for
their capabilities as vapor barriers. But unfaced insulation, building paper without asphalt compounds,
plywood sheathing and building wraps like Tyvek, also retard vapor flow to some degree.

Correct installation of vapor barriers should be detailed. Cavity insulation should fill all voids before
installation of the vapor barrier. Vapor diffusion retarder must be properly sealed at all seams, including
spaces around window and door openings. Vapor barriers should be secured to buildings with no
fasteners leaving holes through which moisture can migrate. In real life, this is practically impossible, but
the attempt should be made.

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Cellulose insulation is generally installed wet. Moisture used to place this material must be carefully
regulated. Installed insulation must be completely dry, before additional vapor diffusion retarders are
installed. Otherwise moisture needed for application stays in the assembly to later feed mold.

Materials used in ‘wet’ areas also require care in selection. “Green” moisture resistant drywall is
historically used behind ceramic tile tub and shower surrounds. Cementous backer board has proven to be
far superior for these installations.

Foundation Design

Building foundations are especially vulnerable to moisture. Rainwater and plumbing leaks make their
way to foundation walls. The same is true of moisture from surface water, rain-soaked soil and high-water
tables. Condensation forms on foundation walls, since inside those walls is usually cooler than outside. In
contact with wet soil, foundations must withstand water for long periods. Since hidden water problems
with foundations severely affects structural integrity of buildings and the health of their occupants, it is
worth the effort to properly design them.

Water enters foundations from many sources, some of them unusual.

 Over the tops of foundation walls.

 Through damaged or honeycombed concrete
 Through window wells
 From external flooding
 Through mortar joints
 Around form ties
 Around pipe penetrations
 Through cracked ground drains
 Through cracks in foundation walls
 Through cracks in floors
 Through loose cove joints
 Back through failed sump pumps and their pits
 From leaking sewer pipes
 Up through failed floor drains
 Plugged overflow drains
 Failed storm collection components dropping water next to foundations
 Disconnected or plugged foundation drains
 Failed or plugged municipal sanitary or storm sewers

Foundation Leaks

As can be discerned from the list above, much of the water entering foundations originates adjacent to it.
One basic precaution is ensuring that finished grades abutting the foundation, slope away from the
building. This should preferably be at a minimum five percent positive slope, in place for approximately
ten feet around the perimeter. Rainwater penetration near buildings can be minimized with a cap of more
impervious soil (like clay) under topsoil near the structure. At least 8” of foundation walls should be
above grade at all points. If this is not possible, and a high-water table is near the top of the foundation, a
sub-floor drainage system can intercept and carry water away, before it finds its way up through the slab.

Building foundations are usually from some type of concrete. Rainwater is expected to drain down the
upper face to grade. There, below grade portions are usually protected from water by coatings of Portland
cement or some other impervious material. Walls may be treated with additives that create integral

27
capillary breaks. They can also be so massive that expected normal precipitation can be absorbed into and
stored in the wall itself and dry out to the exterior between exposures.

Site drainage systems should direct water away while foundations are being poured or placed, especially
in the event of heavy precipitation. Existing systems should not be overloaded by adding water from new
impervious surfaces. Materials that are wet should not be covered up or over until dry or cured. Crawl
space floors should be sloped toward a drainage system. And it may become necessary to put
dehumidification systems in place, should humidity rise to unacceptable levels.

Foundation must be dry before damp proofing coatings and materials are applied. If drainage and
evacuation systems are in place, this will be much easier. Vapor barriers, foundation insulation and
similar materials can then be properly adhered to the concrete.

Gravel pathways are often created alongside foundation walls, to make an easy way for groundwater to
travel away from foundation walls. Footing drain systems should carry water away from footings and
floor slabs, if there is one on the other side of the footing. Special paint can be applied to the top of a
footing as a capillary break between a damp footing and a foundation wall.

Transfer of moisture up through slabs can also be prevented. A layer of clean coarse gravel makes a
capillary break between earth and slab. Plastic film beneath the slab provides a vapor barrier to stop
moisture migration. Foam insulation below slabs helps with thermal transfer but doesn’t provide much
resistance to moisture. Drainage layers and vapor barriers beneath slabs are usually required by building
codes.

Proper gutters and downspouts that carry water away are a very good investment against moisture
damage. Sometimes solving a problem can be as simple as extending downspouts well away from
foundations.

Landscaped surfaces by foundations can also direct water away. They can intercept rain and drain it away,
while also preventing erosion from falling water that forms trenches to further hold water against
foundations.

Capillary breaks should also be installed between foundation walls and building framing above them.
This can be a foam sill seal, metal or rubber flashing or a damp-proof masonry course between the
foundation and wood or steel framed walls above.

All these details, installed as defenses against moisture intrusion through foundations, can be detailed and
specified in the planning stage. The following illustration demonstrates some of these safety measures.

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Design consideration for foundations are summarized below.

 Design basements and crawlspaces so interior floor grades are higher than known 100-year flood
levels and nearby water tables.
 Grades and vegetation should direct water away from foundations.
 Use gutters and downspouts to keep rainwater well away from the structure.
 Specify a curtain of free-draining material around foundation walls and down to an installed
drainage system.
 Design a drainage collection system to drain captured groundwater to daylight or a sump pump.
Locate the top of that drainage system below the bottom of nearby finished slabs.
 Create capillary breaks between: top of foundation walls and first-floor framing, earth and
basement slab, top of footing and the foundation wall, and a free-draining perimeter curtain and
the below grade portion of the foundation.
 Use a concrete slab or plastic membrane on crawl space floors to prevent moisture evaporation
from the earth up into a crawl space.
 Provide a way to drain crawl spaces and basements if necessary.
 Insulate below slabs to prevent condensation forming on them in warm humid weather.
 Vent crawl space foundations to the outdoors.
 If crawl spaces are vented, insulation should be installed between the crawl space and the first
floor.
 If mechanical equipment is in basements or crawl spaces, insulate walls and seal them against air
intrusion, but basements or crawl spaces containing mechanical equipment should not be
insulated between the floor above and the basement.

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 There should be a continuous barrier installed between a vented crawl space and the floor framing
above.
 When insulating foundation wall exteriors, specify materials that can touch earth, extend
insulation from top of a footing to the top of a subfloor and call for a protective coating on any
insulation subsequently above grade.
 When insulating inside foundation walls, use closed cell foam inside with fire protection placed
over insulation and no paper or wood-based products touching the floor.
 Use air conditioning or dehumidifiers to reduce humidity during warm, humid seasons.
 Recommendations for crawl spaces and basement are shown in the illustrations below.

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Wall Envelope Design

The first step to building dry walls is using dry materials. A plan and proactive approach are needed to
ensure building materials stay dry while stored on site before installation. Send back materials that arrive
with intolerable levels of moisture, whether sold that way or saturated en route. Keep materials from
direct contact with the earth and store them in dry areas if possible. Then inspect them again for moisture,
right before their use.

Walls built with dry materials should also integrate features to manage moisture intrusion afterwards.
Intersections between walls, roofs, and foundations are problematic, as are penetrations through walls.
Primary methods for maintaining water-tightness are outlined below.

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 Penetrations Commonly Found in Walls How to Maintain Water-tightness
Windows Head flashing, jamb flashing and panned sill
flashing provide continuity
Doors Head flashing, jamb flashing and panned sill
flashing provide continuity
Outdoor air intakes Head flashing, jamb flashing and panned sill
flashing provide continuity
Exhaust outlets and fans Head flashing, jamb flashing and panned sill
flashing provide continuity
Fasteners Sealants provide continuity
Utility entrances Sealants provide continuity

Moisture sources to consider in wall design are rainwater, condensation of humidity on cooler inside
faces and condensation on cooler material surfaces inside the wall cavities. Solutions include preventing
leakage through cladding, preventing water from wicking inward and flashing at joints and envelope
penetrations to direct surface water away from wall cavities.

Wall flashings are needed at windows, doors and trim, outdoor air intakes, exhaust outlets and fans, ducts,
pipes and electric conduit entries and exits, and through-wall flashings where horizontal elements (e.g.,
roofs) intersect walls of taller elements.

The best way to prevent condensation inside walls is to make walls airtight. That will stop moisture and
humidity migration inward. This requires a continuous seal. Barrier continuity can be verified during
design with a pen test. Such barriers must be intact on all surfaces of an enclosure envelope. Given
necessary penetrations, this is difficult to accomplish but worth attempting. Some degree of attention
must also be paid to maintaining continuity of the insulation envelope, with no thermal bridges created.
Otherwise, condensation can and will occur.

Moisture resistance is the first step, but some will still make it in the envelope through natural
mechanisms. The likelihood of intrusion occurring is based on the climate zone. The map below
illustrates where climate zones are delineated.

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Climate Zone Map Excerpted from Building Codes

Denial is good. A building operating under positive pressure will help deny entry to vapor. When doors
open, air will blow out instead of being sucked in. But water will still find ways inside. Drainage planes
are designed into envelope assemblies to deny water further entry, capture it and direct it downward to
ultimate expulsion back outside.

Preventative measures are first conceived in envelope detailing during the design phase. The best offense
is usually a great defense. Examples of such details in different wall assemblies are below.

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34
35
In wall assembly design, special attention must be paid to water barriers, their location, materials, and
installation methods. Barrier components include; exterior cladding, flashing around windows, doors and
HVAC system openings, flashing where lower story roofs, balconies or decks intersect upper story walls
and building drain planes like weather-resistant-barriers, felt-paper and spray-applied membranes.

Other barriers work in conjunction with vapor barriers. The insulation layer must also be detailed to
ensure continuity. Attention is given to the air barrier, especially in wall areas that will become
inaccessible. Soffits beneath insulated ceilings, elevator and stair shafts, can all be problematic. Openings
through envelopes should be thoroughly sealed, before doors, windows, vents, etc. are installed. Caulking
and other means of sealing barriers should be thoroughly planned.

Design of Interior Finishes

Improperly placed or specified interior finishes contribute to moisture condensation or water retention. If
wall covering acts as a vapor diffusion retarder, and a vapor barrier is in place elsewhere in the assembly,
the two in combination will retain moisture in wall cavities.

Ceramic tile tub and shower enclosures can be another source of water infiltration or retention, if
improperly installed. Specified grout and mortar must be properly placed for tile in wet areas. “Thin-set”
methods should be used only for dry applications like wall wainscoting.

Glazing System Design

36
There are three basic areas in which door and window system defects contribute to air and moisture
infiltration. These are errors in window and doors selection, errors in shipping and handling, and errors in
installation.

Proper specification depends on the geographic region of use, utilization of the structure and the exterior
cladding that will be penetrated. All affect air infiltration and moisture retention. How envelope cladding
meets window cladding will dictate materials and detailing used to seal openings. Some units are intended
to be self-flashing, but their flanges are not compatible with all building material used. The type of glass
specified will determine how easily moisture condenses on interior faces.

Doors and windows damaged during shipping or handling will be problems once installed. Torqued or
racked units won’t install flush or square. Resulting gaps will compromise intended performance.
Flashing around openings must be installed so water runs downhill and drains away or weeps out.
Caulking is useful, but due to life cycle deterioration, cannot ultimately fix problems created by poorly
installed units.

Poor installation of units can impact barrier continuity. When ‘X’s are cut to create openings in
continuous vapor barriers, the ‘X’ should not extend past the opening. Otherwise, vapor barriers will still
have gaps, after doors and windows are installed. Moisture will also infiltrate around openings if
insulation is not installed in all gaps in those openings.

How well doors and windows are sealed can be tested. Air testing demonstrates the superiority of new
window and door technologies. An increased public awareness of energy efficiency demands verifiable
evidence of performance.

Envelope tightness is established by both laboratory and field testing. In laboratory tests, wall assemblies
are built with properly installed doors or windows. Then the ease of air passage under pressure from one
side to the other is tested.

Field tests are used to determine air infiltration and water penetration of an already completed envelope.
Tests range in sophistication and vary from simply spraying one side of a wall or roof assembly with a
hose, to fitting pressure chambers to the inside or outside of an assembly to measure pressure
differentials.

Roof Design

A roof is best defined as an entire assembly that provides rain protection, thermal insulation, air barriers
and condensation control. They consist of underlayment, roofing finish surface, flashings and treatment of
penetrations through which water seeks to infiltrate. Roofs are effective when they are watertight,
precipitation and water contacting the roof cannot get into the building and moisture has a way to get off
the roof.

A major source of roof leaks is insufficient or poorly designed flashing at roof penetrations and changes
in planes. Roofing mastic, sometimes used to fasten flashing materials, does not survive for the life of the
roof.

On sloped roofs, roof underlayment is applied after flashings are installed. If felt does not have enough
overlap between layers, water can seep in. Leaks may also occur where felt is not extended far enough
over flashing. Tiles or shingles should be installed with attention to their manufacturer’s recommended
spacing and fastener location.

37
Flat roofs present challenges too. Underlying substrates generally have cracks or gaps through which
water can penetrate if it makes it that far. Built-up roofs may blister and crack, creating leaks. Membrane
roofs leak if joints are not properly sealed, if moisture was still present prior to membrane installation or
if the membrane is not sufficiently extended up vertical surfaces that intersect.

Many problems with roof assemblies can be addressed in the design stage. Detailing beforehand and
inspection afterwards of a completed roof assembly, are both critical steps in combatting known points of
failure. Some historical problems are as follows.

 Roof slopes must be proper for the roofing assembly specified. All materials do not shed water
the same way at the same slope. Manufacturers’ recommendations address these limitations.
 Flashing and counterflashing design and installation is critical at intersections like; roof edges,
gutters, roof drains, valleys, chimneys, dormers, skylights, equipment curbs, pipe penetrations
and structural support for railings, signs, fences and screens.
 Through-wall flashing should be in place where lower level roofs intersect upper story walls or
parapets.
 Roofing paper and seal-down tabs do not always properly adhere. Some manufacturers place
protective plastic over tabs to prevent premature adherence while stored outside. If that plastic is
not removed before application, roofing will not adhere to itself once installed.
 Insulation layers need to be inspected to verify continuity before closure.
 Verify systems and components intended to vent enclosed spaces below roofs, before sealing the
space. Don’t block air flow through lower vents with installed insulation, or insulation that has
been mounded up by drafts.
 Properly seal joints between materials intended to form an air barrier, including places where
walls meet roofs.
 Insulate edges of fluted metal decks, parapet walls, equipment curbs, skylights, gaps around
elevator shafts and other areas that will be become inaccessible later.
 Make sure caulking and foam, that maintain air and weather tight conditions, are only used in
areas where they can be inspected and repaired later.
 Verify that fasteners at lapped roofing edges of roofing are installed correctly, to the correct
degree of tightness and with sealants in place when those were called for.
 Ice dams form when snow melts above poorly insulated warm attics and flows down till it freezes
at the colder roof edge. Water still flowing down the roof gets trapped in place by the ice dam on
the edge and finds its way inside through miniscule openings.
 Interior roof drains on flat roofs get clogged when debris fills them. Then standing water creates
larger problems in a freeze / thaw cycle. Ponding water around the clogged drain adds unforeseen
loading to the structure, which can bow as a result, leading to permanent ponding. To combat
this, overflow drains are normally designed near necessary drains.

There is a primary design goal for a roof and ceiling assembly. They are to collect and dispose of
rainwater. Therefore, all portions must slope to points of collection and disposal, even when the roof has
deflected under loading. They should also prevent condensation on cool surfaces inside the roof / ceiling
assembly and on interior surfaces. Difficulty of future maintenance should not discourage future needed
maintenance. Where rooftop spaces will be used for outdoor activities, slope must be kept low enough for
safety. Higher slopes will accommodate mechanical equipment but must still accommodate maintenance
workers. Higher slopes can be used for visual appeal, if there will be no foot traffic on them and surface
material replacement will be rare.

In every case, roofing surface material must follow guidelines established by manufacturers for slope, use
and application. Lower slope (3:12 pitch or lower) roofs can use built-up roofs, modified bitumen, single-

38
ply membrane, sprayed polyurethane foam, and metal panels. Steeper slope (greater than 3:12) roofs can
use metal panels and shingles, asphalt shingles, slate and tile.

Drainage systems to handle water coming from a roof must be sized by the amount of rainfall historically
expected to fall on a surface of that size. Drainage systems components include roof drains, vertical
conductors and leaders, building storm drains, building storm sewers and horizontal branches of such
drains or sewers. Guidance for both 10-year and 100-year storms can be found for the design and sizing
of external gutter and downspout drainage systems in Chapter 1 (Roof Drainage Systems) of the Sheet
Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association, Inc. (SMACNA) Architectural Sheet
Metal Manual. Watertight leaders should carry water at least ten feet away from foundations, into swales
on grade, perimeter drain systems or storm sewers.

Internal roof drainage systems are practical solutions for larger, low-slope roofs. Ice dams are not usually
a problem because drains penetrating conditioned space are warmed by their escaping heat. Features like
skylights and mechanical equipment curbs should not create dams obstructing water flow. All flow on the
roofs should be directed to the drains using a minimum 1/4:12 pitch. Strainers should be provided on
drains to prevent debris clogs. Drains should be placed in the center of bays between columns, so
subsequent structural deflection will increase roof slope to the drain. A roof plan detailing an internal
drainage system is shown below.

Penetrations of parapets and roof assemblies must be detailed and flashed to prevent the entry of
rainwater. Below is an example detail of flashing around a gooseneck vent penetration. Listed below are
methods used to maintain water-tightness around roof penetrations.

39
 Penetrations Commonly Found in Roofs
Joints between pieces of roofing
Roof edges
Roof intersections with adjoining, taller walls
Skylights and roof hatches
Chimneys
Air handlers and exhaust fans
Plumbing vents
How to Maintain Water-tightness
Shingling or sealing provides continuity
Overhangs, copings and drip edges provide
capillary breaks
Through-flashing provides continuity where a
lower story roof intersects the wall of the higher
level and where any roof meets a dormer wall.
Flashing and counter-flashing of veneers and low-
slope roof membranes keep water out of joints
between materials
Flashing, curbs and counter-flashing provide
continuity
Flashing, curbs and counter-flashing provide
continuity
Flashing, curbs and counter-flashing provide
continuity
Flashing and counter-flashing provide continuity

To prevent opportunity for condensation inside, the R-value of the insulation layer must be continuously
maintained. Despite through-assembly penetrations, detailing can be created to keep insulation relatively
intact. Continuous vapor barriers also help control condensation.

Based on climate and the space use, a vented or non-vented roof assembly can be used. If vented, don’t
place mechanical equipment in the attic. Condensation on the bottom of sheathing can be avoided using
non-vented roof assemblies. The lack of vents creates more resistance to fire from embers, with no
oxygen supply to feed the fire from below.

Often, an insulation system composed entirely of low permeability foam is specified. Spray foam
provides an integral air barrier, insulation layer and vapor control in all climates. But even this system
needs to have transitions between the foam and adjoining assemblies carefully detailed. Foam board
provides similar characteristics, but also requires air-sealing joints, penetrations and roof-wall
intersections.

An example of creating continuous insulation envelopes is shown below.

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Water intrusion of roofs stems from mistakes in design, material selection, transportation of and
installation of materials. It sometimes results from compatibility issues between many products. Problems
may also simply result from issues or mistakes not even yet envisioned in examples discussed above.

What we know for sure, is that moisture problems do arise with buildings. Whether something goes
wrong in planning or construction, moisture will be trying to infiltrate, condense or hide away in porous
materials. Undetected and uncorrected, it can facilitate mold growth, which compounds other construction
problems and complicates any needed repairs.

Moisture from Plumbing Leaks

Any pressurized system holding water will leak through the smallest openings. Once defects in plumbing
release water into a building, it can be absorbed by porous materials. Enclosed in other materials,
plumbing leaks are difficult to find, replace or repair. Since extensive and expensive demolition is
required to get at them, we do our best to get plumbing systems designed right the first time around.

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Possible defects in plumbing systems are many and wide ranging. Pipes, nails and screws can protrude
into piping. Toilets not properly seated can leak. If plastic plumbing fittings are threaded onto metal, the
plastic can become over-stressed and fracture. Installation defects for plastic piping also include over-
tightening fittings designed to be hand tightened only. Faucets and mixing valves can also be incorrectly
anchored or installed improperly and subsequently leak water into the wall cavity or finished cabinetry.
Condensation forms on cold-water lines, chilled water lines and toilets. The colder they are, the more
likely condensation will form on them. Mold grows on walls, ceilings and floors enclosing spaces
subjected to repeated wetting.

Most plumbing problems are construction related, but some can be mitigated with planning. Water lines
in an exterior envelope must be placed inside the insulating component of the wall. If not possible,
redesign them to an interior wall. Insulate cold water lines passing through warm spaces to reduce
condensation dripping from them. In wet areas, select materials like ceramic tile, glass, plastic resins,
metals and cement-based products highly resistant to mold growth. Place valves, water and drain lines in
places easily accessed for inspection and repair. The best preventative measure is to require pressure
testing and needed repair of all plumbing lines, before they are enclosed.

Moisture from HVAC Systems

As a rule, outdoor air contributes most of the humidity load for buildings. Therefore, HVAC components
that dehumidify ventilation air deserve consideration. Other moisture problems with HVAC systems can
be anticipated.

 Inadequate dehumidification during hot, humid weather results in excessive humidity condensing
inside. When sticky uncomfortable occupants compensate by lowering thermostats, it results in
even more condensation on cooler indoor surfaces.
 Leaky return air plenums and air handlers suck in excessive unconditioned, humid outside air.
 Leaks in ducts supplying chilled air can cool materials in areas they cross, creating cold surfaces
on which moisture can form.
 When cooling systems provide dehumidification, but are oversized for the space, they shut down
before coils can condense enough moisture to control humidity.
 Drainage systems, needed to dispose of condensate from HVAC components, are missing or
broken and will instead drop collected water with subsequent moisture damage and possible mold
growth occurring.
 Inadequately vented indoor moisture generators, like showers, bathrooms, spas, pools and
kitchens, add humidity indoors to condense on colder surfaces.

A properly designed HVAC system will address such issues. A slightly positive pressure indoors will
minimize outside air coming through openings. It will handle sensible load only and if extra
dehumidification is needed, that will be handled by additional equipment added to the system. A different
type thermostat can operate dehumidification equipment, even when cooling is not required, keeping
indoor dew points low enough to reduce condensation and moisture absorption by organic materials.
Sealed duct connections prevent hot humid air being pulled into the building or chilled air from cooling
nearby materials inside assemblies. Drainage systems for condensation should be easily accessed and
maintained. Indoor humidity load generators should be properly ventilated.

Additional considerations to control humidity are shown below. They create an overview of a complex
problem. Final design of any system should obviously be left in the hands of qualified designers.

 Major humidity loads arrive in ventilation air, exhaust makeup air and outside air flowing into the
enclosure. They peak when outdoor air is a moderate temperature but contains high humidity.

42
  Air-side economizers create problems in buildings requiring only moderate cooling during
lengthy unoccupied periods. This cooling is usually accomplished with outside air. Unless that air
is dry as well as cool, economizers adds a lot of moisture to the building and contents. The use of
such economizers should be limited to times when outdoor air dew point is below 55°F.
 To limit moisture damage, humidity control needed in the winter. Higher indoor dewpoints are
more comfortable in winter, but lower ones are needed to avoid condensation. A target dewpoint
of around 35°F is a good compromise in design.
 Better insulated, more air-tight building enclosures, with continuous air and vapor barriers inside
the insulation layers, tolerate higher indoor dew points in very cold climates.
 Some buildings may require mechanical humidification as HVAC systems dry air during the
heating process. This added humidity should not result in excessive moisture.
 All duct connections should be sealed with mastic to limit air entry or exit, including where
ductwork meets air handlers.
 Curbs supporting rooftop units are part of the ductwork system and must be completely sealed.
 If vertical chases containing plumbing are used as return air plenums, pipe penetrations must be
thoroughly sealed to prevent entry of unwanted air.
 If outside temperatures are below freezing and humidity is being added to indoor air, it is best to
have a slight negative pressure inside. That way, humid inside air is not forced into perimeter
wall cavities where condensation can occur.
 Buildings with indoor pools will need environmental containment and exhaust specifically for
that space.
 Condensate drain pans should be sloped so all water drains out, sized so the pan is long enough to
catch all droplets blown off the coil, vented on the outlet side to ensure free flow continues and
easily accessed.
 Interior faces of ductwork within ten feet of cooling and dehumidification coils should be faced
with impermeable and washable materials. An access panel should be provided there for
inspection and cleaning.
 Vent wet areas directly to the exterior through sealed ductwork.

Moisture from Ventilation Systems

Ventilation systems are intended to move air out of structures and subsequently reduce air pressure inside.
These impact the operation of the building and its HVAC systems, changing the amount of moisture in
the building. Design of ventilation must be balanced with other operations to achieve desired goals.
Problems occur when these are not correctly designed and installed.

Designing building pressurization depends on multiple parameters. Vapor barrier choice determines how
effectively pressurization occurs. Climate obviously matters. In hot humid climates, pressure inside
should be greater than outside, so air move outwards when openings occur. For cold climates, pressure
should be less than outside, so air moves inside when given the chance. The goal is to prevent humid air
being trapped inside building assemblies.

Ultimately, pressure differential will be determined by air inside generated by an HVAC system, inside
air being exhausted by ventilation systems, the amount of make-up air introduced, and the effectiveness
of air and vapor barriers put in place to prevent air and moisture exchange.

Air systems are designed to produce a desired atmosphere inside a building. It will be a combination of
air at a certain temperature and internal humidity. Too much humidity and discomfort and mold growth
may follow. Too little humidity and breathing and allergy issues may arise. The wrong mix at the wrong
time in the wrong climate can cause condensation in the space or hidden inside envelope assemblies.
Improperly sized or even kinked ductwork can restrict air flow and build back pressure.

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Given all the variables involved, design and balancing of HVAC and ventilation systems is probably best
left to mechanical engineers.

Moisture from Condensation

Condensation will always occur at interfaces where warm moist air meets cooler surfaces. If there is no
moving air and enough heat to dry that condensation before absorption into nearby building materials
occurs, deterioration will result. Managing condensation involves limiting how much moisture makes its
way in, and how to dry condensation out when it occurs.

Causes of Condensation

How much condensation forms depends on the dew point, the temperature at which condensation will
happen. Dew point is relative to the amount of water contained in air. The greater the humidity, the higher
surface temperatures can be and still facilitate condensation. They only need to be a few degrees cooler
than the air. If air is relatively dry, surfaces must be much colder than the air for water to condense. Dew
point is an absolute measure of how much water vapor is in air. When the dew point of the air is higher
than the surface temperatures of what it contacts, condensation occurs. If the dew point is lower than the
surface temperature, moisture will not condense. Condensation results from high dew points, cold
surfaces or a combination of both

That gives us some direction on how to control condensation. We control indoor dew point by adding or
subtracting water vapor from air.

In housing, residents’ activities add large amounts of moisture. In humidified buildings like hospitals and
swimming pools, indoor humidity is high by design. In low-rise buildings, moisture continually enters via
crawl spaces and basements. But regardless of source, we control how much remains with humidification
and dehumidification equipment, integrated with HVAC systems.

Cold Weather Condensation

In cold weather, condensation is most likely to occur just inside exterior assemblies, especially on glass
and metal close to the temperature of the cold air outside. Inside such windows is often where
condensation first appears. Voids in insulation also create holes where cold air penetrates to the
comparatively warm side of inner surfaces, allowing condensation to form.

Condensation may also occur inside an assembly. Steel members passing from inside to outside (thermal
bridges) transport heat from inside to outside, becoming warm surfaces inside an assembly where
moisture can condense. If a pressurized building has gaps in the vapor barrier, the warmer humid interior
air may be forced into the assembly to contact colder exterior materials. An interesting problem is when
interior humid air forms frost on the inside of exterior metal cladding or roofing. Then, when outside
temperatures rise, that frost melts and drips. If the temperature rise is accompanied by rain, the sudden
water problem can be mistaken for a rainwater leak.

Hot Weather Condensation

In hot weather, there are six primary reasons why large air conditioning systems create condensation
issues. They cool down all interior surfaces on which humid air can then condense. If they don’t run long
enough to dehumidify air, just cooling without removing moisture, that raises the interior dew point and
increases condensation potential. Supply air ducts, diffusers and refrigerant lines are much colder than

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room air and are perfect surfaces on which water can form. If the building exhausts more air than it makes
up, humid outside air is pulled in through every crack to settle on cooler interior surfaces. Water already
in porous exterior materials is driven deeper into wall assemblies by sunlight to contact colder surfaces
inside. Accidental vapor barriers, on cooler interior sides, are places where that humid exterior air can
condense.

Hot weather condensation can be controlled. Material dew points can be controlled by regulating
humidity in both heating or cooling modes. Airtight HVAC systems keep interior dew points low. Air
conditioning systems can dehumidify even when not cooling, using dedicated dehumidifiers to dry
ventilation air.

Air conditioning systems can remove humidity from incoming ventilation and makeup air. But vapor
from indoor sources is dealt with elsewise. Exhaust fans remove it from showers, kitchens, indoor spas
and pools. Continuous air and vapor barriers keep separate environments and their differing amounts of
humidity separate. The better the insulation, the less chance for warm humid air to penetrate the envelope
and interact with colder surfaces. The more continuous that insulation, the less chance for low R-value
materials to become thermal bridges.

Assembly material selection and placement can affect condensation. Materials should be layered to keep
low-perm materials above the dew point during heating and cooling seasons, but still allow materials to
dry out if they do get wet.

Finally, creating a positive air pressure inside buildings will keep humid air outside. Just remember that
pressurizing certain building types in cold seasons does more damage than good. Buildings containing a
lot of moisture, like swimming pool enclosures, should not have positive pressure pushing their humid air
inside envelope assemblies with colder exterior materials.

Tightening the Envelope

The seemingly obvious solution to moisture is to create buildings that are extremely well insulated and as
absolutely sealed as possible. This is a bad approach to the problem. Building users need to breathe
healthy air. If there is no other way for fresh air to enter, it must be brought in mechanically and tempered
to add or remove heat and add or remove moisture. That is indeed the approach some take in designing
exterior envelope assemblies.

Vapor and Air Retarders

Three classes of construction materials slow down, prevent or control the transfer of air or moisture
through a building.

Vapor retarders are thin membranes or coatings that reduce the rate and volume of moisture transfer.
Membranes are often plastics like polyethylene. Coatings include products of asphaltic, resinous or
polymeric composition. These type products usually have a transmission rate of less than one perm.

Air retarders usually have a vapor transmission rate of not less than five perm, while also inhibiting air
flow. That way, air infiltration is reduced, but vapor trapped inside a cavity can easily diffuse back out
through the barrier. Fiber-reinforced polyolefin is one air retardant material. For such materials to do their
job, all joints and penetrations must be properly sealed. This is difficult to accomplish in real life.

Combination air/vapor retarders combine the performance of both former classes of materials to restrict
the rate and volume of both air and vapor trying to transfer. Example of these type of products include

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polyethylene, extruded polystyrene, foil-covered foam and certain exterior sheathings. As with air
retarders, assemblies using these products must carefully seal joints and penetrations.

As illustrated below, proper placement of such barriers is critical to performance.

Combatting Negative Air Pressure

A difficult problem to solve, is when we pull water in by creating a negative air pressure inside our
buildings. Some industrial processes, like plasma coating, require using a large volume of inside air. This
contaminated air is then exhausted to the exterior from the process area, leaving a vacuum that must be
filled with air from somewhere. It is very expensive to condition the volumes of make-up air needed for
such processes, so the problem tends to be ignored. But the need does not go away, and balance will still
occur.
Needed make-up air is naturally provided in two ways. One is when exterior doors are opened. Then
unconditioned air comes blasting in to fill the vacuum. Workers near such doors experience a bit of
discomfort. Balance also occurs when air is continually pulled in through any gaps in the building
envelope. When these gaps are in the roof assembly, water on that roof will be decision by incoming, also
unconditioned air. Since heat also escapes through the same roofing gaps, if snow is on the roof, water
from melting snow enters with incoming air. If incoming air is cold, moisture in it will condense on warm
surfaces and drip down. None of these air-balancing scenarios is good for the building, the occupants or
computer-controlled machinery below the drips.
The problem worsens when such industrial processes are not constant. If water is being pulled
through in the winter and the process shuts down for a period, water will refreeze before it enters all the
way. Then expanding ice widens the slight gap in which it resides, making it easier for more water to
enter the next time the process occurs.
There are three reasonably good ways to solve this air pressure problem. One is to install very large
systems to bring in needed outside air and precondition it. That is expensive in buildings exposed to
northern winters or desert summers. A second way is to create large air intake ducts into the process area

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that run underground. In this case, the constant temperature of the earth will precondition incoming air to
around fifty-five degrees. The simplest from the standpoint of the designer, is to have a building user find
a different process to achieve the same result with their process, that does not involve discharging large
amounts of air. That suggestion usually doesn’t go over well.

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 PRECLUDE INFILTRATION PROBLEMS BY DESIGN

Preventing Leaks by Planning

Moisture control needs to be incorporated into the planning, scheduling and sequencing of a project, to
best protect a building from water damage. Input needs to be sought from the designer, owner and
contractor, if they have already been chosen, and the building manager if one has been selected. All input
should be utilized to create a comprehensive approach to problems. But the process begins in planning,
with review by all parties of moisture control details included in the construction documents.

Action items to consider in planning moisture control include:

 If and when, third-party inspection and testing will occur.

 Ways to keep the building site, materials and equipment dry during construction
 Temporary drainage structures to keep groundwater away from the building site
 The best sequence of material deliveries during construction, and ways to protect materials from
moisture prior to their incorporation in the structure
 Which parts of the structure being built can be enclosed with materials that are tight enough to
provide moisture protection to materials stored inside for later incorporation
 Ways to protect sensitive materials from water needed during the construction process
 If lower floors are to be finished before upper levels, ways to drain exposed upper levels to their
perimeters and drain water away from floors below.
 Whether shafts opening to floors still open to the elements, may need to be temporarily sealed
 When in the sequence, rain protection should be put in place for completed work containing
moisture sensitive materials
 A list of finish and other materials that must be kept dry. Plans to protect them during
construction and steps to be taken if they get wet
 A list of materials that can tolerate getting wet, and the point to which they must subsequently be
dried before they are incorporated
 A list of glass and other impermeable materials that can get wet but must be dry before sealants
and caulking can be applied
 A list of porous materials that can absorb a lot of moisture without harm, but must be dry before
coatings are applied, so moisture is not trapped inside by those same coatings
 A sequence for the delivery and installation of moisture sensitive materials arriving at a time
when the place where they will be installed has already been made weathertight
 Once the building has been enclosed, but before the HVAC system is commissioned, specify
dehumidification of the entire enclosure
 Require that before final connections are made, or components are covered, the enclosure be
tested for air tightness, the HVAC for sealed duct connections and plumbing systems for any
potential leaks
 Specify that if any moisture or mold shows up during or immediately following construction, the
source of the problem must be immediately tracked down and eliminated and the affected area
then repaired

With each good plan for moisture control, will come the need to assign responsibility for the tasks
contained therein. The entire team should be brought into the discussion to best determine who will
handle each responsibility as the need arises. Rainwater and surface water control will be handled by
landscape and excavation subcontractors. Continuity of envelope barriers will be somewhat controlled by
the general contractor and more specifically, roofing, exterior cladding, framing, fenestration and
masonry subcontractors. Mold resistant materials in wet locations will need to be verified by the general
contractor. Preventing ice dams is a roofing issue. Proper pressurization of the building will need to be

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discussed with HVAC providers, along with humidity control, duct insulation, thermal bridges through
fans and so forth. Proper slope of drain lines, testing of pipes and proper insulation around them are all in
the expertise of the plumber. These are just examples of the ways and from whom, input on moisture
control should be sought, before and during construction.

Another aspect of moisture control involves the process of commissioning. This overview of building
processes started with the HVAC trades. Ongoing inspection during the construction process was
followed by initial start-up of the systems, balancing of the same and turning them over to owners along
with instructions in their use and maintenance. The concept of commissioning has expanded to include:
electrical systems; potable water, sanitary, drainage and irrigation systems; power production and
cogeneration systems; the building enclosure; sustainable aspects of the project; and the entire building
function. Although moisture control has traditionally been the responsibility of the general contractor and
the subcontractors, firms are being created whose sole job on a project will be to eliminate unwanted
moisture. These groups oversee the entire process of checking for continuity, moisture resistant material
use, element protection during construction and so on. Given the amount of money involved in
subsequent damage repair from design flaws or uninvited water intrusion during construction, engaging
the eyes and expertise of such a group might represent a wise investment.

Moisture Control Design Principles

Design for moisture control starts with a focus on keeping liquid water out of the enclosure. To reiterate,
such liquid enters primarily as rain, melting snow, ice or frost, run-off and surface water, plumbing leaks
and water encapsulated inside building materials used during construction. This is either because they got
wet or water was used as part of their placement process. Ways to control such water intrusion include:

 Drain the site. Locate the building on a high part of the site or on well-drained soil and use
grading and landscaping to keep site and roof drainage well away from the structure.
 Keep irrigation water away from the building face.
 Create capillary breaks to keep rainwater from wicking into the building or through porous
materials
 Make sure plumbing will not be in areas likely to freeze and will be in areas easy to inspect and
repair.
 Protect construction materials from moisture until they are installed, and the building is
operational
 Consider site and climate conditions when designing for moisture resistance. Study prevailing
wind directions, amounts of anticipated precipitation, one hundred-year events, ground slope,
temperature swings, ground water tables, the orientation of the structure and so forth. The more
data gathered, the better the planning to anticipate and prevent later moisture intrusion.
 Make sure detailing around door and window penetrations provides positive slopes that drain
away from the building, allowing water that makes it inside to properly drain back out.
 Design cladding systems to capture water that penetrates and drain it back to the outside. Make
sure there is a drainage plane of impermeable materials close to the exterior of assemblies, to stop
moisture penetration and cause it to collect and drain.

Designing Components to Prevent Leaks

Designing a building to resist intrusion by water requires considering various systems incorporated in the
structure. Doing so may require better than historical communication and cooperation between design
disciplines. Some of those disciplines have better methods to determine anticipate total heat and moisture
transfer in the completed building. The following ‘systems’ are all parts of buildings that are vulnerable to
water intrusion.

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Rough carpentry usually includes framing the building, applying exterior sheathing and installing
insulation. In other words, it involves building the exterior shell that will be in the first line of attack by
the elements. A few items to consider when detailing that shell include:

 Walls should be properly connected to the foundation, with a waterproof seal at the connection.
 Framing members need to be plumb, especially around door and window penetrations. Otherwise,
it becomes difficult to properly apply sealants and weather-stripping.
 Wall framing should not have the potential to contact ground water, especially if gypsum board
or insulation is in contact with it.
 Building paper, insulation, sheathing, air barriers or water barriers should be selected, and their
installation designed appropriately for the site and the climate in which they will be located. Care
should be taken that two relatively impermeable barriers are not installed in such a way as to trap
moisture between them in an assembly. Make sure there is only one such material in an assembly.
 In general, a vapor barrier is best installed on the side of an assembly exposed to the highest
vapor pressure. For cold climates, this is usually the occupied side of the assembly, right behind
the interior finish surface. In hot humid climates, this material is best located on the outside of the
assembly, just behind the exterior cladding. In temperate climates, picking a location becomes a
matter of designer preference.
 Materials that function as vapor barriers include, but are not limited to; plastic sheeting, kraft
paper facing on insulation, closed-cell foam sheathing, asphalt-impregnated building paper and
solid vinyl wall covering. Other similar materials that are sometimes thought to act as vapor
barriers, but do not, are plywood sheathing, unfaced insulation batts, paper-type building paper
and house wraps that impede air transfer but not moisture.
 Insulation and vapor barriers must be correctly installed. Insulation must fill voids in cavities and
behind electric boxes, so no space is left where moisture can condense. Vapor barriers need to be
continuous with properly seamed joints, including around door and window openings.
 If cellulose insulation is installed with water, it must be allowed to dry out before vapor barriers
are installed. Otherwise mold can grow in the insulation. Some manufacturers of this insulation
recommend that vapor barriers not be used in conjunction with it.
 The Ceramic Tile Council recommends cementous backer board be used to surface wet areas,
rather than the traditional green moisture resistant drywall.

Roof systems are defined as underlayment, roofing finish surfaces and flashings and other treatments
around roof penetrations. Whether flat or sloped, precipitation will be seeking a way through the roof
system. These must not only be watertight but be designed to allow water striking them to get back off.
Design details to consider with roofing systems include:

 Flashing must be installed so there are no joints in it, through which diverted water can enter. It
must also extend high enough so water, especially in the form of snow, cannot come in over the
top.
 Roofing mastic, if used to install flashing, will typically fail long before the life span of the roof.
 When roofing felts are installed, there must be enough overlap between layers that water cannot
work its way up between them, to enter the building. The felt must also be extended high enough
over base flashing to prevent leaks.
 Roofing materials like shingles or tiles must be installed in accordance with manufacturer’s
recommendations for spacing and location of fasteners.
 Built-up roofs are subject to blistering and cracking and must be inspected and maintained often.
 Joints must be properly sealed in applied membrane roofs, per their manufacturer’s
recommendations. The membrane must be extended far enough up penetrations and intersecting
vertical surfaces to prevent leaks.

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  If the substrate has not properly dried from moisture trapped within it during or preceding
construction, and membrane roofing is installed over that trapped moisture, problems will arise.

Exterior cladding refers to the surface material on the exterior face of a wall. There are key points to
consider when designing such.

 Exterior surfacing materials include but are not limited to: wood or engineered wood siding,
cement board, masonry, stucco, EIFS, glass curtain systems, concrete panels and stone panels. All
of these should create a primary barrier against water getting inside.
 Most surface materials need a second barrier behind them to stop any water that does enter. This
should create a plane down which water can drain and be directed back out, before it contacts
more porous materials deeper in the assembly. Care must be taken that outlets for such draining
water are really installed and are not inadvertently plugged.
 A pretty significant number of failures in exterior cladding systems are installation errors. Care
must be taken to follow manufacturers’ instructions regarding how to properly use their products.
If weep holes are required for a system to work properly and are not installed, the product is not
the problem. Stucco and its alternate product, generically referred to as EIFS, are both exterior
surfacing materials especially prone to installation errors.
 Though the units are made of clay, brick veneer is especially porous. It can absorb a lot of water
in the mortar joints. Those joints also crack as the veneer flexes under wind loads, creating a
myriad of openings through which wind driven rain can enter. Problems compound when weep
holes are installed, but wind up covered by interior mortar droppings. Special attention and care
must be taken to maintain the drainage plane, flashing and weep system behind masonry veneer.
 Concrete masonry units are by their nature, huge sponges. When used as a surfacing material,
these must be sealed against moisture and that coat of sealant periodically refreshed.
 It is no surprise then, that panels created of cast concrete would also be very absorptive and need
to be sealed, and stay sealed, against moisture on all sides.
 When fiber-cement siding is incorrectly installed with non-galvanized fasteners, improperly
flashed and intersections are not made per manufacturer’s instructions, moisture problems
compound. Unprimed material stored on site and open to the weather will quickly become
saturated. A proper drainage plane in place behind it is critical to the use of this cladding material.
 Engineered wood siding is also extremely absorptive, with the added problem that it may warp as
it dries. It too must be sealed on all sides and edges before installation and kept sealed during the
duration of its use. Installation recommendations from the manufacturer must be followed.
 Solid wood siding is not as absorptive as its engineered cousin but must still be primed on all
sides and kept sealed. Installation is also critical on this product.
 Synthetic siding materials like aluminum or vinyl, must be carefully installed. If fasteners are
driven in tightly and the material has no way to expand under thermal stress from the sun’s heat,
buckling will occur. This will create gaps through which water and humidity can freely enter
later.
 In every case, thermal expansion of cladding materials must be accommodated in the design and
installation of their fastening systems, joints, flashings and sealants.

Window and door systems are constructs placed over openings to allow access or the entry of air or light
but be able to control the same. As they involve actual openings through to the exterior, they create
multiple opportunities for humidity and sometimes precipitation to enter. Nothing can be done about that
while doors and windows are physically open. Instead, we focus on preventing unwanted moisture
intrusion when doors and windows are closed.

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  Proper doors and windows must be specified. Certain materials are incompatible with one another
and doors and windows should be specified that are compatible with the exterior cladding
material they will contact.
 Thermal breaks in frames are important in extreme climates to ensure thermal bridges are not
being installed, creating cold surfaces on which condensation can occur.
 Transport of doors and windows must be done with care to ensure that a rough trip did not torque
them, loosen connections and joints, bend integral flashing and so forth. It is important to inspect
doors and windows on arrival to verify they are still what was ordered.
 It is always a good idea to insulate exterior doors to every extent possible, even if they contain
glazing.
 Many options exist for the type of glazing that can be installed in doors and windows. These
range from number of panes, whether to seal them, gas inside or not, exterior coatings or not, the
actual type of glass involved, the use of interior or integral blinds and which reflective coating to
use if any. It is always a good idea to consult with door and window manufacturers on which type
of glass they recommend to obtain desired design goals.
 It may be a good idea to specify doors and windows that are self-flashing.
 Care must be taken that units are properly selected. Detailing for their installation should match
the actual thickness and materials of the assembly in which they will be installed, especially if the
units are intended to be self-flashing.
 Flashing around these openings must be installed so that water that gets behind, or inside, door
and window units will run downhill and out.
 Since it deteriorates as it ages, caulking cannot be relied upon as the only means of creating a
watertight joint. Flashing is the primary means of defense.
 When vapor barriers are installed continuously and then openings for fenestration are cut in them
using the ‘X’ method, the cuts cannot extend past the openings or gaps will be created in the
barrier.

Ventilation systems is a generic description encompassing heating, ventilating and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems and equipment installed strictly for ventilation. Since these all affect moisture
infiltration, condensation and retention, some things to consider when designing ventilation systems
might be:

 Problems arise not only when installation does not occur as the system was designed, but when a
system is incorrectly specified for a geographic location or climate.
 Designs that are intended to result in pressurization can only succeed if the design includes
consideration of the vapor and air barriers included in the design
 Buildings in hot humid climates should be positively pressurized so air moves from inside to
outside when doors or windows are opened. This is so the humidity in the outside air will stay
outside.
 In cold climates, the pressure differential from inside to outside should be neutral or negative, so
that outside air moves in when given the opportunity. That way, the more humid inside air will
not be driven inside wall cavities where it can become entrapped.
 Ineffective pressurization can occur if exhaust fans are over-sized or under-sized or when a strong
wind creates uneven air pressure on opposite sides of a building.
 Air conditioning systems are best designed to maintain an optimal 20% - 60% of relative
humidity inside. Mold can quickly proliferate in sustained relative humidity levels of 70% or
higher.
 If air conditioning units are undersized for a load, they may run nearly continuously and still fail
to cool (and dehumidify) all the areas of the building.
 If air conditioning units are oversized for a load, they may short-circuit or run only long enough
to cool the space, but not dehumidify it.

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  In some areas, the best design may require both air-conditioning and dehumidification equipment.
 Design distribution of treated air to eliminate cold air pockets where vapor can condense.
 Properly size exhaust fans in areas where moisture is produced by user activity, to adequately
vent that moisture to the exterior.
 Make sure that exhaust vents are not located close to, or upwind of, fresh air supply vents.
Otherwise, moisture laden air can be pulled back inside.

Plumbing components are the pipes, valves and water treatment equipment used to introduce water into a
building for use and then remove it. In the event of a plumbing problem, large volumes of liquid can be
introduced into the interior environment in no time at all. Certain known issues can be avoided, including:

 Leaks in pipes can be found beforehand with pressure testing of systems prior to their enclosure
and use.
 Care should be taken to keep fasteners from extending into assemblies and puncturing pipes.
 Toilets must be properly seated so subsequent use does not open a gap in the seals.
 Plastic piping, threaded onto metal pipes, can easily be over-tightened, cracking the plastic
component of the joint.
 Care should likewise be taken to not over-tighten any other fittings, designed to only be hand-
tightened.
 Faucets and mixing valves should be installed properly and thoroughly anchored in wall cavities,
to help prevent leaks at these vulnerable locations.

Interior finishes can be another contributor to moisture issues, especially when additional vapor barriers
are inadvertently created to trap moisture. Examples of concerns with finishes include:

 Vinyl wall covering installed on the inside face of drywall, in an assembly that already included a
vapor barrier inside the exterior face.
 Ceramic tiles installed inside tub and shower enclosures are by their nature impervious to
moisture. But the grout joints between them are not, especially when small sections fall out. Tiles
that are applied using thin-set methods reserved for dry locations, are especially susceptible to
such failure.
 The use of moisture resistant drywall as a backer for such enclosures has recently come into
question as well. The industry now recommends a cementous backer board be used.
E

As can be seen, construction defects allowing moisture to penetrate, can be found in many assemblies and
involve one or multiple materials in combination. Undetected and uncorrected, such sources of leakage
will likely facilitate mold growth, further complicating the process of repairs that will be needed.

Controlling Moisture During Construction

Although not typically considered to be a design issue, builders will always deal with moisture problems
during the construction process. Some issues commonly faced can be addressed in specifications and
notes regarding process, but methods of construction are typically the prerogative of the builder.

The question becomes; how much responsibility does a designer want to incur in specifying construction
methods to protect against moisture during the building? Any proactive tasks to prevent such problems
usually carry an extra price tag, and sometimes just having such measures specified gives a contractor a
solid justification for added expenditures. But should specified preventative measures fail to protect
materials and in place construction, the designer may face liability issues as well for incurred damage.
That’s a fine line, few are willing to cross.

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Though such measures are a very broad subject, the following list is a reminder of moisture issues that
should be addressed by someone during construction:

 Shaping the site to keep groundwater away from the construction area
 Delivery of moisture sensitive materials as close to installation time as possible
 Protecting materials and finished construction from rain
 Protecting and drying materials before installation to prevent moisture encapsulation
 Thoroughly testing plumbing before enclosing it
 Testing air tightness of installed barriers by measuring air pressure differences
 Prioritizing humidity control after the building is enclosed
 Using newly operational HVAC systems to dry out buildings, once the exterior can be sealed
 Establishing barriers to keep unfinished upper floors from draining to finished floors below
 Establishing quality checks to make sure designed and necessary flashings are put into place
 Establishing quality checks to make sure designed barriers are sealed, seamed and intact
 Establishing quality checks to ensure drain lines and other draining apparatus actually drain

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 CONCLUSION

Without an intentional plan in place to prevent its entry, water will always win. It will eventually destroy
our buildings or make them uninhabitable. During planning, the many paths taken by moisture to enter
our structures must all be considered. Steps must be taken to combat precipitation leaks, movement
through assemblies via infiltration, humidity hitchhiking inside with incoming air, condensation, entry by
pressure differentials, plumbing leaks, moisture encapsulated during construction and moisture generated
by user activities. Unhindered, moisture from each entry method will create escalating damage.

This course has focused on moisture prevention by design. But it will also be necessary to implement that
design carefully during construction, take care with sequencing and delivery of materials and establish
construction methods and procedures to protect the ongoing effort from water. Then, after the building is
occupied, diligence and proactive steps must be implemented in the maintenance program to forestall
potential problems, maintain water tightness and find and eliminate leaks before they grow in magnitude.

But the effort begins in the design phase.

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