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Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science: Including Traditional

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 Indigenous Ways
of Knowing and
Western Science
Including Traditional Knowledge in Post-
Secondary Biology Courses

Lisa L. Sparkes & David W. Piercey

CÉGEP Vanier College
Department of Biology, and
Vanier Indigenous Circle
Steering Committee

December 11, 2015

Detailing the differences between Indigenous ways of knowing and Western science.
Suggestions for the inclusion of Indigenous perspectives and knowledge into post-
secondary biology courses to increase levels of success for all students.
 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


Indigenous Ways of
Knowing and Transforming the
Education System
Western Science 
“The education system itself
Including Traditional Knowledge in Post - must be transformed into one
Secondary Biology Courses that rejects the racism
embedded in colonial
systems of education and
Land Acknowledgement
treats Aboriginal and Euro-
We would like to begin by acknowledging that Vanier College
Canadian knowledge
is situated on Tio’tia:ke (where the currants meet/Montreal),
systems with equal respect
the traditional, unceded territory of the Kanien’kehá:ka Nation,
more commonly known as the Mohawk Nation. This is consistent with the
United Nations Declaration
We recognize and respect the Kanien’kehá:ka as the traditional
on the Rights of Indigenous
custodians of the lands and waters on which we stand today,
Peoples, which articulates the
and the many First Nations that used this place as a site of
state’s responsibility with
meeting and exchange.
regard to public education
and the promotion of
Introduction respectful relationships
On June 2, 2015, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of
between citizens, as follows:
Canada (TRC) presented the results of a 5 year inquiry into
Indian Residential Schools, and their ongoing legacy in Indigenous peoples have the
Canada. The report detailed the shared experiences of right to the dignity of their
countless Indigenous children in Canada and the cultural cultures, traditions, histories
genocide enacted by the Canadian government (Truth and and aspirations which shall be
Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015). appropriately reflected in
education and public
The report also set forth a path towards reconciliation between
information (Article 15:1).”
Canadians and Canada’s Indigenous peoples. This path
includes 94 recommendations to all levels of Canadian Truth and Reconciliation
government and educational institutions. I would like to draw Commission of Canada,
your attention to one of these recommendations: Summary Report, 2015

Land Acknowledgement  1
Sparkes & Piercey, 2015
 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


“We call upon the federal, provincial, and territorial governments, in consultation and collaboration
with Survivors, Aboriginal peoples, and educators, to provide the necessary funding to post-secondary
institutions to educate teachers on how to integrate Indigenous knowledge and teaching methods into
classrooms.” (Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015).

Including an Indigenous
perspective into science
“Future scientists and engineers need a
curricula helps to enrich the
foundation in a rich, culturally diverse, science
educational experience of all
education because if they continue to try to
Canadians by exposing them to
solve today’s problems with the same kind of
new experiences and
thinking that caused the problems in the first intercultural knowledge. Such
place, the quality of life on this planet is in an inclusion would allow non-
jeopardy.” Indigenous students to
recognize the varied
Dr. Glen Aikenhead & Dean Elliott, 2010
perspectives of multiple
worldviews and knowledges,
provide an opportunity for
intercultural sharing, and allow for a “richer understanding of the physical world” (Aikenhead &
Elliott, 2010; Barnhardt & Kawagley, 2005; Beckford & Nahdee, 2011; Castellano, 2000; Kawagley &
Barnhardt, 1998). According to Aikenhead and Elliott (2010) “future scientists and engineers need a
foundation in a rich, culturally diverse, science education because if they continue to try to solve
today’s problems with the same kind of thinking that caused the problems in the first place, the quality
of life on this planet is in jeopardy.”

Moreover, the Ontario Ministry of Education encourages schools to recognize the validity of
Indigenous knowledge and to incorporate it into curricula. In the context of science courses, such an
inclusion may help students to reconnect to the natural world and develop greater respect with regard
to stewardship and sustainability (Beckford & Nahdee, 2011).

The challenge is to incorporate Indigenous knowledge and perspectives in a meaningful way, and to
avoid token inclusions in designated units of study. Dr. Marie Battiste, a professor in the department of
Educational Foundations at the University of Saskatchewan and a member of the Potlotek First Nation,
states that “Canadian administrators and educators need to respectfully blend Indigenous
epistemology and pedagogy with Euro-Canadian epistemology and pedagogy to create an innovative
Canadian educational system” (Battiste, 2002).

It is easy to rationalize that the absence of Aboriginal students in the classroom means instructors do
not need to make an effort to include Indigenous knowledge in the curriculum, and that due to the

Introduction  2
Sparkes & Piercey, 2015
 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


high number of immigrant students one should prioritize those cultural perspectives. However,
omitting Indigenous knowledge advances a Euro-centric foundation and excludes all other
knowledges, otherwise known as
cognitive imperialism (Battiste,
“Canadian administrators and educators need
2013). Dr. Battiste defines this as
to respectfully blend Indigenous epistemology
“a form of cognitive manipulation
used to discredit other knowledge and pedagogy with Euro-Canadian
bases and values and seeks to epistemology and pedagogy to create an
validate one source of knowledge innovative Canadian educational institution.”
and empower it through public
Dr. Marie Battiste (2002)
education” (as cited in Battiste,
1998).

Indigenous Ways of Knowing vs Western Science

One of the obstacles facing the integration of Indigenous ways of knowing into Western science courses
is the dramatic difference in worldviews. This difference is clearly explained by the Canadian Council
on Learning (2007) which used the two quotes provided to illustrate this conflict. The first quote
(Lickers) exemplifies the Aboriginal worldview – peoples, landscapes, and natural resources are all tied
together as a spiritual whole. This is contrary to Western science which strives to come to an
understanding of nature by breaking the whole into its most basic parts for analysis.

“The First Nations people view
themselves not as custodians,
stewards or having dominion over
the Earth, but as an integrated part
in the family of the Earth. The Earth
is my mother and the animals,
plants and minerals are my
brothers and sisters.”
F. Henry Lickers
Biologist, and Member of
the Turtle Clan of the Seneca Nation
“The greatest challenge to face mankind is upon us.
We, as humans, have initiated one of the greatest
episodes of mass extinction the world has ever seen.
If we are to survive, not only is our way of living going
to change drastically within our generation, be we
also must take control now to better manage our
natural resources, decrease current extinction rates,
and so conserve a large portion of our biodiversity.
We MUST do this immediately.”
Royal Ontario Museum
Centre for Biodiversity and
Conservation Biology

Indigenous Ways of Knowing vs Western Science  3

Sparkes & Piercey, 2015
 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


An Indigenous worldview, as detailed below in Table 1, is holistic, cyclical (e.g., seasonal cycles),
process-oriented, and is grounded in place. They practice the ethics of non-interference, a respect of an
individual’s understanding of the world based on their own lived experiences, and that no one should
impose their personal understanding onto another. By contrast, a Western or Euro-centric worldview is
linear (especially regarding time), static (the controlled environment in which experimentation is
performed), and objective (Little Bear, 2000).

Table 1. Characteristics of Indigenous Ways of Knowing vs. Western Science

Indigenous ways of knowing Western science

Holistic, spiritual, intuitive
Cyclical (space, time, seasons, etc.), not time-line
based, based on interactions within the whole
Based on direct experience in nature, personal
knowledge, grounded in place
Qualitative observations, process oriented
Generalist, multidisciplinary, interdependent
Based on meaningful relationships with nature,
lived experiences, cultural values
Ethic of non-interference, respectful relationships
among participants precedes learning
Transmitted orally from generation to
generation, new information interpreted in the
context of existing information, use of narrative
and metaphors
Goal: to survive and coexist in nature, learning to
live with the mysteries of the natural world
Competencies: directly related to survival, life
experience, application of knowledge
(Sources: Aikenhead, 1997, 2001, 2006; Aikenhead & Elliott, 2010; Barnhardt & Kawagley, 2005; Battiste, 2013; Cajete, 2004;
Canadian Council on Learning, 2007; Castellano, 2000; Hatcher, et. al. 2009; Kawagley & Barnhardt, 1998; Little Bear, 2000;
Michell, et. al., 2008).
Rational, empirical, competitive
Linear approach, hierarchical, reductionist –
breaking a whole into its parts for study
Out of context of nature, usually in a lab or other
controlled space, decontextualized
Quantitative, focused on collecting data
Specialized knowledge and disciplinary
fragmentation (e.g., biology, chemistry, physics)
Disconnected from lived experiences, cultural
values, human bias
Controlled, exploitative, assimilative,
authoritative discourse, Eurocentric, attempts to
enculturate students into the value system of
Western science
Canonical knowledge, conclusions reached by
others form the basis of their own knowledge,
belief in the one right answer
Goal: to gain knowledge for knowledge’s sake,
eradication of mystery
Competencies: based on predetermined ideas of
what one should know, book knowledge

Indigenous Ways of Knowing vs Western Science  4

Sparkes & Piercey, 2015
 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


As one would expect, the differences outlined in Table 1 have a direct impact on the educational
approach taken by Indigenous peoples and Euro-Canadians, respectively. These differences are
highlighted below in Table 2. Indigenous approaches to education are based on a more hands-on,
community-based approach, than the lecture-based approach commonly used in Western teaching
methods.

However, it must be noted that although the advances of active learning and the flipped classroom in
Western science classes is a step in the right direction, more is needed in order ensure an Aboriginally
inclusive learning environment.

Table 2. Indigenous vs Western teaching methods

Indigenous Approach
Active learning, inquiry based
Cyclical process of learning, growth

Reciprocal teaching method – students learn from teachers, teachers learn from students

Practical, hands on, experiential learning, use of learning objects

Group work, teamwork, cooperative learning, learning within a community

Focused on improvement rather than grade attainment or competition

Storytelling, oratory
Place-based, connecting learners to the environment
Western Approach
Lecture teaching methodology, top down – teacher provides all instruction

Linear, timeline based, hierarchical in that humans are superior to all things

Learning from textbooks

Complex scientific language

(Sources: Aikenhead, 2001, 2006; Aikenhead & Elliott, 2010; Barnhardt & Kawagley, 2005; Battiste, 2013; Canadian
Council on Learning, 2007; Castellano, 2000; Hatcher, et. al. 2009; Hogue, 2012; Kawagley & Barnhardt, 1998; Little
Bear, 2009; Newmaster, et. al., 2013)

5
Sparkes & Piercey, 2015
 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


The Integration of Two Paths

The inclusion of Indigenous ways of knowing into mainstream
biology courses may seem daunting, but it is possible. The key is
to ensure that any inclusions are done in a meaningful manner, Mind
and to avoid any token inclusions, or mentions in passing, into
sections of the curriculum where it is thought to fit best (e.g., the Body Spirit
teaching of plants, animals, or ecology) (Aikenhead & Elliott,
2010; Hogue, 2012). Examples and strategies for the inclusion of
Heart
Indigenous ways of knowing in the classroom can be found in
Appendix B, as well as digital resources in Appendix C.
Figure 1. The Medicine Wheel
Frameworks Framework (see detailed wheel in
The best way to begin is to include Indigenous ways of knowing Appendix A)

in the course framework. Care must be taken to ensure that

Indigenous knowledge is not being fit within a Western framework (Canadian Council on Learning,
2007). This necessitates the creation of a new framework where Indigenous ways of knowing and
Western science concepts are taught alongside each other, both treated as equal sources of knowledge
(Hatcher, et. al., 2009; Hogue, 2012). It is recommended that this process be done in consultation with
Elders from neighbouring Indigenous communities (Canadian Council on Learning, 2007).

To introduce a topic in an inclusive way, learning units would be presented using an Indigenous
perspective before explaining the topic in Western terms (Aikenhead & Elliott, 2010). Local Indigenous
knowledge should be integrated in a holistic manner, and steps taken in order to connect students to
the natural world (spiritually, emotionally, physically, and mentally) (Aikenhead, 2001 & 2006;
Aikenhead & Elliott, 2010; Barnhardt & Kawagley, 2005; Kawagley & Barnhardt, 1998).

The Medicine Wheel is a great tool to use as an organizing framework for the inclusion of Indigenous
perspectives (Beckford & Nahdee, 2011; Hatcher, et. al., 2009). As such, the remainder of this paper is
structured on the medicine wheel (the components of which are detailed in Appendix A), starting in
the Eastern direction with Spirit.

Spirit
Starting in the Eastern direction, we have Spirit. Spirituality is at the core of Indigenous ways of
knowing, an aspect that is clearly absent in Western science. It is important that the spiritual aspect be
acknowledged within the Indigenous portion of the curriculum, as to do otherwise is to disrespect an
important element of Indigenous ways of knowing. It should be stressed that students are not expected
to believe the spiritual aspect, but they should recognize its presence in Indigenous ways of knowing,
and the absence of spirituality in Western science. This can be made clear in the unit or lesson plan by

The Integration of Two Paths  6

Sparkes & Piercey, 2015
 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


comparing Western views (dominion over nature, hierarchy) and Indigenous views (harmony with
nature, all of creation are considered equals) (Aikenhead, 2001).

Another way one can include spirituality within the curriculum is to ensure all organisms studied are
treated with respect. Examples within the laboratory include: making sure that students treat any
animals used for dissection in a respectful manner, and that the knowledge they gain from the
experience is valued. This is equally applied to instructors, who should carefully consider lab protocols
to ensure the least damage to any living organisms (Hatcher, et. al., 2009). McGregor (2006) teaches
respect for all things by telling her students the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe) creation story. She then asks her
students to relate their understanding of the story – principles such as respect, reciprocity, and
responsibility are often given. (For an excellent telling of this particular story, please see Thomas King’s
The Truth about Stories, at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wzXQoZ6pE-M starting at 15:20).

Heart
Moving to the South, we find Heart. This is the direction of community, relationship, and
interconnectedness. With this direction in mind, we strive to create a community within the classroom
– an environment of respect and reciprocity, with each student having an equal voice. (Hatcher, et. al.,
2009; Little Bear, 2009). A classroom environment that respects Heart is one where learning goes both
ways, not only from the teacher to the student, but also from the student to the teacher (McGregor,
2006), as this is the manner in which traditional knowledge is passed on in Indigenous societies
(Newmaster, et. al, 2013).

One can easily create a community within the classroom with the use of talking circles, also known as
sharing or learning circles (Beckford & Nahdee, 2011; Hatcher, et. al., 2009). These circles can be used in
for many different reasons such as solving a problem, sharing knowledge about a particular topic, or
sharing stories. The advantage of a talking circle is it gives each student a chance to voice their
knowledge or opinion of a given topic. It prevents more talkative students from dominating the
conversation, allows a safe space for shy students to speak up, and teaches active listening (Hatcher, et.
al., 2009).

Body
In the Western direction we find Body, the direction of physical, applied, hands-on, experiential
learning. This type of learning is central in traditional Indigenous pedagogies (Hogue, 2012;
Newmaster, et. al., 2013). It is here that we find place-based learning incorporated into curricula.
However, it is not enough to just know about place – students must experience place for themselves,
both physically and emotionally (Aikenhead & Elliott, 2010; Hatcher, et. al. 2009; Little Bear, 2009;
Newmaster, et. al, 2013). This can be done with field trips and out-of doors learning activities on
campus (e.g., looking for, and recognizing, patterns in nature, identifying plant species, etc.) (Hatcher,
et. al. 2009; Newmaster, et. al, 2013). Such a connection to place helps to foster civic responisbility with

The Integration of Two Paths  7

Sparkes & Piercey, 2015
 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


the student and will enrich their educational experience

(Barnhardt & Kawagley, 2005). Long term observations of
traditional knowledge can be complemented with Western
quantitative science, resulting in a holistic understanding of
A Renewed
nature (Canadian Council on Learning, 2007; Barnhardt &
Kawagley, 2005). Body may also be incorporated into
Nation to Nation
curriculum through the physical act of creating artwork as a Relationship

means of learning to look at nature from many different angles
(Hatcher, et. al. 2009). “In partnership with
Indigenous communities, the
Mind provinces, territories, and
Finally, we find Mind in the Northern direction of the Medicine other vital partners, we will
wheel. This direction is focused on knowledge, understanding, also fully implement the
and the inclusion of the many perspectives and ways of calls to action of the Truth
understanding the natural world. This can be accomplished by and Reconciliation
emphasizing the commonalities between the two knowledge Commission, starting with
systems, including the contributions Indigenous peoples have the implementation of the
made to science (e.g., medical contributions), balancing linear United Nations Declaration
thinking with intuition, and using metaphors and visualization on the Rights of Indigenous
techniques to explain biological concepts. Project-based Peoples.”
learning activities that include issues of interest to the students
(e.g. things that will affect them, their communities) may also
be incorporated into the curriculum. However, in any inclusion
Rt. Hon. Justin Trudeau,
it is imperative that one knowledge system is not used to
Prime Minister of Canada
validate the other, as this would be detrimental to the objective
Speech to the Assembly
we are trying to achieve, and such cognitive imperialism
of First Nations, Special
would be reinforcing a Euro-centric worldview. (Aikenhead &
Chiefs Assembly
Elliott, 2010; De Beer & Whitlock, 2009; Hatcher, et. al., 2009;
December 8, 2015
Little Bear, 2009).

Conclusion
It is in the spirit of reconciliation that we are offering this
document for consideration. With more educational
institutions across the country also engaging in this process,
we have a unique opportunity to be at the forefront of the
movement instead of lagging behind.

Conclusion  8
Sparkes & Piercey, 2015
 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


Our new government, under the leadership of Justin Trudeau, has made a commitment to renewing
the relationship with the First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples of Canada. As this is one of five
commitments made by the Prime Minister, we should make this our priority as well. To delay is only to
postpone the inevitable. By signing on to the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples, he has committed our country to upholding those articles held within. More specifically
Article 15:1, which states “Indigenous peoples have the right to the dignity of their cultures, traditions,
histories and aspirations which shall be appropriately reflected in education and public information.” It
is under this Article, as well as the call to action previously stated in this report, that we will be
obligated to include the epistemology and pedagogies of Indigenous knowledge in our curriculum.

We are in a unique position of engaging the next generation of learners in the spirit of reconciliation
and, by being proactive rather than reactive, we can lead by example. As Justice Sinclair so eloquently
stated during the closing remarks of the TRC Summary Report, “We have described for you a
mountain. We have shown you the path to the top. We call upon you to do the climbing.”

References
Aikenhead, G. S. (1997). Towards a First Nations Cross-Cultural Science and Technology Curriculum.
Science Education, 81, 217-238.

Aikenhead, G. S. (2001). Integrating Western and Aboriginal Sciences: Cross-Cultural Science Teaching.
Research in Science Education, 31(3), 337-355.

Aikenhead, G. S. (2006). Towards Decolonizing the Pan-Canadian Science Framework. Canadian Journal
of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 6(4), 387-399.

Aikenhead, G. S., & Elliott, D. (2010). An Emerging Decolonizing Science Education in Canada.
Canadian Journal of Science, Mathmatics and Technology Education, 10, 321-338.

Barnhardt, R., & Kawagley, A. O. (2005). Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Alaksa Native Ways of
Knowing. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 36(1), 8-23.

Battiste, M. (1998). Enabling the Autumn Seed: Toward a Decolonized Approach to Aboriginal
Knowledge, Language, and Education. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 22(1), 13-28.

Battiste, M. (2002). Indigenous Knowledge and Pedagogy in First Nations Education: A literature review with
recommendations. Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.

Battiste, M. (2013). Decolonizing Education: Nourishing the Learning Spirit. Saksatoon, SK: Purich
Publishing Ltd.

References  9
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 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


Beckford, C., & Nahdee, R. (2011). Research into Practice: Teaching for Ecological Sustainability. Ontario
Ministry of Education, Toronto, Ontario.

Cajete, G. (2004). Philosophy of Native Science. In A. Waters (Ed.), American Indian Thought:
Philosophical Essays (pp. 45-57). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

Canadian Council on Learning. (2007). Lessons in Learning: The Cultural Divide in Science Education for
Aboriginal Learners. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Council on Learning.

Castellano, M. B. (2000). Updating Aboriginal Traditions of Knowledge. In G. J. Sefa Dei, D. G.

Rosenberg, & B. L. Hall (Eds.), Indigenous Knowledges in Global Contexts: Multiple Readings of Our
World (pp. 21-34). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

De Beer, J., & Whitlock, E. (2009). Indigenous Knowledge in the Classroom: Put on Your de Bono Hats!
The American Biology Teacher, 71(4), 209-216.

Hatcher, A., Bartlett, C., Marshall, A., & Marshall, M. (2009). Two-Eyed Seeing in the Classroom
Environment: Concepts, Approaches, and Challenges. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics
and Technology Education, 9(3), 141-153.

Hogue, M. M. (2012). Interconnecting Aboriginal and Western Paradigms in Post-Secondary Science

Education: An Action Research Approach. Journal of the Canadian Association for Curriculum
Studies, 10(1), 77-114.

Kawagley, A. O., & Barnhardt, R. (1998). Education Indigenous to Place: Western Science Meets Native
Reality. Alaska University, Alaska Native Knowledge Network. Fairbanks: ERIC. Retrieved
from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED426823

Kimmerer, R. W. (2002). Weaving Traditional Ecological Knowledge into Biological Education: A Call
to Action. BioScience, 52(5), 432-438.

Little Bear, L. (2000). Jagged Worldviews Colliding. In M. Battiste (Ed.), Reclaiming Indigenous Voice and
Vision (pp. 77-85). Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.

Little Bear, L. (2009). Naturalizing Indigenous Knowledge, Synthesis Paper. University of Saskatchewan,
Aboriginal Education Research Centre, Saskatoon, SK. Retrieved March 15, 2015, from
www.aerc.usask.ca

McGregor, D. (2006). Traditional Ecological Knowledge. Ideas: the Arts and Science Review, 3(1).

Michell, H., Vizina, Y., Augustus, C., & Sawyer, J. (2008). Learning Indigenous Science from Place: Research
Study Examining Indigenous-Based Science Perspectives in Saskatchewan First Nations and Metis

References  10
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Community Contexts. University of Saskatchewan, Aboriginal Education Research Centre,

Saskatoon.

Newmaster, S. G., Ragupathy, S., Berg, K. J., Sharmugarajan, P., & Balasubramaniam, N. C. (2013).
Traditional Aboriginal Pedagogy Improves Learning in a Large-Enrolement University Biology
Class. Teaching and Learning Innovations Journal, Vol. 16.

Trudeau, J. (2015, December 8). Speech to Assembly of First Nations Special Chiefs Assembly.
Gatineau, Quebec, Canada. Retrieved December 11, 2015, from
http://pm.gc.ca/eng/news/statement-prime-minister-canada-after-delivering-speech-assembly-
first-nations-special-chiefs

Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Honouring the Truth, Reconciling the Future:
Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Library and
Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication. Retrieved June 2, 2015, from
http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Honouring_the_Truth_Reconciling_for_the_
Future_July_23_2015.pdf

References  11
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 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A  12
Sparkes & Piercey, 2015
 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


APPENDIX B
Methods of Integrating Indigenous Content into Curricula – Excerpts from
Literature
Aikenhead, 2001
- Point out instances of Aboriginal sciences being distorted by a Western worldview
o The Western calendar is organized into 12 months, whereas Aboriginal calendars are
organized into 13 lunar months corresponding to the 13 full moons in a year
- Taxonomical differences
o Western worldview: What is Canis lupus; Animals are categorized according to Linnean
worldview
o Aboriginal worldview: Who is Ma’ingan; Classification is based on behaviour, embedded in
stories and legends about the animal
- Use Rekindling Traditions units as a starting point for inclusion
(available at: https://www.usask.ca/education/ccstu/main_menu.html)

Beckford & Nahdee, 2011

- Teaching Aboriginal content in Mainstream Classrooms – Tips for Practice
o Be Open-Minded and Prepared
 Recognize traditional knowledge as valid and useful
 Understand the benefits of inclusion
 Understand potential of these perspectives to deepen students’ sources of
information, engender social transformation
o Avoid Sentimentalism, Romanticism
 Aboriginal societies do not possess a single view or type of relationship with nature.
There are often gaps between environmental philosophy and practice
 Many Aboriginal cultures are quite westernized, have become estranged from
traditional knowledge. A realistic and balanced approach is prudent.
o Utilize Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Cultural Evidence
 Use factual accounts of the lived experiences of Aboriginal peoples to teach concepts
like climate change. Examples:
 Negative impacts of changing ice conditions on hunting, trapping, fishing
and ecosystems
 wildlife exhibiting atypical consumption behaviours that may be linked to
diminishing supply of traditional food sources
 alterations in migration patterns of birds and other animals, which adversely
affect food security for local peoples
 changes in animals’ behaviour, fur condition, meat colour and flavor, as a
result of feeding in polluted areas
 Inuit & Cree hunters’ traditional knowledge of anatomy used to distinguish between
healthy and unhealthy animals. Can be compared to biochemical tests and
laboratory analyses used by Western science.

APPENDIX B  13
Sparkes & Piercey, 2015
 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


o Teach Values of Sustainability

 Positive environmental attitudes, stewardship, sustainable consumption and
lifestyles. Example:
 Only harvesting the resources you need and minimizing waste.
 Can be tied into lessons on cultural differences, consumption patterns, resource
conservation
 Could be introduced across curriculum through stories, case studies, poster
competitions, poem writing
o Utilize Aboriginal Expertise
 Invite Aboriginal persons – Elders, local community members – into classrooms as
resource persons and guest teachers
 Plan, prepare field trips to ensure cultural respect. Understand traditions and
cultural values, including the roles of gift giving and knowledge sharing
 Use examples of Aboriginal groups and Indigenous peoples outside of Canada

De Beer & Whitlock, 2009

- Experiment: Western Medicine vs. Traditional Healing through disc assay and Thin Layer
Chromatography
- Discussion: After completing the experiments, students should be broken into 6 groups for
discussion using de Bono Thinking Hats:
o White Hat – Facts, Questions – objective, data, detail, figures, information, asking useful
questions.
o Yellow Hat – Positive, Why it will work – Student should look at the good side of a situation
or proposal. Why should the proposal work?
o Red Hat – Feelings, Intuitions – Student should allow emotions, intuition, and general
feelings to hold court without the need for justification or substantiation. Emotions lead the
thinking.
o Black Hat – Caution, Weak Points – Students play devil’s advocate, ask questions that are
likely to expose weaknesses
o Green Hat – Creative, Alternatives – Lateral solutions, creativity, innovative suggestions
o Blue Hat – Overview, Holistic – Challenges students to be self-analytical, evaluative, to think
holistically

For more info on de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats:

http://www.debonogroup.com/six_thinking_hats.php?gclid=COjtm9SK0skCFQMFaQoduUg
IPA

APPENDIX B  14
Sparkes & Piercey, 2015
 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Western Science


Kimmerer, 2002
- Use of Case Studies – Students compare the perspectives of Indigenous communities with western
scientists
o Topical science, policy issues
o Include case studies with high biological content:
 Wildlife biology, salmon restoration, conservation biology, agroecosystems, forest
management, fire ecology, ethnobotany
o Students examine the effects of cultural context, and its influence on:
 research questions, interpretation of results, development of management
alternatives
o Simulate a public hearing – groups representing the positions of multiple stakeholders
(government, scientists, indigenous community, etc.). Students are provided with the
following for each case study:
 Reports, scientific papers, news stories, court cases, information from non-Western
and non-scientific perspectives
- 3-Sisters Lab – To take place in a 3-sisters garden (corn-beans-squash)
o Students can compare, understand:
 Yield (monoculture vs. polyculture), comparative plant morphology, concepts of
symbiosis, nutrient cycling, niche partitioning in a traditional garden
- Classification Systems – Array of alternative taxonomic systems are presented for analysis.
o Allows students to:
 Compare the origins and utility of the Linnean system with Indigenous classification
schemes based on morphology, use, and habitat.
 Cross-cultural comparisons – allows students to understand all classification systems
are influenced by the observations available and cultural needs of the group
o Trains students to think critically rather than passively accepting a familiar paradigm
- Include traditional stories and examples of traditional practices
o Indigenous stories arose as a means for teaching, have great value in today’s classroom
o Provides memorable context that helps students retain information, integrate it with their
own experiences
o Stories may contain valuable biological insights
o E.g. story of Badger & Coyote hunting together – cooperation between predators – can be
empirically verified
- Local Landscapes
o Interpret local landscape in light of traditional resource management practices, evaluation of
traditional land use
o Can be valuable in teaching concepts of successional dynamics, ecosystem management,
evolutionary biology

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Michell et. al., 2008

- Focus on plants and animals according to place
o Students can be taught to sharpen their observational skills through prolonged periods of
interaction with the land, studying plants, animals.
- Traditional Medicines
o Science teachers can guide dialogue and exploration about contemporary threats to
traditional plants and medicines
o Teach young people the validity of traditional medicines and their continued importance
today
- Multiple domains of First Nations knowledge
o Stories of key animals and plants that occupy a particular place can be used to enhance
school science learning while reinforcing the cultural heritage of First Nations people
- Tradition relationships with the environment
o Set up learning experiences that will allow students to emotionally bond with the natural
world
o Important to teach science students how First Nations people traditionally related to the
land – relationship to the land and different parts of the land that are significant for different
reasons: sacred sites, where medicines are found, places that should be revered, etc.
- Traditional ethics and ethical conduct in school science
o Acknowledge the spirit of the animal (or plant) used in scientific experiment.
o Use proper cultural practices of offering tobacco, smudging, or saying thanks/words of
acknowledgement of the sacrifice of the animal/plant
o Treat all animals/plants with their due respect
- Incorporating environmental issues
o Use hot topics, introduce debates. Can have Western scientific perspectives vs. First Nations
perspectives.
- “On the Land” experiential activities
o Field trips, excursions, hands-on learning activities, thematic learning stations in nature
o Integrate multiple subject areas – students can learn Western scientific concepts in addition
to valuable knowledge of the natural world form First Nations resource people.
- Observations of the Natural world
o Set up opportunities where students can learn active listening, observation, traditional
values such as patience & humility from the natural world
o Have students observe the tiniest of insects (e.g., ants) because they have something to teach
us about life (working together, etc.)
- Traditional seasonal cycles, weather patterns, astronomy
o Understanding weather patterns, natural signs (cloud formations, etc.)
o Traditional astronomical knowledge is used to engage in seasonal activities at certain times
of the year.
- Lack of resource materials
o Document teachings and practices so it is available for all teachers

- Elder involvement in school science

o If you don’t feel comfortable teaching something, then one strategy is to bring in an Elder
- Spirituality in school science

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o Difficult for teachers to incorporate those aspects that have a heavy emphasis on spirituality.
- Incorporating a balance of academic and fun activities
o Science is often perceived as a serious academic pursuit with lots of rigorous mental
learning.
o Be sure to include fun, humour, laughter
- Experiential strategies – “Out-on-the-Land” excursions
o Facilitate experiences where students can have sustained contact with the natural wold
o Can be done by taking students out where they can learn about how people interacted with
the environment
o Nature walks – use all your senses to observe the environment
o Use outdoor education as an avenue to learn school science and a respect for the land
- Sharing knowledge from other Indigenous cultures
o Incorporating the perspectives of other Indigenous cultures around the world has the
potential to expand and enhance the scientific knowledge base of students.
- Traditional plants & medicines
o Traditional uses of plants, e.g. common plants like dandelions, and different types of herbal
teas that students can relate to
- Traditional seasonal cycles & cultural events
o Cultural events based on traditional seasonal cycles are an important avenue where students
can learn about Indigenous knowledge & traditional technologies used for survival.
o Weeklong cultural events: basket making, beading, storytelling, feasts
- Traditional stories of the natural world
o The way in which Aboriginal knowledge is sequenced in the overall science lesson is an
important consideration to make
o Stories are one method science teachers can use right at the beginning of the day to
introduce, for example, the worldviews of Indigenous Peoples and their relationship with
the natural world. Explore the underlying hidden messages & core teachings in the stories.
- Evaluation & Aboriginal Content
o Constructivist & critical approaches. Provide opportunities for students to construct their
own meaning of what they are learning.
o Have people reflect and write about what they have learned.
- Environmental Contamination – Land Use activity
o Using a river as an example
o Divide students into groups. Each group get a sheet of paper (a plot of land along the same
river). They can do whatever they want with their land (draw on the paper). At the end of
the activity, put the pieces of paper together to see what the river looks like after
development/beautification/etc. Visual representation of what is actually happening in the
world.

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Table 3. Strategies for including Indigenous ways of knowing in the classroom

Strategies for Inclusion

Avoid sentimentalism, and romanticizing Indigenous ways of knowing.
Honour protocols associated with the sharing of some types of knowledge, such as stories.

Include talking or sharing circles in the classroom.

Allow students room for thought, a chance to formulate thoughtful answers to questions,
before expecting answers.

Focus on improvement, rather than grade attainment.

Use the Medicine Wheel as a graphic organizer (e.g. unit framework, lesson plans, etc.).
Recognize fragmentation in the curriculum. Try to make connections between other fields
(math, physics, chemistry, even creative arts).
Include storytelling in the curriculum, both Aboriginal and personal; tell stories about
yourself, the school, past/current classes, students and/or teachers – this helps to establish a
sense of community within the classroom.
Integrate media literacy, visual arts, industrial arts, physical education, music – this is
especially beneficial to students with visual or oral learning styles.
Use traditional knowledge; teach the values of sustainability

Acknowledge traditional knowledge as an alternative and equally valid source of

information. Treat the information as complimentary, not mutually exclusive.
Encourage students to understand how scientists think and behave rather than expecting
them to think and behave that way themselves (assimilation into Western scientific culture).
Include Indigenous examples in the lecture materials, especially within General Biology
courses. Use Indigenous expertise, e.g. Elders, traditional knowledge holders.

Include activities on traditional knowledge in the lab or classroom.

Include group work, teamwork, cooperative learning, and peer-tutoring in the classroom.
Use a relational approach to learning.
(Sources:; Aikenhead & Elliott, 2010; Beckford & Nahdee, 2011; Hatcher, et. al. 2009; Hogue, 2012; Kimmerer, 2002;
Little Bear, 2009)

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Appendix C
Online Resources
Indigenous Knowledge and Western Science Series (YouTube)
Dr. Leroy Little Bear
Indigenous academic Leroy Little Bear compares the foundational base of Blackfoot knowledge
to quantum physics to an attentive audience at The Banff Centre as part of the Indigenous
Knowledge and Western Science: Contrasts and Similarities event.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gJSJ28eEUjI

Dr. Gregory Cajete

Dr. Gregory Cajete, Director of Native American Studies at the University of New Mexico,
explains how Indigenous physicists not only observe the world, but participate in it with all his
or her sensual being because everything in native thought is “alive” with energy. Cajete was
speaking to an attentive audience at The Banff Centre as part of the Indigenous Knowledge and
Western Science: Contrasts and Similarities event.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nFeNIOgIbzw

Rob Cardinal
Astronomer Rob Cardinal outlines how the idea of everything being inter-related is becoming
more of a discussion in western science recently (albeit quietly), but has been talked about for
millennia in Indigenous thought. Cardinal, a research associate at the University of Calgary and
Executive Director of The First Light Institute, was speaking to an attentive audience at The
Banff Centre as part of the Indigenous Knowledge and Western Science: Contrasts and
Similarities event.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QDOTxN8J0T8

Contrasts and Similarities Panel Discussion

Despite variations, can different forms of knowledge learn from each other without being
taught in opposition or in isolation? Indigenous academics Leroy Little Bear, Dr. Gregory Cajete
and Rob Cardinal examine how to create rich learning experiences by infusing traditional
Indigenous knowledge with Western physics and astronomy. These esteemed panel members
are moderated by science broadcaster and writer Jay Ingram in a presentation at The Banff
Centre.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JeNnOZTk440

Thomas King – The Truth about Stories: A Native Narrative – 2003 CBC Massey Lectures
Complete Lectures via CBC website:
http://www.cbc.ca/radio/ideas/the-2003-cbc-massey-lectures-the-truth-about-stories-a-native-
narrative-1.2946870

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First Nations Pedagogy Online – British Columbia

http://firstnationspedagogy.ca/sitemap.html

Alberta Government – Department of Education

Walking Together – First Nations, Metis and Inuit Perspectives in Curriculum
http://www.learnalberta.ca/content/aswt/

University of Alberta
University of Alberta, Centre for Mathematics, Science and Technology Education
Teacher Resources; Aboriginal Resources
http://www.cmaste.ualberta.ca/TeacherResources/AboriginalResources.aspx

University of Saskatchewan, College of Education

Tools and Resources: Infusion of First Nations, Metis & Inuit Perspectives
http://www.usask.ca/education/fieldexperiences/tools-resources/diversity.php

Ontario Teachers Federation – Useful Links for Aboriginal Education

Contains useful links for inclusion of Aboriginal perspectives into curricula
http://www.otffeo.on.ca/en/resources/useful-links/aboriginal-education/

University of Toronto
University of Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE)
Deepening Knowledge: Resources for and about Aboriginal Education
http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/deepeningknowledge/Teacher_Resources/Infusing_Aboriginal_Co
ntent_and_Perspectives_into_Your_Teaching/index.html

Appendix C  20
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