ILS - 2020 - Working Paper - Trends On Female Economic Inactivity and Determinants of Female Labor Force Participation in The Philippines

TRENDS ON FEMALE ECONOMIC INACTIVITY AND DETERMINANTS
OF FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
Paulina Kim C. Pacete
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ABSTRACT
This study aims to contribute to the discussion on policies to address the persistent low female labor
force participation in the Philippines by providing labor market intelligence on economically inactive
women in the country. It identifies trends in female economic inactivity and describes the profile of
females out of the labor force across key sociodemographic characteristics using data from the Labor
Force Survey (LFS) from 1988 to 2020. It also provides econometric estimates of the determinants of
female labor force participation in the Philippines by utilizing logistic regression analysis and repeated
cross-sectional data from the merged LFS and Family Income and Expenditure Survey (FIES) datasets
for 2003, 2006, 2008, 2012, and 2015. In view of the persistence of low labor participation of women
across their life cycle, and household and family responsibilities as a key driver of this, addressing low
female labor force participation would require a comprehensive set of interventions which supports
women’s choice and expands their freedom whether to work or not. This is to help women have
positive outcomes whether they want to work or not, or whether they have voluntary/involuntary
labor market attachment/detachment, so that they will have smoother transitions in and out of the
labor force.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... 4
List of Tables....................................................................................................................... 6
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 7
1.1. Rationale for the study .................................................................................................. 7
1.2. Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 8
1.3. Methodology ................................................................................................................. 8
2. Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 9
3. Findings .................................................................................................................... 12
3.1. Trends in female economic inactivity rate.....................................................................12
3.1.1. Labor force participation rate ....................................................................................................... 12
3.1.2. By age group ................................................................................................................................. 12
3.1.3. Excluding students ........................................................................................................................ 12
3.1.4. Economic inactivity rate ............................................................................................................... 13
3.1.5. By age group ................................................................................................................................. 13
3.1.6. By highest grade completed ......................................................................................................... 13
3.1.7. By marital status ........................................................................................................................... 14
3.2. Profile of female economically inactive population .......................................................14
3.2.1. By age group ................................................................................................................................. 14
3.2.2. By highest grade completed ......................................................................................................... 14
3.2.3. By marital status ........................................................................................................................... 15
3.2.4. By region ....................................................................................................................................... 15
3.2.5. By reason for not looking for work ............................................................................................... 15
3.2.6. Youth not in education and not in employment (NEE) ................................................................. 15
3.2.7. If have worked before, past occupation, and previous industry .................................................. 16
3.3. Econometric estimates of determinants of female labor force participation .................16
3.3.1. Econometric model for female labor force participation ............................................................. 16
3.3.2. Descriptive results ........................................................................................................................ 19
3.3.3. Estimation results ......................................................................................................................... 19
4. Conclusion and recommendation .............................................................................. 21

4.1. On trends on and profile of female inactive population ................................................21
4.2. On determinants of female labor force participation ....................................................22
4.3. Implications for policy ..................................................................................................23
4.4. Recommendations........................................................................................................27
Appendix .......................................................................................................................... 31
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. New statistical definition of work according to 19th ICLS Resolution .................................... 26
Figure 2. Labor Force Participation Rate, by Sex, 1988-2020 ............................................................... 32
Figure 3.Labor force participation rate by age group & sex, 2019 – including & excluding students .. 33
Figure 4. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic
inactivity rate), by sex, 1988-2020 – including & excluding students .................................................. 34
inactivity rate), by age group, males, 1988-2020 ................................................................................. 35
inactivity rate), by age group, females, 1988-2020 .............................................................................. 37
inactivity rate), by age group, males, 2006-2020 - excluding students ................................................ 39
inactivity rate), by age group, females, 2006-2020 - excluding students ............................................. 41
inactivity rate) by highest grade completed, males, 1988-2020 .......................................................... 43
inactivity rate) by highest grade completed, females, 1988-2020 ....................................................... 45
inactivity rate) by marital status & sex, 1988-2020 .............................................................................. 46
Figure 12. Youth (15-24 y.o.) currently attending school by sex, 2006-2020 ....................................... 48
Figure 13. Youth (15-24 y.o.) not in education & not in employment (NEE) by sex, 2006-2020 ......... 49
Figure 14. Youth (15-24 y.o.) not in education & not in employment (NEE) - unemployed or NILF, by
sex, 2006-2020 ...................................................................................................................................... 50
inactivity rate), by region, males, 1988-2020 ....................................................................................... 51
inactivity rate), by region, females, 1988-2020 .................................................................................... 52
inactivity rate), by region & sex, 2019, & difference between female-male inactivity rates ............... 53
Figure 18. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of working age population out (economic
inactivity rate), by region, males, 2006-2020 - excluding students ...................................................... 54
Figure 19. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of working age population out (economic
inactivity rate), by region, females, 2006-2020 - excluding students ................................................... 55
inactivity rate), by region & sex, 2019, & difference between female-male inactivity rates - excluding
students ................................................................................................................................................ 57
Figure 21. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by age group & sex, 1988-2020 ..... 58
Figure 22. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by highest grade completed, males,
1988-2020 ............................................................................................................................................. 59
Figure 23. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by highest grade completed,
females, 1988-2020 .............................................................................................................................. 60
Figure 24. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by marital status & sex, 1988-2020
.............................................................................................................................................................. 61
Figure 25. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force, by region, males, 1988-2020 ........ 63
Figure 26. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force, by region, females, 1988-2020 ..... 64
Figure 27. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by reason for not looking for work,
males, 1988-2020.................................................................................................................................. 65
Figure 28. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by reason for not looking for work,
females, 1988-2020 .............................................................................................................................. 66
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Figure 29. Distribution of persons out of the labor force by sex, age group & reason for not looking
for work, 1988-2020 ............................................................................................................................. 67
Figure 30. Persons out of the labor force, if have worked before, by sex, 2000-2019 ........................ 69
Figure 31. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force that have worked before by last
occupation, males, 2001-2020 .............................................................................................................. 70
Figure 32. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force that have worked before by last
occupation, females, 2001-2020 .......................................................................................................... 71
Figure 33. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force that have worked in the past quarter
by kind of industry & sex, 1988-2015 ................................................................................................... 72
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. The 5R Framework for Decent Care Work .............................................................................. 29
Table 2. Variables used in econometric model ..................................................................................... 74
Table 3. Summary statistics of labor force participation and explanatory variables over time (mean)
.............................................................................................................................................................. 77
Table 4. Determinants of labor force participation, females age 15-64 years, the Philippines, by year
(marginal effects after logit estimation), with age dummies ............................................................... 80
Table 5. Determinants of labor force participation, males age 15-64 years, the Philippines, by year
(marginal effects after logit estimation), with age dummies ............................................................... 86
Table 6. Determinants of Labor Force Participation Females Age 15-64 years the Philippines by Year
(marginal effects after logit estimation) with year of birth dummies .................................................. 92
Table 7. Determinants of Labor Force Participation Males Age 15-64 years the Philippines by Year
(marginal effects after logit estimation) (with year of birth dummies) ................................................ 99
Table 8. Determinants of labor force participation females age 15-64 years, the Philippines by year
(marginal effects after logit estimation), Alternative specification: using unemployment rate by
region instead of region factor variable ............................................................................................. 105
Table 9. Determinants of labor force participation males age 15-64 years, the Philippines by year
(marginal effects after logit estimation) ............................................................................................. 110
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale for the study
The Philippines has a strong gender equality standing, as reflected in gender indices and country
assessments. For instance, it ranked 8th in the Global Gender Gap Index in 2018 (World Economic
Forum, 2018). However, it has made little progress on the economic participation of women as
evidenced by the large gap in labor force participation and persistent disadvantages of women in the
Philippine labor market. There is a 25.3-percentage point labor force participation rate (LFPR) gap,
with women having a lower LFPR (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2018). The wide gap in labor force
participation has persisted despite improvements in the education and health standing of women in
the Philippines, and the establishment of many laws that guarantee equal treatment and access in
employment and occupation (ILO, 2017).
Gender equality in economic opportunities and increasing women’s economic participation is an

important approach to the achievement of economic growth and human development. The wide labor
force participation gap represents the underutilization or misallocation of women’s labor in the
economy, and implies economic losses from the suboptimal use of human resources. When women
are able to work they can have greater autonomy and control over decision-making and resource
allocation in the household (World Bank, 2012; Asian Development Bank, 2013). There is evidence
that women allocate more resources for children’s health, nutrition, and education (Duflo 2012; World
Bank 2012). Philippine policy also recognizes that the importance of boosting female labor force
participation to enhance the income-earning ability of Filipino households, and hence have greater
means to acquire goods and services for human capital development (e.g., on nutrition and health,
education, and other training) (Philippine National Economic and Development Authority, 2017). The
Philippine government aims to increase the female participation rate by two percentage points, from
49.3 to 51.3, by the end of its current development plan period in 2022. Improved female labor force
participation can also have positive feedbacks for women’s agency and political participation toward
better quality institutions that are supportive of gender equality (Iversen & Rosenbluth 2008; World
Bank 2012). While the strength of the relationship varies by country, female labor force participation
and political participation are positively correlated (Iversen & Rosenbluth 2008). Possible reasons are
that employment increases women’s agency, or their “ability to make choices that lead to desired
outcomes” (World Bank 2012, p. 48), and that higher female labor force participation increases the
supply of women with professional experience and resources to be able to conduct a credible electoral
campaign (Iversen & Rosenbluth 2008). This potential benefit is of particular importance for the
Philippines, which has the political representation of women as one of its weaker areas in terms of
gender equality (World Economic Forum, 2018).
To address the low labor force participation of women in the Philippines, interventions need to be
specific and targeted following women’s context, needs & experiences. This is because different
interventions have worked across countries and localities (Asian Development Bank, 2013). While
there are employment programs in place that women can potentially access and institutionalized
government mechanisms to mainstream gender in Philippine policies and programs, such as gender
budgeting, there is mostly a lack of gender analysis in the formulation of interventions which limit its
efficacy to improve outcomes for women (Lazo 2008; Illo et al. 2010; Antonio et al. 2011; World Bank
2014). There is also difficulty in assessing how past and current interventions have resulted to
improvement of outcomes for Filipino women following challenges in the quality of monitoring and
evaluation (Lazo 2008; Antonio et al. 2011; Asian Development Bank 2013). There is also few research
done on potential female labor supply in the Philippines. Related studies on female labor force
participation (FLFP) are more on the determinants, or factors associated with FLFP (for example, see
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Adair et al., 2002; National Economic and Development Authority, 2019; Orbeta, 2005; Tiefenthaler,
1994).
In light of this, there is a need to analyze the profile and characteristics of economically inactive
women, and the factors that influence female labor force participation in the Philippines. This will
form part of the evidence base to inform interventions that address the barriers preventing their
participation in the labor force. In having this type of analysis, we can have a better understanding of
economically inactive Filipino women’s various profiles and needs, toward designing more responsive
interventions. This may also form basis for improved targeting, monitoring and evaluation systems for
relevant interventions.
1.2. Objectives
The study aims to contribute to the discussion on policies to address low female labor force
participation by providing labor market intelligence on economically inactive women in the
Philippines. The study will analyze the characteristics of the population of females out of the labor
force using data from nationally representative household surveys, the Labor Force Survey (LFS) and
Family Income and Expenditure Survey (FIES), to provide a broad picture of the conditions of the
inactive female population at the individual and household levels. It also attempts to cover, where
possible, how subgroups within this population have changed over time. The study will also examine
the factors that affect female labor force participation in the Philippines.
In particular, the study aims to:

• Identify trends in female economic inactivity in the Philippines across key sociodemographic
characteristics: age, highest grade completed, marital status, and region, and highlight
differences in the economic inactivity rates between major demographic groups;
• Describe the profile of females out of the labor force, or the composition of this population
based on their sociodemographic characteristics: age, highest grade completed, marital
status, region, reasons for inactivity, proportion of students and those not in education or
employment (NEE), and work experience; and
• Provide econometric estimates of the determinants of female labor force participation in the
Philippines.
1.3. Methodology
The data used for this study comes from nationally representative household survey, the LFS and FIES.
The LFS is a quarterly survey of households conducted nationwide by the Philippine Statistics Authority
(PSA). The LFS covers 40,000 to 50,000 households. The LFS is the source of statistics on levels and
trends of employment, unemployment and underemployment at the national level and for each of
the administrative regions (Philippine Bureau of Labor and Employment Statistics, 2011). The LFS also
gathers information on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. The LFS is used as source of
individual characteristics.
The FIES is a nationwide household survey conducted every three years to gather information on
household sources of income in cash and in kind, and the level of consumption by item of expenditure.
The FIES also gathers information on other household characteristics related to levels of living,
spending patterns, and socioeconomic characteristics. It is a rider survey to the LFS, done during first
quarter LFS round of the FIES survey year. The FIES is used as source of household characteristics. Both
the LFS and FIES gather information on all household members with a household roster.
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The LFS and FIES are cross-sectional surveys. The study uses Public Use Files (PUFs) sourced from the
PSA, with datasets converted from the provided CSPro format into Stata datasets. Data analysis is
undertaken through Stata 16. Persons aged 15 years old and over, or the working age population, are
covered by the analysis.
For the LFS, the study uses available PUFs for years 1988 up to 2020. For 2020, at the time of the
drafting of this report, only the first three quarters (Q1/January, Q2/April, and Q3/July) are available,
hence annualized data for this year is derived as an average of these three quarters. For the FIES, the
merged LFS and FIES datasets for the FIES survey years of 2003, 2006, 2009, 2012, and 2015 are used
in this study.
The econometric model used for the female labor force participation determinants is discussed in the
section preceding the estimation results.
Limitations. In using cross-sectional data, the analysis captures the conditions of the female inactive
population at a given moment in time. It does not capture the life trajectories of the economically
inactive persons, which may be examined if using panel or longitudinal data.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
To inform the econometric model for estimating the key determinants of female labor force
participation, some empirical studies on female labor supply and determinants of female labor force
participation is briefly reviewed, particularly for developing countries and related studies for the
Philippines. This is to identify people key variables to be examined, and the expected direction of
covariates.
Determinants of female labor force participation in developing countries. Studies on the

determinants on female labor force participation in developing countries examine either labor
demand and supply-side factors that affect women’s economic participation, as well as macro- and
micro- level determinants.
In a research on labor force participation of women in Asian developing countries in the 1980s that
aimed to assess how women affect the economic development of these countries and how their labor
conditions can be improved, it was found that one of the main factors in increasing women
participation is by improving the socio-economic development of their own countries. Women in the
labor force creates benefit not only for themselves but also for their families, which is one of the main
reasons why they work. In this early study, labor force participation of women in the 1980s means
being likely involved in the agricultural sector, which is common in most of the Asian countries
(Tonguthai, 1987).
In another comparative study on developing countries with regards to the labor force participation of
women, Klasen (2018) found that the level of female participation varies in different developing
countries, with an increase in Latin America, slight increase in the Middle East, but a decrease in South
Asia. He observes that this is less consistent with the Feminization U Hypothesis – a U-shaped
relationship that was used to describe the interaction between the female force participation and the
economic development of a country. This means that in the early part of economic development,
during the agricultural period, women tend to be part of the labor force but their participation starts
to decline as the country becomes more industrialized. Then, female labor force participation starts
to shift up again once the country moves to latter parts of development. However, the countries
observed tend to vary, depending on the economic structure of their country that provide opportunity
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to women. Important factors that were significant in female labor force participation were education,
household income, and number of children, though the results vary per country.
Meanwhile, in the study of Cameron, Dowling & Worswick (2001) on Korea, Philippines, Thailand,
Indonesia, and Sri Lanka, the factors they investigated regarding female labor force participation were
based on personal characteristics such as age, number of children, location (urban or rural), education,
literacy, and similar characteristics of their husbands. Their main finding is that the level of education
of women is evident in driving female labor force participation in most countries. However, the
direction of causality is different per country. The authors suggest that while education has a
significant impact to labor force participation, the cultural aspect of the countries should also be
considered.
Booth (2016) provides a deeper understanding on how the culture in Southeast Asian countries affect
the labor force participation of women. It is shown that Southeast Asian countries are less patriarchal
compared with other countries in the continent. In the paper, the author found evidence that
Southeast Asian women’s participation depend on the level of access to secure employment outside
of their homes; access to education; independence in terms of selection in marriage; and if the culture
of the country has more preference in having a son. The results of the study further show how
differences in the characteristics of Southeast Asian countries affect their female labor force
participation, such as on their level of economic development, fertility rates, and religion.
Gasparini & Marchionni (2015) focused their study in Latin American countries. The authors divided
the factors affecting female labor force participation into interrelated decisions, choice mechanisms,
and the environment. The decisions consist of the women’s capability in making education, family,
and labor supply decisions. These involve how much time they put in their studies, what specialisation,
if they can choose who to marry or divorce, and whether they can choose to work or not and the
number of hours to work. The authors were also able to link the usage of technology in the women’s
health, particularly in fertility and nutrition, citing that the use of contraceptives and abortion have a
positive impact on labor force participation. Lastly, gender discrimination and macroeconomic
conditions were huge contributors in the increase in female labor supply in Latin America.
Verick (2014) recognizes that factors affecting female labor force participation may vary depending
on the country of study. The factors he examined was also consistent with other studies (e.g.,
economic development of the country, education, social dimensions like control in marriage, fertility,
and role in the household, characteristics of the husband). The difference with other studies is that
Verick also looked at women’s access to financial services, and the institutional characteristics such as
related laws and benefits that individuals belong to. The author pointed out that further research
should also consider the quality of employment available to women.
A micro-level comparison on the factors that affect female labor force participation is provided by
Klasen et al. (2018). In their study, the authors examined both developed and emerging economies –
Bolivia, Brazil, India, Indonesia, Jordan, South Africa, Tanzania, and Vietnam. The empirical model in
this study follows a probit model that only considers married women from the age of 25 to 54. Based
on the data collected, results of the study revealed different results between the eight countries.
However, there are consistent results that was evident in all of the countries. These are the increase
in education attainment and decrease in the fertility is likely to increase the female labor force
participation. The increase in income also decreases labor force participation in Vietnam, Tanzania,
Bolivia, India, and Indonesia, but increases in the rest of the countries. This means that in poorer
countries, there is more drive for women to work.
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Besamusca et al. (2015) focused on how economic conditions, family characteristics, educational
attainment, cultural perception on gender in terms of labor participation interact with different age
groups (15-19, 20-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-44, 45-49, 50-54, 55-59, 60-64, and 65+). The study was
conducted in 117 countries using data from the ILO Estimates and Projections of the Economically
Active Population (EAPEP) and Global Dataset on Women and Work. The study found that labor force
participation rises as the age increases, and then starts to fall as the age becomes closer to retirement.
The results were also not consistent with the Feminization U-theory or hypothesis; it does exist for
young and older women. Another interesting result of the study was that countries where religion is
more prominent have lower female labor force participation. The authors concluded that there might
be “gender stereotypes” attached with these beliefs that present barriers to women’s participation.
Kuptsch et al. (2015) discussed the future of the labor market globally. In their paper, the authors
researched the impact of technology and how it changes the labor force of tomorrow. The authors
had predicted that demographically, women are seen to be one of the defining features of the labor
market of the future. The trend in the women’s labor force participation is expected to change up to
2040. However, the authors claimed that in recent years, there has been a decline in the participation
of women due to factors such as voluntary withdrawal due to increase in living standards, increase in
the level of education, and quality of job being offered (with lower quality being given to women).
Cameron, Suarez & Rowell (2018) attempted to explain the decline in the female labor force
participation in Indonesia. While there had been a constant rate in the participation of women in the
labor force, recent statistics shows that there is a decrease in the trend. The empirical analysis of the
paper shows that the significant factors contributing to this trend are marital status, number of
children (0 to 2 years old), having a tertiary education, and whether the agriculture and manufacturing
sector favours females. In the case of Indonesia, being married and having kids decreases the rate of
participation of women. Meanwhile, the increase in the level of education was seen to improve the
participation rate of women.
Another country-specific analysis in the determinants of female labor force participation was done by
Munoz (2007) in Venezuela. The contribution of this paper is adding participation in the informal
sector as an endogenous variable. Munoz sought to find what determines participation in the formal,
informal, or no participation at all. Results of the study shows that in Venezuela, age, education,
marital status, location of residence, being head of the household, and socio-economic status were
found to be significant in the participation to formal labor.
Determinants of female labor force participation in the Philippines. Earlier attempts for an empirical
research in the Philippines was conducted by Tiefenthaler (1994) with particular focus on Cebu. The
model presented by the author suggests four outcomes – participation in the formal labor force,
informal labor force, piece sector (in factories where they were paid per piece), and not choosing to
participate at all. Results of this study show that the participation of women is different across the
sectors. For example, transportation was a significant factor in the formal sector, but not in the
informal and piece sector. Another significant factor was having young children, which decreases the
likelihood to participate in formal and piece sectors but increases the likelihood to participate in the
informal sector.
Yamauchi & Tiongco (2013) investigated why females have an advantage in the education but find
disadvantage in the labor markets in the Philippines. Based on the data from the Philippine Labor
Force Survey, the authors found that most families put emphasis in the education of their female
children. Parents know the value of education for their daughters because of their awareness to the
existing labor market in the country, hence the emphasis to expose them to high quality education,
with the expectation that they have a better outcome when they join the labor force. The parents also
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have an expectation that their daughters would have higher income compared to their sons. This type
of set-up is more evident to lower income families.
Rodriguez & Tiongson (2001) studied a unique characteristic of Filipino households, which is the
migration to another country. The authors provide a model on the participation of individuals as a
temporary migrant and empirically tested it using data from the then-National Statistics Office,
specifically using the LFS in 1991. Results show that only women with university degrees have higher
probability of participation in the labor market both nationally and as a temporary migrant. Another
distinct result is that if men are head of the household, they are most likely to be a temporary migrant,
but if women are the head of the household, they were more likely to stay in the country.
Some factors identified contributing to the low female labor force participation in the Philippines
include the lack of employment opportunities, social norms and gender roles on women as caregivers,
and the uneven share of household and care work by women (Asian Development Bank, 2013). In the
LFS, a consistent top response of women not in the labor force for not looking for work is household
duties, with more than half (55.6 percent) share in 2019, compared to just 10 percent for men (figure
27 and 28). One estimate of household time allocation in the Philippines is that women provide 84
percent of the total household time allocated to child care (Tiefenthaler, 1997).
3. FINDINGS
3.1. Trends in female economic inactivity rate
3.1.1. Labor force participation rate
Female labor force participation rate in the Philippines was at 46.5 percent in 1988, which has barely
improved throughout the years to 47.6 percent in 2019. Meanwhile, the rates for males are 81.5 and
74.8 percent for the same years. This translates to a male-female gap of 27.2 percentage points in
2019. While this labor force participation gap has narrowed from 35.0 percentage points in 1988, this
is due to the decrease in the participation rates for men rather than improvement in the rates for
women (figure 2). It can also be observed that female LFPR has slightly regressed since 2016, when it
was posted at 49.3 percent and has since then decreased to around 46 percent for 2017 to 2019 (figure
2). The 46.5 female LFPR in 2019 translates to 19.015 million females.
3.1.2. By age group
Labor force participation rates mapped throughout age groups, shown in Figure 3 for 2019, have an
inverted U-shape, with peaks at the prime productive ages of 25 to 54 years, and lower rates at the
younger (15-24) and older (54 and over) age brackets for both sexes. However, for males, participation
rates are much higher across all age groups compared to females. Apart from having lower rates for
all age groups, females also have a “flatter” inverted U-pattern. Females have lower participation rates
in their younger years from 15 to 34 years old, which ranged from 29.1 to 55.9 percent in 2019, which
then increases for ages 35 to 54 with rates around 61 to 62 percent. Meanwhile, for males, rates for
ages 25 until 54 are more consistent, which ranged from 92 to 94 percent in 2019 (figure 3).
3.1.3. Excluding students
The number of full-time students may be excluded in the analysis of labor force participation or
economic inactivity given that schooling is a desired and positive reason for being out of the labor
force especially for young persons aged 15-24 years old since many of them are still in the process of
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developing their skills through education/training before they enter the labor market. This may aid in
determining other factors driving economic inactivity apart from schooling. The proportion of the
youth population (15 to 24 years old) that reported to be currently attending school has increased
from 2006 to 2019. In 2006, there was 39.3 percent (3.277 million) of the female youth population
(15-24 years old) that was currently attending school, which increased to 53.3 percent (4.744 million)
in 2019 (figure 12).
If excluding the number of students, participation rates for both males and females increase for ages
15-24, at 82.9 and 55 percent in 2019, respectively. However, this also results in a wider difference in
the participation rates of males and females for this age group, at 27.8 percentage points compared
to 16.3 percentage points if students are included (figure 3). The figures for other age groups are not
affected when students are excluded from the computation since the information school attendance
is collected for ages until 24 years old only in the Labor Force Survey (LFS) (collected and computed
by PSA in the LFS starting in 2006).
3.1.4. Economic inactivity rate
The economic inactivity rate is defined as the proportion of the working age population, or those aged
15 years old and over, that are classified as out of the labor force (without a job, did not look for work
AND not available for work). Conversely for the patterns seen for labor force participation, the
inactivity rates for females barely improved, from 53.5 percent in 1988 to 52.4 percent in 2019. If
excluding students, the female economic inactivity rate is lower, at 45.5 percent in 2019 (figure 4).
3.1.5. By age group
The highest inactivity rates across female age groups are for those aged 64 and over, and 15 to 24
(figure 6). Their inactivity rates were at 74.3 and 70.9 percent in 2019, respectively. Meanwhile,
inactivity rates are lowest for age groups 35-44 and 45-54, with rates at around 37-38 percent in 2019.
The inactivity rate for female 15-24 age group has notably increased, from 61.6 percent in 1988 to
70.9 percent in 2019. Inactivity rates for 65 and over have slightly increased from 73.9 in 1988 to 74.3
in 2019. For all the other age groups, the inactivity rates have slightly decreased for the same years,
ranging from 2-4 percentage points (figure 6).
If students are excluded from the computation, the inactivity rates for the female 15-24 age group
improves, at 45 percent in 2019 compared to 70.9 percent if students are included in the computation
(figure 8).
3.1.6. By highest grade completed
The highest female inactivity rates can be observed for those with no grade completed, high school
undergraduates, and college undergraduates for the period 1988 to 2019 (figure 10). In 2019, the
inactivity rate for females with no grade completed was at 68.1 percent, followed by high school
undergraduates with 59.1 percent, and elementary undergraduates at 55.9 percent. Meanwhile, the
lowest female inactivity rates can be observed for college graduates (27.7 percent in 2019), and those
with post-baccalaureate education (20.3 percent).
Inactivity rates for those with no grade completed, elementary undergraduates and graduates, and
college graduates have increased for this period. For no grade completed, the female inactivity rate
increased by 7.2 percentage points (60.9 percent in 1988 to 68.1 in 2019), for elementary
undergraduates by 5.3 percentage points (50.6 percent to 55.9), for elementary graduates by 2.8
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percentage points (51.7 percent to 54.5), and for college undergraduates by 5.9 percentage points
(21.8 percent to 27.7 percent).
Meanwhile, female inactivity rates for high school undergraduates and graduates, and college
undergraduates decreased for this period, by 6.7 percentage points (65.8 percent to 59.1), 2.3
percentage points (56.1 percent to 53.8), and 9 percentage points (21.8 percent to 27.7) respectively
(figure 10).
3.1.7. By marital status
Female inactivity rates by marital status show high rates for both single and married groups
throughout 1988 to 2020. The female inactivity rates for these groups were posted at 58.1 percent
and 49.1 percent in 2019, respectively. Inactivity rate for single females increased from 51.6 percent
in 1988, while decreased for married females from 55.4 percent in 1988.
3.1.8. By region
Looking at the female economic inactivity rates by region, those that have the highest rates for the
period 1988 to 2020 are ARMM (average of 70.1 percent), Region IX Zamboanga Peninsula (57.5
percent), Region III Central Luzon (57.2 percent) and Region I Ilocos Region (55.7 percent). Regions
with the lowest female inactivity rates are Region X Northern Mindanao (44.0 percent), CAR (46.0
percent), and Region IVB MIMAROPA (48.0 percent) (figure 16).
Comparing the inactivity rates for males and females, the region that has the widest gap is ARMM,
with a 40.9 percentage point difference from the 27.0 percent male economic inactivity rate in 2019
compared to 67.9 percent for females (figure 17). This is followed by Region IX Zamboanga Peninsula
(39.4 percentage points), Region XI Davao (37.0 percentage points) and Region III Cagayan Valley (36.2
percentage points) (figure 16).
3.2. Profile of female economically inactive population
3.2.1. By age group
The age group with the largest share of the female economically inactive population is 15 to 24 years
old (36 percent in 2019), followed by 25 to 35 years old (18.2 percent). Shares for both groups have
slightly declined from 1988, when it was 37.1 percent and 21.7 percent, respectively. Meanwhile, the
share of older age groups 55 to 64 and 65 and over have slightly increased, from 7.7 percent and 9.2
percent in 1988 to 9.4 percent and 13.0 percent in 2019, respectively. Meanwhile, for the male
inactive population, they have a much higher share for 15 to 24 years old, at 60.8 percent in 2019
(figure 21).
3.2.2. By highest grade completed
By highest grade completed, groups that have the highest share in the female economically inactive
population are high school undergraduates (50.2 percent in 2019), and elementary graduates (9.3
percent in 2019. Looking at the figures for 1988 to 2020, it can be observed that shares for lower
grades, from no grade completed to elementary graduate, has gradually declined. Meanwhile, shares
for high school undergraduates and graduates, as well as college undergraduates and college
graduates have increased (figure 23).
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3.2.3. By marital status
By marital status, the groups with highest shares in the female economically inactive population are
those married (53.4 percent) followed by single females (34.6 percent). The share of married females
has declined from 60.3 percent in 1988, while it increased for single females from 31.9 percent in
1988. For males, the share of singles in the male economically inactive population is higher, at 68.6
percent in 2019. For married males, it was recorded at 25.4 percent (figure 24).
3.2.4. By region
Regions that have the highest share of the female economically inactive population are National
Capital Region (NCR) (13.9 percent in 2019), Region IV-A CALABARZON (14.1 percent), and Region III
Central Luzon (12.5 percent) (figure 26).
3.2.5. By reason for not looking for work
The top reasons for economically inactive females for not looking for work are housekeeping (55.6
percent in 2019), schooling (26.5 percent), and too young/old/retired/permanent disability (12.8
percent). For 1988 to 2020, the share for “housekeeping” has declined, from 68.2 percent in 1988.
Meanwhile, share for “schooling” has increased from 21.8 percent in 1988. Share for “too
young/old/retired/permanent disability” has also increased from 6.6 percent in 1988 (figure 28).
Comparing to the male economically inactive population, the top reasons are schooling (53.7 percent
in 2019) and too young/old/retired/permanent disability (21.4 percent). Housekeeping has a share of
10.0 percent for males in 2019 (figure 27).
Further disaggregating the shares of the female economically inactive population by reason for not
working and also by age group, females 15 to 24 have schooling as the top reason (71.9 percent in
2019), followed by housekeeping (22.0 percent). For age groups 25-34, 35-44, and 45-54 years old,
females out of the labor force overwhelmingly have housekeeping as reason for not looking for work,
ranging from 89-92 percent shares in 2019 for these age groups. By ages 55-64, and 65 and over, the
reason “too young/old/retired/permanent disability” factor in more (figure 29).
Meanwhile, for economically inactive males, the figures for reason for not working are more varied
across age groups. For males 15 to 24, schooling is the main reason with 86.1 percent share in 2019.
By 25-34, schooling has a share of 17.2 percent, with other top reasons being housekeeping (30.6
percent in 2019), and temporary illness/disability (16.3 percent). Housekeeping and temporary illness
and disability, as well as too young/old/retired/permanent disability have higher shares for the older
age groups from 35-44 up to 65 and over. It may be noted that for 55-64 and 65 and over, the male
inactive population also has a higher share for too young/old/retired/permanent disability compared
to their female counterparts, ranging from 50 to over 90 percent. While this is also a more significant
reason for females in these age groups, this is still coupled with housekeeping (figure 29).
3.2.6. Youth not in education and not in employment (NEE)
As previously mentioned, the increase in the proportion of youth aged 15-24 years old that are
currently attending school has increased since 2006. Hence, schooling primarily drives economic
inactivity amongst youth. However, youth economic inactivity due to schooling is not an undesirable
outcome in itself since their schooling is necessary for their human capital or skills development before
they transition to the labor market. An issue of concern is the considerable proportion of the youth
15 | P a g e
(15-24) population that are not in education and not in employment (NEE) 1. Females are more likely
to be NEE. In 2019, there was 24.1 percent (2.324 million) of the female youth population classified as
NEE, compared to 13.7 percent (1.409 million) for their male counterparts.
Disaggregating the female NEE population into whether they are unemployed or out of the labor
force/economically inactive, the female NEE that were inactive were 20.0 percent (1.929 million) of
the total female youth population in 2019, while the unemployed was 4.1 percent (394,000) (figure
14).
3.2.7. If have worked before, past occupation, and previous industry
60 percent (11.854 million) of economically inactive females in 2019 reported to have worked at any
time before, while 39.9 percent (7.867 million) have not worked at any time before. Compared to
economically inactive males, the share of those that have worked before is lower, at 45.1 percent in
2019, and those that have never worked before is at 54.9 percent. The share of inactive females with
work experience has increased, from 40.5 percent in 1988 (figure 30).
For the economically inactive females that have worked before, the top past occupations are service
and sales workers (45.3 percent in 2019), followed by elementary occupations (31.7 percent) and
some clerical support workers (7.3 percent) (figure 32). Meanwhile, the past occupational profile for
economically inactive males is more diverse, with the top past occupations being skilled agricultural,
forestry and fishery workers (24.2 percent in 2019), plant and machine operators and assemblers (19.8
percent), service and sales workers (17.8 percent), and craft and related trades workers (12.8 percent)
(figure 31).
Meanwhile, for economically inactive females that have worked in the past quarter, the top industries
worked in are agriculture, forestry, and fishing (32.0 percent in 2015), wholesale and retail trade (26.7
percent), other service activities (13.8 percent), and activities of households as employers (13.1
percent) (figure 33).
In comparison, for economically inactive males, the top industries worked in for those that have
worked in the past quarter are agriculture, forestry, and fishing (29.9 percent in 2015), construction
(18.7 percent), transport and storage (15.4 percent) and wholesale and retail trade (10.7 percent)
(figure 33).
3.3. Econometric estimates of determinants of female labor force participation
3.3.1. Econometric model for female labor force participation
The logit model is used to estimate the determinants of female labor force participation. The
probability of participating in the labor force is regressed on the set of potential drivers identified
previously. The female labor force participation equation is:
𝑙𝑓𝑝𝑖 =𝛽0 + ∑𝑘𝑗=1 𝑋𝑗𝑖 + 𝜀𝑖 (1)
1
Since the information on training availment or attendance was started to be collected in the LFS in 2019 only,
this study examines the NEE figures to cover more available data, instead of NEET (not in education, and not in
employment OR training).
16 | P a g e
Where labor force participation (LFP) is 1 = participant, 0 = non-participant, and xji represents the
vector of the explanatory variables or potential drivers. The model focuses on supply-side factors that
may influence the decision to participate in the labor force. As discussed in the previous section,
controlled for are individual characteristics, and household characteristics including those that affect
non-labor income, socioeconomic status, and household/care responsibilities. The model also
assumes a static model of labor supply.
To provide the estimates of the effect of the independent variables on the probability of a woman
participating in the labor force, the marginal effects (instead of the coefficients from the logit model)
will be reported. In particular, using Stata 16, the marginal effects at the means is estimated, where
the mean values for other variables are used when computing for the marginal effect of a variable
(Williams, 2012).
The marginal effect at the means is interpreted differently for discrete/categorical variables and
continuous variables (Williams, 2021). For categorical variables with two possible values (0 and 1),
the marginal effect shows how the probability of a woman participating in the labor force changes as
the categorical variable changes from 0 to 1, holding all the other explanatory variables at their means.
For categorical variables with more than two possible values (e.g., highest grade completed), the
marginal effect shows the difference in the predicted probabilities for the cases in one category
relative to the reference category. For continuous variables, the marginal effect shows the
instantaneous rate of change. This may or may not be close to the effect of a one-unit difference in
the independent variable associated with n percentage point difference for the probability of a woman
participating in the labor force, holding all the other explanatory variables at their means (ibid.).
At the individual level, we control for age, marital status, educational attainment, and whether the
individual is the head of household. Labor force participation varies throughout the lifecycle, as
presented earlier in the literature review and descriptive statistics. Married women are expected to
have lower participation since they are assumed to have more care responsibilities from having
children and fulfilling traditional roles of wives as carers and housekeepers. Meanwhile, education is
expected to have a positive effect on labor participation, since higher education entails higher skill
and employability. Being head of household is also expected to have a positive effect since it is
assumed to entail being the primary breadwinner or supporter for the family.
On the household level, the variables controlled for are the type of household (whether housing a
single family, extended family, or with two or more unrelated persons), family size, household type,
location (whether urban or rural, and administrative region), some socioeconomic information, and
information relation to care responsibilities. The type of household is controlled for to consider what
may the significance of living in an extended household. It can be positive on labor participation, when
it entails more persons sharing household and care responsibilities. However, it can be negative when
it adds to the care burden for women. Meanwhile, non-labor income determines the reservation wage
based on theory. It is expected to have a negative effect on labor participation. The remittances
received by the household abroad is subtracted from the non-labor income, since remittances
information may be highly variable. Having a family member who is a migrant worker is controlled for
instead.
Having a family member working overseas is expected to have a negative effect on labor participation
since it entails the household may receive remittances, which increases the members’ non-labor
income. The Philippines is a top sending country for labor migration, with remittances constituting a
major portion of its GDP.
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Since information on income and income level may be endogenous with labor force participation,
information on whether the household as electricity and its distance from its water source are
controlled for instead. Also included is the number of labor-saving appliances (refrigerator, stove,
washing machine). These information may serve as instruments for income level. These factors may
also impact labor force participation of women. When there is no electricity or the farther the
household is from the water source, it may increase the time needed by women to perform household
and care duties. Meanwhile, having appliances can aid in the performance of such tasks.
It is also important to take into account the geographical location, as socioeconomic conditions and
constraints to female labor force participation may vary by region.
Factors related to care responsibilities are also controlled for. Included is the number of younger and
older children (below 5 years, and 5 to 17 years old, respectively), which is expected to have a negative
effect on labor participation. Also considered is the presence of a grandparent in the household. It can
have a positive effect on participation, when care responsibilities such as baby-sitting is shared by the
grandparent. However, it can also be negative when it actually entails additional responsibilities to
care for the elderly. Meanwhile, the employment of a domestic worker by the household is expected
to positively affect labor force participation.
Repeated cross sectional data is used to be able to analyze lifecycle effects (with age) and birth cohort
effects (with year of birth, for persons born in the same year) on labor force participation. While we
lack panel data, some changes in the potential drivers over time can also be observed using the
repeated cross-sectional data.
The model is estimated for the years 2003, 2006, 2009, 2013, and 2015 for females aged 15 to 64
years old. Since age and year of birth are correlated, the model is estimated first with the age
dummies, and then estimated again with the year of birth dummies. The same set of analyses is also
done for males to be able to draw gender comparisons. The choice of time period covered is to
maximize the period that can be analyzed given data availability.
On model diagnostics, tests were performed for specification and multicollinearity. There was no
significant finding for misspecification or multicollinearity. As a robustness check, an alternative
specification using regional unemployment rates instead of administrative regions was used. The
results in the main estimates (Tables 4 and 5) were similar for key covariates for the alternative
specifications (Tables 8 and 9 in appendix) in terms of direction and magnitude.
Based on literature and descriptive statistics, the following characteristics which are potential key
drivers of female labor force participation are considered in the model. The detailed variable
construction is in Table 2 (appendix):
• Individual characteristics
• Age
• Marital status
• Education
• Whether head of household
• Household characteristics
• Type of household (single family, extended family, with two or more unrelated
people)
• Family size
• Location
• Urban or rural
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• Administrative region
• Socioeconomic information
• Total no. of employed family members
• Non-labor income (per capita, minus remittances, log)
• Household has a member working overseas
• Household has electricity
• Distance of Water Source from the House (meters)
• No. of labor-saving appliance (stove, fridge, washing machine)
• Information related to care responsibilities
• Presence of children (No. of children less than 5 years, 5-17 years old)
• Household has a grandparent present
• Household employs a domestic worker
• Age dummies
• Year of birth dummies
3.3.2. Descriptive results
Table 3 presents the summary statistics on labor force participation and the explanatory variables for
women and men through time (2003 to 2015). Labor force participation rates did not change much
throughout the years, with only a slight decline overall for both sexes. Men are more likely to be head
of households. Persons with high school-level education increased by 2012 and 2015, stemming from
the start of the implementation of the K-12 education system in the Philippines by 2011, which
extended secondary education by two years to include senior high school.
Family size has slightly increased throughout the period. There was also an increase in non-labor
income, and households with members working overseas. Meanwhile, there was a decline in those
employing domestic workers, especially around 2012 and 2015. In 2012, there was a global campaign
to institute employment rights of domestic workers, following the approval of an international labor
treaty (ILO Domestic Workers Convention). The Philippine government was highly involved in the
campaign, which culminated in its enactment of legislation, the Domestic Workers Act. It provided for
the rights and entitlements of domestic workers, including raising wages to a certain level. This policy
development may have resulted in the decline of households employing domestic workers due to the
increased cost and requirements for employers. Households with members working overseas
continued to increase. There was also an increase in the number of employed family members.
3.3.3. Estimation results
Table 4 presents the results of the estimates for equation (1) for women, particularly on the marginal
effects after logit estimation, while Table 5 presents the results for men. Married women are 24.9
percentage points less likely to participate in the labor force in 2003. The negative effect slightly
declined over time, being -18.7 percentage points in 2015. Divorced, separated, and annulled women
are also less likely to participate. Meanwhile, married men are more likely to participate, by around 5
to 7 percentage points for the survey years covered by the analysis.
Levels of education are strong positive correlates for female labor force participation. The greatest
education effect was for being a college graduate, with women ranging from 23 to 35 percentage
points more likely to be participating in the labor force if they are college graduates compared to the
reference category (no grade completed), for the covered survey years. The general findings on
education were similar for men. The premium for being a college graduate is also higher for men.
However, the premium for being a college graduate appears to be higher for women, with the
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magnitude for positive marginal effects higher for female college graduates compared to their male
counterparts.
Being a household head was also a strong positive factor, with women heads of households being
more likely to participate by 8 percentage points in 2015. This was also the case for men, with male
heads of household being 9 percentage points more likely to participate. However, the magnitude of
this effect varied throughout the years for both sexes.
Women in households with two or more unrelated persons were 16.5 percentage points more likely
to participate. Women living in this type of households are likely to be single and do not have
household and family duties.
Being in a rural location is a positive factor for participation, with rural women being 2 percentage
points more likely to participate. However, this effect declined throughout the period, becoming 1.3
percentage points in 2015. Rural men are also more likely to participate, by 1 to 3 percentage points.
Looking at regional factors, women in CALABARZON, MIMAROPA, Cagayan Valley, Western Visayas,
Central Visayas, Northern Mindanao, and Cordillera are more likely to participate in the labor force.
Meanwhile, women in Ilocos, Central Luzon, Bicol, Eastern Visayas, Davao, and the Autonomous
Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) are less likely to participate.
Meanwhile, men in Central Visayas, Cordillera, SOCCSKSARGEN, CARAGA, CALABARZON, and ARMM
are less likely to participate.
Non-labor income (log minus remittances) is a positive factor for women to participate, although the
magnitude of the effect varies across time at around 0.6 to 3 percentage points. Meanwhile, this was
a negative factor for men, at around negative 2 to 3 percentage points.
The number of young children less than 5 years old was a negative factor for women, being less likely
to participate by around 6 percentage points. This was also consistent throughout the period.
However, this factor was positive for men, making them more slightly more likely to participate by less
than one percentage point. The number of children aged 5 to 17 years old raised the likelihood of
participating for both sexes.
Having a grandparent present in the household decreased the likelihood of participating for both
sexes, but the result was not significant.
A key driver for female participation is the household employing a domestic worker, making the
women more likely to participate by around 28 to 38 percentage points. While this factor was also
positive for male participation, it is by a much less magnitude, by around 1 to 2 percentage points.
Having a family member working overseas is a negative factor for the labor force participation of both
sexes. The effect is higher for women, with women being less likely to participate by 11 to 14
percentage points compared to men being less likely to participate by 3 to 4 percentage points when
they have a family member working overseas.
If the household does not have electricity, women and men were more likely to participate in the labor
force. The effect is 3 to 9 percentage points for women, and 2 to 4 percentage points for men.
Looking at the age results, females aged 15 to 22 were less likely to participate in the labor force. The
effect is stronger for the younger women. The negative effect for this age range also increased until
20 | P a g e
2015. Meanwhile, males in this age range were likely to participate. However, those aged 16 to 17
became less likely to participate by 2012 and 2015. Women throughout their 20s were more likely to
participate by around 5 percentage points, while men had greater likelihood of participating for the
same ages, by around 14 to 26 points. Women’s likelihood of participating increase when they around
31 years old until 40 years old by 14 to 18 percentage points. This further increases for older women
at ages 41 until 55, where their likelihood of participating peaks at around 18 to 22 percentage points.
Their likelihood of participating then tapers off until they reach retirement age from 14 to 3
percentage points.
Meanwhile, men are more likely to participate by around 14 to 20 percentage points from their 20s
until they reach an age around 44 years. By then, men are more likely to participate at a lesser
magnitude from 14 percentage points decreasing to around 7 percentage points at 55 years old, and
3 percentage points by 60 years.
Looking at the results for the cohort effects for women, women born in the 1950s to 1960s were more
likely to participate by 70 to 80 percentage points throughout the covered period. Women born in by
the 1970s were more likely to participate to a lesser extent at around 55 in 2003 but considerably
increasing by 2015 to around 80 percentage points. Meanwhile, women born in the 1980s were more
likely to participate by 30 to 40 percentage points in 2003, and increasing to 70 percentage points by
2015.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1. On trends on and profile of female inactive population
• Labor force participation rate. Female labor force participation has barely improved for the
surveyed years 1988 to 2020. It remains low at 47.6 percent (19.015 million) in 2019, or around
half of women not participating economically. This translates to a male-female gap of 27.2
percentage points for the same year. While this is a slight improvement compared to the 35.0
percentage point gap in 1988, this is due to decrease in male labor force participation rather than
improvement in the figures for females.
• Labor force participation rate by age group. Compared to males, there is a flatter inverted U-
pattern for female labor force participation across age groups, starting at lower rates in the
younger groups 15-24 and 25-34, and peaking later in older years 35-44 and 45-54. Meanwhile,
participation rates are higher and more consistent across age groups for males for ages 25 until
54.
• If the labor force participation rates are computed to exclude the number of students, the
participation rates for both sexes are higher. However, the difference or gap in the LFPR also
widens. This may be due to not as much females are attending school relative to their male
counterparts. For instance, in 2019, 50.9 percent of the total female youth (15-24) population
were attending school, compared to 55.9 percent for male youth. Moreover, female youth have
a higher NEE rate, at 24.1 percent in 2019, compared to 13.7 percent for male youth. Female NEE
that are out of the labor force is also higher at 20.0 percent in 2019, compared to 9.7 percent for
male youth. The state of being NEE presents lost opportunities to build human capital for youth
since they are not in education or training at the stage in their life when they should be developing
these skills before they transition to the labor market. They are also not gaining experience and
developing their skills by working. This can also have “scarring effects” or lifelong implications.
21 | P a g e
• Economic inactivity rate. The highest female economic inactivity rates are observed for those
with lower levels of education (no grade completed, high school undergraduates, and college
undergraduates), while lowest for college graduates and with post-baccalaureate education.
• The top past occupations for females out of the labor force that have worked before are
service and sales workers and elementary workers. The top industries previously worked in are
agriculture, forestry, and fishing wholesale and retail trade, other service activities, and activities
of households as employers.
• The educational background or profile of economically inactive women along with their work
experience (whether have worked before, and kind of occupation or industry had previously) has
implications for their skilling needs.
• Regions with the highest shares of economically inactive females are also regions with highest
shares of the working age population (NCR, CALABARZON, Central Luzon).
• Top reasons for inactive females for not looking for work is on housekeeping, or household
and family responsibilities, with 55.6 percent share of total females not able to look for work in
2019. This is also consistent throughout age groups, with ages 25-34, 35-44, and 45-54 with 89-
92 percent of total female out of the labor force with housekeeping as reason for not looking for
work.
4.2. On determinants of female labor force participation
• Main drivers for the labor force participation of women are marital status, level of education,
being a household head, non-labor income, presence of young and older children, having a
domestic worker in the household, having a family member working overseas, and when the
household does not have electricity. Age and cohort effects were also seen on women’s labor
force participation. Geographical or regional factors may influence female participation, with
certain administrative regions having a positive or negative effect on women’s participation.
• Positive factors for female participation are on education, and being at certain ages or points
in their lifecycle. Higher educational attainment especially when women can graduate college
makes a woman more likely to participate in the labor force, although at a lesser extent compared
to male counterparts. The considerable difference in the likelihood of labor force participation
between undergraduates and graduates in high school and college for both sexes may imply that
there are sheepskin effects in the Philippine labor market, where having a graduate’s diploma
signals a higher level of skill or ability. The lower positive effects for women’s education may imply
that there are lower returns to education for women, or that other key drivers of female
participation are dampening the positive effects for women, as well as gender disparities in the
Philippine labor market.
• The findings on the presence of the number of children and having a domestic worker point
to the need to address the uneven share of household and care responsibilities of women, and
the high unmet need for care work in the Philippines. Public provision of childcare is limited, and
private provision entails costs that many low-income households will not be able to afford. This
includes the hiring of domestic workers by the household. The enactment of policies in 2012 and
2013 that raised costs of hiring domestic workers may explain the marked decline in the
significance of the variable’s effect by 2012 and 2015 in the results. There is a need to look into
the potential of public investments in childcare provision to raise women’s participation.
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• The slightly higher likelihood of rural women participating in the labor force may reflect the
fact that women are overrepresented in the informal sector particularly in small and family-owned
agricultural enterprises as own-account workers or unpaid family workers. Meanwhile, there is a
need to look further into the regional differences in women’s participation given the significant
positive/negative result for certain regions. A key region to investigate is ARMM, where both
women and men are markedly less likely to participate in the labor force.
• On the age effects, the household and care responsibilities factor in the participation of
women across their life cycle. Those in their younger years, from 20s to 30s, have lower likelihood
of participating given that this is the start of childbearing and child rearing years. Women are then
more likely to participate once they enter their 30s until they are 55. Women’s participation peaks
at these later years, which may be due to less household and care responsibilities when their
children have grown older. Older children may also imply higher child rearing costs, such as on the
cost of education, which may be push factors for labor force participation. Meanwhile, the reverse
is the case for men. Men have higher and more uniform participation rates from their 20s, which
then sharply decreases when they reach their mid 40s until retirement age. Since men then
become less likely to participate in the labor force in later years, this may imply some substitution
between male and female participation. Meanwhile, on cohort effects, the younger cohorts have
lower likelihood of participating in the labor force in their earlier years. This may imply a longer
delay in entering the labor force, such as due to education. For instance, the total number of years
in basic education has increased since the start of the implementation of the K12 Basic Education
Program in the Philippines in 2012.
4.3. Implications for policy
• To address low female labor force participation, there is a need for a comprehensive set of
interventions to help women have positive outcomes whether they want to work or not, or
whether they have voluntary or involuntary labor market attachment/detachment, so that they
will have smoother transitions in and out of the labor force.
This is considering that movements in and out of the labor force are natural or expected
throughout women’s life cycle, such as schooling, having and raising children, cases of
displacement or job loss, sickness or disability, need to take time for training or further education.
Female labor force participation or economic activity inactivity may be examined considering the
aspects of women’s choice (to work or not work) and freedom (the ability of women to make their
desired choice whether to work or not). The cases, examples of situations, and possible
interventions regarding female labor force participation across the two aspects of choice (to work
or not work) and freedom (voluntarily or involuntarily work/not work) are outlined in the table
below:
Freedom
Voluntary Involuntary
Choice To Would like to work and can work Need to work but does not necessarily want to
work
• Situations (ex.) • Situations
- Has a job or actively searching for - Working but with certain trade-offs:
work workers with health concerns, care
responsibilities, need for reskilling,
• Interventions resulting in poorer health, less time for
23 | P a g e
- Employment services and skills care responsibilities and hence poorer
development for women health, nutrition & education outcomes
- Measures to promote equal for children or other family members;
employment opportunities for less time or opportunity for
women (e.g., anti-discrimination, education/training
anti-sexual harassment, maternity
protection) • Interventions
- Income support, safety nets
- Employment policies to promote the
creation of decent work opportunities /
quality employment, which then
translate to better earnings or income
for oneself and by other household or
family members to have more
sufficient income and savings across
the life cycle (and more allowance to
not work when needed/wanted but
still live decently)
To Do not want to work and can stop working Not working due to certain constraints but may
not / not work desire to do so
work
• Situations (ex.) • Situations
- To focus on family or schooling - Difficulty in looking for work (where
- To take a break, leisure and how to search and apply) and
getting hired
• Interventions - Long term unemployed; discouraged
- Employment services and skills workers; persons that have been out of
development for women (when the labor force and wanting to rejoin
they would like to eventually rejoin after a long period (e.g., mothers after
the labor force in the future) a period of child rearing)
- Measures to promote equal - Not available to work due to
employment opportunities for household, family, care responsibilities
women (e.g., anti-discrimination, - Medical reasons (illness, disability)
anti-sexual harassment, maternity
protection) • Interventions
- Employment services and skills
development for women
- Health and social services, including
childcare, early childhood education,
disability, long-term care, and elder
care (i.e., care economy)
- Measures to promote work-life
balance, (e.g., flexible work
arrangements, parental leave)
- Measures to promote equal
employment opportunities for women
(anti-discrimination, anti-sexual
harassment, maternity protection)
24 | P a g e
An undesirable outcome is when many women would like to work but cannot do so due to certain
constraints, outlined in the fourth quadrant in the previous table. From the analysis of labor
statistics on economically inactive women, a major barrier is household and care responsibilities.
• Women’s disproportionate share of unpaid work and care work as major barrier to labor force
participation. Based on literature and data analyzed in the previous sections, it is known that
women have a disproportionate share of unpaid work and undertaking family, care, and
household responsibilities compared to men. In addition, women are also more likely to engage
in voluntary activities to support vulnerable groups (e.g., poor, elderly, sick). Meanwhile, women
within the labor market have higher shares in vulnerable groups, such as contributing family
workers, either worked with pay in own-family operated farm or business”) or as unpaid family
workers. Women may also perform multiple roles at the same time across employment, own-use
production of services (e.g., provision of care and domestic services, subsistence agriculture,
fetching water, etc.) (ILO and Data2X, 2018).
Therefore, a significant barrier for women to access (paid) employment opportunities and to
participate in the labor market is their disproportionate share of unpaid work, particularly care
work. Globally, for instance, women perform around three quarters or 76.2 percent of total hours
allocated for unpaid care work. Compared to men, women spend 3.2 times more time to unpaid
care work. This leaves women to be time poor, or to have less time available to undertake paid
work. In cases that they also have paid work, this may result in poorer care for recipients such as
infants, children, persons with disabilities, and the elderly (International Labour Organization,
2018).
• Need for specific interventions for women with long breaks from the labor force. Women who
have had long breaks from the labor market, such as those who took time off to raise young
children, may face particular barriers in re-entering. Persons who have been out of a job for long
periods may experience some setbacks in their skills development, since they were not able to
practice and further develop their skills while on jobs, or may have missed out on the latest
development in their field. They may also lack the networks, for instance, if they have lost touch
with those that they may have known in their previous workplaces. Persons with long employment
gaps may also face some discrimination from employers who tend to view such gaps unfavorably.
Women’s ability to re-enter the labor force may also depend on their level of skill, from their
qualifications and previous job experience. It may be the case that women outside the labor force
previously in low wage, low skill and precarious work may have less options or means if they want
to re-enter the labor force after a period, compared to their counterparts with higher qualification,
more work experience, and more in-demand occupations or skills. Women may also be driven to
accept jobs with skills or wages lower than their level of qualifications and experience if they face
high barriers to job search.
• Need for better measurement of women’s work (unpaid or paid), participation in labor markets,
and contributions to households, communities and economies. Women’s work, participation in
labor markets, and contributions to their households, communities, and the economy are not fully
captured in the current framework and implementation of labor force surveys worldwide. For
instance, current LFS defines work as activities done for pay or profit only, and does not consider
other forms of work such as own-use production work, volunteer work, and unpaid trainee work.
In view of this, in 2013 there was a resolution by the 19th International Conference of Labour
Statisticians (ICLS) to revisit the definitions of employment and unemployment to “create a more
detailed and nuanced basis for analysis in general and for gender in particular” (Walsh, 2020).
Figure 1 illustrates the new definition of work under the 19th ILCS Resolution.
25 | P a g e
With the change in the definitions of work and employment in the 19 th ICLS, women’s paid and
unpaid work can be better measured and understood, so that their issues and needs may be better
addressed by policy. For instance, more time in unpaid work means lesser time that women can
allocate for paid work. In better measuring paid and unpaid work, and extent of women’s labor
underutilization, policymakers can also better understand participation in labor markets by men
and women and their contributions through unpaid work, to their households, communities and
the economy. This can then have implications on what kind of interventions would best suit
women, for example, for employment or entrepreneurship programs, or other supporting policies
to address barriers to their labor force participation.
Figure 1. New statistical definition of work according to 19th ICLS Resolution

Work (Includes both paid
and unpaid activities to
produce goods and
services)
For own use For use by others
Own-use production
For pay or profit Not for pay or profit
work
Employment (currently
indcuded in labor force Unpaid trainee work
statistics)
Other unapid work

activities
Volunteer work
Source: Adopted from (ILO and Data2X, 2018).

Note: In blue shade is the current scope of labor force statistics
• Need for better capturing of women’s unmet need for paid work or labor underutilization. In
the current design of the LFS in the Philippines, women that report as unable to find work due to
household and family duties are automatically considered as outside the labor force. It does not
capture whether these women have any labor force attachment, for example if they would like to
work in a paid job (“Is willing to take up work during the past week or within 2 weeks”). Making
visible women’s unmet need for employment will allow us to measure their labor underutilization
(ILO and Data2X, 2018).
• For women “exclusively” outside the labor force, we need to better capture the extent of those
who would like to work and who perform other types of work, so that their contributions may be
better valued and given appropriate support including policy measures. Women dropping out of
the labor force is not socially undesirable or disadvantageous in itself, because these women may
be performing various paid and unpaid work that are necessary and are valuably contributing to
their households, communities and the economy. However, the value of these kinds of work are
not currently captured but may be in fact highly socially valuable. For instance, a Philippine study
found that having a stay-at-home mother (outside the labor force) is found to be positively
correlated with their children more likely to be staying in school and to transition to higher grade
26 | P a g e
levels faster than their peers. This may be due to mothers being able to dedicate more hours for
child care and house work which then aids in the development of their children’s human capital
(nutrition, health and education) (Abrigo & Francisco-Abrigo, 2019).
4.4. Recommendations
• Recommendations for women according to economic activity/inactivity category
o For women classified as outside the labor force, but with some attachment to the labor
force (“potential labor force”), or being with a job but expressed that they are either
not available OR not looking for a job
▪ To have appropriate support for women outside the labor force but still have
labor force attachment and would like to work but face barriers in their
availability and means for jobs search (did not look for work). These women can
be potentially prioritized to be targeted by interventions to boost women’s labor
force participation since they still have some interest in the labor force. Policies
can address the barriers that they face why they are not available or did not look
for a job. For instance, higher access to affordable and quality care (child care,
elderly care) and household/domestic services may aid in availability of women
to work. Improving accessibility, relevance, and awareness of employment
services for women outside the labor force and improved job searching
infrastructure may encourage and help them find work (Gammarano, 2019).
▪ There is opportunity in leveraging digital technologies to promote women’s

participation in society and the economy, or for education and training, and
employment or entrepreneurship of women. Digital technologies can provide
women more access to learning opportunities, jobs and markets while potentially
being able to have more flexible hours if they need to and with lower potential
transaction costs (e.g., lesser need for commuting, faster and cheaper
communication and provision of documentary requirements through digital
means). For employment, there is telecommuting and digital platform work, while
for education and training there are modular courses through massive open
online courses (MOOCs). Meanwhile, for entrepreneurship, there is also the
increase in the use of e-commerce and its platforms, also accelerated by the
pandemic. This will require ensuring computer and digital literacy skills among
women. However, while women can have some advantages with nonstandard
work arrangements such as through telecommuting and the gig economy, there
is a need to ensure their protection in these new work arrangements. For MOOCs
or online and distance learning, a potential downside is when the courses are
largely unaccredited and hence it would be difficult for learners and employers to
understand its value, and have a demonstration of learning and how this can aid
in shifting to new career or occupational pathways (Goger, 2020).
▪ Work provided through public employment programs can be reviewed to be

linked to the needs of communities for educational, social and environmental
services or socially valuable work and services, at the same time provide
opportunities for paid work for women, and a means for them to develop
various skills and gain work experience. Examples of these types of services are
assistance in emergency response and public health efforts, public works
especially for needed social infrastructure or for those serving functions for the
27 | P a g e
communities’ education, health, community support, and other public spaces;
and projects for environmental conservation and restoration, and climate
mitigation and adaptation (see (Ross & Bateman, 2020 for example of idea on this
type of program). Another option is to also link public employment programs with
the provision of public child care services, in line with the larger early childhood
care and development policy framework of the Philippines. For example, while a
law (Barangay-Level Total Development and Protection of Children Act or
Republic Act No. 6972) was enacted in 1990 that required all communities to
create public day care centers for children, there are issues with implementation
including poor facilities, scant teaching materials, & inadequately trained
personnel especially in poorer communities since public day cares in the
Philippines are funded by the barangay. With poor day care facilities, families
who cannot afford private day care facilities either make do with poor service, or
not enroll their children in any day care facility and take care of children
themselves (Haligi ng Bata Inc., n.d.), which leaves them less available hours to
allocate for paid work. Meanwhile, Private childcare through hiring of domestic
workers or kasambahay is not affordable for lower income households.
o For women considered to be “exclusively” outside the labor force (being jobless, not
available AND did not look for work)
▪ The Philippines to the follow reforms to labor statistics in accordance with the
19th ICLS resolution to better measure women’s paid and unpaid work toward
policies to better value their contributions and give them support. The Philippine
Statistical System (PSS) follows international statistical standards and
frameworks, including on labor statistics from the ICLS. In 2018, the Philippines
was one of the countries where labor force survey pilot studies were conducted
to operationalize the new work definitions from the 19th ICLS Resolution. It is
highly likely that the Philippines will follow reforms in labor statistics in this
regard.
o On enabling environment and factors
▪ Explore how to fully realize lifelong learning in the Philippines: on financing,

governance and on promoting work-based learning (ILO, 2019). The prevailing
education and labor market systems in many countries, including in the
Philippines, are biased toward a model of higher education where young persons
are expected to invest in tertiary education and then transition to work according
to the type of college degree they have earned. This determination of a person’s
employment trajectory based on their educational qualifications then becomes
difficult to change later on through further skills training for adults (Bosch, 2017).
With lifelong learning, women can potentially have better means to access paid
employment opportunities, re-enter the labor market if they have taken breaks
from paid employment, and to also shift careers or occupations.
▪ Pursue comprehensive policy initiative on promoting care work and care jobs to
ease the disproportionate burden of women (and also avoid reinforcing the
existing stereotype of women as the expected or natural caregivers). To address
the unequal burden of women for care work as the major barrier to their
economic participation, a policy direction to have a set of care policies for
promoting more equitable share of paid work and unpaid care work between men
28 | P a g e
and women. This will entail recognizing, redistributing and reducing unpaid care
work, and to reward by promoting more and decent work for (paid) care workers.
Relevant interventions on this include direct (public) provision of childcare,
elderly care, and care-related social protection transfers and benefits for persons
with family or care responsibilities, strengthening care-relevant infrastructure
which reduce women’s household-related work such as fetching water and
procuring energy, and providing sanitation, and labor regulations in place that
promote balance of work and family responsibilities like leave policies and other
family-friendly working arrangements for both men and women. Meanwhile,
promoting paid care work can also ease unpaid care work burdens, since good job
quality for care workers can aid in having high quality (paid) care work (and lessen
need to perform unpaid care work). This involves improving the working
conditions, rights and status, and remuneration of care workers such as
healthcare workers, teachers, community and social workers, and domestic
workers. These would all entail higher investments in the care economy. One
estimate is that if current levels of investment in education, health, and social
work is doubled by 2030, this would help boost global GDP and create a total of
475 million jobs by that year (International Labour Organization, 2018 and OECD,
2019). Table 1 presents a “5R Framework” from the ILO for promoting decent care
work.
Table 1. The 5R Framework for Decent Care Work
Main policy areas Policy Policy measures

recommendations
• Care policies Recognize, reduce • Measure all forms of care work and take unpaid
• Macroeconomic and redistribute care work into account in decision-making
policies unpaid care work • Invest in quality care services, care policies and
• Social care-relevant infrastructure
protection • Promote active labor market policies that support
policies the attachment, reintegration and progress of
• Labor policies unpaid carers into the labor force
• Migration • Enact and implement family-friendly working
policies arrangements for all workers Promote
information and education for more gender-equal
households, workplaces and societies
• Guarantee the right to universal access to quality
care services
• Ensure care-friendly and gender-responsive social
protection systems, including floors
• Implement gender-responsive and publicly funded
leave policies for all women and men
Reward: More • Regulate and implement decent terms and
and conditions of employment and achieve equal pay
decent work for for work of equal value for all care workers
care workers • Ensure a safe, attractive and stimulating work
environment for both women and men care
workers
• Enact laws and implement measures to protect
migrant care workers
29 | P a g e
Representation, • Ensure women’s full and effective participation
social dialogue and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels
and collective of decision-making in political, economic and
bargaining for public life
care workers • Promote freedom of association for care workers
and employers
• Promote social dialogue and strengthen the right
to collective bargaining in care sectors
• Promote the building of alliances between trade
unions representing care workers and civil society
organizations representing care recipients and
unpaid carers
Source: Lifted from (International Labour Organization, 2018. p. 289)
In summary, policies and interventions to boost women’s labor force participation should ensure that
women can access the support that they would need at any point in their lives, whether they are
outside the labor force and would like to work (enter or re-enter the labor force) and to maintain or
keep their work, or would like to take time off paid work (exit the labor force and undertake unpaid
work, such as care and household work). For women wanting to have paid work, they will need
accessible and relevant employment services and a robust job search infrastructure and networks.
They would also need better ability to balance work and family responsibilities so they can maintain
their jobs or continue working even with care responsibilities. For women taking time off paid work
to undertake own-production work or care and household duties, their contributions should be
recognized and valued appropriately and there should be a set of enabling care policies to ease their
disproportionate care burden so they would also have more options to undertake paid work should
they want to. Should women want to return to work or re-enter the labor force even after a long
period, they may do so through accessing employment services, having lifelong learning throughout
and a set of enabling policies on decent care work.
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APPENDIX
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Figure 2. Labor Force Participation Rate, by Sex, 1988-2020
Labor Force Participation Rate, by Sex, 1988-2020

100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
% of working age population
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
-
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
M-F LFPR Gap 35.0 34.5 34.1 34.1 34.8 33.9 34.0 33.7 32.6 32.4 32.3 31.0 30.7 29.6 28.3 29.9 31.4 30.2 30.0 29.5 30.1 29.2 28.8 28.6 28.5 28.2 28.0 27.3 28.3 30.0 28.5 27.2 27.2
Male 81.5 81.1 79.5 81.1 81.1 80.5 80.2 80.1 80.0 78.7 78.2 78.2 76.1 79.3 78.9 78.8 80.1 79.5 79.2 78.8 78.8 78.6 78.5 79.0 78.5 78.1 78.5 77.3 77.5 76.2 75.1 74.8 73.3
Female 46.5 46.6 45.4 47.0 46.3 46.5 46.2 46.4 47.4 46.3 45.9 47.2 45.3 49.7 50.6 49.0 48.7 49.3 49.3 49.3 48.6 49.4 49.7 50.4 50.0 49.9 50.5 50.0 49.3 46.2 46.6 47.6 46.1
Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)
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Figure 3.Labor force participation rate by age group & sex, 2019 – including & excluding students
Labor force participation rate by age group & sex, 2019 Labor force participation rate by age group & sex, 2019 - excluding
students
100.0
100.0
90.0
90.0
80.0
80.0
70.0
70.0
60.0
60.0
50.0
50.0
40.0
40.0
30.0 30.0
20.0 20.0
10.0 10.0
0.0 0.0
15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65 & over 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65 & over
M-F Gap 16.3 36.5 32.8 30.2 25.0 17.3 M-F Gap 27.8 36.5 32.8 30.2 25.0 17.3
Male 45.4 92.4 94.7 92.5 77.9 42.9 Male 82.9 92.4 94.7 92.5 77.9 42.9
Female 29.1 55.9 61.8 62.3 52.9 25.7 Female 55.0 55.9 61.8 62.3 52.9 25.7
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Figure 4. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by sex, 1988-2020 – including & excluding students
Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by sex, 1988-2020
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
-
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
F-M inactivity rate gap 35.0 34.5 34.1 34.1 34.8 33.9 34.0 33.7 32.6 32.4 32.3 31.0 30.7 29.6 28.3 29.9 31.4 30.2 30.0 29.5 30.1 29.2 28.8 28.6 28.5 28.2 28.0 27.3 28.3 30.0 28.5 27.2 27.2
Male 18.5 18.9 20.5 18.9 18.9 19.5 19.8 19.9 20.0 21.3 21.8 21.8 23.9 20.7 21.1 21.2 19.9 20.5 20.8 21.2 21.2 21.4 21.5 21.0 21.5 21.9 21.5 22.7 22.5 23.8 24.9 25.2 26.7
Female 53.5 53.4 54.6 53.0 53.7 53.5 53.8 53.6 52.6 53.7 54.1 52.8 54.7 50.3 49.4 51.0 51.3 50.7 50.7 50.7 51.4 50.6 50.3 49.6 50.0 50.1 49.5 50.0 50.7 53.8 53.4 52.4 53.9
Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), excluding students,
by sex, 2006-2020
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
F-M inactivity rate difference 33.1 32.5 33.5 32.5 31.9 31.7 31.6 31.2 31.0 30.3 31.7 34.0 32.6 31.3 30.6
Male 11.6 12.2 11.8 12.0 12.3 12.1 12.6 12.8 12.3 13.1 12.6 13.6 14.3 14.2 17.1
Female 44.7 44.7 45.3 44.5 44.3 43.7 44.2 44.0 43.3 43.4 44.4 47.6 46.8 45.5 47.7
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Figure 5. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by age group, males, 1988-2020
Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by
age group, males, 1988-2020
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
15-24 36.8 38.7 42.6 38.2 39.7 40.4 40.3 40.0 39.2 40.2 41.3 41.1 45.3 41.7 42.3 43.0 40.7 42.3 42.8 43.6 44.2 44.3 44.7 42.9 43.6 44.3 44.0 46.8 47.6 50.0 52.8 54.6 56.0
25-34 4.5 4.8 5.7 5.1 4.6 5.2 5.2 5.6 7.0 8.9 9.1 8.8 9.8 5.8 6.0 6.2 5.8 5.7 5.9 6.4 5.9 6.1 6.3 6.3 6.6 6.9 6.6 7.5 6.8 6.7 7.4 7.6 9.2
35-44 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.5 2.5 2.8 2.9 3.3 4.8 7.3 7.1 7.3 7.7 3.5 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.9 4.0 4.2 3.9 4.1 4.1 4.0 4.4 4.5 4.3 4.8 4.4 4.9 5.4 5.3 6.6
45-54 4.7 4.5 4.8 4.6 4.5 4.6 5.2 5.1 6.3 8.3 8.7 8.6 9.6 5.8 6.2 6.0 6.4 6.5 6.7 7.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.8 7.1 6.4 6.9 6.5 7.4 7.6 7.5 9.1
55-64 13.5 14.1 13.4 14.2 14.4 15.0 15.2 14.6 15.4 16.7 16.5 17.0 18.8 17.1 17.4 18.0 17.6 18.8 19.6 19.2 19.5 19.2 19.2 18.9 20.1 20.8 20.2 19.8 20.3 21.7 22.0 22.1 23.6
65 & over 45.0 45.2 43.2 45.3 42.2 42.6 43.9 45.6 45.2 46.8 47.6 48.4 48.2 46.6 47.5 48.1 48.7 48.6 50.1 49.5 50.4 51.1 51.0 52.3 53.2 53.4 53.3 53.2 53.3 57.5 57.9 57.1 60.6
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Figure 6. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by age group, females, 1988-2020
Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by age group,
females, 1988-2020
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
15-24 61.6 62.1 64.2 60.6 61.9 62.0 62.6 63.7 62.3 63.9 64.9 64.4 65.7 61.7 61.6 63.6 63.5 63.3 63.9 64.5 65.5 64.8 64.8 64.1 64.5 65.4 64.9 66.4 67.4 70.3 70.7 70.9 71.9
25-34 50.8 50.7 51.1 50.1 51.4 50.9 50.7 50.8 49.5 51.2 51.9 50.0 50.5 46.1 44.5 46.9 48.4 47.1 46.6 46.3 46.9 46.0 45.2 44.8 45.3 44.7 43.8 43.3 44.5 46.9 46.1 44.1 44.9
35-44 43.3 43.7 45.0 43.4 44.2 44.5 44.4 43.8 43.8 43.7 43.4 42.2 45.6 40.0 38.8 40.2 40.1 39.2 39.0 39.0 39.3 38.5 38.6 37.7 37.7 37.8 36.8 37.2 37.1 41.6 40.0 38.2 40.0
45-54 42.6 42.6 43.8 42.3 42.9 42.4 42.8 41.3 40.0 41.0 41.3 39.6 43.2 37.8 36.8 37.3 37.1 37.1 36.2 35.9 36.5 35.5 35.2 34.4 34.9 34.7 34.4 34.6 34.7 38.6 38.3 37.7 38.5
55-64 51.6 50.5 50.7 51.3 50.4 50.8 51.4 50.0 48.1 49.0 49.0 47.7 49.6 46.0 44.2 45.8 45.3 45.5 45.2 44.9 45.4 44.5 44.6 43.2 43.9 43.6 43.6 43.9 44.7 47.3 48.4 47.1 49.5
65 & over 73.9 73.5 73.7 74.7 73.3 72.2 73.0 73.5 73.4 73.7 73.3 72.6 73.8 71.4 70.7 71.2 71.5 71.1 71.4 70.9 71.9 71.7 71.3 71.6 72.1 72.5 72.5 72.1 72.1 76.2 74.6 74.3 77.2
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Figure 7. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by age group, males, 2006-2020 - excluding students
males, 2006-2020 - excluding students
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
15-24 14.6 16.2 15.2 15.6 16.6 15.1 15.9 15.8 14.9 16.9 16.2 16.0 17.2 17.1 25.5
25-34 5.9 6.4 5.9 6.1 6.3 6.3 6.6 6.9 6.6 7.5 6.8 6.7 7.4 7.6 9.2
35-44 4.0 4.2 3.9 4.1 4.1 4.0 4.4 4.5 4.3 4.8 4.4 4.9 5.4 5.3 6.6
45-54 6.7 7.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.8 7.1 6.4 6.9 6.5 7.4 7.6 7.5 9.1
55-64 19.6 19.2 19.5 19.2 19.2 18.9 20.1 20.8 20.2 19.8 20.3 21.7 22.0 22.1 23.6
65 & over 50.1 49.5 50.4 51.1 51.0 52.3 53.2 53.4 53.3 53.2 53.3 57.5 57.9 57.1 60.6
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Figure 8. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by age group, females, 2006-2020 - excluding students
females, 2006-2020 - excluding students
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
15-24 43.4 44.3 45.0 44.2 44.5 44.2 45.2 45.0 44.0 44.3 45.8 47.9 46.3 45.0 50.3
25-34 46.6 46.3 46.9 46.0 45.2 44.8 45.3 44.7 43.8 43.3 44.5 46.9 46.1 44.1 44.9
35-44 39.0 39.0 39.3 38.5 38.6 37.7 37.7 37.8 36.8 37.2 37.1 41.6 40.0 38.2 40.0
45-54 36.2 35.9 36.5 35.5 35.2 34.4 34.9 34.7 34.4 34.6 34.7 38.6 38.3 37.7 38.5
55-64 45.2 44.9 45.4 44.5 44.6 43.2 43.9 43.6 43.6 43.9 44.7 47.3 48.4 47.1 49.5
65 & over 71.4 70.9 71.9 71.7 71.3 71.6 72.1 72.5 72.5 72.1 72.1 76.2 74.6 74.3 77.2
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Figure 9. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate) by highest grade completed, males, 1988-2020
Economic inactivity rate by highest grade completed, females, 1988-2020

100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
No Grade Completed 60.9 63.2 62.7 64.3 63.1 63.4 64.3 63.2 61.8 63.4 65.7 65.4 66.3 64.2 64.1 65.0 63.2 60.9 61.3 61.0 61.9 60.4 60.5 60.3 60.6 61.1 61.4 62.7 64.1 66.1 66.8 68.1 68.4
Elementary Undergraduate 50.6 50.1 52.4 52.0 51.7 50.6 51.2 52.7 50.8 51.6 52.7 51.2 54.8 50.8 48.8 50.6 51.3 49.9 50.0 49.6 50.6 49.4 48.9 48.7 49.7 50.4 49.7 50.5 52.6 56.8 57.6 55.9 56.9
Elementary Graduate 51.7 51.9 52.7 51.6 52.4 51.8 52.4 52.0 51.0 52.2 51.9 50.0 52.6 47.5 47.7 49.9 50.1 49.6 49.1 48.9 49.2 48.5 49.4 48.2 48.3 49.0 48.0 49.2 50.9 55.6 55.8 54.5 56.9
Highschool Undergraduate 65.8 65.7 68.7 65.3 66.7 66.5 66.7 66.4 65.5 66.0 65.9 64.6 67.5 64.0 62.5 64.0 64.2 64.3 64.0 63.9 65.3 63.9 64.0 63.3 63.2 64.3 63.8 64.8 67.1 61.2 61.6 59.1 60.3
Highschool Graduate 56.1 55.4 56.7 53.5 53.9 54.9 54.7 54.0 53.5 55.3 54.8 53.5 54.7 49.0 48.5 50.2 51.4 51.1 50.9 50.6 51.7 51.6 51.0 50.0 49.9 49.6 48.9 49.0 47.7 46.5 48.6 53.8 56.2
College Undergraduate 64.6 64.7 65.9 63.3 63.8 62.8 62.1 61.4 60.7 61.3 62.5 61.4 62.2 59.1 57.9 58.8 58.2 57.7 58.3 58.8 58.9 57.6 57.2 57.0 62.4 61.6 55.2 55.6 58.5
College Graduate 21.8 21.9 21.3 22.2 23.6 23.4 23.8 23.7 25.0 26.5 27.6 27.9 29.2 24.4 24.8 25.8 26.0 26.1 26.2 27.0 27.6 27.3 26.9 26.7 42.9 42.8 42.8 43.0 37.6 28.3 27.1 27.7 29.3
Post Baccalaureate 18.3 26.0 22.9 20.3 21.4
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Figure 10. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate) by highest grade completed, females, 1988-2020
Economic inactivity rate by highest grade completed, females, 1988-2020

100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
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Figure 11. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate) by marital status & sex, 1988-2020
Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate) by marital status, males, 1988-2020
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
-
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Single 34.2 35.6 38.1 34.3 35.1 36.0 35.4 34.8 34.8 36.3 36.6 35.9 39.7 35.7 35.9 37.4 35.6 35.9 36.1 36.6 36.6 36.7 36.6 35.4 36.2 36.6 36.1 38.0 39.7 41.6 43.0 43.1 43.7
Married 6.8 7.0 7.4 7.4 7.2 7.3 7.8 8.2 8.9 10.5 10.9 11.3 11.9 8.9 9.3 8.8 8.5 8.9 8.9 9.0 9.0 9.1 9.3 9.2 9.7 9.9 9.6 10.0 9.7 10.9 11.3 11.6 13.4
Divorce/Separate 11.3 10.7 11.0 10.8 11.4 10.7 11.6 14.8 14.3 16.9 17.2 15.1 15.6 13.9 13.3 13.8 14.7 13.7 15.1 15.4 14.3 14.2 13.7 13.9 13.2 13.5 13.3 14.1 13.6 14.3 15.6 14.0 14.9
Annulled - 24.1 27.2 5.3 12.8 34.0 24.0 5.2 36.8 55.7 25.8 16.5 7.5
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Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate) by marital status, females, 1988-2020
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
-
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Single 51.6 52.0 54.6 50.8 52.3 52.3 52.9 54.2 52.4 53.9 55.1 54.3 56.0 51.3 51.3 52.8 52.5 52.5 53.5 53.9 54.3 53.9 53.5 52.6 52.9 53.6 53.0 54.4 55.1 57.4 58.1 58.1 58.3
Married 55.4 55.1 55.4 54.7 55.1 54.6 54.7 53.9 53.1 54.2 54.1 52.3 54.3 49.9 48.2 50.2 51.0 50.0 49.4 49.0 49.8 48.6 48.5 47.9 48.3 48.2 47.5 47.5 48.6 52.0 50.9 49.1 51.1
Widowed 50.5 50.2 51.2 52.5 52.1 52.4 53.3 52.5 52.7 53.0 53.5 53.4 55.5 53.6 53.3 53.8 53.8 53.9 54.3 54.1 55.1 55.0 54.5 54.7 54.7 55.1 55.3 55.2 56.4 60.4 60.1 59.7 63.3
Annulled 27.8 34.8 31.2 31.2 23.3 14.4 42.4 23.7 25.5 19.5 23.4 19.7 36.5
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Figure 12. Youth (15-24 y.o.) currently attending school by sex, 2006-2020
Youth (15-24 y.o.) currently attending school by sex, 2006-2020

6,000 100.0
Percentage of youth (15-24 y.o.) working age population

90.0
No. of persons - youth currently attending school
5,000
80.0
70.0
4,000
60.0
3,000 50.0
40.0
2,000
30.0
20.0
1,000
10.0
0 0.0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Male 2,896 2,953 3,133 3,182 3,222 3,199 3,280 3,418 3,405 3,725 3,140 4,206 4,523 4,780 4,426
Female 3,277 3,342 3,488 3,514 3,535 3,552 3,587 3,809 3,798 4,153 3,349 4,450 4,735 4,915 4,744
Male % 33.9 34.6 36.7 37.2 37.7 37.4 38.4 40.0 39.8 43.6 36.7 49.2 52.9 55.9 51.8
Female % 39.3 39.2 40.3 39.9 39.5 39.0 38.6 40.2 40.6 42.8 34.6 46.4 49.1 50.9 53.3
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Figure 13. Youth (15-24 y.o.) not in education & not in employment (NEE) by sex, 2006-2020
Youth (15-24 y.o.) not in education & not in employment (NEE) by sex, 2006-2020
4,000 100.0
90.0
Percentage of youth (15-24) population

80.0
3,000
No. of persons - youth NEE ('000)
70.0
60.0
2,000 50.0
40.0
30.0
1,000
20.0
10.0
0 0.0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Male NEE 1,539 1,614 1,590 1,641 1,738 1,648 1,706 1,722 1,628 1,715 1,566 1,545 1,466 1,409 1,565
Female NEE 2,603 2,681 2,743 2,784 2,853 2,866 2,983 2,947 2,805 2,783 2,823 2,729 2,477 2,324 2,021
Male NEE % 18.0 18.4 17.8 18.0 18.7 17.4 17.7 17.6 16.8 17.1 15.4 15.2 14.3 13.7 16.3
Female NEE % 31.2 31.5 31.7 31.6 31.9 31.4 32.1 31.1 30.0 28.7 29.2 28.5 25.7 24.1 22.7
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Figure 14. Youth (15-24 y.o.) not in education & not in employment (NEE) - unemployed or NILF, by sex, 2006-2020
Youth (15-24 y.o.) not in education & not in employment (NEE) - unemployed or NILF, by sex, 2006-2020
3000 30
Percentage of youth (15-24) population

2500 25
No. of persons 0 youth ('000)
2000 20
1500 15
1000 10
500 5
0 0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Male NEE unemployed 781 745 773 790 812 788 783 793 775 737 652 678 588 578 584
Male NEE inactive 758 869 817 850 926 860 924 929 853 978 914 867 879 831 981
Female NEE unemployed 552 532 554 589 592 576 579 562 536 495 441 436 401 394 369
Female NEE inactive 2,051 2,149 2,189 2,196 2,261 2,290 2,404 2,385 2,269 2,288 2,382 2,293 2,076 1,929 1,652
Male NEE unemployed % 9.1 8.7 9 9.2 9.5 9.2 9.2 9.3 9.1 8.6 7.6 7.9 6.9 6.8 6.8
Male NEE inactive % 8.9 10.2 9.6 9.9 10.8 10.1 10.8 10.9 10 11.4 10.7 10.1 10.3 9.7 11.5
Female NEE unemployed % 6.6 6.2 6.4 6.7 6.6 6.3 6.2 5.9 5.7 5.1 4.6 4.5 4.2 4.1 4.1
Female NEE inactive % 24.6 25.2 25.3 24.9 25.3 25.1 25.9 25.2 24.3 23.6 24.6 23.9 21.5 20 18.6
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Figure 15. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by region, males, 1988-2020
Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by region, males, 1988-2020
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 ave.
National Capital Region (NCR) 28.0 28.7 30.5 27.2 27.2 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.0 28.6 28.5 28.5 31.1 26.8 27.5 27.0 25.6 25.7 25.3 26.1 26.5 26.4 25.4 24.8 24.8 25.1 23.9 25.7 25.7 25.7 27.1 27.3 30.0 27.2
Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) 17.2 16.1 17.6 16.4 15.6 19.0 20.3 20.9 19.7 21.4 22.6 23.7 25.4 22.5 23.0 22.7 22.3 23.4 22.0 22.2 22.6 22.8 21.8 20.1 20.5 21.6 22.0 22.4 23.2 25.7 25.8 26.7 27.2 21.7
Region I - Ilocos Region 19.7 19.9 22.5 21.1 20.5 20.8 20.8 20.5 21.3 22.1 23.0 23.3 23.5 21.7 22.5 22.4 20.8 21.6 20.7 21.5 21.0 21.2 21.5 21.3 22.1 22.5 22.6 23.9 22.4 24.0 24.1 24.2 23.6 22.0
Region II - Cagayan Valley 13.2 12.5 13.6 14.3 14.7 13.9 13.1 14.1 14.5 15.4 16.4 15.5 18.4 15.5 17.1 16.8 17.9 17.0 16.7 17.0 17.9 17.1 17.6 16.8 18.1 18.2 18.1 18.5 18.8 20.9 21.1 21.4 23.3 16.8
Region III - Central Luzon 22.0 21.9 21.5 19.5 21.3 22.3 22.4 22.4 22.5 23.6 24.0 23.5 25.5 21.1 21.6 21.2 19.5 21.0 22.0 21.7 22.1 22.3 21.8 22.2 22.1 22.1 21.9 22.8 22.2 24.3 24.8 24.8 28.8 22.5
Region IVA - CALABARZON 18.6 18.8 21.0 19.2 18.7 19.5 20.8 20.9 20.4 22.8 23.7 23.8 26.0 21.9 22.0 21.7 22.1 22.2 22.4 22.9 23.3 23.2 23.3 22.3 23.0 22.8 21.9 23.5 23.2 23.3 24.8 24.2 25.8 22.3
Region IVB - MIMAROPA 17.2 16.9 17.2 16.8 16.6 16.7 16.6 18.0 17.2 18.0 19.0 19.1 22.0 21.0 21.6 23.8 25.7 26.5 19.4
Region V- Bicol 14.9 14.4 16.0 16.1 15.2 15.4 15.2 14.3 16.5 17.1 16.9 18.2 19.6 17.3 18.5 19.0 17.1 16.8 18.3 19.2 19.2 19.7 21.1 20.1 21.1 21.3 22.1 22.7 22.6 25.0 24.0 26.3 25.7 19.0
Region VI - Western Visayas 18.9 19.4 21.0 18.2 19.1 20.9 20.3 20.6 21.5 23.3 23.4 22.9 26.4 22.7 21.8 21.5 20.4 20.7 21.2 21.6 22.1 22.2 22.2 21.9 22.7 23.7 22.7 24.0 23.3 24.4 25.9 28.2 27.4 22.3
Region VII - Central Visayas 17.9 18.7 19.7 20.9 20.4 20.4 20.7 22.6 23.2 22.9 23.2 24.2 25.1 22.4 23.4 25.8 23.3 23.0 23.5 24.0 23.2 24.2 23.2 22.9 23.4 25.1 23.8 22.2 21.9 23.2 26.9 26.8 29.4 23.1
Region VIII - Eastern Visayas 12.3 14.7 17.0 14.8 14.9 15.5 16.7 16.0 15.0 15.7 16.0 16.5 20.3 16.6 15.9 17.0 16.1 18.1 19.1 19.7 20.1 19.0 20.9 19.3 21.0 19.8 20.1 23.8 22.7 24.9 24.7 26.2 26.9 18.7
Region IX - Zamboanga Peninsula 15.9 17.0 18.4 17.8 17.3 15.4 16.7 16.7 15.7 17.3 19.4 18.3 20.5 19.3 18.3 19.5 17.1 19.2 19.2 19.1 18.3 17.8 18.2 18.3 18.7 19.6 20.0 21.6 20.7 23.6 26.0 27.1 27.4 19.3
Region X - Northern Mindanao 14.4 14.5 16.7 15.1 14.6 14.9 16.2 15.5 15.0 16.5 16.8 14.9 16.8 13.7 15.6 15.3 14.7 15.5 16.7 18.0 17.3 17.8 18.2 18.5 18.2 18.5 18.7 20.2 20.1 21.6 20.4 19.7 20.8 17.0
Region XI - Davao 14.1 14.1 16.2 14.9 14.9 14.7 14.5 14.8 13.9 14.5 16.3 17.5 19.5 17.2 17.5 18.7 17.0 18.1 18.3 18.3 17.5 18.3 18.9 17.1 18.5 19.7 19.1 20.4 20.4 20.7 23.1 24.2 25.8 17.8
Region XII - SOCCSKSARGEN 15.5 16.3 17.2 15.3 15.5 15.9 13.9 12.5 12.6 17.2 17.6 16.2 20.0 17.4 18.2 17.3 16.0 17.4 18.3 18.1 17.8 17.8 19.2 18.2 18.6 19.3 19.8 20.3 20.3 21.5 22.3 20.8 22.2 17.8
Region XIII - Caraga 16.2 16.5 17.8 17.2 19.3 18.0 19.0 18.6 18.1 18.5 18.9 19.0 18.8 19.5 19.7 19.5 20.3 20.0 20.0 20.9 21.6 22.5 21.6 24.3 24.1 19.6
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) 14.1 15.5 14.3 13.6 15.9 16.8 19.4 17.9 17.3 17.6 17.8 18.2 18.4 16.0 16.9 16.1 16.4 17.6 18.3 18.6 20.1 20.3 20.5 19.8 22.4 23.6 29.9 31.3 27.0 29.0 19.4
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Figure 16. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by region, females, 1988-2020
Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by region, females,
1988-2020
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 ave.
National Capital Region (NCR) 55.1 56.1 55.5 52.0 52.8 55.1 53.9 54.9 53.1 52.6 52.7 51.6 53.7 50.2 49.1 50.6 51.2 50.0 48.8 49.3 49.8 49.5 48.7 48.1 48.1 47.0 46.7 47.5 47.3 51.1 51.5 50.3 53.6 51.1
Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) 43.7 42.7 38.7 43.2 45.0 42.6 47.7 47.0 42.0 48.2 50.4 50.1 51.8 49.2 49.2 47.5 45.7 46.6 43.9 43.3 44.7 44.4 43.8 43.4 43.6 44.8 44.3 43.9 45.4 49.5 51.1 49.7 51.2 46.0
Region I - Ilocos Region 54.7 55.6 58.2 57.0 58.4 58.3 60.3 57.3 56.6 53.6 55.8 55.3 56.1 53.1 53.4 55.8 56.2 57.2 57.6 57.0 57.7 56.1 55.3 54.0 55.8 55.2 54.1 53.8 54.0 58.5 52.8 52.7 51.0 55.7
Region II - Cagayan Valley 47.4 49.5 55.0 51.9 47.8 44.2 42.8 45.1 45.6 50.7 52.4 49.5 52.0 45.6 44.6 48.2 50.4 49.6 49.1 48.2 50.6 49.8 51.3 49.0 50.3 49.0 49.5 48.8 51.4 53.7 52.4 53.8 52.0 49.4
Region III - Central Luzon 58.8 59.2 59.7 57.3 58.8 62.1 62.1 59.7 60.1 62.0 60.8 57.9 59.9 56.0 54.9 56.0 56.7 56.0 56.6 56.2 56.7 56.0 55.6 54.6 54.1 53.5 53.2 53.9 53.3 58.2 55.5 55.2 57.6 57.2
Region IVA - CALABARZON 55.3 55.1 55.2 52.8 54.7 51.9 53.5 54.0 53.6 55.4 55.4 54.1 55.1 49.3 48.7 50.9 51.7 49.8 49.8 49.8 51.1 49.5 48.7 47.4 47.5 47.5 46.5 47.0 47.8 48.7 49.3 47.2 49.7 51.0
Region IVB - MIMAROPA 49.8 47.5 43.9 46.0 46.0 45.5 43.7 44.3 43.3 45.8 49.0 47.2 47.6 49.3 51.2 52.9 54.3 56.6 48.0
Region V- Bicol 50.1 44.7 47.4 47.3 48.9 49.7 49.5 49.7 49.0 50.4 51.5 52.3 53.9 48.4 48.9 50.1 48.9 49.5 51.0 51.0 50.9 51.6 50.6 51.4 51.1 51.5 52.9 51.2 52.8 55.3 54.7 53.9 55.3 50.8
Region VI - Western Visayas 54.1 53.1 53.4 51.9 52.4 52.0 51.8 52.0 52.2 51.9 52.1 51.7 54.5 50.0 47.6 47.7 47.7 48.5 48.9 49.1 50.3 49.2 48.5 48.7 50.3 50.9 49.5 50.0 48.8 52.7 51.8 54.0 54.7 51.0
Region VII - Central Visayas 49.8 50.7 54.0 51.8 50.3 50.6 50.0 52.7 52.0 52.2 51.3 50.2 51.4 50.7 49.4 52.9 51.1 49.1 48.9 48.0 47.6 47.2 44.9 44.1 44.9 45.3 44.3 42.8 44.5 46.6 50.3 48.6 51.3 49.1
Region VIII - Eastern Visayas 40.0 43.5 46.4 46.6 51.2 52.0 54.8 53.8 51.0 51.9 54.2 53.0 54.1 46.8 44.3 43.8 44.9 46.1 47.4 49.0 51.2 49.3 51.3 50.3 52.3 51.5 50.6 53.6 53.8 55.2 53.5 54.7 56.0 50.2
Region IX - Zamboanga Peninsula 62.8 63.9 65.9 64.6 63.3 61.8 61.9 59.6 60.1 62.1 62.5 60.8 60.5 58.8 56.0 57.0 55.2 54.8 52.5 51.1 50.8 49.3 50.5 50.8 48.9 50.7 52.8 53.9 52.4 60.2 62.0 60.7 58.6 57.5
Region X - Northern Mindanao 51.2 51.4 50.8 50.6 50.7 48.9 50.7 50.2 42.7 42.0 40.9 36.3 42.7 35.2 36.1 38.0 39.0 38.7 39.8 40.3 42.2 41.7 42.3 41.7 42.5 44.9 42.7 44.4 47.2 51.3 47.6 43.1 45.3 44.0
Region XI - Davao 53.6 51.5 53.8 53.6 52.7 48.5 46.8 48.2 46.5 45.6 47.4 46.7 49.6 45.1 46.3 49.6 49.5 50.6 49.1 51.2 50.7 51.1 52.0 50.4 51.1 52.6 50.9 52.0 54.8 54.7 57.3 56.9 59.4 50.9
Region XII - SOCCSKSARGEN 55.6 55.2 57.3 52.4 48.1 49.0 50.8 48.5 49.6 53.2 54.1 52.4 54.5 49.6 46.8 50.2 52.2 51.3 51.1 51.3 51.3 49.9 50.2 50.1 49.5 50.5 50.4 50.6 52.5 55.4 55.4 52.2 52.7 51.6
Region XIII - Caraga 48.0 49.5 49.6 48.5 52.1 46.2 47.5 48.1 50.2 49.1 48.5 49.2 50.3 49.6 50.3 49.6 50.2 47.6 48.8 50.3 52.4 54.3 50.4 52.0 49.8 49.7
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) 72.1 71.5 71.2 70.3 68.9 69.4 73.9 73.8 72.0 74.0 70.8 69.3 69.7 71.5 71.9 69.3 66.6 67.3 66.7 66.9 68.3 66.3 67.0 65.9 68.4 70.7 77.6 75.4 67.9 68.1 70.1
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Figure 17. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by region & sex, 2019, & difference between female-
male inactivity rates
Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by region &
sex, 2019, & difference between female-male inactivity rates
100.0 50.0
90.0 45.0
80.0 40.0
70.0 35.0
60.0 30.0
50.0 25.0
40.0 20.0
30.0 15.0
20.0 10.0
10.0 5.0
0.0 0.0
Autono
mous
Cordille Region Region
Nationa Region Region Region
ra Region Region Region Region Region Region Region IX - X-
l VI - Region XII - Region in
Admini I- II - III - IVA - IVB - Region VII - VIII - Zambo Norther Philippi
Capital Wester XI - SOCCSK XIII - Muslim
strative Ilocos Cagaya Central CALABA MIMAR V- Bicol Central Eastern anga n nes
Region n Davao SARGE Caraga Mindan
Region Region n Valley Luzon RZON OPA Visayas Visayas Peninsu Mindan
(NCR) Visayas N ao
(CAR) la ao
(ARMM
)
Male 27.3 26.7 24.2 21.4 24.8 24.2 25.7 26.3 28.2 26.8 26.2 27.1 19.7 24.2 20.8 24.3 27.0 25.2
Female 50.3 49.7 52.7 53.8 55.2 47.2 54.3 53.9 54.0 48.6 54.7 60.7 43.1 56.9 52.2 52.0 67.9 52.4
Gap 23.0 23.0 28.5 32.4 30.4 23.0 28.5 27.5 25.8 21.8 28.5 33.5 23.4 32.7 31.4 27.7 40.9 27.2
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Figure 18. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of working age population out (economic inactivity rate), by region, males, 2006-2020 - excluding students
Persons out of the labor force as percentage of working age population out (economic inactivity rate), by region, males, 2006-2020 - excluding students
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
National Capital Region (NCR) 14.8 16.0 15.4 15.3 14.9 14.8 15.7 15.7 14.7 16.3 15.8 15.9 16.6 16.7 20.6
Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) 10.6 10.3 10.9 11.7 11.2 9.6 11.3 12.1 12.5 12.4 12.6 14.8 13.9 14.3 17.1
Region I - Ilocos Region 11.3 12.3 11.9 12.5 12.7 12.6 13.2 13.8 13.9 14.5 13.1 14.6 14.6 14.3 15.1
Region II - Cagayan Valley 8.3 9.0 9.1 8.7 9.1 9.0 9.4 8.8 8.7 9.1 9.7 10.8 10.5 10.4 13.2
Region III - Central Luzon 13.1 13.0 13.0 13.2 13.0 13.4 13.6 13.4 13.1 13.8 12.8 14.5 14.4 14.2 19.4
Region IVA - CALABARZON 13.0 13.6 13.5 13.6 13.8 13.3 14.0 13.9 13.1 14.4 13.8 13.3 15.0 14.1 16.4
Region IVB - MIMAROPA 8.5 8.2 8.1 8.2 8.7 8.7 8.5 9.2 8.9 10.5 10.0 11.0 12.2 13.3 16.2
Region V- Bicol 10.2 10.9 10.5 10.6 12.1 11.5 11.9 11.7 12.0 12.0 11.8 13.7 13.0 14.0 15.4
Region VI - Western Visayas 11.5 12.6 12.5 12.7 13.0 13.2 13.4 14.2 13.1 13.9 13.5 14.7 15.2 17.2 17.3
Region VII - Central Visayas 14.6 15.1 14.1 15.0 14.5 14.2 14.4 15.7 14.3 13.0 12.4 13.5 16.3 15.8 19.5
Region VIII - Eastern Visayas 10.8 11.3 11.4 10.8 11.7 10.8 11.5 11.1 10.5 12.8 11.9 13.3 13.5 14.0 16.4
Region IX - Zamboanga Peninsula 10.1 10.5 9.6 9.5 9.9 9.8 9.8 10.4 10.3 10.9 10.3 12.9 14.1 13.9 17.3
Region X - Northern Mindanao 9.2 9.9 9.6 10.2 11.1 10.6 10.7 10.5 10.7 11.6 11.3 11.6 11.0 10.2 13.0
Region XI - Davao 9.7 10.0 9.2 10.1 10.4 8.7 10.5 11.3 10.6 11.3 11.0 11.4 13.0 14.0 15.7
Region XII - SOCCSKSARGEN 9.6 9.3 8.8 9.0 10.0 10.1 10.4 10.8 11.0 11.0 10.5 12.2 11.8 10.6 14.0
Region XIII - Caraga 10.2 10.5 9.8 10.7 11.8 11.6 12.2 11.7 11.3 12.0 11.8 12.5 11.9 13.7 15.4
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) 5.6 6.2 6.2 6.5 7.1 7.3 8.7 9.1 7.7 9.7 10.9 15.4 16.7 13.2 16.6
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Figure 19. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of working age population out (economic inactivity rate), by region, females, 2006-2020 - excluding students
Persons out of the labor force as percentage of working age population out (economic inactivity rate), by region, females,
2006-2020 - excluding students
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
National Capital Region (NCR) 42.3 42.9 43.0 43.0 42.4 41.8 42.9 41.6 41.4 41.8 41.3 45.5 45.4 44.2 47.9
Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) 34.1 33.8 35.0 35.5 34.9 34.5 35.7 36.3 35.5 34.7 36.5 41.0 42.4 40.6 43.6
Region I - Ilocos Region 52.4 51.6 52.7 50.8 49.6 48.6 50.5 49.5 48.3 47.8 48.3 53.1 47.1 46.3 45.5
Region II - Cagayan Valley 43.3 42.5 44.5 43.6 45.0 42.6 43.5 41.8 42.2 41.2 44.6 47.5 45.0 46.6 45.2
Region III - Central Luzon 51.5 51.2 51.6 50.9 50.3 49.5 49.2 48.4 48.0 48.4 47.9 52.9 49.7 49.4 52.0
Region IVA - CALABARZON 43.5 43.5 45.3 43.4 42.7 41.6 42.0 41.8 40.8 40.9 41.6 42.5 42.8 40.6 43.5
Region IVB - MIMAROPA 39.9 39.6 39.0 37.1 37.8 36.8 38.2 40.8 38.8 38.9 41.1 43.4 44.8 46.1 49.5
Region V- Bicol 45.2 44.9 44.8 45.3 44.7 45.6 44.8 44.7 45.9 43.8 46.0 48.3 47.5 46.7 49.1
Region VI - Western Visayas 41.8 42.4 43.2 42.4 41.7 42.4 43.6 43.8 42.4 42.5 42.0 45.8 44.8 47.0 48.0
Region VII - Central Visayas 42.7 41.7 40.9 40.9 38.8 37.9 38.8 38.6 37.7 35.5 37.2 39.7 43.7 41.1 44.7
Region VIII - Eastern Visayas 41.8 42.7 45.3 43.5 45.6 44.3 45.5 44.6 43.7 45.8 46.8 47.7 45.9 46.6 49.1
Region IX - Zamboanga Peninsula 46.0 45.4 44.3 43.4 44.9 44.9 42.4 44.4 45.7 46.7 45.6 54.5 55.8 53.3 52.2
Region X - Northern Mindanao 34.2 34.5 36.2 35.6 36.6 36.9 37.2 38.9 36.9 38.1 41.3 45.6 41.6 36.7 39.8
Region XI - Davao 43.4 45.8 44.9 46.0 46.6 45.2 46.3 47.2 45.2 46.1 49.5 48.7 51.4 51.1 53.8
Region XII - SOCCSKSARGEN 45.1 45.1 45.2 43.2 43.5 44.2 43.6 44.3 44.1 43.2 46.1 49.5 48.5 44.8 47.2
Region XIII - Caraga 42.4 43.3 44.5 43.7 45.0 44.0 44.4 41.8 42.4 43.2 46.2 48.6 44.0 45.3 44.2
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) 64.8 61.9 62.4 61.4 61.8 62.8 61.3 61.6 59.9 62.5 65.1 72.7 70.0 60.8 62.0
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Figure 20. Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity rate), by region & sex, 2019, & difference between female-
male inactivity rates - excluding students
Persons out of the labor force as percentage of the working age population (economic inactivity
rate), by region & sex, 2019, & difference between female-male inactivity rates - excluding students
100.0 50.0
90.0 45.0
80.0 40.0
70.0 35.0
60.0 30.0
50.0 25.0
40.0 20.0
30.0 15.0
20.0 10.0
10.0 5.0
0.0 0.0
Autono
Cordiller Region Region X mous
National a Region II Region Region Region Region Region Region IX - - Region Region
Region I Region Region
Capital Administ - III - IVA - IVB - Region VI - VII - VIII - Zamboa Norther XII - in Philippin
- Ilocos XI - XIII -
Region rative Cagayan Central CALABA MIMAR V- Bicol Western Central Eastern nga n SOCCSK Muslim es
Region Davao Caraga
(NCR) Region Valley Luzon RZON OPA Visayas Visayas Visayas Peninsul Mindana SARGEN Mindana
(CAR) a o o
(ARMM)
Male 16.7 14.3 14.3 10.4 14.2 14.1 13.3 14.0 17.2 15.8 14.0 13.9 10.2 14.0 10.6 13.7 13.2 14.2
Female 44.2 40.6 46.3 46.6 49.4 40.6 46.1 46.7 47.0 41.1 46.6 53.3 36.7 51.1 44.8 45.3 60.8 45.5
F-M Gap 27.6 26.3 32.0 36.2 35.2 26.5 32.8 32.7 29.7 25.3 32.6 39.4 26.5 37.0 34.3 31.6 47.6 31.3
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Figure 21. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by age group & sex, 1988-2020
Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by age group, males, 1988-2020
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
65 & over 14.7 14.7 13.8 15.5 13.7 13.6 14.3 15.4 14.3 13.5 14.0 14.5 13.2 15.4 15.9 14.9 15.1 14.8 14.0 13.6 14.0 14.2 14.1 14.8 14.7 14.5 14.7 13.9 14.7 15.9 15.6 15.6 15.9
55-64 5.7 6.0 5.4 6.4 6.6 6.8 6.8 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.6 6.6 7.1 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.5 7.3 7.2 7.5 7.5 7.6 7.7 8.0 8.1 8.0 7.4 8.3 8.7 8.6 8.7 8.7
45-54 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.0 3.0 3.4 3.4 4.0 4.9 5.2 5.2 5.6 4.0 4.3 3.9 4.1 4.1 4.3 4.4 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.3 4.3 4.4 4.1 4.2 4.1 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.8
35-44 2.1 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.3 2.6 2.7 3.0 4.4 6.4 6.1 6.4 6.1 3.1 3.2 3.1 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.4 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.6 3.7 3.6 3.8 3.5 3.7 3.9 3.8 4.5
25-34 5.3 5.5 6.0 5.8 5.2 5.7 5.4 5.6 7.5 9.5 9.3 8.6 8.3 5.4 5.5 6.3 7.0 6.7 6.6 7.0 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0 7.1 7.3 7.1 7.6 6.9 6.4 6.8 6.9 8.0
15-24 69.0 68.5 69.5 66.8 69.1 68.4 67.4 66.2 63.4 59.4 59.2 58.6 60.2 64.9 63.9 64.7 63.2 63.4 64.2 64.1 64.6 64.1 63.9 62.8 62.2 62.0 62.5 63.1 62.6 60.9 60.7 60.8 58.1
Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by age group, females, 1988-2020
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
65 & over 9.2 9.3 9.4 10.3 9.8 9.4 10.2 10.7 10.2 10.0 10.4 11.0 11.0 12.0 12.6 11.4 10.1 10.3 10.1 10.1 10.2 10.4 10.4 10.6 10.6 10.7 10.7 10.6 11.7 12.4 12.5 13.0 13.5
55-64 7.7 7.9 8.0 8.3 8.1 8.5 8.8 8.5 8.0 7.8 8.0 8.2 8.3 8.6 8.4 8.1 7.4 7.6 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.6 7.8 7.7 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.7 8.5 8.9 9.3 9.4 9.6
45-54 10.4 10.5 10.4 10.3 10.4 10.2 10.4 10.5 10.1 9.8 10.1 10.4 11.3 11.1 11.3 10.2 9.3 9.5 9.4 9.4 9.6 9.5 9.6 9.5 9.6 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.7 10.2 10.2 10.3 10.1
35-44 14.0 14.5 15.2 14.9 14.9 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.7 15.4 15.1 15.2 16.2 15.3 14.7 14.5 14.2 14.1 14.0 14.0 13.8 13.7 13.7 13.5 13.4 13.4 13.2 13.2 12.9 13.5 13.1 12.7 13.0
25-34 21.7 21.9 20.8 21.0 21.4 21.0 20.1 19.5 20.6 21.7 21.3 20.4 18.8 17.7 17.5 19.6 22.3 21.8 21.2 21.1 21.0 20.9 20.6 20.8 20.8 20.4 20.3 19.7 19.5 19.1 18.9 18.6 18.2
15-24 37.1 36.0 36.2 35.2 35.5 35.2 34.7 35.0 35.4 35.4 35.2 34.8 34.5 35.2 35.5 36.1 36.7 36.7 38.1 38.2 38.0 37.9 37.8 37.9 37.9 38.4 38.5 39.2 37.7 35.9 35.9 36.0 35.6
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Figure 22. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by highest grade completed, males, 1988-2020
Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by highest grade completed, males, 1988-2020
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
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Figure 23. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by highest grade completed, females, 1988-2020
Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by highest grade completed, females, 1988-2020
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
College Undergraduate 14.0 14.7 14.2 14.1 14.4 14.3 14.1 14.4 15.2 15.9 16.4 16.6 16.6 16.9 16.8 17.3 16.7 17.3 17.9 18.4 18.2 18.7 19.0 19.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.5 15.6 14.2 9.1 11.8
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Figure 24. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by marital status & sex, 1988-2020
Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by marital status, males, 1988-2020
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Annulled - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Unknown 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Widowed 4.7 5.0 4.6 5.2 4.6 4.6 4.8 4.9 4.8 4.6 4.5 4.6 4.3 5.1 5.3 5.3 5.1 5.1 4.7 4.7 4.9 4.9 4.8 5.1 5.0 5.1 4.9 4.6 4.8 4.9 5.0 4.9 4.9
Married 21.1 21.3 20.7 22.6 21.9 21.5 22.1 23.0 25.2 28.5 28.9 29.5 27.9 23.7 24.4 23.4 24.7 24.7 24.0 23.6 23.4 23.5 23.6 24.1 24.6 24.3 24.1 23.5 24.2 26.1 25.5 25.4 27.2
Single 73.9 73.4 74.5 72.0 73.2 73.7 72.7 71.7 69.5 66.4 66.0 65.4 67.2 70.7 69.8 70.8 69.5 69.6 70.5 70.8 70.9 70.8 70.7 69.8 69.4 69.6 70.0 70.8 69.8 67.9 68.3 68.6 66.6
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Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by marital status, females, 1988-2020
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Annulled - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Unknown 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
Widowed 7.3 7.4 7.4 7.9 7.7 7.8 8.4 8.4 8.2 8.2 8.4 9.1 9.4 9.9 10.3 9.1 8.5 8.7 8.5 8.4 8.7 9.0 8.9 9.1 9.0 9.0 9.0 8.7 9.9 10.2 9.9 10.6 10.6
Married 60.3 60.4 58.6 59.9 59.9 59.3 58.1 57.5 59.3 58.3 57.6 56.7 56.3 56.1 54.8 57.7 58.5 56.9 56.0 55.4 55.1 54.6 55.2 54.8 54.6 54.7 53.9 52.7 56.8 55.7 54.6 53.4 53.0
Single 31.9 31.6 33.4 31.5 31.9 32.3 32.8 33.4 31.7 32.7 33.1 33.3 33.4 33.1 33.8 32.2 31.9 33.5 34.4 35.1 35.1 35.3 34.8 34.8 35.0 35.1 35.7 37.2 32.0 32.6 34.1 34.6 34.6
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Figure 25. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force, by region, males, 1988-2020
Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force, males, 1988-2020

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) 2.1 2.2 2.0 1.8 2.2 2.2 2.6 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.5 2.6 2.8 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.5 4.1 4.2 3.6 3.6
Region XIII - Caraga 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.4 2.6 2.3
Region XII - SOCCSKSARGEN 3.9 4.0 4.0 3.2 2.6 2.5 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.7 2.7 2.5 2.9 2.9 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.8 3.9 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.8 4.1 3.9 4.1 4.1 4.1 3.8 3.7
Region XI - Davao 5.4 5.3 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.4 5.3 5.4 4.7 4.5 5.0 5.4 5.6 5.8 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.0 4.1 4.2 3.9 4.3 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.4 4.7 4.8 4.8
Region X - Northern Mindanao 4.5 4.5 4.9 4.8 4.6 4.5 4.9 4.6 3.6 2.8 2.8 2.5 2.5 2.4 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 4.0 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.0 4.0 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.3 3.9 3.7 3.6
Region IX - Zamboanga Peninsula 4.5 4.7 4.7 4.4 3.7 3.1 3.3 3.3 3.1 3.2 3.5 3.3 3.4 3.8 3.5 3.6 3.2 3.6 3.4 3.3 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.7 3.9 4.0 3.5
Region VIII - Eastern Visayas 3.7 4.4 4.6 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.5 4.3 3.9 3.5 3.5 3.5 4.0 3.8 3.6 3.8 3.8 4.2 4.1 4.3 4.4 4.1 4.5 4.2 4.6 4.3 2.6 3.9 4.6 4.7 4.5 4.7 4.4
Region VII - Central Visayas 7.2 7.5 7.3 8.4 8.1 7.7 7.6 8.4 8.4 7.8 7.8 8.1 7.6 7.8 8.0 8.8 8.4 8.2 8.5 8.6 8.2 8.6 8.1 8.2 8.2 8.6 8.5 7.5 7.3 7.2 8.0 7.9 8.1
Region VI - Western Visayas 9.2 9.2 9.2 8.7 9.1 9.6 9.2 9.3 9.6 9.1 8.9 8.8 9.3 9.2 8.6 8.4 8.5 8.4 8.4 8.4 8.6 8.6 8.5 8.7 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.7 8.1 7.9 8.0 8.6 7.6
Region V- Bicol 5.5 5.2 5.3 5.8 5.5 5.4 5.3 4.9 5.6 4.7 4.5 4.8 4.8 4.9 5.2 5.3 5.0 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.6 5.4 6.0 6.0 6.4 6.2 5.9 6.1 5.6 6.1 5.2
Region IVB - MIMAROPA 2.3 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.1 2.8 2.7 2.9 3.1 2.8
Region IVA - CALABARZON 13.0 12.9 13.4 13.4 13.0 13.3 14.1 14.2 13.8 15.8 16.0 16.2 16.2 15.7 15.4 13.7 13.2 13.0 13.4 13.5 13.7 13.5 13.6 13.3 13.4 13.1 13.2 13.2 13.8 13.3 13.8 13.3 14.3
Region III - Central Luzon 12.0 11.8 10.6 10.3 11.5 11.8 11.6 10.9 11.7 11.7 11.5 11.2 11.0 10.5 10.3 10.4 10.2 10.8 11.7 11.2 11.3 11.3 11.0 11.5 11.2 11.0 11.3 11.0 10.9 11.2 11.0 10.9 12.5
Region II - Cagayan Valley 3.1 2.6 2.6 3.1 3.2 2.9 2.7 2.9 2.9 2.7 2.8 2.6 2.8 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.7 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.2 3.0 3.1 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.0 2.9 3.0
Region I - Ilocos Region 7.0 6.1 6.5 6.5 6.3 6.1 6.0 5.8 6.0 5.8 5.9 6.0 5.5 5.8 6.0 5.9 5.7 5.8 5.6 5.7 5.6 5.7 5.7 5.8 5.6 5.6 5.9 5.8 5.2 5.0 4.8 4.7 4.3
Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.9 2.0 2.1 1.9 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.7
National Capital Region (NCR) 20.0 20.2 19.7 18.9 18.8 19.6 19.5 19.7 19.5 19.1 18.6 18.4 18.2 17.7 17.8 17.4 17.2 16.7 15.6 15.6 15.7 15.4 14.7 14.6 14.0 13.9 13.7 13.7 14.1 13.5 13.5 13.3 14.6
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Figure 26. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force, by region, females, 1988-2020
Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by region, females, 1988-2020
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.5 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.7 4.6 4.5 4.6 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8 5.0 5.0 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.4 4.2
Region XIII - Caraga 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.6 2.2
Region XII - SOCCSKSARGEN 4.8 4.8 4.8 3.7 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.8 2.9 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.6 4.0 4.2 4.2 4.1 4.1 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.2 4.0 4.1 4.3 4.2 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.3 4.1
Region XI - Davao 6.8 6.6 6.8 7.0 6.8 6.2 6.0 6.2 5.7 5.5 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.9 4.8 4.5 4.5 4.7 4.4 4.6 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.6 4.8 4.9 4.9 4.9 5.1 4.9 5.1 5.2 5.2
Region X - Northern Mindanao 5.5 5.6 5.3 5.5 5.4 5.3 5.5 5.5 3.8 2.7 2.6 2.3 2.7 2.5 3.1 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.8 3.9 3.9 4.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.1 3.8 3.8
Region IX - Zamboanga Peninsula 5.8 5.9 5.8 5.4 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.6 4.4 4.2 3.9 3.9 3.6 3.5 3.5 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.3 3.4 3.7 3.7 3.7 4.0 4.2 4.2 3.7
Region VIII - Eastern Visayas 3.8 4.1 4.3 4.5 4.9 4.9 5.2 5.1 4.9 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.5 4.3 4.0 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.3 4.5 4.5 4.8 4.7 2.7 3.9 4.6 4.4 4.3 4.5 4.3
Region VII - Central Visayas 7.2 7.3 7.5 7.4 7.0 7.2 7.1 7.5 7.4 7.1 6.9 6.9 6.8 7.4 7.3 7.7 7.3 7.1 7.4 7.3 7.1 7.2 6.9 6.7 6.9 7.0 7.1 6.7 6.6 6.5 7.0 6.9 7.1
Region VI - Western Visayas 9.1 8.9 8.8 8.7 8.6 8.6 8.5 8.5 8.7 8.0 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.1 7.9 7.6 7.6 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.9 7.8 7.8 7.9 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.1 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.8 7.4
Region V- Bicol 6.2 5.6 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.3 6.2 5.5 5.6 5.8 5.7 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.4 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.4 5.7 5.6 5.7 6.0 6.0 6.4 6.1 5.9 5.8 5.8 5.9 5.5
Region IVB - MIMAROPA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 2.5 2.3 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.8 3.0 2.9
Region IVA - CALABARZON 13.6 13.7 13.4 13.3 13.7 13.0 13.3 13.6 13.8 15.2 15.2 15.3 15.1 14.8 15.1 13.8 12.5 12.2 12.8 12.9 13.1 12.9 12.8 12.7 12.5 12.5 12.8 12.5 13.2 13.0 13.4 13.0 14.1
Region III - Central Luzon 11.1 11.2 11.2 10.7 11.1 11.7 11.7 10.6 11.6 11.8 11.5 11.3 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.3 11.5 11.6 12.4 12.3 12.3 12.4 12.3 12.3 12.0 11.8 12.2 12.1 11.7 12.1 11.6 11.7 12.5
Region II - Cagayan Valley 3.6 3.6 3.9 3.8 3.4 3.2 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.1 3.1 3.3 3.8 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.1
Region I - Ilocos Region 6.6 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.0 6.1 5.6 5.8 5.8 5.7 5.7 5.8 5.8 5.8 6.1 6.3 6.2 6.2 6.1 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.9 6.0 5.8 5.4 5.4 4.8 4.9 4.5
Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.5
National Capital Region (NCR) 15.1 15.3 14.9 14.5 14.5 15.1 14.8 15.2 15.0 15.3 15.1 15.2 15.2 15.4 15.1 15.1 15.0 14.7 13.5 13.5 13.3 13.4 13.2 13.0 12.7 12.3 12.6 12.4 12.5 12.8 12.9 12.8 13.9
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Figure 27. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by reason for not looking for work, males, 1988-2020
Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by reason for not looking for work, males, 1988-2020
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
ECQ/Lockdown/Covid-19 Pandemic 15.1
Others 2.2 2.7 1.3 3.3 3.8 2.1 2.3 3.1 3.3 2.8 3.5 3.0 3.6 2.9 2.9 2.6 3.2 4.3 4.1 5.0 4.5 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.2 4.8 5.1 4.7 4.1 4.8 4.5 4.3 3.1
Schooling 60.6 59.5 64.9 57.4 58.1 60.5 58.7 57.3 57.6 56.2 54.7 54.0 53.7 55.2 53.5 55.9 53.3 53.6 52.9 50.7 52.3 51.4 50.7 50.6 49.7 50.5 51.5 51.8 52.8 51.9 52.7 53.7 48.8
Housekeeping 4.0 4.7 3.9 4.8 4.9 4.5 4.7 5.1 4.8 5.2 5.4 6.4 6.5 6.1 5.7 6.1 7.4 9.6 12.4 14.5 13.6 13.2 13.5 13.8 14.4 14.1 13.1 13.8 12.4 10.3 10.5 10.0 7.3
Too young/old/retired /permanent disability 21.6 21.8 20.6 23.7 22.5 22.4 23.1 23.6 24.1 24.9 24.9 25.5 24.0 24.6 26.5 22.9 21.3 22.6 22.8 22.0 23.4 23.7 24.0 24.2 23.7 23.5 24.2 23.0 23.4 22.3 21.8 21.4 22.1
Waiting for rehire/job recall 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.2 1.1 1.3 0.9 1.0 1.4 1.5 0.9 0.5 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0 0.7
Bad weather 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0
Temporary illness/disability 5.9 5.6 4.8 5.4 4.9 4.9 5.2 5.1 4.8 5.2 5.4 5.3 4.9 5.7 5.8 5.4 6.5 5.5 5.0 4.5 3.9 4.2 4.2 4.1 4.5 4.6 4.2 4.0 4.4 7.3 6.8 6.9 6.3
Awaiting results of previous job applications 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.1 0.9 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.0 0.9 0.6
Believe no work available 4.1 3.7 2.9 3.6 3.6 3.8 3.9 3.5 3.3 3.6 3.6 3.6 4.2 3.5 3.3 3.9 4.5 2.6 1.6 1.7 1.3 1.1 1.3 1.0 1.3 1.3 0.9 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.0
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Figure 28. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by reason for not looking for work, females, 1988-2020
Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force by reason for not looking for work, females, 1988-2020
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
ECQ/Lockdown/Covid-19 Pandemic 5.2
Others 0.9 1.1 0.7 1.5 1.4 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.5 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.8 1.7 2.0 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.2 2.3 2.0 2.1 2.0 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 1.7
Schooling 21.8 21.5 25.0 21.3 21.4 22.6 22.2 23.0 22.1 22.1 22.6 22.6 22.5 23.6 23.7 23.7 22.6 23.3 24.0 23.4 23.5 23.5 23.3 23.3 22.9 24.1 24.5 25.9 24.8 24.4 25.7 26.5 25.5
Housekeeping 68.2 68.2 65.7 66.5 67.5 67.1 66.8 65.3 66.2 66.0 64.7 64.7 63.9 62.4 61.1 62.7 64.6 62.9 62.3 62.5 63.1 62.3 61.8 62.2 61.6 60.5 60.6 58.7 59.2 59.5 57.0 55.6 53.2
Too young/old/retired /permanent disability 6.6 6.6 6.3 7.9 7.2 7.0 7.6 7.9 8.0 8.2 8.5 9.0 9.4 10.0 10.9 9.1 8.0 9.8 10.3 10.3 10.2 10.7 11.2 10.9 11.4 11.6 11.5 11.6 12.3 11.7 12.4 12.8 13.6
Waiting for rehire/job recall 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2
Bad weather 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Temporary illness/disability 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9
Awaiting results of previous job applications 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3
Believe no work available 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2
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Figure 29. Distribution of persons out of the labor force by sex, age group & reason for not looking for
work, 1988-2020
15-24 y.o. males, 1988-2020 15-24 y.o. females, 1988-2020

100% 100%
80% 80%
Schooling, 2019, Schooling,
60% 60%
86.1 2019, 71.9
40% 40%
20% 20% Housekeeping,
2019, 22.0
0% 0%

100% Schooling, 2019,
100%
17.3
80%
60% Housekeeping, Housekeeping,
2019, 30.7 50%
40% 2019, 89.6
20%
Temporary
0% illness/disabilit… 0%
100% 100%
80% 80%
Housekeeping,
60% 2019, 39.3 60% Housekeeping,
40% 40% 2019, 93.8
Temporary
20% illness/disability, 20%
2019, 26.8
0% 0%

100% 100%
80% Housekeeping, 80%
Too
60% 2019, 35.1
young/old/retire 60% Housekeeping,
d /permanent 2019, 92.2
40% Temporary
disability, 2019, 40%
20% illness/disability,
9.6 20%
2019, 34.1
0% 0%

100% 100%
Housekeeping,
80% Too 2019, 17.1 80%
young/old/retire Housekeeping,
60% 60% 2019, 71.8
d /permanent
40% 40% Too
disability, 2019,
young/old/retir
53.3 Temporary 20%
20% ed /permanent
illness/disability,
0% disability, 2019,
0% 2019, 21.1
22.2
65 y.o. & over males, 1988-2020 65 & over females, 1988-2020
100% 100%
Housekeeping,
80% 80% 2019, 21.5
Too
60% young/old/retire 60% Too
d /permanent young/old/retir
40% disability, 2019, 40% ed /permanent
92.1 disability, 2019,
20% 20% 76.0
0% 0%
Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS
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Figure 30. Persons out of the labor force, if have worked before, by sex, 2000-2019
Persons out of the labor force, if have worked before, by sex, 2000-2019
12,000 100.0
90.0
Percentage of male/female inactice persons

10,000
80.0
70.0
8,000
No. of persons ('000)
60.0
6,000 50.0
40.0
4,000
30.0
20.0
2,000
10.0
0 0.0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Female NILF - have worked before 4,993 6,321 6,659 7,345 7,746 7,957 8,011 8,822 8,959 9,000 9,386 9,741 9,963 10,154 9,926 10,670 11,194 10,820 11,185 11,864
Female NILF - have not worked before 7,339 6,138 6,599 6,322 6,091 6,036 6,375 6,110 6,095 6,329 6,031 6,065 6,181 5,621 6,517 6,604 7,586 8,158 7,830 7,867
Male NILF - have worked before 1,748 2,156 2,066 2,096 2,293 2,346 2,404 2,507 2,586 2,652 2,782 2,973 3,061 3,064 3,135 3,216 3,551 3,669 3,902 4,448
Male NILF - have not worked before 3,292 3,133 3,380 3,164 3,260 3,342 3,562 3,604 3,705 3,842 3,678 3,780 3,945 3,750 4,317 4,433 4,785 5,232 5,322 5,407
Female NILF - % have worked before 40.5 50.7 50.2 53.7 56.0 56.9 55.7 59.1 59.5 58.7 60.9 61.6 61.7 64.4 60.4 61.8 59.6 57.0 58.8 60.1
Female NILF - % have not worked before 59.5 49.3 49.8 46.3 44.0 43.1 44.3 40.9 40.5 41.3 39.1 38.4 38.3 35.6 39.6 38.2 40.4 43.0 41.2 39.9
Male NILF - % have worked before 34.7 40.8 37.9 39.9 41.3 41.2 40.3 41.0 41.1 40.8 43.1 44.0 43.7 45.0 42.1 42.0 42.6 41.2 42.3 45.1
Male NILF - % have not worked before 65.3 59.2 62.1 60.1 58.7 58.8 59.7 59.0 58.9 59.2 56.9 56.0 56.3 55.0 57.9 58.0 57.4 58.8 57.7 54.9
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Figure 31. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force that have worked before by last occupation, males, 2001-2020
Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force that have worked before by last occupation, males, 2001-2020
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Others 0.88 0.54 0.75 0.58 0.45 0.47 0.47 0.37 0.38 0.27 0.33 0.23 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.52 0.55 0.40
Armed Forces Occupation 3.05 2.99 2.84 3.28 3.21 2.92 3.39 3.04 3.00 2.97 2.95 2.70 2.71 2.41 2.12 1.48 0.71 0.50 0.55 0.28
Elementary Occupations 18.66 19.66 19.80 20.73 20.84 21.02 21.64 21.20 21.11 22.15 22.37 22.65 22.36 22.82 23.83 12.01 8.01 7.46 7.71 7.39
Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers 12.12 12.71 13.06 13.04 12.60 13.36 13.18 12.92 13.35 12.30 12.95 13.09 12.75 12.41 11.78 16.54 18.91 18.83 19.86 21.62
Craft and Related Trades Workers 14.25 13.07 12.77 12.51 11.76 11.66 11.50 11.30 10.98 11.18 10.57 10.69 11.14 10.27 10.43 12.21 14.24 12.89 12.86 14.02
Skilled Agricultural, Forestry and Fishery Workers 25.13 23.76 22.96 21.01 21.57 21.16 20.75 20.32 19.66 19.63 17.80 16.76 16.33 15.65 15.27 19.46 23.61 24.13 24.28 20.65
Service and Sales Workers 11.25 12.20 12.93 13.84 14.57 14.47 14.69 15.60 16.28 16.16 16.44 17.31 17.80 19.23 19.24 20.56 16.47 17.55 17.89 19.01
Clerical Support Workers 5.42 5.42 5.13 5.58 5.29 5.54 5.57 5.85 5.59 5.57 6.56 5.88 6.25 6.09 6.80 5.26 5.52 5.68 5.14 6.00
Technicians and Associate Professionals 3.36 3.69 3.51 3.87 3.99 4.05 3.61 3.63 3.94 4.19 3.93 4.56 4.41 4.45 4.38 4.48 4.65 4.29 4.09 3.66
Professionals 2.75 2.67 3.04 2.56 2.50 2.18 2.25 2.36 2.40 2.28 2.63 2.67 2.71 2.80 2.64 3.48 3.42 3.38 3.10 3.19
Managers 3.11 3.29 3.22 3.00 3.22 3.15 2.95 3.41 3.30 3.31 3.47 3.46 3.39 3.72 3.37 4.01 4.12 4.74 4.11 3.83
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Figure 32. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force that have worked before by last occupation, females, 2001-2020
Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force that have worked before by last occupation, females, 2001-2020
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Others 0.52 0.29 0.30 0.44 0.26 0.25 0.20 0.25 0.26 0.17 0.18 0.12 0.11 0.08 0.12 0.05 0.00 0.01
Armed Forces Occupation 0.16 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.13 0.16 0.11 0.08 0.10 0.06 0.13 0.12 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.00
Elementary Occupations 34.99 37.47 37.26 38.60 39.59 39.81 40.34 40.42 40.54 41.26 41.66 41.09 41.28 40.87 40.33 34.14 33.15 32.61 31.70 32.77
Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers 0.33 0.21 0.27 0.25 0.27 0.31 0.34 0.34 0.28 0.27 0.21 0.20 0.22 0.21 0.25 1.09 1.95 1.74 1.57 1.73
Craft and Related Trades Workers 15.99 15.33 13.74 12.70 11.86 11.19 10.58 10.26 9.69 9.30 8.66 8.88 8.48 7.64 7.13 1.80 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.19
Skilled Agricultural, Forestry and Fishery Workers 9.99 8.32 8.11 6.31 6.21 6.23 6.16 5.45 5.00 5.35 4.54 4.39 4.41 3.92 3.98 5.35 6.22 6.71 6.46 5.89
Service and Sales Workers 24.17 23.92 25.74 27.40 27.66 27.93 28.03 28.67 29.26 29.52 30.01 30.32 30.44 31.81 32.62 41.05 41.35 41.27 45.27 45.70
Clerical Support Workers 10.14 10.13 10.38 10.12 9.89 10.00 10.08 10.18 10.71 10.14 10.68 10.17 10.31 10.80 10.88 7.51 7.21 6.87 7.36 7.67
Technicians and Associate Professionals 2.03 2.43 2.46 2.60 2.62 2.77 2.70 2.69 2.62 2.39 2.39 2.91 2.81 2.69 2.73 1.74 0.95 1.06 0.82 0.82
Professionals 0.88 0.94 0.77 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.66 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.66 0.82 0.85 0.90 0.91 0.75 0.63 0.80 0.83 0.70
Managers 0.79 0.86 0.91 0.76 0.83 0.69 0.75 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.92 0.95 0.97 1.04 0.97 6.49 8.32 8.74 5.82 4.53
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Figure 33. Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force that have worked in the past quarter by kind of industry & sex, 1988-2015
Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force that have worked in the past quarter by kind of industry, males, 1988-2015
100%
Wholesale and Retail Trade; Repair of
90% Motor Vehicles and Motorcycles, 2015, 10.7
80% Transport and Storage, 2015, 15.4
70%
Manufacturing, 2015, 8.3
60%
50%
Construction, 2015, 18.7
40%
30%
20% Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing, 2015, 29.9
10%
Accommodation and Food Service
0% Activities, 4.6
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
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Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force that have worked in the past quarter by kind of industry, males, 1988-2015
100%
90% Wholesale and Retail Trade; Repair of
Motor Vehicles and Motorcycles, 2015, 26.7
80%
70%
60% Other Service Activities, 2015, 13.8
50% Manufacturing, 2015, 8.7
40%
30%
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing, 2015, 32.0
20% Activities of Households as Employers;
Undifferentiated Goods-and-Services
10%
Producing Activities of Private Households Accommodation and Food Service
0% for Own Use, 2006, 13.1 Activities, 2015, 6.6
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
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Table 2. Variables used in econometric model
Variable Name Variable Label Answer Label Answer Variable

Code Type
lfp Labor force participation Dummy
Not in the labor force 0
In the labor force 1
age Age Open ended Continuous
agesq Age squared Open ended Continuous
sex Sex Categorical
Male 1
Female 2
maritalstat Marital status Categorical
Single 0
Married 1
Divorced, Separated, Annulled 2
Widowed 3
edu Highest grade completed Categorical
No Grade Completed 0
Elementary Undergraduate 1
Elementary Graduate 2
Highschool Undergraduate 3
Highschool Graduate 4
College Undergraduate 5
College Graduate 6
head Is the head of household Dummy
Not the household head 0
Is the household head 1
urb Location (Urban or rural) Categorical
Urban 1
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Rural 2
region Region Categorical
1 - Ilocos Region 1
2 - Cagayan Valley 2
3 - Central Luzon 3
5 - Bicol Region 5
6 - Western Visayas 6
7 - Central Visayas 7
8 - Eastern Visayas 8
9 - Zamboanga Peninsula 9
10 - Northern Mindanao 10
Davao Region 11
SOCCSKSARGEN 12
NCR 13
CAR 14
ARMM 15
Caraga Region 16
4A - Calabarzon 41
4B - Mimaropa 42
hhtype Type of household Categorical
Single Family 1
Extended Family 2
Two or More Nonrelated 3
Persons/Members
fsize Family size Open ended Continuous
ageless5 No. of households members less than 5 y.o. Open ended Continuous
age517 No. of households members 5-17 y.o. Open ended Continuous
employedhh Total no. of employed family members Open ended Continuous
tnonlabincomenoremitpclog Log of total non-labor income minus remittances Open ended Continuous
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grandparent Household has a grandparent present Dummy
No grandparent in household 0
Has a grandparent in household 1
domworkerhh Household employs a domestic worker Dummy
No domestic worker in household 0
Has a domestic worker in household 1
migrantworkerhh Household has a member working overseas Dummy
No household member working 0
overseas
Has a household member working 1
overseas
electric Household has electricity Dummy
With Electricity 1
With out Electricity 2
distance Distance of Water Source from the House (meters) Open ended Integer
appliance No. of labor-saving appliance (stove, fridge, washing Open ended Continuous
machine)
rpwgt Final Survey Weight Based on Projection Open ended long
age15-age64 Age dummies Dummy
birthyr1939-birthyr2000 Year of birth dummies Dummy
76 | P a g e
Table 3. Summary statistics of labor force participation and explanatory variables over time (mean)
2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 Ave. annual

growth in
percentage points
Variables Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Femal
e
Individual characteristics:
Labor force participation 0.844 0.515 0.825 0.541 0.823 0.549 0.854 0.510 0.838 0.514 -0.002 -0.001
Is the head of household 0.554 0.072 0.515 0.083 0.488 0.089 0.516 0.071 0.503 0.077 -0.025 0.004
maritalstat==Single 0.390 0.293 0.404 0.305 0.416 0.311 0.377 0.270 0.410 0.288 0.010 -0.007
maritalstat==Married 0.596 0.657 0.582 0.643 0.570 0.635 0.609 0.680 0.573 0.661 -0.011 0.001
maritalstat==Divorced, Separated, 0.014 0.050 0.014 0.052 0.014 0.053 0.015 0.049 0.018 0.051 0.057 0.002
Annulled
edu==No Grade Completed 0.027 0.028 0.018 0.021 0.019 0.020 0.026 0.025 0.028 0.027 -0.020 -0.032
edu==Elementary Undergraduate 0.188 0.139 0.163 0.117 0.153 0.104 0.207 0.137 0.212 0.142 0.017 -0.009
edu==Elementary Graduate 0.161 0.164 0.149 0.147 0.141 0.140 0.164 0.160 0.161 0.150 -0.005 -0.026
edu==Highschool Undergraduate 0.181 0.176 0.176 0.162 0.175 0.155 0.188 0.177 0.179 0.170 -0.004 -0.011
edu==Highschool Graduate 0.215 0.217 0.243 0.246 0.253 0.261 0.278 0.313 0.260 0.283 0.044 0.060
edu==College Undergraduate 0.145 0.152 0.158 0.164 0.162 0.172 0.085 0.105 0.088 0.111 -0.192 -0.116
edu==College Graduate 0.082 0.125 0.093 0.143 0.097 0.148 0.052 0.082 0.072 0.116 -0.108 -0.088
Household characteristics:
urb==Urban 0.399 0.427 0.447 0.480 0.449 0.480 0.257 0.261 0.222 0.228 -0.199 -0.218
urb==Rural 0.601 0.573 0.553 0.520 0.551 0.520 0.743 0.739 0.778 0.772 0.053 0.059
region==1 - Ilocos Region 0.069 0.067 0.060 0.059 0.059 0.058 0.100 0.102 0.082 0.080 0.006 0.000
region==2 - Cagayan Valley 0.060 0.057 0.051 0.048 0.050 0.047 0.090 0.088 0.049 0.049 -0.143 -0.137
region==3 - Central Luzon 0.073 0.074 0.085 0.087 0.081 0.083 0.109 0.107 0.076 0.077 -0.025 -0.016
region==5 - Bicol Region 0.065 0.063 0.057 0.055 0.057 0.056 0.039 0.041 0.071 0.073 -0.042 -0.017
region==6 - Western Visayas 0.080 0.077 0.070 0.068 0.066 0.062 0.151 0.147 0.092 0.088 -0.071 -0.078
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region==7 - Central Visayas 0.073 0.077 0.063 0.065 0.065 0.068 0.048 0.050 0.057 0.057 -0.083 -0.094
region==8 - Eastern Visayas 0.055 0.052 0.049 0.047 0.051 0.049 0.033 0.033 0.062 0.059 -0.037 -0.025
region==9 - Zamboanga Peninsula 0.047 0.049 0.040 0.040 0.042 0.040 0.023 0.022 0.048 0.046 -0.104 -0.128
region==10 - Northern Mindanao 0.059 0.059 0.046 0.048 0.047 0.048 0.033 0.034 0.043 0.042 -0.116 -0.117
region==Davao Region 0.056 0.053 0.055 0.051 0.058 0.055 0.073 0.072 0.065 0.063 0.029 0.031
region==SOCCSKSARGEN 0.063 0.060 0.052 0.049 0.051 0.048 0.080 0.075 0.065 0.063 -0.026 -0.024
region==NCR 0.103 0.115 0.110 0.125 0.107 0.121 0.030 0.031 0.027 0.030 -0.656 -0.738
region==CAR 0.040 0.040 0.042 0.039 0.041 0.040 0.026 0.027 0.053 0.049 -0.014 -0.008
region==ARMM 0.055 0.056 0.041 0.043 0.042 0.044 0.068 0.074 0.085 0.093 0.070 0.085
region==Caraga Region 0.051 0.051 0.044 0.042 0.044 0.042 0.041 0.040 0.040 0.040 -0.065 -0.066
region==4A - Calabarzon 0.000 0.000 0.091 0.096 0.095 0.100 0.030 0.032 0.053 0.055 -0.172 -0.160
region==4B - Mimaropa 0.051 0.050 0.043 0.039 0.042 0.039 0.025 0.026 0.034 0.036 -0.151 -0.126
hhtype==Single Family 0.754 0.733 0.695 0.672 0.663 0.636 0.621 0.596 0.649 0.630 -0.039 -0.040
hhtype==Extended Family 0.242 0.262 0.301 0.324 0.333 0.361 0.375 0.400 0.347 0.366 0.080 0.075
hhtype==Two+Nonrelated 0.004 0.005 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.020 -0.070
Persons/Members
Family size 5.605 5.540 5.646 5.565 5.590 5.498 6.042 6.017 5.685 5.657 0.002 0.004
No. of households members less 0.565 0.608 0.509 0.546 0.474 0.508 0.740 0.788 0.520 0.568 -0.062 -0.055
than 5 y.o.
No. of households members 5-17 1.794 1.772 1.734 1.714 1.685 1.662 1.935 1.919 1.727 1.746 -0.014 -0.008
y.o.
Log of total non-labor income 10.081 10.167 10.334 10.440 10.536 10.638 10.344 10.375 10.538 10.562 0.011 0.009
minus remittances
Distance of Water Source from 29.481 27.286 38.480 34.138 30.481 29.055 32.541 31.863 40.316 37.507 0.057 0.066
House (meters)
Household has electricity 1.283 1.261 1.187 1.164 1.150 1.130 1.182 1.174 1.163 1.156 -0.026 -0.023
Household has a grandparent 0.032 0.036 0.031 0.035 0.028 0.033 0.028 0.029 0.027 0.028 -0.050 -0.067
present
Household employs a domestic 0.024 0.045 0.025 0.047 0.024 0.046 0.005 0.009 0.004 0.006 -1.049 -1.107
worker
78 | P a g e
Household has a member working 0.044 0.052 0.061 0.073 0.072 0.088 0.069 0.071 0.067 0.063 0.089 0.021
overseas
Total no. of employed family 2.339 2.193 2.333 2.185 2.365 2.206 2.414 2.288 2.419 2.270 0.008 0.009
members
Others:
Unemployment rate by region 10.358 10.467 7.415 7.582 6.951 7.092 6.123 6.130 5.565 5.566 -0.175 -0.177
Observations 46,644 44,655 51,069 49,296 51,743 49,683 19,445 18,124 30,628 27,514
Source: Author’s calculations using Labor Force Survey (LFS) and Family Income and Expenditure Survey (FIES)
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Table 4. Determinants of labor force participation, females age 15-64 years, the Philippines, by year (marginal effects after logit estimation), with age
dummies
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

VARIABLES Female 2003 Female 2006 Female 2009 Female 2012 Female 2015
Marital status = 1, Married -0.249*** -0.225*** -0.212*** -0.237*** -0.187***

(0.00978) (0.00947) (0.00933) (0.0156) (0.0130)
Marital status = 2, Divorced, Separated, Annulled -0.164*** -0.124*** -0.0972*** -0.168*** -0.0813***
(0.0190) (0.0180) (0.0176) (0.0319) (0.0265)
Highest grade completed = 1, Elementary Undergraduate 0.130*** 0.145*** 0.165*** 0.132*** 0.103***
(0.0185) (0.0201) (0.0205) (0.0313) (0.0247)
Highest grade completed = 2, Elementary Graduate 0.121*** 0.136*** 0.125*** 0.0970*** 0.0685***
(0.0185) (0.0200) (0.0202) (0.0313) (0.0249)
Highest grade completed = 3, Highschool Undergraduate 0.0687*** 0.0909*** 0.0783*** 0.0754** 0.0432*
(0.0189) (0.0201) (0.0204) (0.0316) (0.0251)
Highest grade completed = 4, Highschool Graduate 0.128*** 0.153*** 0.128*** 0.125*** 0.0763***
(0.0188) (0.0201) (0.0202) (0.0311) (0.0246)
Highest grade completed = 5, College Undergraduate 0.0208 0.0350* 0.0418** -0.0314 -0.106***
(0.0196) (0.0206) (0.0208) (0.0333) (0.0267)
Highest grade completed = 6, College Graduate 0.339*** 0.352*** 0.331*** 0.319*** 0.232***
(0.0205) (0.0216) (0.0217) (0.0355) (0.0273)
Is the head of household = 1, Is the household head 0.109*** 0.0741*** 0.0294** 0.108*** 0.0842***
(0.0144) (0.0130) (0.0123) (0.0238) (0.0196)
Region = 1, 1 - Ilocos Region 0.00204 -0.0224* -0.0401*** -0.00418 -0.00819
(0.0135) (0.0131) (0.0133) (0.0290) (0.0253)
Region = 2, 2 - Cagayan Valley 0.0868*** 0.0643*** 0.0250* 0.0355 0.0854***
(0.0141) (0.0141) (0.0142) (0.0295) (0.0274)
Region = 3, 3 - Central Luzon -0.00409 -0.00487 -0.0329*** 0.00136 -0.0306
(0.0129) (0.0114) (0.0115) (0.0282) (0.0249)
Region = 5, 5 - Bicol Region 0.108*** 0.0187 -0.00336 -0.0123 0.0447*
(0.0142) (0.0136) (0.0135) (0.0334) (0.0258)
Region = 6, 6 - Western Visayas 0.0843*** 0.0712*** 0.0527*** 0.0554** 0.0532**
80 | P a g e
(0.0133) (0.0127) (0.0133) (0.0275) (0.0246)
Region = 7, 7 - Central Visayas 0.0110 0.0374*** 0.0205 0.0891*** 0.0882***
(0.0131) (0.0128) (0.0126) (0.0310) (0.0259)
Region = 8, 8 - Eastern Visayas 0.137*** 0.0348** -0.0109 -0.0264 -0.00272
(0.0152) (0.0145) (0.0142) (0.0358) (0.0263)
Region = 9, 9 - Zamboanga Peninsula -0.00360 0.0311** 0.0290* 0.0636* 0.0317
(0.0152) (0.0150) (0.0152) (0.0377) (0.0272)
Region = 10, 10 - Northern Mindanao 0.180*** 0.120*** 0.0934*** 0.117*** 0.0609**
(0.0147) (0.0145) (0.0144) (0.0343) (0.0277)
Region = 11, Davao Region 0.0410*** -0.00358 -0.00265 0.000737 -0.00798
(0.0146) (0.0137) (0.0136) (0.0290) (0.0250)
Region = 12, SOCCSKSARGEN 0.0286** 0.0204 0.0324** 0.0460 0.0629**
(0.0145) (0.0140) (0.0144) (0.0293) (0.0258)
Region = 14, CAR 0.125*** 0.114*** 0.0864*** 0.0962*** 0.142***
(0.0162) (0.0153) (0.0151) (0.0365) (0.0273)
Region = 15, ARMM -0.204*** -0.189*** -0.182*** -0.140*** -0.185***
(0.0161) (0.0159) (0.0159) (0.0310) (0.0262)
Region = 16, Caraga Region 0.0253* 0.00596 -0.000293 0.0642* 0.0118
(0.0149) (0.0148) (0.0149) (0.0329) (0.0277)
Region = 41, 4A - Calabarzon 0.0343*** 0.0490*** 0.0243** 0.0421 0.0563**
(0.0114) (0.0110) (0.0110) (0.0335) (0.0256)
Region = 42, 4B - Mimaropa 0.0406*** 0.0922*** 0.0650*** 0.0304 0.0757***
(0.0150) (0.0151) (0.0152) (0.0368) (0.0284)
Location (Urban or rural) = 2, Rural 0.0233*** 0.0356*** 0.0363*** 0.0262** 0.0193**
(0.00615) (0.00613) (0.00607) (0.0108) (0.00954)
Type of household = 2, Extended Family 0.0165** -0.00683 -0.00906 -0.0114 -0.00998
(0.00670) (0.00631) (0.00620) (0.0103) (0.00861)
Type of household = 3, Two or More Nonrelated 0.133*** 0.136*** 0.140*** 0.120* 0.0279
Persons/Members
(0.0473) (0.0476) (0.0507) (0.0692) (0.0594)
Family size -0.00185 0.00182 0.000326 0.00980*** 0.00536**
(0.00210) (0.00202) (0.00200) (0.00315) (0.00268)
Log of total non-labor income minus remittances 0.0169*** 0.00653 0.00951* 0.0295*** 0.0632***
81 | P a g e
(0.00490) (0.00479) (0.00486) (0.00888) (0.00792)
No. of households members less than 5 y.o. -0.0611*** -0.0647*** -0.0630*** -0.0684*** -0.0628***
(0.00410) (0.00428) (0.00434) (0.00697) (0.00590)
No. of households members 5-17 y.o. 0.0122*** 0.00862*** 0.00644** 0.0111*** 0.0169***
(0.00273) (0.00275) (0.00270) (0.00424) (0.00372)
Household has a grandparent present = 1 0.00153 -0.00819 -0.0260* -0.0206 -0.0342
(0.0146) (0.0141) (0.0145) (0.0257) (0.0221)
Household employs a domestic worker = 1 0.333*** 0.381*** 0.347*** 0.284*** 0.381***
(0.0175) (0.0180) (0.0175) (0.0570) (0.0699)
Household has a member working overseas = 1 -0.145*** -0.120*** -0.112*** -0.142*** -0.112***
(0.0124) (0.0106) (0.00965) (0.0179) (0.0159)
Distance of Water Source from the House (meters) 5.21e-05* 1.70e-06 -7.95e-06 5.92e-05 4.73e-05
(2.79e-05) (6.41e-06) (1.50e-05) (5.64e-05) (4.30e-05)
Household has electricity = 2, Without Electricity 0.0395*** 0.0694*** 0.0863*** 0.0535*** 0.0269**
(0.00739) (0.00797) (0.00876) (0.0126) (0.0111)
age15 = 0 - - - - -
age16 = 1 -0.516*** -0.516*** -0.532*** -0.655*** -0.737***

(0.0335) (0.0344) (0.0339) (0.0512) (0.0427)
age17 = 1 -0.369*** -0.394*** -0.417*** -0.429*** -0.593***
(0.0328) (0.0338) (0.0330) (0.0484) (0.0412)
age18 = 1 -0.259*** -0.271*** -0.289*** -0.344*** -0.400***
(0.0321) (0.0332) (0.0324) (0.0483) (0.0392)
age19 = 1 -0.207*** -0.207*** -0.223*** -0.300*** -0.339***
(0.0324) (0.0333) (0.0325) (0.0479) (0.0396)
age20 = 1 -0.143*** -0.166*** -0.146*** -0.219*** -0.293***
(0.0322) (0.0335) (0.0326) (0.0471) (0.0392)
age21 = 1 -0.0757** -0.104*** -0.0838** -0.213*** -0.186***
(0.0323) (0.0338) (0.0327) (0.0490) (0.0393)
age22 = 1 -0.0390 -0.0237 -0.0460 -0.110** -0.198***
(0.0320) (0.0337) (0.0329) (0.0481) (0.0394)
age23 = 1 0.0511 0.00247 0.0339 -0.107** -0.111***
(0.0318) (0.0338) (0.0332) (0.0481) (0.0393)
82 | P a g e
age24 = 1 0.0493 0.0184 0.0695** -0.0704 -0.112***
(0.0322) (0.0336) (0.0336) (0.0491) (0.0399)
age25 = 1 0.0406 0.0437 0.0453 -0.123** -0.131***
(0.0320) (0.0337) (0.0333) (0.0493) (0.0397)
age26 = 1 0.0597* 0.0348 0.0513 -0.0838* -0.0872**
(0.0325) (0.0336) (0.0335) (0.0491) (0.0399)
age27 = 1 0.0500 0.0598* 0.0617* -0.0867* -0.134***
(0.0322) (0.0337) (0.0334) (0.0500) (0.0409)
age28 = 1 0.0940*** 0.0769** 0.0519 -0.0538 -0.0490
(0.0319) (0.0336) (0.0334) (0.0496) (0.0408)
age29 = 1 0.0941*** 0.0752** 0.0576* 0.0352 -0.123***
(0.0327) (0.0339) (0.0330) (0.0487) (0.0409)
age30 = 1 0.103*** 0.0443 0.0650** 0.0360 -0.0710*
(0.0321) (0.0335) (0.0326) (0.0485) (0.0409)
age31 = 1 0.162*** 0.0875*** 0.107*** -0.0771 -0.0540
(0.0328) (0.0338) (0.0335) (0.0489) (0.0411)
age32 = 1 0.142*** 0.0892*** 0.133*** 0.0278 -0.0420
(0.0326) (0.0341) (0.0331) (0.0474) (0.0404)
age33 = 1 0.143*** 0.116*** 0.101*** 0.0263 -0.0556
(0.0322) (0.0339) (0.0334) (0.0487) (0.0409)
age34 = 1 0.132*** 0.167*** 0.120*** 0.00610 -0.0229
(0.0325) (0.0340) (0.0333) (0.0491) (0.0410)
age35 = 1 0.146*** 0.111*** 0.144*** 0.0394 -0.0154
(0.0320) (0.0340) (0.0334) (0.0485) (0.0403)
age36 = 1 0.159*** 0.155*** 0.142*** 0.0249 0.0127
(0.0328) (0.0333) (0.0332) (0.0484) (0.0408)
age37 = 1 0.178*** 0.167*** 0.174*** 0.0642 0.0492
(0.0328) (0.0338) (0.0335) (0.0485) (0.0408)
age38 = 1 0.184*** 0.158*** 0.154*** 0.153*** 0.0664
(0.0323) (0.0337) (0.0331) (0.0486) (0.0409)
age39 = 1 0.184*** 0.205*** 0.176*** 0.0694 0.0386
(0.0330) (0.0339) (0.0331) (0.0483) (0.0406)
age40 = 1 0.164*** 0.193*** 0.191*** 0.104** 0.0754*
83 | P a g e
(0.0322) (0.0337) (0.0327) (0.0480) (0.0403)
age41 = 1 0.192*** 0.156*** 0.201*** 0.131*** 0.0536
(0.0338) (0.0345) (0.0334) (0.0503) (0.0414)
age42 = 1 0.226*** 0.225*** 0.181*** 0.0990** 0.0610
(0.0331) (0.0341) (0.0332) (0.0482) (0.0404)
age43 = 1 0.203*** 0.186*** 0.182*** 0.149*** 0.0772*
(0.0328) (0.0346) (0.0332) (0.0505) (0.0403)
age44 = 1 0.234*** 0.218*** 0.187*** 0.122** 0.116***
(0.0335) (0.0344) (0.0335) (0.0496) (0.0419)
age45 = 1 0.239*** 0.185*** 0.245*** 0.184*** 0.0922**
(0.0335) (0.0352) (0.0337) (0.0509) (0.0411)
age46 = 1 0.268*** 0.215*** 0.210*** 0.176*** 0.134***
(0.0341) (0.0346) (0.0340) (0.0523) (0.0407)
age47 = 1 0.211*** 0.239*** 0.203*** 0.222*** 0.107***
(0.0341) (0.0350) (0.0337) (0.0524) (0.0416)
age48 = 1 0.221*** 0.208*** 0.207*** 0.167*** 0.109***
(0.0335) (0.0344) (0.0345) (0.0507) (0.0418)
age49 = 1 0.172*** 0.215*** 0.205*** 0.177*** 0.118***
(0.0340) (0.0348) (0.0335) (0.0520) (0.0413)
age50 = 1 0.218*** 0.212*** 0.203*** 0.130** 0.0750*
(0.0339) (0.0347) (0.0337) (0.0513) (0.0415)
age51 = 1 0.246*** 0.144*** 0.207*** 0.184*** 0.108**
(0.0356) (0.0352) (0.0346) (0.0551) (0.0426)
age52 = 1 0.203*** 0.182*** 0.210*** 0.205*** 0.107**
(0.0359) (0.0352) (0.0343) (0.0522) (0.0425)
age53 = 1 0.191*** 0.179*** 0.170*** 0.159*** 0.0691*
(0.0343) (0.0359) (0.0347) (0.0516) (0.0420)
age54 = 1 0.185*** 0.190*** 0.209*** 0.0862 0.0936**
(0.0351) (0.0354) (0.0344) (0.0534) (0.0442)
age55 = 1 0.201*** 0.135*** 0.166*** 0.128** 0.0693*
(0.0356) (0.0369) (0.0342) (0.0565) (0.0416)
age56 = 1 0.175*** 0.144*** 0.135*** 0.171*** 0.0883**
(0.0377) (0.0351) (0.0348) (0.0549) (0.0415)
84 | P a g e
age57 = 1 0.196*** 0.137*** 0.147*** 0.0743 0.0997**
(0.0379) (0.0370) (0.0358) (0.0538) (0.0463)
age58 = 1 0.126*** 0.0973*** 0.117*** 0.149*** 0.0612
(0.0377) (0.0367) (0.0359) (0.0548) (0.0434)
age59 = 1 0.142*** 0.0942** 0.124*** 0.104* 0.0205
(0.0383) (0.0375) (0.0355) (0.0548) (0.0437)
age60 = 1 0.0808** 0.0521 0.0449 0.00103 -0.0285
(0.0368) (0.0364) (0.0350) (0.0567) (0.0439)
age61 = 1 0.0740* -0.00216 -0.00280 -0.0276 0.00229
(0.0385) (0.0391) (0.0377) (0.0599) (0.0471)
age62 = 1 0.0303 0.00401 0.0229 0.00796 -0.130***
(0.0384) (0.0400) (0.0376) (0.0574) (0.0442)
age63 = 1 - - - - -
age64 = 0 - - - - -
Observations 49,732 49,296 49,683 18,124 27,514

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Table 5. Determinants of labor force participation, males age 15-64 years, the Philippines, by year (marginal effects after logit estimation), with age
dummies
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

VARIABLES Male 2003 Male 2006 Male 2009 Male 2012 Male 2015
Marital status = 1, Married 0.0532*** 0.0771*** 0.0777*** 0.0492*** 0.0599***

(0.00426) (0.00478) (0.00466) (0.00593) (0.00556)
Marital status = 2, Divorced, Separated, Annulled 0.00854 0.0240** 0.0542*** 0.0257* 0.0176
(0.00925) (0.0109) (0.0114) (0.0138) (0.0124)
Elementary Undergraduate 0.0939*** 0.118*** 0.151*** 0.0874*** 0.115***
(0.00734) (0.00999) (0.00952) (0.0110) (0.0105)
Elementary Graduate 0.0903*** 0.122*** 0.142*** 0.0792*** 0.102***
(0.00740) (0.0102) (0.00950) (0.0111) (0.0107)
Highschool Undergraduate 0.0387*** 0.0600*** 0.0803*** 0.0373*** 0.0486***
(0.00696) (0.00972) (0.00903) (0.0105) (0.0102)
Highschool Graduate 0.0672*** 0.0970*** 0.112*** 0.0588*** 0.0679***
(0.00715) (0.00984) (0.00912) (0.0106) (0.0102)
College Undergraduate -0.00133 0.0142 0.0357*** -0.0218** -0.0327***
(0.00706) (0.00983) (0.00908) (0.0108) (0.0104)
College Graduate 0.0759*** 0.110*** 0.141*** 0.0544*** 0.0731***
(0.00814) (0.0108) (0.0102) (0.0129) (0.0117)
Is the head of household = 1 0.0629*** 0.0701*** 0.0608*** 0.0595*** 0.0737***
(0.00487) (0.00546) (0.00552) (0.00768) (0.00655)
Region = 1, 1 - Ilocos Region -0.0138*** -0.0101* -0.00456 0.00103 0.0172*
(0.00487) (0.00593) (0.00580) (0.0101) (0.0104)
Region = 2, 2 - Cagayan Valley 0.0171*** 0.0182*** 0.0143** 0.00661 0.0217*
(0.00547) (0.00679) (0.00657) (0.0103) (0.0114)
Region = 3, 3 - Central Luzon 0.0141*** 0.00606 0.00438 -0.000323 0.0217**
(0.00486) (0.00532) (0.00507) (0.00964) (0.0103)
Region = 5, 5 - Bicol Region 0.00618 0.00320 -0.00249 -0.0117 -0.00436
(0.00524) (0.00662) (0.00629) (0.0121) (0.0108)
Region = 6, 6 - Western Visayas -0.00437 -0.00435 -0.00668 -0.0109 -0.00739
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(0.00480) (0.00594) (0.00579) (0.00946) (0.0100)
Region = 7, 7 - Central Visayas -0.0356*** -0.0387*** -0.0260*** -0.0227** -0.0115
(0.00469) (0.00571) (0.00559) (0.0112) (0.0106)
Region = 8, 8 - Eastern Visayas 0.00244 -0.0216*** -0.0194*** -0.00853 -0.0177
(0.00574) (0.00682) (0.00643) (0.0143) (0.0109)
Region = 9, 9 - Zamboanga Peninsula -0.0274*** -0.0309*** -0.0121* 0.00458 -0.00150
(0.00569) (0.00713) (0.00695) (0.0158) (0.0114)
Region = 10, 10 - Northern Mindanao 0.0140** -0.0155** 0.000144 0.00541 0.0187
(0.00573) (0.00680) (0.00655) (0.0130) (0.0117)
Region = 11, Davao Region 0.000785 -0.0146** -0.0101* -0.00461 0.0164
(0.00552) (0.00629) (0.00601) (0.0103) (0.0104)
Region = 12, SOCCSKSARGEN -0.00284 -0.0165** 0.00901 -0.0109 -0.00617
(0.00531) (0.00667) (0.00667) (0.0102) (0.0108)
Region = 14, CAR -0.00239 -0.0118* -0.000444 -0.00280 0.0297***
(0.00590) (0.00662) (0.00631) (0.0134) (0.0113)
Region = 15, ARMM -0.00733 -0.0244*** -0.0258*** -0.0256** -0.0258**
(0.00586) (0.00773) (0.00707) (0.0106) (0.0111)
Region = 16, Caraga Region -0.00522 -0.0204*** -0.0132** -0.000264 0.0142
(0.00574) (0.00686) (0.00670) (0.0120) (0.0117)
Region = 41, 4A - Calabarzon 0.000700 -0.00129 -0.00179 -0.00995 0.00514
(0.00414) (0.00499) (0.00481) (0.0125) (0.0107)
Region = 42, 4B - Mimaropa -0.00606 0.00109 0.00186 0.0110 0.0109
(0.00571) (0.00729) (0.00684) (0.0141) (0.0122)
Location (Urban or rural) = 2, Rural 0.0279*** 0.0312*** 0.0265*** 0.00771** 0.0133***
(0.00238) (0.00294) (0.00281) (0.00382) (0.00394)
Type of household = 2, Extended Family 0.00527** -0.00248 -0.0121*** 0.00140 0.00333
(0.00248) (0.00300) (0.00281) (0.00372) (0.00351)
Type of household = 3, 2+ Nonrelated Persons 0.0288** 0.0578*** 0.0703*** -0.0145 -0.0319
(0.0136) (0.0183) (0.0232) (0.0253) (0.0216)
Family size -0.00470*** -0.00348*** -0.00191** -0.00195* -0.00279***
(0.000733) (0.000888) (0.000870) (0.00111) (0.00105)
Log of total non-labor income minus remittances -0.0223*** -0.0334*** -0.0353*** -0.0239*** -0.0180***
(0.00182) (0.00222) (0.00222) (0.00316) (0.00311)
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No. of households members less than 5 y.o. 0.00866*** 0.00686*** 0.00409* -0.00181 0.00672**
(0.00177) (0.00223) (0.00217) (0.00267) (0.00264)
No. of households members 5-17 y.o. 0.00512*** 0.00589*** 0.00386*** 0.00474*** 0.00567***
(0.00101) (0.00126) (0.00119) (0.00150) (0.00155)
Household has a grandparent present = 1 -0.00403 -0.0112 -0.0156** -0.00777 -0.00225
(0.00555) (0.00687) (0.00726) (0.00962) (0.00954)
Household employs a domestic worker = 1 0.0108* 0.0138* 0.0279*** 0.00714 0.0240
(0.00597) (0.00722) (0.00743) (0.0234) (0.0238)
(0.00408) (0.00461) (0.00415) (0.00586) (0.00568)
Distance of Water Source from the House (meters) 4.85e-05*** -2.22e-06 5.16e-05*** 7.31e-05*** 5.55e-05***
(1.73e-05) (2.04e-06) (1.58e-05) (2.68e-05) (1.83e-05)
Household has electricity = 2, Without Electricity 0.0283*** 0.0416*** 0.0404*** 0.0344*** 0.0169***
(0.00328) (0.00436) (0.00477) (0.00553) (0.00510)
age15 = 0 - - - - -
age16 = 1 -0.0315*** -0.0314** -0.0251** -0.0514*** -0.0606***

(0.0108) (0.0139) (0.0119) (0.0165) (0.0150)
age17 = 1 0.00290 0.0125 0.0207* -0.00878 -0.00752
(0.0106) (0.0138) (0.0117) (0.0161) (0.0146)
age18 = 1 0.0432*** 0.0663*** 0.0803*** 0.0284* 0.0498***
(0.0104) (0.0135) (0.0114) (0.0159) (0.0142)
age19 = 1 0.0649*** 0.0961*** 0.109*** 0.0527*** 0.0731***
(0.0104) (0.0136) (0.0114) (0.0160) (0.0143)
age20 = 1 0.0862*** 0.124*** 0.140*** 0.0656*** 0.103***
(0.0105) (0.0136) (0.0116) (0.0160) (0.0143)
age21 = 1 0.108*** 0.159*** 0.159*** 0.0934*** 0.132***
(0.0105) (0.0138) (0.0116) (0.0163) (0.0146)
age22 = 1 0.125*** 0.183*** 0.192*** 0.0907*** 0.141***
(0.0107) (0.0140) (0.0120) (0.0164) (0.0149)
age23 = 1 0.144*** 0.207*** 0.204*** 0.132*** 0.152***
(0.0109) (0.0143) (0.0123) (0.0176) (0.0152)
age24 = 1 0.157*** 0.214*** 0.220*** 0.111*** 0.173***
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(0.0113) (0.0146) (0.0128) (0.0176) (0.0158)
age25 = 1 0.169*** 0.230*** 0.246*** 0.139*** 0.169***
(0.0117) (0.0150) (0.0134) (0.0187) (0.0162)
age26 = 1 0.166*** 0.252*** 0.246*** 0.162*** 0.176***
(0.0121) (0.0155) (0.0136) (0.0203) (0.0169)
age27 = 1 0.190*** 0.254*** 0.260*** 0.132*** 0.206***
(0.0128) (0.0159) (0.0146) (0.0196) (0.0187)
age28 = 1 0.187*** 0.241*** 0.267*** 0.148*** 0.185***
(0.0130) (0.0162) (0.0156) (0.0206) (0.0183)
age29 = 1 0.180*** 0.234*** 0.262*** 0.183*** 0.166***
(0.0147) (0.0162) (0.0146) (0.0225) (0.0182)
age30 = 1 0.172*** 0.214*** 0.260*** 0.172*** 0.196***
(0.0132) (0.0162) (0.0151) (0.0224) (0.0184)
age31 = 1 0.163*** 0.226*** 0.240*** 0.182*** 0.235***
(0.0134) (0.0168) (0.0152) (0.0238) (0.0237)
age32 = 1 0.212*** 0.245*** 0.263*** 0.153*** 0.224***
(0.0148) (0.0174) (0.0163) (0.0220) (0.0230)
age33 = 1 0.164*** 0.229*** 0.235*** 0.166*** 0.194***
(0.0135) (0.0180) (0.0155) (0.0233) (0.0206)
age34 = 1 0.196*** 0.214*** 0.266*** 0.149*** 0.224***
(0.0154) (0.0171) (0.0170) (0.0237) (0.0236)
age35 = 1 0.178*** 0.241*** 0.244*** 0.133*** 0.188***
(0.0142) (0.0180) (0.0160) (0.0220) (0.0205)
age36 = 1 0.194*** 0.217*** 0.233*** 0.156*** 0.166***
(0.0157) (0.0174) (0.0170) (0.0238) (0.0198)
age37 = 1 0.202*** 0.228*** 0.248*** 0.144*** 0.192***
(0.0166) (0.0186) (0.0176) (0.0225) (0.0229)
age38 = 1 0.157*** 0.218*** 0.235*** 0.156*** 0.201***
(0.0143) (0.0175) (0.0167) (0.0236) (0.0222)
age39 = 1 0.193*** 0.182*** 0.248*** 0.140*** 0.170***
(0.0169) (0.0173) (0.0170) (0.0244) (0.0215)
age40 = 1 0.166*** 0.203*** 0.230*** 0.109*** 0.165***
(0.0150) (0.0173) (0.0158) (0.0209) (0.0198)
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age41 = 1 0.178*** 0.217*** 0.227*** 0.123*** 0.174***
(0.0172) (0.0189) (0.0167) (0.0225) (0.0209)
age42 = 1 0.153*** 0.221*** 0.206*** 0.135*** 0.153***
(0.0151) (0.0193) (0.0155) (0.0219) (0.0219)
age43 = 1 0.152*** 0.182*** 0.231*** 0.117*** 0.178***
(0.0148) (0.0180) (0.0171) (0.0222) (0.0214)
age44 = 1 0.163*** 0.197*** 0.221*** 0.127*** 0.137***
(0.0166) (0.0186) (0.0177) (0.0250) (0.0208)
age45 = 1 0.139*** 0.179*** 0.208*** 0.0826*** 0.168***
(0.0146) (0.0178) (0.0160) (0.0212) (0.0210)
age46 = 1 0.145*** 0.179*** 0.189*** 0.134*** 0.146***
(0.0157) (0.0175) (0.0166) (0.0254) (0.0204)
age47 = 1 0.168*** 0.180*** 0.205*** 0.103*** 0.182***
(0.0173) (0.0189) (0.0173) (0.0228) (0.0241)
age48 = 1 0.128*** 0.173*** 0.199*** 0.100*** 0.181***
(0.0147) (0.0174) (0.0169) (0.0218) (0.0240)
age49 = 1 0.116*** 0.147*** 0.168*** 0.115*** 0.152***
(0.0144) (0.0167) (0.0148) (0.0249) (0.0213)
age50 = 1 0.102*** 0.153*** 0.158*** 0.111*** 0.124***
(0.0134) (0.0173) (0.0148) (0.0240) (0.0198)
age51 = 1 0.109*** 0.153*** 0.163*** 0.0720*** 0.151***
(0.0144) (0.0173) (0.0159) (0.0210) (0.0208)
age52 = 1 0.115*** 0.133*** 0.130*** 0.0993*** 0.138***
(0.0149) (0.0167) (0.0152) (0.0214) (0.0212)
age53 = 1 0.105*** 0.116*** 0.164*** 0.0541*** 0.111***
(0.0143) (0.0162) (0.0163) (0.0206) (0.0189)
age54 = 1 0.0758*** 0.120*** 0.143*** 0.0311 0.0922***
(0.0133) (0.0164) (0.0150) (0.0191) (0.0195)
age55 = 1 0.0761*** 0.113*** 0.120*** 0.0468** 0.120***
(0.0135) (0.0168) (0.0141) (0.0197) (0.0199)
age56 = 1 0.0487*** 0.0899*** 0.0992*** 0.0516** 0.0858***
(0.0134) (0.0159) (0.0134) (0.0209) (0.0188)
age57 = 1 0.0594*** 0.0830*** 0.0767*** 0.0451** 0.0837***
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(0.0138) (0.0162) (0.0142) (0.0210) (0.0203)
age58 = 1 0.0517*** 0.0603*** 0.108*** -0.00385 0.0775***
(0.0142) (0.0155) (0.0146) (0.0193) (0.0188)
age59 = 1 0.0342** 0.0497*** 0.0698*** 0.0123 0.0530***
(0.0139) (0.0158) (0.0135) (0.0199) (0.0186)
age60 = 1 0.0351*** 0.0351** 0.0605*** 0.00919 0.0326*
(0.0131) (0.0156) (0.0137) (0.0198) (0.0168)
age61 = 1 0.00313 0.0479*** 0.0428*** -0.0575*** 0.0311*
(0.0127) (0.0170) (0.0139) (0.0190) (0.0181)
age62 = 1 0.00643 0.0188 0.0133 0.00350 0.0161
(0.0135) (0.0163) (0.0131) (0.0189) (0.0182)
age63 = 1 - - - - -
age64 = 0 - - - - -
Observations 51,742 51,069 51,743 19,445 30,628

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Table 6. Determinants of Labor Force Participation Females Age 15-64 years the Philippines by Year (marginal effects after logit estimation) with year of
birth dummies
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)


(0.00979) (0.00947) (0.00932) (0.0156) (0.0130)
(0.0190) (0.0180) (0.0176) (0.0319) (0.0265)
Elementary Undergraduate 0.127*** 0.139*** 0.156*** 0.128*** 0.102***
(0.0186) (0.0202) (0.0206) (0.0314) (0.0248)
Elementary Graduate 0.113*** 0.122*** 0.109*** 0.0867*** 0.0641***
(0.0185) (0.0201) (0.0203) (0.0312) (0.0249)
Highschool Undergraduate 0.0593*** 0.0736*** 0.0581*** 0.0629** 0.0381
(0.0188) (0.0202) (0.0205) (0.0314) (0.0251)
Highschool Graduate 0.116*** 0.133*** 0.104*** 0.110*** 0.0703***
(0.0187) (0.0200) (0.0202) (0.0309) (0.0246)
College Undergraduate 0.00948 0.0149 0.0181 -0.0456 -0.111***
(0.0194) (0.0206) (0.0208) (0.0331) (0.0266)
College Graduate 0.330*** 0.335*** 0.311*** 0.307*** 0.227***
(0.0205) (0.0216) (0.0218) (0.0355) (0.0273)
Is the household head 0.110*** 0.0757*** 0.0310** 0.107*** 0.0846***
(0.0144) (0.0130) (0.0123) (0.0238) (0.0196)
Region = 1, 1 - Ilocos Region -0.00127 -0.0287** -0.0457*** -0.00614 -0.00846
(0.0135) (0.0131) (0.0132) (0.0289) (0.0253)
Region = 2, 2 - Cagayan Valley 0.0855*** 0.0613*** 0.0211 0.0345 0.0846***
(0.0141) (0.0141) (0.0142) (0.0295) (0.0273)
Region = 3, 3 - Central Luzon -0.00831 -0.0103 -0.0373*** 0.000203 -0.0308
(0.0128) (0.0113) (0.0115) (0.0281) (0.0248)
Region = 5, 5 - Bicol Region 0.108*** 0.0192 -0.00238 -0.0132 0.0450*
(0.0142) (0.0136) (0.0135) (0.0334) (0.0258)
Region = 6, 6 - Western Visayas 0.0847*** 0.0702*** 0.0519*** 0.0561** 0.0540**
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(0.0133) (0.0127) (0.0133) (0.0275) (0.0245)
Region = 7, 7 - Central Visayas 0.00985 0.0359*** 0.0208* 0.0905*** 0.0890***
(0.0131) (0.0128) (0.0126) (0.0310) (0.0259)
Region = 8, 8 - Eastern Visayas 0.138*** 0.0326** -0.0153 -0.0320 -0.00262
(0.0152) (0.0145) (0.0141) (0.0357) (0.0263)
Region = 9, 9 - Zamboanga Peninsula -0.00201 0.0343** 0.0323** 0.0699* 0.0333
(0.0152) (0.0149) (0.0151) (0.0376) (0.0272)
Region = 10, 10 - Northern Mindanao 0.179*** 0.119*** 0.0922*** 0.118*** 0.0622**
(0.0147) (0.0145) (0.0144) (0.0343) (0.0276)
Region = 11, Davao Region 0.0406*** -0.00375 -0.00100 0.00248 -0.00702
(0.0145) (0.0137) (0.0136) (0.0290) (0.0250)
Region = 12, SOCCSKSARGEN 0.0294** 0.0215 0.0338** 0.0500* 0.0641**
(0.0145) (0.0140) (0.0144) (0.0293) (0.0258)
Region = 14, CAR 0.128*** 0.115*** 0.0881*** 0.0958*** 0.141***
(0.0162) (0.0153) (0.0151) (0.0366) (0.0273)
Region = 15, ARMM -0.195*** -0.177*** -0.169*** -0.130*** -0.177***
(0.0160) (0.0158) (0.0158) (0.0308) (0.0259)
Region = 16, Caraga Region 0.0240 0.000800 -0.00422 0.0623* 0.0109
(0.0149) (0.0147) (0.0149) (0.0329) (0.0276)
Region = 41, 4A - Calabarzon 0.0319*** 0.0459*** 0.0217** 0.0407 0.0565**
(0.0114) (0.0109) (0.0110) (0.0335) (0.0255)
Region = 42, 4B - Mimaropa 0.0442*** 0.0984*** 0.0711*** 0.0326 0.0769***
(0.0150) (0.0151) (0.0152) (0.0368) (0.0284)
Location (Urban or rural) = 2, Rural 0.0270*** 0.0404*** 0.0407*** 0.0282*** 0.0199**
(0.00612) (0.00610) (0.00605) (0.0108) (0.00953)
Type of household = Extended Family 0.0156** -0.00920 -0.0121** -0.0133 -0.0110
(0.00669) (0.00630) (0.00618) (0.0102) (0.00860)
Type of household = 2+ Nonrelated Persons 0.134*** 0.133*** 0.142*** 0.115* 0.0271
(0.0474) (0.0473) (0.0503) (0.0693) (0.0596)
Family size -0.00294 0.000705 -0.000796 0.00870*** 0.00509*
(0.00209) (0.00202) (0.00199) (0.00314) (0.00267)
Log of total non-labor income minus remittances 0.0102** -0.00279 -6.39e-05 0.0223** 0.0603***
(0.00468) (0.00465) (0.00475) (0.00868) (0.00780)
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(0.00409) (0.00428) (0.00434) (0.00695) (0.00590)
(0.00273) (0.00275) (0.00270) (0.00424) (0.00372)
Household has a grandparent present = 1 0.000935 -0.00857 -0.0253* -0.0193 -0.0343
(0.0146) (0.0141) (0.0145) (0.0257) (0.0221)
(0.0174) (0.0180) (0.0175) (0.0569) (0.0699)
(0.0124) (0.0106) (0.00965) (0.0179) (0.0159)
Distance of Water Source from the House (meters) 7.08e-05** 2.58e-06 1.30e-05 9.30e-05* 5.99e-05
(2.82e-05) (6.87e-06) (1.48e-05) (5.62e-05) (4.27e-05)
birthyr1940 = 1 0.513***
(0.0335)
birthyr1941 = 1 0.543***
(0.0335)
birthyr1942 = 1 0.588***
(0.0335)
birthyr1943 = 1 0.594*** 0.512***
(0.0314) (0.0344)
birthyr1944 = 1 0.655*** 0.516***
(0.0333) (0.0335)
birthyr1945 = 1 0.640*** 0.508***
(0.0323) (0.0323)
birthyr1946 = 1 0.710*** 0.565*** 0.525***
(0.0326) (0.0291) (0.0338)
birthyr1947 = 1 0.689*** 0.605*** 0.551***
(0.0324) (0.0303) (0.0316)
birthyr1948 = 1 0.715*** 0.610*** 0.529***
(0.0299) (0.0293) (0.0316)
birthyr1949 = 1 0.699*** 0.649*** 0.573*** 0.649***
(0.0292) (0.0296) (0.0285) (0.0513)
birthyr1950 = 1 0.705*** 0.657*** 0.652*** 0.657***
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(0.0281) (0.0272) (0.0289) (0.0532)
birthyr1951 = 1 0.718*** 0.648*** 0.646*** 0.624***
(0.0299) (0.0295) (0.0293) (0.0557)
birthyr1952 = 1 0.761*** 0.702*** 0.677*** 0.651*** 0.735***
(0.0296) (0.0274) (0.0290) (0.0524) (0.0426)
birthyr1953 = 1 0.732*** 0.693*** 0.665*** 0.754*** 0.605***
(0.0275) (0.0280) (0.0279) (0.0498) (0.0416)
birthyr1954 = 1 0.686*** 0.695*** 0.696*** 0.799*** 0.737***
(0.0274) (0.0270) (0.0271) (0.0499) (0.0446)
birthyr1955 = 1 0.735*** 0.657*** 0.738*** 0.725*** 0.706***
(0.0267) (0.0270) (0.0273) (0.0486) (0.0412)
birthyr1956 = 1 0.726*** 0.725*** 0.698*** 0.823*** 0.756***
(0.0274) (0.0263) (0.0275) (0.0498) (0.0410)
birthyr1957 = 1 0.782*** 0.728*** 0.739*** 0.781*** 0.796***
(0.0274) (0.0264) (0.0270) (0.0515) (0.0406)
birthyr1958 = 1 0.753*** 0.721*** 0.736*** 0.735*** 0.835***
(0.0268) (0.0257) (0.0273) (0.0479) (0.0437)
birthyr1959 = 1 0.749*** 0.753*** 0.732*** 0.809*** 0.824***
(0.0265) (0.0264) (0.0262) (0.0461) (0.0385)
birthyr1960 = 1 0.718*** 0.728*** 0.735*** 0.854*** 0.804***
(0.0255) (0.0257) (0.0258) (0.0468) (0.0385)
birthyr1961 = 1 0.741*** 0.696*** 0.736*** 0.837*** 0.829***
(0.0258) (0.0266) (0.0270) (0.0497) (0.0411)
birthyr1962 = 1 0.707*** 0.730*** 0.731*** 0.782*** 0.805***
(0.0265) (0.0254) (0.0260) (0.0456) (0.0389)
birthyr1963 = 1 0.679*** 0.701*** 0.740*** 0.828*** 0.843***
(0.0244) (0.0257) (0.0263) (0.0465) (0.0394)
birthyr1964 = 1 0.698*** 0.738*** 0.774*** 0.820*** 0.844***
(0.0253) (0.0248) (0.0260) (0.0443) (0.0390)
birthyr1965 = 1 0.699*** 0.669*** 0.717*** 0.874*** 0.811***
(0.0244) (0.0253) (0.0255) (0.0464) (0.0381)
birthyr1966 = 1 0.692*** 0.707*** 0.711*** 0.828*** 0.854***
(0.0250) (0.0241) (0.0251) (0.0463) (0.0377)
95 | P a g e
birthyr1967 = 1 0.673*** 0.719*** 0.710*** 0.836*** 0.846***
(0.0249) (0.0243) (0.0249) (0.0445) (0.0382)
birthyr1968 = 1 0.661*** 0.672*** 0.730*** 0.775*** 0.843***
(0.0238) (0.0238) (0.0251) (0.0429) (0.0379)
birthyr1969 = 1 0.646*** 0.681*** 0.720*** 0.802*** 0.869***
(0.0246) (0.0240) (0.0240) (0.0439) (0.0369)
birthyr1970 = 1 0.658*** 0.667*** 0.705*** 0.751*** 0.827***
(0.0240) (0.0234) (0.0245) (0.0411) (0.0372)
birthyr1971 = 1 0.657*** 0.624*** 0.685*** 0.783*** 0.852***
(0.0247) (0.0243) (0.0245) (0.0434) (0.0383)
birthyr1972 = 1 0.678*** 0.681*** 0.702*** 0.754*** 0.813***
(0.0248) (0.0243) (0.0250) (0.0407) (0.0362)
birthyr1973 = 1 0.619*** 0.630*** 0.673*** 0.721*** 0.797***
(0.0239) (0.0240) (0.0246) (0.0408) (0.0363)
birthyr1974 = 1 0.610*** 0.602*** 0.673*** 0.804*** 0.789***
(0.0246) (0.0243) (0.0248) (0.0414) (0.0372)
birthyr1975 = 1 0.609*** 0.602*** 0.650*** 0.717*** 0.811***
(0.0236) (0.0239) (0.0247) (0.0410) (0.0359)
birthyr1976 = 1 0.565*** 0.560*** 0.631*** 0.676*** 0.775***
(0.0238) (0.0236) (0.0249) (0.0410) (0.0362)
birthyr1977 = 1 0.576*** 0.591*** 0.664*** 0.692*** 0.801***
(0.0242) (0.0240) (0.0243) (0.0409) (0.0366)
birthyr1978 = 1 0.556*** 0.591*** 0.639*** 0.660*** 0.785***
(0.0233) (0.0234) (0.0250) (0.0415) (0.0364)
birthyr1979 = 1 0.565*** 0.575*** 0.595*** 0.676*** 0.748***
(0.0233) (0.0236) (0.0237) (0.0411) (0.0363)
birthyr1980 = 1 0.567*** 0.550*** 0.590*** 0.680*** 0.720***
(0.0224) (0.0234) (0.0240) (0.0396) (0.0357)
birthyr1981 = 1 0.477*** 0.559*** 0.583*** 0.575*** 0.712***
(0.0223) (0.0232) (0.0245) (0.0411) (0.0366)
birthyr1982 = 1 0.441*** 0.534*** 0.594*** 0.689*** 0.680***
(0.0222) (0.0228) (0.0244) (0.0407) (0.0365)
birthyr1983 = 1 0.374*** 0.518*** 0.583*** 0.688*** 0.694***
96 | P a g e
(0.0218) (0.0229) (0.0244) (0.0412) (0.0357)
birthyr1984 = 1 0.310*** 0.493*** 0.576*** 0.600*** 0.682***
(0.0215) (0.0224) (0.0241) (0.0420) (0.0364)
birthyr1985 = 1 0.258*** 0.412*** 0.603*** 0.568*** 0.665***
(0.0208) (0.0220) (0.0242) (0.0424) (0.0360)
birthyr1986 = 1 0.148*** 0.351*** 0.564*** 0.570*** 0.613***
(0.0207) (0.0212) (0.0232) (0.0411) (0.0360)
birthyr1987 = 1 0.310*** 0.486*** 0.531*** 0.688***
(0.0205) (0.0226) (0.0409) (0.0358)
birthyr1988 = 1 0.245*** 0.448*** 0.584*** 0.602***
(0.0199) (0.0218) (0.0401) (0.0358)
birthyr1989 = 1 0.122*** 0.387*** 0.547*** 0.650***
(0.0199) (0.0214) (0.0386) (0.0345)
birthyr1990 = 1 0.309*** 0.543*** 0.605***
(0.0207) (0.0379) (0.0339)
birthyr1991 = 1 0.244*** 0.443*** 0.624***
(0.0201) (0.0385) (0.0341)
birthyr1992 = 1 0.114*** 0.435*** 0.625***
(0.0204) (0.0359) (0.0331)
birthyr1993 = 1 0.355*** 0.538***
(0.0360) (0.0327)
birthyr1994 = 1 0.310*** 0.550***
(0.0356) (0.0322)
birthyr1995 = 1 0.224*** 0.444***
(0.0347) (0.0315)
birthyr1996 = 1 0.397***
(0.0315)
birthyr1997 = 1 0.337***
(0.0305)
birthyr1998 = 1 0.143***
(0.0318)
Observations 49,732 49,296 49,683 18,124 27,514
97 | P a g e
98 | P a g e
Table 7. Determinants of Labor Force Participation Males Age 15-64 years the Philippines by Year (marginal effects after logit estimation) (with year of birth
dummies)
(1) (2) (3) (4)

VARIABLES Male 2003 Male 2006 Male 2009 Male 2012
Marital status = 1, Married 0.0531*** 0.0772*** 0.0780*** 0.0497***

(0.00426) (0.00479) (0.00467) (0.00596)
Marital status = 2, Divorced, Separated, Annulled 0.00896 0.0252** 0.0559*** 0.0273*
(0.00932) (0.0109) (0.0115) (0.0139)
Elementary Undergraduate 0.0938*** 0.116*** 0.149*** 0.0870***
(0.00736) (0.0101) (0.00964) (0.0110)
Elementary Graduate 0.0874*** 0.116*** 0.136*** 0.0760***
(0.00741) (0.0102) (0.00957) (0.0111)
Highschool Undergraduate 0.0340*** 0.0516*** 0.0727*** 0.0325***
(0.00694) (0.00972) (0.00909) (0.0105)
Highschool Graduate 0.0621*** 0.0878*** 0.103*** 0.0537***
(0.00713) (0.00983) (0.00918) (0.0106)
College Undergraduate -0.00660 0.00486 0.0270*** -0.0282***
(0.00707) (0.00984) (0.00916) (0.0108)
College Graduate 0.0728*** 0.104*** 0.135*** 0.0505***
(0.00820) (0.0109) (0.0103) (0.0129)
Is the household head 0.0635*** 0.0702*** 0.0605*** 0.0601***
(0.00490) (0.00548) (0.00554) (0.00773)
Region = 1, 1 - Ilocos Region -0.0155*** -0.0132** -0.00644 -0.000941
(0.00490) (0.00596) (0.00582) (0.0101)
Region = 2, 2 - Cagayan Valley 0.0159*** 0.0168** 0.0137** 0.00552
(0.00552) (0.00682) (0.00661) (0.0104)
Region = 3, 3 - Central Luzon 0.0120** 0.00353 0.00290 -0.00127
(0.00489) (0.00535) (0.00509) (0.00972)
Region = 5, 5 - Bicol Region 0.00592 0.00320 -0.00207 -0.0137
(0.00527) (0.00666) (0.00632) (0.0123)
99 | P a g e
Region = 6, 6 - Western Visayas -0.00515 -0.00499 -0.00693 -0.0117
(0.00484) (0.00596) (0.00582) (0.00954)
Region = 7, 7 - Central Visayas -0.0368*** -0.0397*** -0.0255*** -0.0222**
(0.00473) (0.00575) (0.00562) (0.0113)
Region = 8, 8 - Eastern Visayas 0.00169 -0.0244*** -0.0213*** -0.0116
(0.00577) (0.00685) (0.00646) (0.0145)
Region = 9, 9 - Zamboanga Peninsula -0.0266*** -0.0298*** -0.0105 0.00839
(0.00573) (0.00717) (0.00701) (0.0159)
Region = 10, 10 - Northern Mindanao 0.0131** -0.0161** -7.76e-05 0.00522
(0.00575) (0.00683) (0.00659) (0.0131)
Region = 11, Davao Region 9.91e-05 -0.0151** -0.01000* -0.00406
(0.00555) (0.00633) (0.00604) (0.0104)
Region = 12, SOCCSKSARGEN -0.00264 -0.0153** 0.0105 -0.00941
(0.00535) (0.00673) (0.00669) (0.0103)
Region = 14, CAR -0.000946 -0.0113* 0.000504 -0.00426
(0.00591) (0.00666) (0.00633) (0.0134)
Region = 15, ARMM 0.000330 -0.0170** -0.0207*** -0.0211**
(0.00587) (0.00777) (0.00713) (0.0106)
Region = 16, Caraga Region -0.00656 -0.0227*** -0.0151** -0.00185
(0.00578) (0.00688) (0.00670) (0.0121)
Region = 41, 4A - Calabarzon -0.000789 -0.00308 -0.00255 -0.0118
(0.00417) (0.00501) (0.00483) (0.0126)
Region = 42, 4B - Mimaropa -0.00378 0.00457 0.00432 0.0120
(0.00575) (0.00732) (0.00687) (0.0142)
Location (Urban or rural) = 2, Rural 0.0304*** 0.0342*** 0.0282*** 0.00913**
(0.00241) (0.00296) (0.00283) (0.00382)
Type of household = 2, Extended Family 0.00478* -0.00357 -0.0134*** 0.00105
(0.00250) (0.00302) (0.00282) (0.00375)
Type of household = 3, 2+ Nonrelated Persons 0.0294** 0.0571*** 0.0714*** -0.0172
(0.0138) (0.0186) (0.0232) (0.0255)
Family size -0.00539*** -0.00418*** -0.00246*** -0.00251**
(0.000735) (0.000890) (0.000871) (0.00111)
Log of total non-labor income minus remittances -0.0263*** -0.0382*** -0.0390*** -0.0277***
100 | P a g e
(0.00178) (0.00219) (0.00221) (0.00315)
No. of households members less than 5 y.o. 0.00908*** 0.00747*** 0.00433** -0.00188
(0.00177) (0.00225) (0.00218) (0.00268)
No. of households members 5-17 y.o. 0.00546*** 0.00630*** 0.00418*** 0.00532***
(0.00102) (0.00127) (0.00120) (0.00151)
Household has a grandparent present = 1 -0.00422 -0.0118* -0.0155** -0.00771
(0.00559) (0.00693) (0.00731) (0.00966)
Household employs a domestic worker = 1 0.0136** 0.0169** 0.0302*** 0.0101
(0.00603) (0.00728) (0.00748) (0.0236)
Household has a member working overseas = 1 -0.0354*** -0.0444*** -0.0379*** -0.0324***
(0.00412) (0.00466) (0.00418) (0.00591)
Distance of Water Source from the House (meters) 7.13e-05*** -1.49e-06 6.92e-05*** 9.76e-05***
(1.85e-05) (2.04e-06) (1.78e-05) (2.76e-05)
birthyr1940 = 1 0.0310***
(0.0109)
birthyr1941 = 1 0.0366***
(0.0120)
birthyr1942 = 1 0.0339***
(0.0111)
birthyr1943 = 1 0.0661*** 0.0303**
(0.0115) (0.0140)
birthyr1944 = 1 0.0657*** 0.0492***
(0.0125) (0.0135)
birthyr1945 = 1 0.0831*** 0.0795***
(0.0129) (0.0145)
birthyr1946 = 1 0.0904*** 0.0660*** 0.0238**
(0.0123) (0.0129) (0.0120)
birthyr1947 = 1 0.0805*** 0.0804*** 0.0372***
(0.0119) (0.0130) (0.0117)
birthyr1948 = 1 0.108*** 0.0913*** 0.0678***
(0.0121) (0.0127) (0.0127)
birthyr1949 = 1 0.107*** 0.114*** 0.0857*** 0.0498***
(0.0118) (0.0136) (0.0125) (0.0168)
101 | P a g e
birthyr1950 = 1 0.137*** 0.121*** 0.0957*** 0.0548***
(0.0132) (0.0131) (0.0122) (0.0166)
birthyr1951 = 1 0.147*** 0.145*** 0.132*** -0.00717
(0.0136) (0.0143) (0.0136) (0.0162)
birthyr1952 = 1 0.141*** 0.151*** 0.102*** 0.0610***
(0.0132) (0.0139) (0.0130) (0.0174)
birthyr1953 = 1 0.134*** 0.147*** 0.124*** 0.0633***
(0.0118) (0.0136) (0.0121) (0.0175)
birthyr1954 = 1 0.148*** 0.164*** 0.145*** 0.0463***
(0.0130) (0.0141) (0.0129) (0.0168)
birthyr1955 = 1 0.160*** 0.184*** 0.168*** 0.0960***
(0.0132) (0.0148) (0.0140) (0.0192)
birthyr1956 = 1 0.199*** 0.185*** 0.189*** 0.103***
(0.0161) (0.0147) (0.0152) (0.0190)
birthyr1957 = 1 0.177*** 0.179*** 0.155*** 0.0990***
(0.0145) (0.0140) (0.0140) (0.0175)
birthyr1958 = 1 0.171*** 0.205*** 0.189*** 0.0819***
(0.0133) (0.0151) (0.0150) (0.0166)
birthyr1959 = 1 0.195*** 0.212*** 0.183*** 0.104***
(0.0153) (0.0164) (0.0137) (0.0184)
birthyr1960 = 1 0.183*** 0.211*** 0.193*** 0.151***
(0.0135) (0.0149) (0.0135) (0.0194)
birthyr1961 = 1 0.184*** 0.211*** 0.225*** 0.123***
(0.0136) (0.0152) (0.0160) (0.0190)
birthyr1962 = 1 0.210*** 0.228*** 0.230*** 0.163***
(0.0161) (0.0161) (0.0164) (0.0226)
birthyr1963 = 1 0.198*** 0.213*** 0.214*** 0.167***
(0.0134) (0.0152) (0.0154) (0.0228)
birthyr1964 = 1 0.225*** 0.253*** 0.233*** 0.152***
(0.0157) (0.0168) (0.0147) (0.0202)
birthyr1965 = 1 0.189*** 0.248*** 0.247*** 0.155***
(0.0126) (0.0163) (0.0164) (0.0202)
birthyr1966 = 1 0.234*** 0.234*** 0.256*** 0.186***
102 | P a g e
(0.0153) (0.0144) (0.0158) (0.0238)
birthyr1967 = 1 0.226*** 0.213*** 0.231*** 0.134***
(0.0141) (0.0142) (0.0141) (0.0186)
birthyr1968 = 1 0.210*** 0.250*** 0.252*** 0.179***
(0.0123) (0.0145) (0.0152) (0.0236)
birthyr1969 = 1 0.228*** 0.259*** 0.255*** 0.168***
(0.0134) (0.0157) (0.0142) (0.0199)
birthyr1970 = 1 0.196*** 0.248*** 0.273*** 0.188***
(0.0111) (0.0139) (0.0156) (0.0195)
birthyr1971 = 1 0.245*** 0.273*** 0.260*** 0.175***
(0.0130) (0.0148) (0.0154) (0.0203)
birthyr1972 = 1 0.195*** 0.246*** 0.274*** 0.160***
(0.0111) (0.0138) (0.0161) (0.0177)
birthyr1973 = 1 0.204*** 0.261*** 0.258*** 0.192***
(0.0107) (0.0148) (0.0156) (0.0226)
birthyr1974 = 1 0.212*** 0.277*** 0.269*** 0.208***
(0.0126) (0.0139) (0.0143) (0.0211)
birthyr1975 = 1 0.219*** 0.258*** 0.291*** 0.196***
(0.0104) (0.0132) (0.0154) (0.0196)
birthyr1976 = 1 0.222*** 0.245*** 0.260*** 0.208***
(0.0101) (0.0120) (0.0132) (0.0212)
birthyr1977 = 1 0.198*** 0.266*** 0.288*** 0.185***
(0.00901) (0.0123) (0.0145) (0.0188)
birthyr1978 = 1 0.201*** 0.272*** 0.265*** 0.201***
(0.00849) (0.0122) (0.0131) (0.0205)
birthyr1979 = 1 0.189*** 0.286*** 0.286*** 0.218***
(0.00773) (0.0116) (0.0128) (0.0203)
birthyr1980 = 1 0.176*** 0.285*** 0.288*** 0.205***
(0.00714) (0.0110) (0.0121) (0.0192)
birthyr1981 = 1 0.156*** 0.263*** 0.293*** 0.235***
(0.00650) (0.0102) (0.0129) (0.0210)
birthyr1982 = 1 0.140*** 0.246*** 0.286*** 0.224***
(0.00595) (0.00942) (0.0121) (0.0194)
103 | P a g e
birthyr1983 = 1 0.118*** 0.240*** 0.272*** 0.235***
(0.00555) (0.00888) (0.0107) (0.0197)
birthyr1984 = 1 0.0963*** 0.215*** 0.272*** 0.200***
(0.00513) (0.00808) (0.0104) (0.0168)
birthyr1985 = 1 0.0749*** 0.190*** 0.246*** 0.185***
(0.00476) (0.00735) (0.00950) (0.0154)
birthyr1986 = 1 0.0344*** 0.155*** 0.230*** 0.214***
(0.00431) (0.00671) (0.00862) (0.0164)
birthyr1987 = 1 0.128*** 0.217*** 0.192***
(0.00636) (0.00787) (0.0140)
birthyr1988 = 1 0.0980*** 0.185*** 0.163***
(0.00592) (0.00709) (0.0122)
birthyr1989 = 1 0.0441*** 0.166*** 0.184***
(0.00555) (0.00673) (0.0123)
birthyr1990 = 1 0.134*** 0.143***
(0.00614) (0.00999)
birthyr1991 = 1 0.105*** 0.145***
(0.00578) (0.00954)
birthyr1992 = 1 0.0459*** 0.117***
(0.00536) (0.00852)
birthyr1993 = 1 0.104***
(0.00815)
birthyr1994 = 1 0.0801***
(0.00726)
birthyr1995 = 1 0.0424***
(0.00649)
birthyr1996 = 1 -
Observations 51,742 51,069 51,743 19,445

104 | P a g e
Table 8. Determinants of labor force participation females age 15-64 years, the Philippines by year (marginal effects after logit estimation), Alternative
specification: using unemployment rate by region instead of region factor variable
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)


(0.0103) (0.00942) (0.00927) (0.0155) (0.0129)
(0.0201) (0.0179) (0.0175) (0.0317) (0.0263)
(0.0178) (0.0192) (0.0197) (0.0305) (0.0240)
(0.0177) (0.0191) (0.0194) (0.0304) (0.0240)
Highest grade completed = 3, Highschool Undergraduate 0.130*** 0.146*** 0.117*** 0.107*** 0.0746***
(0.0181) (0.0193) (0.0196) (0.0307) (0.0243)
(0.0180) (0.0191) (0.0193) (0.0302) (0.0238)
Highest grade completed = 5, College Undergraduate 0.0890*** 0.0943*** 0.0820*** -0.00923 -0.0797***
(0.0188) (0.0197) (0.0199) (0.0324) (0.0258)
(0.0200) (0.0206) (0.0208) (0.0347) (0.0265)
Is the head of household = 1, Is the household head 0.119*** 0.0764*** 0.0320*** 0.112*** 0.0921***
(0.0155) (0.0129) (0.0122) (0.0237) (0.0195)
Location (Urban or rural) = 2, Rural 0.0209*** 0.0300*** 0.0347*** 0.0204** 0.0132
(0.00637) (0.00603) (0.00594) (0.00988) (0.00861)
Type of household = 2, Extended Family 0.0361*** -0.000679 -0.00484 0.00328 0.000485
(0.00697) (0.00626) (0.00613) (0.0101) (0.00849)
Type of household = 3, Two or More Nonrelated 0.165*** 0.125*** 0.145*** 0.136** 0.0469
Persons/Members
(0.0499) (0.0471) (0.0503) (0.0683) (0.0594)
Family size -0.00903*** 0.000306 -0.00144 0.00644** 0.00169
(0.00219) (0.00200) (0.00197) (0.00314) (0.00264)
105 | P a g e
Log of total non-labor income minus remittances 0.0158*** 0.00852* 0.00865* 0.0245*** 0.0698***
(0.00497) (0.00470) (0.00477) (0.00868) (0.00769)
(0.00425) (0.00424) (0.00430) (0.00668) (0.00578)
(0.00284) (0.00273) (0.00267) (0.00419) (0.00366)
Household has a grandparent present = 1 -0.00209 -0.0147 -0.0241* -0.0274 -0.0399*
(0.0152) (0.0140) (0.0144) (0.0256) (0.0220)
(0.0185) (0.0179) (0.0174) (0.0564) (0.0696)
(0.0133) (0.0104) (0.00954) (0.0176) (0.0156)
Distance of Water Source from the House (meters) 2.32e-05 1.93e-06 -3.62e-05** 9.68e-05* 0.000122***
(2.77e-05) (6.56e-06) (1.61e-05) (5.56e-05) (4.19e-05)
Household electricity = 2, Without Electricity 0.0232*** 0.0595*** 0.0798*** 0.0449*** -0.00346
(0.00739) (0.00779) (0.00862) (0.0124) (0.0107)
Unemployment rate by region -0.00653*** -0.00396*** -0.000550 0.000375 -0.00447**
(0.00103) (0.000911) (0.000959) (0.00212) (0.00215)
age15 = 0 - - - - -
age16 = 1 -0.500*** -0.518*** -0.533*** -0.657*** -0.736***

(0.0353) (0.0342) (0.0336) (0.0508) (0.0424)
age17 = 1 -0.360*** -0.400*** -0.419*** -0.432*** -0.590***
(0.0347) (0.0336) (0.0327) (0.0478) (0.0408)
age18 = 1 -0.269*** -0.276*** -0.290*** -0.346*** -0.398***
(0.0341) (0.0331) (0.0320) (0.0478) (0.0388)
age19 = 1 -0.216*** -0.213*** -0.228*** -0.303*** -0.341***
(0.0343) (0.0332) (0.0321) (0.0473) (0.0392)
age20 = 1 -0.156*** -0.176*** -0.152*** -0.225*** -0.292***
(0.0341) (0.0334) (0.0323) (0.0465) (0.0388)
age21 = 1 -0.0931*** -0.113*** -0.0875*** -0.218*** -0.186***
(0.0342) (0.0337) (0.0323) (0.0485) (0.0389)
age22 = 1 -0.0702** -0.0329 -0.0528 -0.117** -0.199***
106 | P a g e
(0.0339) (0.0336) (0.0326) (0.0475) (0.0388)
age23 = 1 0.0162 -0.00734 0.0275 -0.113** -0.113***
(0.0337) (0.0337) (0.0328) (0.0475) (0.0390)
age24 = 1 0.0278 0.00856 0.0625* -0.0780 -0.123***
(0.0342) (0.0335) (0.0332) (0.0485) (0.0394)
age25 = 1 0.0183 0.0329 0.0352 -0.127*** -0.134***
(0.0341) (0.0335) (0.0330) (0.0487) (0.0393)
age26 = 1 0.0325 0.0237 0.0414 -0.0903* -0.0947**
(0.0345) (0.0335) (0.0331) (0.0487) (0.0396)
age27 = 1 0.0326 0.0479 0.0536 -0.0900* -0.139***
(0.0341) (0.0335) (0.0331) (0.0493) (0.0404)
age28 = 1 0.0821** 0.0669** 0.0435 -0.0625 -0.0579
(0.0339) (0.0334) (0.0331) (0.0491) (0.0402)
age29 = 1 0.0796** 0.0635* 0.0500 0.0234 -0.131***
(0.0347) (0.0337) (0.0327) (0.0484) (0.0406)
age30 = 1 0.0812** 0.0338 0.0565* 0.0182 -0.0822**
(0.0340) (0.0333) (0.0323) (0.0480) (0.0405)
age31 = 1 0.148*** 0.0770** 0.0992*** -0.0843* -0.0636
(0.0346) (0.0337) (0.0332) (0.0484) (0.0405)
age32 = 1 0.128*** 0.0762** 0.126*** 0.0224 -0.0471
(0.0345) (0.0340) (0.0327) (0.0469) (0.0399)
age33 = 1 0.132*** 0.108*** 0.0952*** 0.0121 -0.0566
(0.0341) (0.0337) (0.0331) (0.0483) (0.0405)
age34 = 1 0.119*** 0.161*** 0.114*** 0.00682 -0.0318
(0.0343) (0.0339) (0.0330) (0.0486) (0.0406)
age35 = 1 0.125*** 0.0980*** 0.138*** 0.0294 -0.0279
(0.0339) (0.0339) (0.0330) (0.0479) (0.0398)
age36 = 1 0.143*** 0.146*** 0.134*** 0.0175 0.00244
(0.0348) (0.0332) (0.0329) (0.0478) (0.0403)
age37 = 1 0.163*** 0.158*** 0.168*** 0.0559 0.0489
(0.0348) (0.0337) (0.0331) (0.0482) (0.0404)
age38 = 1 0.184*** 0.149*** 0.148*** 0.143*** 0.0562
(0.0342) (0.0336) (0.0328) (0.0482) (0.0404)
107 | P a g e
age39 = 1 0.167*** 0.195*** 0.170*** 0.0565 0.0319
(0.0348) (0.0337) (0.0327) (0.0477) (0.0403)
age40 = 1 0.149*** 0.183*** 0.184*** 0.0944** 0.0659*
(0.0340) (0.0335) (0.0323) (0.0476) (0.0398)
age41 = 1 0.184*** 0.148*** 0.193*** 0.126** 0.0434
(0.0357) (0.0344) (0.0331) (0.0499) (0.0411)
age42 = 1 0.225*** 0.217*** 0.178*** 0.0967** 0.0606
(0.0351) (0.0340) (0.0328) (0.0476) (0.0400)
age43 = 1 0.195*** 0.181*** 0.177*** 0.143*** 0.0750*
(0.0346) (0.0344) (0.0330) (0.0499) (0.0400)
age44 = 1 0.233*** 0.214*** 0.184*** 0.117** 0.114***
(0.0356) (0.0343) (0.0332) (0.0491) (0.0416)
age45 = 1 0.228*** 0.178*** 0.243*** 0.175*** 0.0854**
(0.0353) (0.0350) (0.0334) (0.0504) (0.0406)
age46 = 1 0.261*** 0.210*** 0.206*** 0.171*** 0.130***
(0.0362) (0.0344) (0.0337) (0.0519) (0.0402)
age47 = 1 0.220*** 0.234*** 0.202*** 0.214*** 0.106***
(0.0362) (0.0348) (0.0334) (0.0520) (0.0412)
age48 = 1 0.216*** 0.202*** 0.205*** 0.158*** 0.107**
(0.0354) (0.0342) (0.0341) (0.0503) (0.0416)
age49 = 1 0.178*** 0.210*** 0.203*** 0.175*** 0.109***
(0.0360) (0.0347) (0.0331) (0.0516) (0.0410)
age50 = 1 0.224*** 0.208*** 0.202*** 0.124** 0.0645
(0.0358) (0.0345) (0.0334) (0.0510) (0.0412)
age51 = 1 0.230*** 0.145*** 0.205*** 0.179*** 0.110***
(0.0376) (0.0352) (0.0343) (0.0548) (0.0422)
age52 = 1 0.212*** 0.178*** 0.213*** 0.199*** 0.109***
(0.0383) (0.0350) (0.0340) (0.0522) (0.0422)
age53 = 1 0.208*** 0.174*** 0.169*** 0.154*** 0.0672
(0.0364) (0.0357) (0.0344) (0.0513) (0.0416)
age54 = 1 0.186*** 0.187*** 0.205*** 0.0770 0.0928**
(0.0370) (0.0353) (0.0341) (0.0530) (0.0437)
age55 = 1 0.221*** 0.132*** 0.167*** 0.119** 0.0576
108 | P a g e
(0.0376) (0.0367) (0.0340) (0.0562) (0.0414)
age56 = 1 0.176*** 0.144*** 0.132*** 0.165*** 0.0849**
(0.0401) (0.0350) (0.0344) (0.0545) (0.0411)
age57 = 1 0.198*** 0.138*** 0.146*** 0.0715 0.0928**
(0.0401) (0.0370) (0.0355) (0.0533) (0.0459)
age58 = 1 0.151*** 0.0941*** 0.117*** 0.140** 0.0582
(0.0401) (0.0365) (0.0356) (0.0546) (0.0426)
age59 = 1 0.149*** 0.0921** 0.127*** 0.0987* 0.0128
(0.0404) (0.0373) (0.0351) (0.0544) (0.0431)
age60 = 1 0.0912** 0.0490 0.0453 -0.00189 -0.0299
(0.0387) (0.0362) (0.0347) (0.0562) (0.0435)
age61 = 1 0.0950** -0.00490 -0.00364 -0.0333 -0.00480
(0.0411) (0.0390) (0.0374) (0.0592) (0.0463)
age62 = 1 0.0436 0.00700 0.0228 0.0111 -0.131***
(0.0408) (0.0398) (0.0373) (0.0571) (0.0438)
age63 = 1 - - - - -
age64 = 0 - - - - -
Observations 44,655 49,296 49,683 18,124 27,514

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Table 9. Determinants of labor force participation males age 15-64 years, the Philippines by year (marginal effects after logit estimation)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

VARIABLES Male 2003 Male 2006 Male 2009 Male 2012 Male 2015
Marital status = 1, Married 0.0513*** 0.0777*** 0.0780*** 0.0502*** 0.0617***

(0.00444) (0.00480) (0.00468) (0.00592) (0.00558)
Marital status = 2, Divorced, Separated, Annulled 0.0112 0.0236** 0.0549*** 0.0253* 0.0174
(0.00959) (0.0109) (0.0114) (0.0137) (0.0124)
(0.00733) (0.00987) (0.00938) (0.0108) (0.0104)
(0.00743) (0.0100) (0.00936) (0.0109) (0.0107)
Highest grade completed = 3, Highschool Undergraduate 0.0338*** 0.0625*** 0.0832*** 0.0385*** 0.0512***
(0.00698) (0.00960) (0.00888) (0.0103) (0.0101)
(0.00719) (0.00970) (0.00897) (0.0104) (0.0102)
Highest grade completed = 5, College Undergraduate -0.0105 0.0167* 0.0385*** -0.0212** -0.0306***
(0.00711) (0.00971) (0.00895) (0.0107) (0.0104)
(0.00823) (0.0107) (0.0101) (0.0128) (0.0117)
Is the head of household = 1, Is the household head 0.0650*** 0.0711*** 0.0614*** 0.0590*** 0.0732***
(0.00511) (0.00551) (0.00554) (0.00773) (0.00662)
Location (Urban or rural) = 2, Rural 0.0244*** 0.0328*** 0.0266*** 0.0102*** 0.0156***
(0.00244) (0.00294) (0.00276) (0.00345) (0.00360)
Type of household = 2, Extended Family 0.00751*** -0.00116 -0.0125*** 0.00222 0.00383
(0.00255) (0.00301) (0.00280) (0.00367) (0.00350)
Type of household = 3, Two+ More Nonrelated Persons/Members 0.0251* 0.0550*** 0.0697*** -0.0136 -0.0332
(0.0138) (0.0182) (0.0230) (0.0247) (0.0217)
Family size -0.00474*** -0.00375*** -0.00206** -0.00235** -0.00293***
(0.000752) (0.000893) (0.000868) (0.00110) (0.00105)
Log of total non-labor income minus remittances -0.0170*** -0.0322*** -0.0343*** -0.0225*** -0.0151***
(0.00181) (0.00220) (0.00219) (0.00312) (0.00304)
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No. of households members less than 5 y.o. 0.00811*** 0.00698*** 0.00435** -0.000708 0.00789***
(0.00181) (0.00224) (0.00218) (0.00255) (0.00265)
(0.00104) (0.00126) (0.00119) (0.00149) (0.00155)
Household has a grandparent present = 1 -0.00705 -0.0114* -0.0153** -0.00759 -0.00352
(0.00570) (0.00688) (0.00725) (0.00960) (0.00954)
Household employs a domestic worker = 1 0.00450 0.0104 0.0258*** 0.00443 0.0167
(0.00594) (0.00721) (0.00742) (0.0234) (0.0237)
(0.00428) (0.00460) (0.00413) (0.00580) (0.00559)
Distance of Water Source from the House (meters) 3.43e-05** -2.38e-06 4.31e-05*** 6.04e-05** 5.86e-05***
(1.63e-05) (2.04e-06) (1.44e-05) (2.60e-05) (1.78e-05)
Household has electricity = 2, Without Electricity 0.0260*** 0.0409*** 0.0396*** 0.0327*** 0.0132***
(0.00318) (0.00432) (0.00474) (0.00544) (0.00497)
Unemployment rate by region -0.000984*** 0.00152*** 0.000554 0.000373 0.00296***
(0.000364) (0.000418) (0.000424) (0.000733) (0.000905)
age15 = 0 - - - - -
age16 = 1 -0.0187* -0.0307** -0.0239** -0.0508*** -0.0583***

(0.0110) (0.0139) (0.0119) (0.0165) (0.0150)
age17 = 1 0.0120 0.0133 0.0218* -0.00770 -0.00559
(0.0108) (0.0138) (0.0117) (0.0161) (0.0146)
age18 = 1 0.0498*** 0.0679*** 0.0814*** 0.0293* 0.0515***
(0.0106) (0.0135) (0.0114) (0.0159) (0.0142)
age19 = 1 0.0714*** 0.0974*** 0.110*** 0.0538*** 0.0745***
(0.0106) (0.0136) (0.0114) (0.0160) (0.0143)
age20 = 1 0.0897*** 0.125*** 0.141*** 0.0668*** 0.105***
(0.0107) (0.0136) (0.0116) (0.0160) (0.0143)
age21 = 1 0.111*** 0.160*** 0.161*** 0.0933*** 0.135***
(0.0107) (0.0138) (0.0116) (0.0163) (0.0146)
age22 = 1 0.128*** 0.184*** 0.192*** 0.0919*** 0.143***
(0.0109) (0.0140) (0.0119) (0.0165) (0.0149)
age23 = 1 0.144*** 0.209*** 0.205*** 0.133*** 0.154***
111 | P a g e
(0.0111) (0.0143) (0.0123) (0.0176) (0.0152)
age24 = 1 0.157*** 0.216*** 0.221*** 0.111*** 0.175***
(0.0115) (0.0146) (0.0128) (0.0176) (0.0158)
age25 = 1 0.175*** 0.232*** 0.247*** 0.139*** 0.172***
(0.0121) (0.0150) (0.0134) (0.0187) (0.0163)
age26 = 1 0.164*** 0.254*** 0.247*** 0.162*** 0.177***
(0.0123) (0.0155) (0.0136) (0.0203) (0.0170)
age27 = 1 0.186*** 0.255*** 0.262*** 0.132*** 0.208***
(0.0130) (0.0159) (0.0146) (0.0197) (0.0189)
age28 = 1 0.189*** 0.242*** 0.268*** 0.148*** 0.187***
(0.0134) (0.0162) (0.0156) (0.0206) (0.0183)
age29 = 1 0.174*** 0.235*** 0.263*** 0.183*** 0.167***
(0.0152) (0.0163) (0.0146) (0.0225) (0.0182)
age30 = 1 0.188*** 0.215*** 0.262*** 0.173*** 0.199***
(0.0139) (0.0162) (0.0151) (0.0224) (0.0185)
age31 = 1 0.164*** 0.228*** 0.241*** 0.182*** 0.237***
(0.0137) (0.0168) (0.0152) (0.0238) (0.0238)
age32 = 1 0.214*** 0.246*** 0.265*** 0.154*** 0.226***
(0.0153) (0.0174) (0.0163) (0.0221) (0.0231)
age33 = 1 0.168*** 0.230*** 0.236*** 0.166*** 0.196***
(0.0138) (0.0180) (0.0155) (0.0234) (0.0206)
age34 = 1 0.205*** 0.216*** 0.267*** 0.150*** 0.228***
(0.0164) (0.0171) (0.0170) (0.0238) (0.0238)
age35 = 1 0.183*** 0.242*** 0.245*** 0.133*** 0.189***
(0.0148) (0.0180) (0.0160) (0.0220) (0.0206)
age36 = 1 0.194*** 0.217*** 0.234*** 0.157*** 0.169***
(0.0161) (0.0174) (0.0170) (0.0239) (0.0199)
age37 = 1 0.201*** 0.228*** 0.249*** 0.145*** 0.195***
(0.0171) (0.0186) (0.0177) (0.0226) (0.0230)
age38 = 1 0.161*** 0.220*** 0.236*** 0.158*** 0.203***
(0.0149) (0.0175) (0.0167) (0.0236) (0.0223)
age39 = 1 0.183*** 0.182*** 0.249*** 0.141*** 0.172***
(0.0165) (0.0173) (0.0171) (0.0245) (0.0217)
112 | P a g e
age40 = 1 0.182*** 0.203*** 0.231*** 0.109*** 0.167***
(0.0160) (0.0174) (0.0158) (0.0210) (0.0199)
age41 = 1 0.174*** 0.218*** 0.228*** 0.125*** 0.175***
(0.0178) (0.0190) (0.0167) (0.0226) (0.0210)
age42 = 1 0.149*** 0.222*** 0.206*** 0.136*** 0.155***
(0.0154) (0.0194) (0.0155) (0.0219) (0.0219)
age43 = 1 0.149*** 0.183*** 0.232*** 0.117*** 0.180***
(0.0151) (0.0180) (0.0172) (0.0222) (0.0215)
age44 = 1 0.163*** 0.198*** 0.222*** 0.129*** 0.138***
(0.0177) (0.0187) (0.0177) (0.0252) (0.0209)
age45 = 1 0.149*** 0.179*** 0.209*** 0.0842*** 0.170***
(0.0154) (0.0178) (0.0161) (0.0211) (0.0209)
age46 = 1 0.148*** 0.180*** 0.190*** 0.134*** 0.147***
(0.0160) (0.0175) (0.0166) (0.0255) (0.0204)
age47 = 1 0.165*** 0.181*** 0.206*** 0.105*** 0.184***
(0.0177) (0.0189) (0.0173) (0.0228) (0.0243)
age48 = 1 0.135*** 0.174*** 0.199*** 0.100*** 0.184***
(0.0157) (0.0174) (0.0170) (0.0218) (0.0243)
age49 = 1 0.121*** 0.148*** 0.168*** 0.115*** 0.155***
(0.0151) (0.0168) (0.0148) (0.0248) (0.0215)
age50 = 1 0.109*** 0.153*** 0.158*** 0.112*** 0.124***
(0.0141) (0.0173) (0.0148) (0.0239) (0.0198)
age51 = 1 0.103*** 0.154*** 0.164*** 0.0726*** 0.153***
(0.0146) (0.0173) (0.0159) (0.0211) (0.0209)
age52 = 1 0.123*** 0.132*** 0.131*** 0.100*** 0.140***
(0.0160) (0.0167) (0.0152) (0.0214) (0.0213)
age53 = 1 0.109*** 0.116*** 0.164*** 0.0540*** 0.113***
(0.0151) (0.0163) (0.0163) (0.0206) (0.0190)
age54 = 1 0.0831*** 0.120*** 0.143*** 0.0325* 0.0933***
(0.0137) (0.0164) (0.0150) (0.0191) (0.0194)
age55 = 1 0.0768*** 0.114*** 0.121*** 0.0469** 0.120***
(0.0137) (0.0168) (0.0141) (0.0197) (0.0200)
age56 = 1 0.0554*** 0.0904*** 0.0995*** 0.0519** 0.0881***
113 | P a g e
(0.0140) (0.0159) (0.0134) (0.0209) (0.0189)
age57 = 1 0.0685*** 0.0845*** 0.0772*** 0.0462** 0.0838***
(0.0147) (0.0163) (0.0142) (0.0211) (0.0203)
age58 = 1 0.0528*** 0.0605*** 0.107*** -0.00372 0.0781***
(0.0144) (0.0155) (0.0146) (0.0193) (0.0188)
age59 = 1 0.0432*** 0.0495*** 0.0701*** 0.0138 0.0557***
(0.0143) (0.0158) (0.0135) (0.0200) (0.0187)
age60 = 1 0.0452*** 0.0334** 0.0604*** 0.00942 0.0324*
(0.0137) (0.0156) (0.0137) (0.0197) (0.0168)
age61 = 1 0.00943 0.0476*** 0.0433*** -0.0566*** 0.0298*
(0.0130) (0.0170) (0.0140) (0.0190) (0.0180)
age62 = 1 0.0102 0.0179 0.0132 0.00266 0.0165
(0.0137) (0.0163) (0.0130) (0.0189) (0.0182)
age63 = 1 - - - - -
age64 = 0 - - - - -
Observations 46,644 51,069 51,743 19,445 30,628

114 | P a g e
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ILS - 2020 - Working Paper - Trends On Female Economic Inactivity and Determinants of Female Labor Force Participation in The Philippines

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TRENDS ON FEMALE ECONOMIC INACTIVITY AND DETERMINANTS

OF FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Paulina Kim C. Pacete

4. Conclusion and recommendation .............................................................................. 21

Gender equality in economic opportunities and increasing women’s economic participation is an

In particular, the study aims to:

Determinants of female labor force participation in developing countries. Studies on the

3.1.1. Labor force participation rate

3.1.2. By age group

3.1.3. Excluding students

3.1.4. Economic inactivity rate

3.1.5. By age group

3.1.6. By highest grade completed

3.1.7. By marital status

3.2. Profile of female economically inactive population

3.2.1. By age group

3.2.2. By highest grade completed

3.2.5. By reason for not looking for work

3.2.6. Youth not in education and not in employment (NEE)

3.2.7. If have worked before, past occupation, and previous industry

3.3. Econometric estimates of determinants of female labor force participation

3.3.1. Econometric model for female labor force participation

𝑙𝑓𝑝𝑖 =𝛽0 + ∑𝑘𝑗=1 𝑋𝑗𝑖 + 𝜀𝑖 (1)

3.3.2. Descriptive results

3.3.3. Estimation results

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.2. On determinants of female labor force participation

4.3. Implications for policy

Figure 1. New statistical definition of work according to 19th ICLS Resolution

For own use For use by others

Other unapid work

Source: Adopted from (ILO and Data2X, 2018).

• Recommendations for women according to economic activity/inactivity category

▪ There is opportunity in leveraging digital technologies to promote women’s

▪ Work provided through public employment programs can be reviewed to be

o On enabling environment and factors

▪ Explore how to fully realize lifelong learning in the Philippines: on financing,

Table 1. The 5R Framework for Decent Care Work

Main policy areas Policy Policy measures

Labor Force Participation Rate, by Sex, 1988-2020

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Economic inactivity rate by highest grade completed, females, 1988-2020

Economic inactivity rate by highest grade completed, females, 1988-2020

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Youth (15-24 y.o.) currently attending school by sex, 2006-2020

Percentage of youth (15-24 y.o.) working age population

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Percentage of youth (15-24) population

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Percentage of youth (15-24) population

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Source: Labor Force Survey (LFS)

Percent distribution of persons out of the labor force, males, 1988-2020

Marital status = 1, Married -0.249* -0.225* -0.212* -0.237* -0.187***

age16 = 1 -0.516* -0.516* -0.532* -0.655* -0.737***

Marital status = 1, Married 0.0532* 0.0771* 0.0777* 0.0492* 0.0599***

age16 = 1 -0.0315* -0.0314 -0.0251 -0.0514* -0.0606***

Marital status = 1, Married -0.249* -0.224* -0.212* -0.237* -0.187***

Marital status = 1, Married 0.0531* 0.0772* 0.0780* 0.0497*

Marital status = 1, Married -0.243* -0.225* -0.212* -0.237* -0.187***

age16 = 1 -0.500* -0.518* -0.533* -0.657* -0.736***

Marital status = 1, Married 0.0513* 0.0777* 0.0780* 0.0502* 0.0617***

age16 = 1 -0.0187* -0.0307 -0.0239 -0.0508* -0.0583*