CHAPTER

THIRTEEN
BEHAVIOUR OF SOILS BEFORE.FAILURE

, In the last three chapters we have introduced the concepts of the critical
state line and the state boundary surface for sands and clays. The stress
1
,atht followed by soils in drained and undrained tests have been identified,
I
I and methods of calculating volumetric strains to the ultimate condition on
the eritical state line have been described. So far, however, we have not
,,1
:
con$idered the rhagnitude of the shear strains and we have not considered
:-j the stress-strain behaviour of a sample early on in a test.
In. order to consider deformations at an early stage of a test, it is
l
I ne@ssary, and indeed essential, to make a distinction between elastic and
t
.t plastic strains and to devtlop a criterion which determines whether a
particular loading path produces elastic or plastic strains. We will also
{
discuss the application of the theories of elasticity and plasticity to the
-I stress-strain behaviour of soil. We shall find that interpretation of soil
,I deformations in terms of these theories gives extra insight into the critical
5-
state framework developed in the preceding chapters. It also allows
J quantitative estimates to be made of the shear and volumetric strains caused
by loading.
I.
r We go on to discuss the Cam-clay theory, which uses ideas of elasticity
,l
and plasticity expressed in quantitative mathematical terms. We have chosen
to discuss the original simple Cam-clay theory, which is described by
Schofield and Wroth (1968, pp. 134-.166) in more detail, because it is simple,
it illustrates how the various concepts fit together, and it is the basis for
much recent work on the stress-strain behaviour of soil. Nevertheless, readers
should be aware that although predictions of the theory are broadly correct,
they are unsatisfactory in some respects and the simple theory has been
superseded by theories which, although conceptually similar to Cam-clay,
are rnathematically more complex. The reader must be referred to recent
research papers and conferences for an up-to-date account

1}2 ELASTIC AND PLASTIC DEFORMATIONS: THE

ELASTIC WALL
It is first necessary to make a distinction between elastic (recoverable)-ffiI.'
plastic (irecoverable) strains.'This distinction is commonly made in the
 zia\nrMECHANrcs oF sorls

discussion of the behaviour of rnetals. Thus, the behaviour of rnetal can

often be idealized as shown in Fig. l3-1. For uniaxial applied stresses less
than o, the deformation is linearly elaslic and, if the metal is loaded and
unloaded, the strains caused'on loading are fully recovered on unloading.
However, if the metal is loaded beyond a stress'or; additional plastic strains
occur and the state of the metal might be represented by point G. When the
metal is unloaded it follows path GB and some (elastic) strain is recovered.
However, at B, the metal has suffered a large irrecoverable plastic strain.
If the metal is reloaded from B the deformation is linearly elastic for applied
stresses less than o* which is greater than o". The stresses o, and o. at
which the behaviour of the metal beoomes plasfic,are known as yield stresses
and an effect of plastic straining from Y to-G is to iaiie the yield stress from
o" to ori this effect is known as strain_@fufug;. If the metal is loaded
"C
biyond it *iU eventually fail at ltfi,E;ififfnss is o1.
For soil, the distinction between recoverable and irrecoverable strain
is best illustrated by behaviour during isotropic compression. The normal
consolidation line for a clay is indicated by line ABC in Fig. 13-2. If the clay
is unloaded from B, it moves along the swelling Iine BD. If it is reloaded
from D, the soil retraces path DB to B, after which additional compressions
occur as the sample moves down the normal consolidation line to. C"
Similarly, if the sample is unloaded from C, it moves back along the swelling
line to E. We should note that, at a fixed value of rnean nortrral effective
stress, the szr.mple is at a lower specific volume at E than at D, i.e., some
irrecoverable (plastic) strain has occurred on the path DBCE. We know that
the strains are recoverable along the swelling lines DB and EC, and so the
plastic strains must have occurred over path BC, that part of the path that
Iies on the state boundary surface. There is a direct analogy with the

Axial
stress, oa
O1

o-

.,?j,t'r., 0 B Axial strain, co

Figure 13-1 Elastic-plastic behaviour oi rn"t"l .

\
\
 I
!
l
BEI{AVIOUR OF SOIIS BEFORE TAILURE'265

.:

I
Normal consolidation line
I
,-

It
t
I

I
!
I
I

i
I

Figure l3-2 Elastic-plastic behaviour of clay in isotropic compression and swelling

occurrence of plastic ,t.uin, over the path YG for the metal specimen of
Fig. I3-1.
We can generalize this observation, and argue for soils that plastic
(irrecoverable) strains only occur when the sample is tanersing the state
boundary surface. Thus, for paths below the state boundary surface, the
strains are purely elastic and recoverable. This hypothesis leads to some
strong limitations on the paths that can be followed by specimens. For
example, because irrecoverable (plastic) strain has occurred between points
D and E of Fig. l3-2, it means that the test path followed by the specimen
must have touched the state boundary surface between D and E. The path
DBCE satisfies that requirementbecause section BC (the normal consolidation
line) lies on the Roscoe surface. An alternative path'for the specimen to
move from D to E is for it to be sheared at constant p'. Then, in order that
the necessary irrecoverable strains occur, the test path must be such that q'
increases so that the test path strikes the Roscoe state boundary surface at G
(Fig. 13-3), above D, before the path traverses the state boundary surface
to K, above E. As the value of q' reduces, the sample then deforms only
elastically as it moves to E. The value of g'. at G fixes the value of q' Which
must be applied to the sample at D (when p' is held constant) in order to

There is a range of otlrer paths by whigh the sample could move from
D to E; all of them requile that the sample rioves across the state boundary
surface. Convg.rsely, there is a rangerg{-paths which may be followed by a
Sample at D without plastic deformition occurring. All paths that remain
on.the curved vertical plane above the.surdling line BD, but below the state
 266 tua MEcHANIqs oF sorls

Critical state line

Normal consolidation Swelling

line line

u
Figure 13-3 The test path frorn points D to E in q, : p,: 1, space

boundary surface, will cause only elastic deformation of the soil;

this curved
surface, BJIH in Fig. 13-4 is called the elastic wail. of
course there is an
infinite number of elastic walls, each elastic wall being associated
with a
particular swelling line.
If the state of a sampre is berow the state boundary surface, its behaviour
is assumed to be elastic and stresses and strains may be related
through
the theory of elasticity. on the other hand, if the state
of a sample ries on the
state boundary surface, both plastic and elastic strains
may occur and the
plastic strains may be calculated from the theory of plasticity.
The importance
of the distinction between elastic and plastic stiaini is that elasfic
strains are
relatively small, while plastic strains are relatively large. Thus,
if a loading
on a soil stratum causes only elastic strains, *" -"*p..t that the soil
-

deformations would be small. conversely, soil deformations

and settlements
will-be large if significant amounts of plastic straln occur in the soil
stratum.
For the 'theoretical calculation of soil deformations, the oirtir"ti.o,
between elastic and plastic strains is importanf fo-r the.,two
types of strain
areco1lpu[e{completeIydifferentIy.:..i.......,.---Jr
13.3 CALCT'LATION OF ELASTIC STRAINS
The behaviour of an ideal isotropic elastic soil was discussed in sec..4-li.
we began with the generalized form of Hooke's law in Eqs (a-66) and we

I
 BEHAVIOUR, OF SOILS BEFORE FAILURE 267

Critica! state line

I
I
I

..I
I
1

,.

a
I!
I
.t

'i
.tI
-;

't
t
t Figure 13-4 The elastic wall

a-
l
showed that increments of strain could be related to increments of effective
-t
* stress more conveniently through the use of invariants by Eqs (4-76) and
(4-77). These were
I
I t
.I Etr: iEp'+0.69', (13-r)

I
6e" : 6.. 6l' +1O;6Q', (r3-2)

where r(', the elastic bulk modulus, and G', the elastic shear moclulus, were
constants over the appropriate increments of stress and strain. Equations
(13-l) and (13-2) show that, for an ideal isotropic elastic soil, volumetric
strains ane connected with p' and separated from q' and shear strains are
connected with q' and separated from p'.
, W. have now. poslulpted the- gxi.ste_npe 'of the elagtic yall BJIH in Fig.
-.! --
134 and suggested that the path of an overconsolidated soil whose state lies
'l
below the state boundary surface must remain oo a particular elastic wall;
i" consequently, the path followed by a sample of an overconsolidated soil,
a;
.i, - j :::r:: during loading oi unlohding will follow the line of iffisection of the elastic
wall and the appropriate.drained or undrained loadifllgplanes discussed in
Section i0.5. Thus, Fig. 13-5 shows the line of int€.rseCti&n DG of the elastic

\
 zf,g rHr MEcHANrcs oF sorI.s

Critical state line

Undrained
plane

Normal consolidation
!ine

Figure 1&5 Intersection of an elastic wall and an undrained plane

wall and an undrained plane QRST for a constant volume loading or un-
Ioading test. The path DG rises vertically from D to G, which is on the state
boundary surFace. If the sample is loaded beyond G it will suffer plastic
strains as its state traverses the state boundary surface along its intersection
with the undrained plane towards its ultimate state at F at the intersection
of the critical state line and the uudrained plane.
For undrained loading of saturated soil, when 6ro:0, Eq. (13-l) has
the consequence that
6p':0. (r 3-3)
This confirms that the stress path DG in Fig. l3-5 rises vertically up the
intersection of the undrained plane and the elastic wall. It was for this
reason that we sketched undrained effectiye stress paths on overconsolidated
samples, in Fig. 11-15 and elsewhere, as being vertical until they reached
the state boundary surface.
Figure 13-6 shows the intersection DG of an elasfic wall and a drained
plane QRST, and this is the path followed by a sample of isotropic elastic
soil during loading or unloading in a drained triaxiaf compression test; the
line DG is. not straight because the elastic *ail is curved in plan and there is
a reduction in volume associated with an increase of p,. It was for this

\
 ::i.t

I
i,
BEIIAVIOUR OF SOrI S BEFORE FAILURE ?69

reason that we showed in Fig. ll-22 atd elsewhere, that there was com-
-samples
pression of overconsolidated in draiued triaxiat tests before the
1
sample reached the.state boundary surface. If the sample is loaded beyond G
I (Fig. l3-Q, it will suffer plastic strains as its state trave'rses the state boundary
i
surface along its inters*tion with the drained plane towards its ultimate
state at F, where $e critical state line and the drained plaae intersect.
I
I
We now have.sufrcient informatioh to calculate the shear and volumetric
ll
strains in a lample of ideal isotropic elastic soil as it is loaded or unloaded
!
in drained triaxial compression along DG. The elastic wall is vertically
above a swelling line BDF introduced in chapter 7 and is therefore given by
-t

o - o*-xltp' (r34)

6u = -x(6p'lp'). (r3-s)
Hencq from Eq. (+54),6e": -6olo, we have
6e": (rclop)Ep'. (r 3-6)

I
Thus, the bulk modulus K' for the soil is given by
J t
Kt : up, l*, (13-7)
1
J

t-
I
p,

Figure 13-6 Intersection otan elastic wall and d drained plane

\ "l
 270 r.laE. MEcHANrcs oF sorls

and using the result for elastic materials that

(i 3-8)

(l 3-e)

So, from Eq. (13-2),

(13-10)

Equations (13-6) and (13-10) define the-.stress-strain behaviour of a soil

undergoing ideal isotropic elastic deformations during a drained triaxiat
compression test along a path such as DG in Fig. t3-6. They are also valid
for any loading path in which the state of the soil remains below the state
boundary surface. rn particular, Eqs. (r3-O and (13-J0) are valid for any
undrained loading path such as DF in Fig. l3-5, in which case Eeo : Ep' : 0
and increments of shear strain are related to increments of by Eq. (ig-ro).
4,
Equation (13-7), together-with the definition of bulk modulus K' in
terms of .E' and z', gives
K' : op'|rc : E' l1(l -2r') (13-1 r)
and, hence,
E' :3up'(1-2v)lx. (13-t2)
values for E' ar.d v' may be obtained directly from the results of a drained
triaxial compression test in which Ao'r: Ao,":0 and axial and radial
strains are rneasured. From the generarized Hooke's taw in Eqs (+67),
putting Doj: 6oi:9
E' :6o'J6eo, (r 3-r 3)
y' (13-14)
= -Ee./6eo.
rn this treatment of elastic behaviour in soils, the value of young,s
modulus E' as given by Eq. (13-12) depends on the current values of u
and p', on the value of r which defines the srope of a swelling line as well
as on v'. Even though we assume' that v' is constant, the value of .8, will
not be constant and the soil behaviour, even if it is isotropic and qlastic,
will not be linear; Eqs (13-6) ind (13-10) ar6, therefore, valid only ior
incrernents of loading sufficiently small so that the value of E, may ue
assumed to be constant. However, in mahy cises tho change of specific
volume u during a Ioading path which .uur", only elastic strains, and which
therefore, remains on a particular elastic wall, is relatively small and so the
value of E'lp' will remain approximately constant. Hence, we may write
E' lP' : 3u(I -2v')lt<- constant. (13-rs)

I
t
\
1
\
_i:
:.:-11

I
BEHAVIOUR OF SOU,S BEFORE TAILURE 271

Consequently, for a drained loading or unloading test on a soil in the elastic

range in which the value of pi gtr.ttts during loading, we would expect the
';.':

stress-strain behaviour to be non-linear. On'the other hand, for .any

un-
drained loading, or unloading of an isotropic soil in the elastic range
-l
I

&' : 0 and, hence,'in theory, the stress-strain behaviour should be lirrear'

i
{
The treatment in this section illustiates a simple, but fairly realistic,
!
t approach to the noU-linear elastic behaviour of soils; recent work at
,
i-ambridge and elsewher€ suggests thal there are certain additional mathe-
-rI matical uod th"or"tical'restrictions on the,penhissible relationships between
I
the elastic parameters which must be allowed for in a rigorous treatment'
J

'] 1&.4 CALCI.IL.ATTO_I! or ELASTTC STRAINS FOR

i
trxonanveo LOA5ING IN TERMS OF TOTAL STRESSES

_1
So far, in accordance with the principle of effective stress, we have qUite
.,J
I
:
prollerly related increments of elastic strain to increments of effective stress'
Ho*trit, for the special case of undrained loading of saturated soil when
I there is no volume change, it is convenient to relate increments of strain to
increments of total strissl ignoring any pore presstres generated' This
,
l
technique of considering total stresses instpad of effective stresses is common
't
t
in soil mechanics and lt is a technique which we will consider again in
Chapter 14, in connection with the undrained strength of soils'
n
I
I
For undrained elastic behaviour in terms of total stress, we deflne an
I undrained Young's modulus Eo and an undrained Poisson's ratio vu. These
* haVe the same meanings as E' andu', but are defined in terms of total stresses
for undrained loadinfof saturated soil. Hence, by analogy with Eqs (13.13)
I,l and (13-14), for an undrained triaxiat test with Aor- Aor:0 we have
I

Eo: 8oJ6e", (13-16)

/n : - 6e./Ee", (13-17)

and the generalized form of Hooke's law for undrained loading in terms of
total stresses becomes
Ee1 : (l/EJ [Eo.-uo 6o2-uo 6or], )
I
Eer: (i/fr)[Eor-vo Eo3-uo 6o1], (13-18)
]
! 6e, : Eo2]. )
(l/Eo) [6or- 2,. 6o. - uo

Following earlier arguments, the behaviour of an ideal isotropic elastic

soil durini uhdrained'loading ihrterms of invari?nts of total stress is given by

sr": Ep*0. Eq, (13-re)

* j'
.l

Ee,1o. ar+fr aa, (13-20)

 1272 rue MEcHAN:rcs oF sorls

1-hgre
Ko:iEJo;2;J,1:d c" :.+EJa*2,.) are the appropriare
drained bulk modulus an"a ,h.", un-
iloau'tur.
NoW, for undrained loaAing
stress loading path; hence "i":r"r"*ted soil, 6eo:0 for any total
f" is-innnite and
Y.',=*.
(13-21)
Further, 6q'.* Eq, in Eq. (13_20) and, from this and
Eq. (13_2), we have
G,: G,
and, noting that zo : (13-:22)
|,
6' : $E'l(l*v,): Go : *8,.
H6nce, (13-23)

h
3
" 2(l*r,)"
-
^,
(t3-24)
or, from Eq. (13-12),

, _9op,(l_2v,)
"a-
since for undrained Ioading
@. (13-2s)
or unroading of an isotropic
erastic so, 6p, : 6
;1,1,fl';:;"::,:y*, the undra*a vouoe,,
in theory, undrained stresslstlain
*;;;i;
a constant *
etastic soit wi, O",1;ff:rO, Urf,auiourli ""
During undrained loading of
a'saturated isotropic so,,
v'ill adjust itself to maintain-Ep,:0. the pore pressure
fn, magnitid";iil iucrease 6u of
may be related io the increments
lr:::.fft*re of the invariants of total
Eu: b(iP+aLq), (13-26)
where a and 6 are empirical parameters.
Relationships between increments
effective stress invariants
;i.tffiriXl may be obdinJirorn
rq, g-27)
6p' : 6p- 6t (t3-27)
iq' : 6q'
(13_28)
Adding Eqs (13-27) and (13_2g),
putting 6p,: 0, and comparing with
Eq. (13-2e, we have
.Ez: 5p
b : 1'0 and a: 0 for undrained roading of a saturated
( B_2g)
r,x*,lix!i: isotropic
The technieue o,f analysing
undrained soil behaviour
stressesis attractivery simite u'", in terms or totur
The soil behaviour ir rt,folp*..r,
*"irrt. be crear about what is involved.
controlled by the requiremeit io ,rr. stresses but these are
rrru,t t]r" roir"r"ctive
*uintanr-"Jstant"vorume;
thus, by working in terms
of tstar str"ss we avoid the
need to carcurate the

'I
'(
 BEHAVIOUR OF SOIIS BEFORE FAILURE 2?3

pore pressures. It'must, however, be properly understood that the total

stress technique is valid only for the special case when the soil is saturated
and undrained, so that volumetric strains are zero; in all other cases the
total stress analysis is not valid and calculations raust proceed in terms of
effective stress.

n Exanfpto.lll, Calculation of elastic strains

I
A soil has r : :0,25.Two samples A and B'are isotropically
0.05 and v'
normally consolidated in a triaxial apparatus to p': 1000kNm-z and
_-.t

:iI - . --:rit :
swelled to p:60.kNm-2 and u:0 when'their specific volumes are
,,-1

o - 2.08. Each sample is then subjected to a loading test in which the

-total axial and radial stresses are changed to oo : 65 kN m-z and
,i
,l
i

*
:1 or:55 kN*-'; Sample A is loaded drained and u:0 and Saryrp.le B
'I
is loadediffir;iftrcd,aqd er:0. Neither sample yields.
\
,
I
For each test calculate the shear and volumetric strains and the
I change of pore pressure-.

] The soil $oes not leld and it deforms elastically; hence, the governing
equations are Eqs (13-O and (13-10):
?
d
Er,: (a\ 6p',
T
\up I
j ^ zK(l+v'\
oe":,;r7;7v,oQ"
'!
Substituting the values of r : 0.05 and v' :0.25, together with
J P' :60 kNm-z and u:2.08,
6e":4.9x l0{ 6P',
Ee":2.2x l0{ E4'.
For bo& samples: before loading,
Q:0, P:60 kNm-2;
after loading,
t
: q= (65-55): l0 kNm-2,
p : +(65+ I l0) : 58.33 (Nm-2.
j
Hence,
t Eq: kNm-z,
10
-
8p=-1.67kNm-2.
 lW

274;rr.t MEcHANics oF sorls

!

For Test 4, u - 0; hence, 6q' : Eq, Ep, : 6p, and

Eeo : -4.0x 10{x i.67 x 100
6e, _ _0.062 per cent,
6e":2'2x 10{x l0x i00
6e" - 0.220 per cent
For Test B, Eeo : 0; hence, Ep':O and Ea: 6p, but 6e" remains un_

6u: -1.67 kNm-2,

6e. :,0.220 per cent.

13-s ESSEN PLASTICTTY TImORY

The three essential features of the theory of plasticity are yielding,

hardening,
and flow and in order to illustrate these concepts it is convenient to
describ-e
the plastic behaviour of a hypothctical metal-like material.
. Asample,Fig. r3-7(a), is subjected to principal effective stresses o,oand
oiand it deforms in plane strain with er:0 normal to the page.
A number
of tqsts are conducted. in which, first,-ai is held constant wrrile
and, second, oi is hel-d constant while oi is increased; a further 4 increased
is
test is con_
ducted oi is zero while oi is raised to
i" rH.n some
removed. The curves of stress against strain (Fig. l3-7(b), ("i,
varue o,, and then
and (d))
show that for each particular value of the constant stress
the sample behaves
like. the metal shown in Fig. l3-1, but now the magnitudes
of the yield
stresses o! and the failure stresses oi depend on the
magnitude oi the
constant stress.
I
n
i
If the various combinations of o'o and. oi at yield and at failure are.
plotted together, as shown in Fig. l3-g(u), all siates of
t ,t..r, at yield lie on a
yield curue and all states of stress at failure lie on a
i
failure enuelope. Thus,
'I the sample will yield if the particurar combination oroi and oi
plots onto the
yield curve YoY. in Fig. l3-8(a) and it will fail if the
farticular combination
o! o'" and oj plots onto the failure envelope F, F". clJarly, the state
of stress
gir.l b.{ d, ""1 oi cannot lie outside tne raiture envetoje and, if the srate
Iies inside the yield curye, the material behaviour is only
elastic. The failure
envelope may or may not be geometricalry simirar to
the yierd curve.
If the sample is loaded,beyond y in Fig. 13-7(d) to G and then unroaded,
on reloading it will yield ar G when the new yield itress
is ol and there wili
be a new yield curve GoG, in Fig. r3-g(aj. This expinsiSn
of the yierd
curve in Fig. I3-8(a) due to prastic strain arong yG in rig.
rg-zrdj i;-#;;;
as strain hardming or work hardening. The relationship
Ietween the change
(o'u- o'") of yield stress and the prastic strain from y
to G is knowrr as a

\
\
 BETTAVIOUR OT SOIIS BEFORE TAILURE 275

(a) State of stress

in a sample

4
::..:- oi
o',

o'"

ot1

o"

o',

o',
o',
(d ) Stress-strain curve
forof=0test

tbsts. (c) Stress-strain

c! : 0 test.

i,
,l
i\
t . ,*l
\,
\n6 THE MECHANICS OF SOIIS

,
oa

s" Yield curve for hrst yield

Yield cune for reloading

Failure envelope

o', o'1

(a)

(b)
Yieldiog and hardening. (a) yierd curves and fait,re enverope. (b) yierd
If:^t'r*
surlace

hardening law. T}.e elastic'(recoverable) strain Ee|,along GB is greater '

than
that along OY aird, consequently, alo-ng yG,,"elastic and plfstic ,tJ;;
occlr_sirnultaneously. In Fig. l3-z(d), the plastic (irrecoverable) strain at
G 3:g a1ld-.hence, the plastic rtq*io for loading along yG which causes
T
strain hardening is given by t'he distance oB ana nol ay the horizontal
component of the length yG.
 BEHAVIoUR oF soll-s BEFoRE
FAILURE 277
The complete.yielding,hardening, and fairure may be represented
single diagram with axes o,r: o,": ep as shown on a
in Fig.'tf_a(bf
an infinite number of yield curyes such as GoG-1ach
*;;il;
associattid. with a
particular value-of plastic strain ep, and
togetderilr"r"-a.ane a surface we
shall call a yierd surface, which is timitec u]
tne yield-curve yoy"for first
yield'when ep:0 and by the failure enverope
: FrF". The state.of a sampre
may lie on or within the yield surface but cannoi
surfage represents. a bolndary for all possible
l[ outside it so the yield
states. If the srate of a sample
traverses the yierd yrface, the sampG suffers
13!
pi"rii;;ins whictr *;t;;
calculated from the hardening law, but, if
I
the state i, *i*Jn the yierd surface,
. the strains are wholly elastic.,.If.-the state of a sample lies bn the
failure
envelope, the sample may fraffiie or it may
continu'e to strain prastically,
;
] but it will cease to harden and there will be ,"
There are
obvious simitarities between the yield surface "r"rii"-strains.
in Fig. t:-g and rhe state
boundary surface for soil in Fig. fi_f+.
' The third essential feature olplasticity theory is afiow rule, whichrelates
the ratio of various plastic straini in an incremJnt
"! oiplastic deformation to
the state of stress causing these plastic deformations.
I
..t the idea, it is conveaient to ploi incrernents
In order to illustrate
of plastic strain on the same
diagram as states of stress, provided that
'3 components of stress and strain
t correspdnd correctly as discussed in sec.
g 4-10; thus, Fig. r3-9 has axes
-t oi' oj superimposed uT.r EeB, 6e3- The state of a iampre ar in Fig.
13.9(a) is represented:.,by the strJss vlctor o, (oe) made up of componenrs
e
*l-
. o'" a1d oi. The sample iuffers an increment of plastic strain Esp (eR) made
L' up of components 6e[- and 6ef;. The gra
drent deo,lde! of trre vector of prastic
strain increment is rerated to the ,*Ito,
"t'
E
the change of stress causing the plastic
of strJss J, and is independent of
E
strain. This plastic u"nuuiou. contrasts
with perfectly elastic uetravioui where the gradient
of the vector of strain
increm_ent depends wholly on the change
I
of stress.
A flow rules defines a precise relationship between the gradien
a

I
of the vector of strain incretnent and the
t det"lde!
vector of stress o'. It is conventional
to
_define a plastic potential such that vectors of strain increment are
orthogonal to the prastic potentiar, as ilrustrated
the plastic potential in rig. r:-g(a) is
i" Fig. il-9(a). The part of
similar to pari o?u virro curve in Fig.
13-8 and a flow rure may be specified
as a rerationrrrip i.,*..n a prastic
poteltial and a yierd curve. rn particurar, if
the prasiil fo,.nriut and the
yield curve coincide, the material is
said to have an aisociated fiow rule
and the normality conditionapplies
in the sense that vectors of strain increment
are normal to a yieid curve,,as shown
in Fie.,l3gfb) ,

Thus, the prastic behaviour of an idear

by a yield surface, a flow rure and a hardening :r".ir"-r,;:;ic materiar is.specified
states of stress which cause onry erastic strains
h; A rlialrra". separates
from:states of stress which ,
cause both plastic aad erastic strains. A flow,ut.,"iut.r1-f,!
vector of plastic strain increment to the yield
il;il; ;il;
surface; for arnaterial with an
t!

?il8 rlg.p MEcHANrcs oF sorls

oL,6i

Yield curve

(b)
Figure l3-9 FIow rules. (a) Plastic potential. (b) Normality condition

associated flow rule, the vector of plastic strain increment is normal to the
yield surface. A hardening law relates the magnitude of a plastic strain to
the magnitude of an increment of stress as &e state of stress traverses the
yield surface and the material strain hardens.

13.6 PLASTICITY FOR SOII,S

we have already introduced the concept of the elastic wall in Sec. l3-2 and
indicated, for sample states on the elastic rvall and below the staie boundary
surface, that the strains will be purely elastic and recoverable. Thus, a sampll
whose state is anywhere on the elastic wall BJHI of Fig. l3-4 can move
 b, -t:Q - 5 i- /or-
Ce{q r. f,argf S-r rI-?-, J'
BEHAvrouR oF sons BEFoRE r.qrrrnr 279
[: everyrvhere on thercl3*,*._*lll, .u*.l_lg.^9.4y-
elastic strains. We have aiso
t,;rytts{phl, ".!tr4g*"l,li*r1,t
I

:t*t
"yield surface similai i; t
I
rusly:le{re
ltreru ge$_ol*gil wi th the atacTo@lgrftGlfi;hich plastic strai ns
can nr.errr\ fn-
__gtn*ggggq.-Thus, we can proje
the q': p' plane to oblgulgJ.fg.rrvi LMN for all
samples lying on that
I elastic wall, as shown in Fig. t:-tO.
The condition that samples lie on the particular elastic wall
BJHI is that
samples lie on the swelling Iine L"M"N" in u: p,space (Fig.
l3_10(c)). other
I
elastic walls are each associated with different swelling
ilnes lnig:. l3_ll),
and the relevant elastic wall, and, hence, yield curve, forL
sample is obtained
from the position of the sampre in u : p' space. we shourd note
too that if a
sample is at state Q in Fig. I3-ll, and is then subjected
to a Ioading stress
increment such as eS, the sample wilr suffer a certain
change in specific
volume lu whichwill move the state of the sample in
u : p, rpu.. so ihat it
now lies on the elastic wail CC instead of the eiastic wati gd.
cuil9llg;:y, slqge (curyg a_rew-relc
qq) ,be applicable and ur. r"* *ir
I

behav-i6r?*duringlsotropic
rvsr usrrrrS' rrvLrePrL uullllfresslon
compression anOand SWelllng
swelling WhiCh
which WaS
was diSCUsSed
di
in Sec. l3-2. we consider a sample which is comp.e"ssed along
the normal
consolidation line to B (Fig. r3-r2), allowed to swell
to D,rrconrpressed to B
then c, and allowed to srvelr to E. As argued before,
I the sampre coutd move
el+stically alone Lhe sl[elling llqcs EC anO ng with
owever g*E!gJpe.B_19.*e_ggg:q, s o m c p I a s t:% i C i riec o vera b e volu-
metnc strarn. ri:-:- t:- _:': t;.'=;==Y*_:1iffi" /.L * 7t,,'< I

magnitudc *luttrt
of the astrcf strath"'can be ined b
- partng-rhe specific volum"s iiffi the same valuc
p' : pl.The incr-ease Au of specific volume from D to
a6c{gn5g E is
A./ =n4_.ut
Au :3ti,-^t.'rt t -vs 4,l^l/a,tsS ( I 3-30)
, and, hencc, the increment of plastic uoturfftri.
t, strain is
;
3ef) : -lolurr: (r,l-r,p)/un. a\nre3,i,n
ri. t
1t3-31)
of coursc. thc two sn'clling lines DB and EC each have
elastic walls
::::::,1:.9
rvitl'r. rhenr, anrl,
.thu.s,
eq.*(lj l])_eiygs.r-trs j-te_{s,.eil*e.l plasric
ve.l"u.as"t_ii-c-.qlrl"l_T__s!esti{s*d_:y-t!lt*,lr..[,,",.*;;t;r';;;;rr.;
1*$rr"tplg l1 q11*? !la"t r -.

"wer--qb-qx,€€, T1.,'rjr ii is p.o;;ibr"il'on"inqo.i,*i;t 6;ai"s'(..s.;-Qs,

rd Fig' l3-ll(b)) to ide.ntily the initial and final yielcl curves (curves
BB and CC,
respectively), and, he.nce, the corresponding erastic
w.ils (BB, CC in Fig.
I 3- I l{a)), the resulting increment
I L.:
of plaitic volumetric" strain can be
calculated fronr a-rl-equation similqr to Eq. (t3-31).
This is".qriuur.E o"u
,*

\
\l
I
+
l
280 rnr iiscsANrcs or solut

Critical state line'

Normal consolidation
Iine

*-: r:v,
...-;; Lrl
ri r- .-- : --

(c)

wall and tbe correspontling yield curve

,

t
\t
1.
 BEHAYIOUR.OI SOIIJ BEFORE FAILT'RE 281

l-i
t-j

rt
t,
lr
m
t!
T}

rl
l!
li
li
-

*?
I
r.l

?
J
,'|
I
J

f
i

Figure 13-11 A family of yield curves

hardenigg law, for it allows the calculation ol the increment of plastic

volumetric strain associated with the change of stress from that associated
with the first elastic wall to that associated with the second elastic wall.
'It is simplest to discuss the flow rule for soil by'plotting"thi'increment of
plastic strain as a vector with components Eef anl 6eg oni graph with axes
q'r 6e! and p',6e$ as-.stown in Fig. l3-13. We have, therefore, associated like
invariants of stress and strain (41 with e" gnd p' with,er). The.flow rule then
relates on this graph the gradient(delldef,) of the vector (QR) of plastic strain
iucrement with the stress vector (OQ). It should be noted fhat as usual in
2,f.2 rgs MEcHANIgs oF sorlJ

hpb ln P'
Figure 13-12 Behaviour during isotropic compressioo and unloading

plasticity theory, the direction of the plastic strain increment vector (QR) is
independent of the direction of the applied stress increment but depends
only on the vector of applied stresses (Oa).
A number of different flow rules have been proposed for soils. We
discussed several possible flow rules for sands in Sec. 12-4, though we did
not use the term 'flow rule' in that section. Equation (12-16) is typical of
the relationships discussed, and can be rewritten as
6el: I (13-32)
Er$ M -(q'lp)'
(No distinction between elastic and plastic strains was made in Sec. l2-4.)
Equation (13-32) relates the gradient (defldf) of the plastic strain incrernent
vector to the slope (q'lp') of the stress vector in a particularly simple way.

Pq p',6e9
0
Figure 13-13 Strain increments during yield
 BEHAVIOUR OF SOILS BEFORE FAILURtr 283
:i:
a-;'
t:i
t:i For the associated flow rule of plasticity theory, discussed in sec- 13-5,
the direction of the plastic strain incremeni vector is taken to be normal to
II the yield curve. Thus, in Fig. l3-r3, the plastic strain increment vector eR
iJ caused by an increment of loading from stress state (gf,, p6) is normal to
the leld curve at Q.
F}
IE
te For soils, it is likely that differeot flow rules apply for different parts of
IE the yield curve. Thus, in Fig. 13-13, it is likely that one flow rule, probably
similar to those proposed for sands, applies to the portion of the yield curve
BC corresponding to the Hvorslev surface, and another flow rule, possibly
ff the normality rule, applies to the portion AB which corresponds to the
Roscoe surface.
r1
I
'1
In this section, we have applied the key components of plasticity theory
to-the behaviour of soil, though we have not yet combined these components
-l to form a complete mathematical stress strain theory; this we shall do in
the next section.
1

'-l
I
I

-I

"t
I I3:I CANI-CLAY
J
A number of different theories for'the prediction of plastic strains in soils
I., have been developed, mostly by research workers at cambridge, but the
3 essential characteristics of these tlieories are the same. For the present we
shall describe the simple Cam-clay theory; this theory is the basis for several
T more advanced theories which, although more complicated, give a better
J fit to experimental data. The theory was originally developed for normally
consolidated and lightly overconsolidated soils and can really only be applied
I successfully to these materials. In character with the rest of the book, our
i
description of the Cam-clay theory will be essentially non-mathematical,
and the reader is referred to schofield and wroth (196g, pp. 134-166) for a
full discussion of the simple theory and to R.oscoe and Burland (196g) and
calladine (1971) for a discussion of some more advanced theories.
one of the key assumptions of cam-clay theory is that the flow rule
follows the normality condition. Thus, if the plastic strain increment vector
in Fig.'13,13 is everywhere normal.to a yield locus, it is onry ne.cess.ary to
I
specify either the shape of the yield curve or the relationship between
I
I Eefi6e$ and.the stre_ss state (the flow rule) fn order for both the flow rule and
., 4+.

,l,.ffi the yield curve to be fully specified. +;#r

A second key assumption, which arises from a consideration of the work &'ffi;:
i- ry$;*
i.:::r;:..
,:tli$' i dissipated during shear, is that the flow rule is given by
'j:::i:l .l'1
{#"
#:M-{' (13-33)
 \i
284 rne MEcHANrcs oF sorls

This equation has the consequence that the associated yield

curve is given by

fr*'"Lil:,, rir:+l
where p! is the value of.-p' at &e intersection of, the yield curve with
the
tI qooj:"Jio-" of the.critical state line atpoint X, as shown in Fig. 13_14. we
sloyld also note that the slope of the yi.lo is zero at X, implying that
d:+l(gis alss zero at the criticar staie: of"uircror.r",lf ;irr u. diferent'for
the different yield curv€s at the top of different elastic
f] wills; inaeed there will
a,whole-family of yield curves at the top of the family
f3 of erastic walrs, as
n
ll
illust.lated-in.Fig, l3:1s. The whore array of yierd curves
wi[ together form
ti a..three-dimensional surface in q':p,: u space which
will limit possible
::.';
states of samples,
i.r-, p. anay of yierd curves wiil defne a state boundary
surface similar to that fouud for normally consolidated
:1:l
.'i clays in Chapter 10.
.'., j The equition of the c,am-clay state boundary surface'can be
obtained
using the results that the yierd curve, and iri particular the
highest point on
| -I
I
it, point X at a: ox, p, : pk,lies on a single swelling line, or
I
L-I

(13-35)
!'1
.I
tI
and that the highest rr;* l-li:,;J;:::X;state rine
aa: J'-.)tlnpl, qk: Mpx. (13-36)
I! Equations (13-35) and (13-3e, together with Eq. (13-34),
can be used to
I eliminate 011 andf! to give

:
1
.I
e'
ffi€+l-r-u-)lnp), (r 3-37)

'l

jI

:r..

Px
Figure 13-14 A yield curve as predicted from Cam-clay

\x.
.
 ffil N
i':l (
t.:.i \
IL i
r'-r'
liII
l1
BEHAVIOUR OF SOII.S BETORE TAILURE 285

q'

r"l
l,
ii

tl
n
U
i

T
'';-1
..l
..: i

.'l
I Figure l3-I5 A family of Cam-clay yield curves
J

which is the equation for the C,am-clay state boundary surface. The state
l boundary surface intersects the o : pl plane along the normal consolidation
.l Iine, Where Q' :0 and u : 1V-)lnp'; hence, from Eq. (13-37),

.I
y'[--l': i-r. (r3-38)
Equation (13-37) defines a surface plotted with.axes g',-p', and u in terns
of the fundamental soil parameters M, { .1, and r. The approximate shape
I of tho theoretieal Cam-clay yield surfaee is sketched in Fig-.-I3-15.
We are now in a position to collect together the various ideas discussed
?
I
above and in the previous section so that a prediction of the strains caused
_i
by any increment of loading may be made using the Cam-clay theory.
Suppose that a sample is on the poinr of yield at a point A (Fig. 13-16)
under stresses qL,pL and specific volume a^ and is subjected to a drained
stress increment so that the effective stresses change to qL,pL; we require
to calculate the plastic volumetric and shear strains.
Figure 13-16(b) indicates that the stress increment moves the sample
from the elastic rvall associated with the swelling line CC to the elastic wall
associated with the swelling line DD. 'we can, therefore, calculate the
plastic volumetrie' strain iucrement from the vertical offset between .the
swelling lines in Fig. l3-16(a). In practice, it is easiest to proceed mathe-
matically rather than geometrically. The eqiration for the state boundary
surface (Eq. (13-37)) can be rewritten as

(13-3e)
I
t
.286 rne MEcHANrcs oF sorLs

Eu : - r 8P'-0:") 6{*(l x)q' EP'

rnTr: (1340)
However, we have to remember that the change
ofp, wil cause not onry a
plastic change of vorume but arso an erastic
a movement down a swelling line, which is given
"h-ung.
lr r"irr* equivatent to
UV Eq. (f :-i1 as

: E* : _*15,r,10,y. (1341)

Normal consolidation line

B-
I
state

\
 -:.:'j
EHAVIOUR OF SOILS BEFORE FAILURE 287
.: 3'
-::-
The plastic (irecoverable) change oispecific
volume is
r1 6ap : Da-Eue
l!
ti
TI and, hence, using Eqs (13-40) and (13_41),

r1
It
It
t.t
Eup: _#LV_#)*,.*1. (r3-43)
t.i
The plastic volumetric strain is, therefore,
a
II
L.! 6e$:-Y :#LV-I),,,*,,1 (t344)
n
,I Tfe
lasnitude of the increment of prastic shear strain foilows from the flow
il rule (Eq. (13-33)) as

6e|=
&ms*v' (r 3-45)

The plastic strains caused by any increment of

I roading that causes yierd
I are now specified b1 (1344) and (1345)
I
.Eqs uoa tt"irustic volumetric
strains by Eq. (I3-4r). F-or
the
assumption is made that the elastic
simpre curn-"r,oy il; rhe additional
siear s?ains are zero. The strains for
I an increment of loading are therefore fuHy specifiJ
of Cam-clay theory: Eqs (t3-aa), (t3_45),
bt;i;
" --- basic
l equations
1ff_+f;.
we now consider the speciar ** of "nA- an increment of roading during
an undrained test' By definition, there is no change
il l, of a saturated
sample during an undrained test and so
the effective"rrrr"
stress path wiil be
?. given as the intersection of the undrained
prane with the state boundary
I surface. The equation of the effective stress path
may be obtained sirirpry
from Eq. (t3-37) byputting o:uo:lr_thi6,;i;;;^ iJrn. vatue of p,
on the normal consoridation Iine at the specidJrotu;.;;
or ,r,. test. Thus,
making use of Eq. (r3-39), the equation of th"
undraineditress path is

#.fr,,,(3\-o (t.3-46)

Tlr q:: pressure generated during undrained

roading may then be deter_
min-gd if the applied total stress path is known.
The path followed by a sampre in an increment
of loading in an un-
drained-test is that given in Fig. ti-tz
uyttre vecror AB- we shoulcl note rhat
although therc is no overail volume
the sample *ou", from the
elastic watl cc to the erastic
(compressive) votumetric strain must
;i ;b "hurg.,
and so hn increml;;";i";hJ;
occur p",t'ou. ,o*"ver, we
should also note that p'reauce!
in the "r*
increme* ;ii;"diry fro_ A ro B
and so there"rirust be an trastic (swerting)'vorumetric
srrain. Ii is clear, there-
fore, that, if tlie total vo!-ume oritr s"*"ire is
constant, ttre ehJc;;;'fir;L
volumetric strains must be equal and opposit.,
fr..r.", sum to zero.
"rA,
 lt

288 rne, MEcHANrcs or sotr.s

Nonnal consolidation
line

Critical stite
line

Critical state
line

Figure 13-17 yielding and hardening in an

increme",lr rlu*,r"0 toiong
The magnitudes of the erastic and plastic
vorumetric
---'-- strain increments are
obtained from'Eq. (13-4t) anil 6egi 6e$ : g
u,
6"9
' :4r'
';r--6"9 r
(13-47)
and, hence, the increment of phstic
,h.u, ,truin is given by Eqs (13-4s)
and (13-47) as

x6o''
A-o _
"-s
vo:
-- ;iWGm)
.

(r 3-48)
 ;--! *
iri' ':
.:
,i:
ij

BEHAvtoUR oF soll.s BEFoRE raILuIs 289

Integration of the equations for predictions of the complere stress-

strain-pore pressure relationship for drained and undrained tests is discussed
in detail by Schofield and Wroth (1968, pp. 143-149). The virtue of the
.LJ
l{ Cam-clay theory is that it gives a complete constitutive relationship for
soil which can describe deformations and pore pressures during drained and
r-l unirained Ioading for a wide variety of stress paths. The soil constants
,l
required (M,^,x,1) are few and all can be measured in standard laboratory
{i
I

tests.
F:l Exapipli:. I32 . Calculati on of plastic strains
li
A soil has M:1.02, l:3.17,1:0.20, rc:0.05, and N:3.32. Two
samples A and B'are isotropically normally consolidated in a tria,rial
ft
i1
,i
ti
apparatus to p' :200 kNm-z and u:0 and each is then subjected to a
toaaing test in which the total axial stress is increased to oo:220 kN m-2
i
while the radial stress is held constant; Sample A is loaded drained with
tl :i
il a:0 and Sample B is loaded undrained with e": g.
Use Cam-clay theory to estimate the shear and volumetric strain
and the change of pore pressure for each sample.
ilL.I
The states of both ramllet lie on the yield surface (at its intersection with
FI
l. I
the normal consolidation line) at the start of loading and in each case
iB total stresses are increased; hence, in both tests, the states of the samples
t-I
will traverse the state boundary sdrface as the samples yield and strain
nI :
harden. After normal consolidation to p' 200 kN m-2, the specific volume
,x of each sample at the start of loading is
r! ?o: JV-)lnp' :332-A.201n200 :2.26
I
T arrd q'o: 0. HeRce, for both samples, from Eq. (13-45).

g: M : r.oz.
de!
For Sample A, before loading,
q'o:0' P[t:2O0kNm-2;
after loading,
el:2Q kNm-2, Pl:206.7 kNm-2-
Hence, from Eq. (13-,{4),

6e$:
#,l\-#,),0*tu'l ,
-02 x 6.7) +20)x 100
*#^(l
:0.873 per cent.
ry
;..i
i-..ra I
'&" i:i
n
'iiri
ii 290 fua MEcHAMcs oF sorls
::
Therefore,
':.
r-t
6ef - 0.856 Per cent.
tt
tt The elastic strains are Eef : 0, which is a basic
L] assumption of Cam_clay
theory, and
tt
illtll 6e$:;,X=#*ffi'roo
n
ti
TT Hence, the total volumetric and shear
strains are
'n
:j_. - i
II
5e, - 0.g73+ 0.074 =0.g17 per cent,
l,- ,.. - -
,
l-i 5e' : 9'956 Per cent,
::l and, of course, for a drlned test, the pore
,,,
pressure remains zero.
I
1
For sample B, the stress path must folow a constant
.-.1
seotion of the state -effective vorume
boundary surface grven by Eq. (13-37).
before loading, Hence,
"-l
I
I
J 8o : 46 : 0, po: pi - 2N kNm-2;
after loading
rl
I
rt
I
h- Qi: 20kNm-2, h:2[,7kNm-2;
pi is given by Eq. (13-37):
!I
s
B
q' :
or
ffiC*.I-r-a-ltnp)
I
J
T
t zo : + o.r 2.26 _ o.Zotnp,).
#(3.17 s -
By graphical solution, or otherwise,

Pl:184.7 kNm-s.
Hence,
6p'=-l5.3kNm-z.
But
6p: +6.7 kNm-z,
and so the increase in pore pressure during undrained loading
6a - Dp-6p'and
6u=!l.[11g11l-4.,,.,, : ..',.
The plastic volumetric strain is given
using Eq. (1J.47) /

: - 6eg : +U = -f,#
6s*
=-ffi x roo
:0.169 per cent.

't
t
\
\ nIL ,
 .. ,.i" a
'k rLj
.ti -_.
;
j:

BEHAVIoUR or sous BEFoRE TAILURE 29i

and the plastic shear strains, frorn Eq. (l3a$ ,for q,o/p,o:0 are
' 6rl:H:0.166percenr.
since elastic shear strains in cam-cray are assumed.
to be zero,
6er: 6.166 per cent
It may be noted that the shear strains of cam-cray during undrained
loading ("":0.166 per.cent) ale very much
smailer-,than tiose during
drained loading (", : 0.821 per cenQ lor the,r;;;i"il;r"rS'i.th.':'-'".

13{ SUMIVIARY

::r I. With soils, as with other engineering materials, it is necessary to

a
' distinguish between elastic (recoverable) and plastic (irrecoverable;
strains.
2. Plastic strains occdronry when the state of a sampre traverses the state
.,; boundary surface.
3. strains are purery erasic when the state of a sampre
n remains on a singre
ta
]E
elastic wall.
iJ 4. Plastic strains can be carcurated by the use of yietd
a curve, a flow rure,
and a hardening law.
,lt! 5. The mathematical expressions for the yield curye,
.* the flow rule, and the
s hardening law in-cam-cray theory ailow strains
to be carcuffi;;;;;
rl increment of loading.
E
T
RETERENCES
'I
I
t calladine' c' R' A microstructural view of the mechanicar properties
of saturated clay.
a

G eo t echnigue, 21, 39 l4l1,

197 l.
Roscoe' K' H' and Burland, J-. I. on the generarised strcss-strain
clay' In Ensineering ptasticity (J. Heyiian--a1d behaviour of .wet,
'i
press,
F. A. Leckie, eds). cambridge
_ - U-niversity Cambridge, i96-g, pp.-siioos.
Schofield, A. N. and wrorh, c. p. cri;cat itut" soil Mechanics.
C;o., London, 1968.
McGraw-Hilr Book

j
._-...-..-.-.--..
 CHAPTER

F'OURTEEN
ROUTINE SOIL TESTS AND THE
r1
ltt; CRITICAL STATE MODEL

FI
ti

14.1' INIROD ON

The shear behaviour of soils in triaxial tests has been discussed in considerable
detail in the Iast five chapters. we now examine how some of these ideas
may be applied in civil engineering practice. In this chapter we shall consider
the two most common (and simplest) laboratory tests which are carried
l out to determine the shear properties of a soil. These are the quick un-
.,1 drained triaxial compression test, in w*rich samples of soil from thl ground
are rapidly compressed to failure, and the index tests, which were mentioned
rt
t in chapter l. However, before these topics are discussed, it is necessary to
I introduce the Mohr-coulomb strength criterion and to examine the faiiure
of soils under general states of stress. Consideration of the differences between
t stress states which exist in the ground and after isotropic consolidation in the
I
J laboratory leads on to important relationships between shear and com-
pression and between undrained shear strength and compression in the
ground.
I
I

UA THE MOHR_COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION

Let us consider a sample of soil which is just about to fail when the normal
and shear stresses o and r reach some limiting vatues on planes such as AA,
in Fig. 14-1. It is found that the combinations of z and o which cause failure
on the plane can usually be represented sufficiently accurately by the linear
equation
r: c*otani. (14-r)
The soil constants c and. $ are usuaHy termed the cihesion arid the angle of
internal friction, respectively. clearly, the values of c and fl will be differenl
..for different soil types, while different values of c and f will be relevant,
' depending on whether the normal stress is takeh as the total or the effective
stress. or course, from the principle of effective stress, which states that

2g2

L
 R.OUTTNE SOrL TESTS AND CRTTTCAL STAIE MoDEL 293

il
iltl
U

FI
tt
It

lt
t,
ii
-.1
' ..1

.,1
Figure lzt-l Sliding of soil across a failure plane AA'
^'t
i changes of shearing resistance (i.e., changes of z at failure) are due exclusively
.,1 to changes in the effective stresses, Eq. (la-l) should be written in terms of
t}te effective normal stress o'
n
J T':c'*o'tan$', (14-2)
where the cohesion and the angle of internal friction are now represented by
r3
the symbols c' and d', So implying that the equation is written in terms of
s^ effective stresses and t' r. :
In some cases, we may not know the value of the pore water pressure
il
T. within the soil and yet it is helpful to use an equation of the form of Eq. (l4-l);
T a common example is a quick undrained triaxial test on an undisturbed
sample of soil when no measurement of pore water pressure is taken. We then
T

f
rewrite Eq. (14-l) as
I
r: co* otan$o, (14-3)
i where the subscript u is used to imply that Eq. (14-3) has been written in
terms of total stresses for undrained loading.
The failure criteria of Eqs (14-1) to (la-3) are collectively known as the
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, but, clearly, in accordance with the
principle of effective stress, Eq. (14-Z),.which is written in terms of effective
stress, is of fundamental importance. Equation (14-2) can be represented by
a line AB on the Mohr's gtress di4gramof Fig. l4-2. Then, if the stresS statp
oa a plane can be represented by a point on .the line AB, the soil on that
plane will be on the verge of failure. Further, {t a given normal stress, the
soil cannot sustain a sheaf,Stress largbr than that given by the poinl.on the
line AB at that normal stress. - ,- . :

Failure of the soit will occur when the magnituie of'the shear stress
satisfies Eq- (14-2), and, clearly, failure will occur wha.tever the sign of r'.

,i I
il
r r. .,J
&r..., . --?.cd
1, I

-
 t
294 r:te MEcHANrcs oF sorls

r'1
II

lt
n
ti
tJ

tln
i. i

,llttrl

Figure l4-2 The Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope

There must, thenefore, be a corresppnding

line A,B, on the Mohr,s diagram
which applies for negative values if ,,.
so far, we have onry considered the stresses on the particurar
pranes in
the' soil which are
$failure;
be -subjected to diferent
crearry, different.pranes d;i; soil body wiil
strisses. l" p"rti""l-";', il;-#rr* acting on
failure plane can be represented oa a lrtohr,s the
stress .i.;i;iiFig - r4_3)which
just touches the rine AB at a singre poir,t
s corresponding to ,rr" stresses on

B,
.,. Figure 14-3 Possible and impossibre Mohr?s
stress circres
 ROUTINE SOIL TESTS AND CRITICAL STATE MODEL 295

the plane of failure; we note that, by geometry, there must be a second plane,
corresponding to point Q, on which the stresses are also at their limiting
values; We saw in Chapter 3 how the directions of these planes, and the
stresses on other planes through the soil may be found'from the Mohr's
circle using the pole method.
r-! A stress circle such as circle 2 is impossible, for it requires the soil on
l{
ii
i- i the plane whose stresses are given by point R to resist a larger shear stress
than it can support In contrast, the stress state represented by circle 3 is
ii perfectly'possible, but no plane in the soil is at failure,'a situation which
ll should be relevant for soil near a properly designed foundation.
The lines AB, A'B' are usually termed the Mohr-Coulomb failure
tt envelope; they are tangential to the Mohr's circlei for all failure states of
IJ shear.
There are certain geometrical relationships which must apply if the soil
i.l
ir is al failure (Fig. 144). In particular" the radius /'of the stress circle must be
i, related to the position of the centre of the circle as follows:
r-1 1' : (s' + c' cot /) sin f'. (t4-4)
ill*
Substituting t' : *(ol-of and s': !(oi*o) and collecting terms gives
f:n
il
Lj "i:"i(ffi)+'zc(ffi). (r4-5)

A more usual way of writing Eq. (la-s) is to transform the equation

TE^ trigonometrically. Using the relationships
J
eI
I
_t
(#) : [dffi]"' : [i=ffi'' : (i{#),," 04.6)

we can write
_t
x

t
.L
't:";(ffi)*,"'(i+#)' (t+7)
or, using the relationship
tanz(f,zr+lC):
ffi, (14-8)

which can also be obtained by simple trigonometry, we find

si : oi tanz (lr + l$') +2c' tan (lr * l$). (14-e)
Equations (14-5) and (14-9) are equivalent. For a perfectly frictional

o', _ l+sind' (r4-r0)

o', l -sin/" .: -

while, for a perfectly cohesive material (/' : 0),

bi- o's:2c" (r4-l l )
.)t
\
' 296 rat MEcHANrcs oF sorls

,
T

A
o'

c'
(\\ t
ot
o'

c'cotg' \

Figure 1+4 A failure state of stress

T!. Mohr{oulomb failure criterion was developed in terms of the

effective stresses G':.") acting on a prane of failure in
a soil mass, and
gwritfe-n (Eq- (l+9) in terms of theiwo principal effective stresses o,1,oi.
The third principal stress, the intermediaie principal stress
oi, does'nJt
ap-pear in Eq. (14-9), or on the Mohr's diagram of Fig.
14.4. Therefore, if we
adopt the Mohr-coulomb criterion, we tacitly assum-e that
the intermediate
principal stress has no effect on the failure of the soil.

Example l4-l carculation of the direction of failure planes

An element of soil has c' : 15 kNm-z and

$,: 25" and is on the point
of failure. The magnitude of the major principar .r""tir" stress oi is
70 kNm-z and its direction is inclined ut 20.-to
the x-axes (see Fig.
El41(a). Calculate the directions of the two fairure pranes.
The value of oj may be calculated using Eq.
ea_l:
o;:";(i+#)*"'(+l#)"'
or
 t 297

d
I
c
zJ4
r/t
R lt
l I
B (,
zL
t-

q,
,f _.,

,
:"i ''
,; .
F.

'. ,+
r{
;, Bl
tso
t- --'
5
o0.
E

h-_
 t zgg THE MEcHANrcs oF so[s

The Mohr'scircre ofeffe*ive

stress r-nal beilawn as shown
It is easiest y.to.r.o.r.a g*ptii."rrv in Fig. EI4-r (b).
may be constructed by'drawrnf rrr. p";;';the Mohr,s circre
o{' incrined in a direciion pur"irj" rio".cp irrl"r*i, 6, *rri"i, represents
70o to the olaxis. rn"
to the *ql".prr#par prane, i.e.,
ii"rr*rion at
(622,19.5) gives the pole. -----uv! of *rr'il;;
vr rtus rlre wu the circre at p
The stresses on the two fairure
pranes in the soir are represented
points, A (26.9,.27.))
touches the Mohr_Coulomb
and t6.i; -zT.s)", *rrd-*r" stress circre just
by
enr"iop.
The directions of ,r,. ,*o
i*ior
PB' iry ;;
are- given by the incrinations
;L:ll'f,ffnd 'op'"'i"rv?-ir+'. i;;;;io
the x-axis), see
It shourd be noted tllat the angre
principal stress oj and between the direction of the
major
the a-fuifuri
DoA, which is.-(ir_g,), i, iJ.r:"rgr,
p.iir. sir", irlrr,.
DpA. Angte
is incrined opalnJ* ti" A-fuilur. ptur.
tii-*$r',,
"tn-raiture
Similarry, the
ii.iir*tion of the major principar stress.
rr"nrir
of the major principar ri.*
rio incrined at (*r-r{,) to the direction
uu, or-the other side of it
angte ietwe;tu
from the A_fa,ure
l-'una n_ruir*"-ptnm ir, therefore,
i#T;,|r.
we have nreviousry considered
fairure-. states of so,
ef,ective stresi parar:f*
q, in terms of the
quantities for a study and pl._*ru"f, are appropriate invariant
of the t.i*i"ilJt'Ho*.r.r,
,ir" ,*Irh.ctive pressure

l;':,-,';,"l.li,:i*:x..,,:l?*:,I*.i#!t**?:,*::.:H,iil,TJ',:;l
ratio of q'rp'is eoiivarer,
i"-" **,"n'j,. ,n"
a value o; J#'aI"I iiluru. transformatio, r.o. a varue
-

:{r{!{;" "r l.i*o,-..,u,, principar

"r,n"
For triaxiar compression tests, the axial stress is greater than the other
ln'#:i;?,:,,::xi,Jil:1,:1;fild,.,",, j"r,"o,; :,; :
";J;';
q;:l(?i-"? _ 3(r +sinC,-r +sinf)
P'oli'$:W:ffir. 6sind,
(t+12)
Thus, if failure occurs on
the critical state line,

,71 _
6sin/'
__
.

,)-:_ rr.
3-sin/ (r4-r3)
and g' for Tf _l:1'^ ::1 T:a,o "o,r"uiJ,r,e co,.e,po no ii fM
"orp..rri* ;;;f,;"";:"r,Hi"#i:ii:i.:,:
triaxiar es o
"T'r:i.::
Table 14-I Cqrresponding
values of M and
$, for triaxial compression
/'(degrees)
-- 35
2A 25,,
M 39
1.20 40 4s
0.77 0.98 1.42 1.64 1.85
 j II
^tt..:j
\

ii :

ROUTINE SOIL TESTS AND CRITICAL STATE t"tOOgl 299

The stress parameters 1' : $(oi- o') and s' : t(oi + oA, which are often
used for plane strain situations, do not contain the intermediate principal
i!
stress oi. The Mohr-Coulomb faiiure condition may, 'uherefore, be uniquely
II
it expresed in terms of ,' and s' as
g' : (s'*c' cot$)sinf'. (t4-14)
rl
ll'
it
We have now discussed three different ways of representing the failure
states of a soil (i) as a function of q' arid p', (ii) as a ftrnction of l' and ,s', and
r'
(iii) in terms of the shear stress and the normal stress o'. Each method has
ru
rl its ipeciat merits. Thus, q',p; aretheproper parameters with which to interpret
ti
triaxial test data, t',s' are suitable for plane strain testing, while r', q' are
used !p the analysis of most problems of limiting equilibrium and failure.
ir
ir
14.3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRE.SSION
i-./
l:i
il
irdost elements of soil in the ground will have been subjected to one-
i;

dimensional loading, and perhaps unloading. We know from Chapter 7

that, during one-dimensional normal consolidation, there is a constant ratio
ti between the vertical efleetive stress oi and the horizontal effective stress oi
r=r
and we define the coefficient of earth pressure at rest Ko as o'nloi flor one-
dimensional compression. The stress path ABC followed in c1' : p' and
it
tI azp' spaoe during one-dimensional compression is shown in Fig. l4-5;
the ratio between q' and p' is
:T
J q' _3(o'"-o):3(l -i'o) (14-ls)
p' o'r+2o'o l+zKo'
l
J
The soil is therefore being continuously sheared, as well as compressed,
during the loading process. During loading the sample moves along line
I
ABC but, if it is unloaded, one-dimensionally, from a point such as B, it
?
follows path BD. In the same way as for isotropic compression, the normal
consolidation line ABC separates states which are possible (below and to
',,. the left of ABC) and states which are impossible (above and to the right of
ABC). The line ABC must, therefore, be part of a state boundary surface
separating attainable from unattainable states.
When the line ABC is plotted in o:lnp' space, it is found that it is
straight and of slope - l, i.e., ABC is parallel to both the normal con-
solidation line and the critical state line. The isotropic normal corisolidation
line, by definition, is relevant for compression when q':0,' i,e,, .g'lpl :9,
while q'lp': M on the critical state line. One-dimensional'qompressiorl
corresponds to a state when q'lp':3(l-ffr/(l!2K), that is a value of
a
q'lp'lesstban M and yet greater than zero ihe critical state line lies on one
edge of the Roscoe state boundary,su-rface, whiqlr separates attainable states
from unattainable states, while the isotropic normal consolidation line Iies
on the other edge. It follows that the one-dimensional consolidation line

,I
.! I ._.--J
-\-
\n,
-
300 tne MECHANIcS oF solr.s

Figure 14-5 Paths followed in q' : p' and o: p'spaces for ooe-dimensional loading and
unloading

lies on the Roscoe state boundary surface in between the critical state line
and the isotropic consolidation line, as illustrated in Fig. 14-6. Points A
and B correspond to two states of a sample undergoing continuing one-
dimensional compression from A to B with a corresponding decrease in
specific volume from ua to us. Constant u sections of the Roscoe surface are
shown in q' : p' space for the two values of u.
We sei, thrpfo.., that the phenomena of shear and, cornpressioir are
inextricably'linked. Isotropic compression lis just a special shear process
for which q'lp' is constant and zerol while one-dimenSional compression is
a special shear process in Which there is a constant ratio betweeri shear and
volumetric strains and in whic[ q'lp' is constant.. Clearly, there are other
types of compression (or shear) for which q'lp' is Aonstant. For each process,
and for each constant ratio of q'lp', there is a path on the Roscoe surface

\
:: I

RourlNE sorL Tlsrs AND cRmcAL srATE tuoBm 301

\
which gives a projection in u: lnp' space which is straight, has
slope - ),
and lies between the projectioot of the isotropic consolidation
linc and the

tl
critical state line.
compressloo
tll: Perhaps the distinction betweea a shear pro@ss Pd*"
li surface'
process ii simply one of direition of the path on' the- Roscoe
Compression pror".r". might be thougbt of as
in which q'lp! is
r! 'h.9t:
constant, while ,h"* pro".ites are those in which q'lp' changes
:t as the test
t: between
proceeds. However, itls better not to rnake too rigrd a distinction
1
il;i;;;t"*rrr; it.y u." different asPects of the same pherortelrotr'
I
i

"'t
!

..j
.i
i
I

I
t
ji

t
I
I

!t
t'

Critical state line

., :':' .,.. ,:.:: ., P ..

Figure 14-6 The position of the one-dimensional compression line

6ri tle Roscoe surface

i&il-_.-
$02 rur MEcHANrcs oF solLs
I
The diScussion so far has been concerned with one-dimensional loading.
The path (ABD) followed during one-dimensional loading and unloading
is sketched in Fig 1+7. At point D, at specific volume up, the sample will
be well inside the constant a section of the state bo'undary surface at t) : DD.
The sample will be overconsolidatid, but now it may be somewhat aniso-
tropic. We expect that one-dimensional compression of clay soils will have
the effect of causing the soil particles to have a preferred orientation,
probably so that there are more clay grains lying face on to the direetion
of the major stress during compression and so the sa:nple as a w-holg may
have different stiffnesses (and strengths)'in different directions.

Critical state line

B
Swelling
line Critical state line

Figure l4-7 One-, dimensional loading and unloading

:--i
-::;r,i

f-i

ROUTINE SOIL TESTS AND CRITICAL STATE TUOOTT- 303

'-l

I
i

Figure 14-8 The behaviour of one'dimensionally consolidated samples in the ground

should note too tlat one-dimensionally normally consolidated

we
samples in the ground will also aPpear to be anisotropic
in their shear
to
behaviour. Thusl in Fig. l4-8, a sample one-dimensionally compressed
point A, if loadid undiained with q' increasing, could sustain a relatively
r*uff value of deviator stress (qi-qi) before it was brought to failure
"#u shear deformation at the iriti&l state at B. In contrast, if the
*itn fuig"
toaded undrained such that 4'dgcrgas,ed-(path AQ' the
sample
;;d;t from
would suffer relatively small elastic strains for it is being unloaded
a

state where 4' is higfiiqi) to a state where q' is low

(q!)'

and un-
Example 14,2 Calculation of q'lp' for onedimensional loading
loading
'1

!
A sample of clay is one-dimensionally loaded and -unloadeO (oi) 1!
;;;;;;ding vatutis of the effective vertical ("i') 9q horizontal
8o and
stressels ur. trro below. Calculate the overconsolidatiga,ralig
q'lp' ateach value of &.

oi GN m-) o 320 160 80 40 2A l0

.,.= .,,9i GN m-') o '20s 138 86 s7 39 24

j I

u
\0,
 F

30a rfue MEcHANIcs oF sorlJ

The value of R0 is o'"/(oi)-u* and q'lP':3(l-KJ(l +2K) where

Ko: o'alo'r. Yalues of &, J(o'and q'lp' are given below'
a-'j
tlt: oi (kN m-2) 0 320 160 80 4020 10

Ro 1.0 2.0 4.0 8.0 16.0 32.O

;", Ko 0.64 0.86 1.08 1.43 1.95 2.40

II
li q'lP' 0-474 0.154 -0.076 -0-334 -0.582 -0.724

FT
titi
r.4.4 IJNDRAINED SIMAR STRENGTII
r.l
ii A common way of measuring the shear strength of a strattrm of clay is to
lr extract undisturbed samples and subject them to undrained
compression
is often applied to
tests in the triaxial apparatus. Although a cell pressure
(i'e',
the specimen during i.tting, the sample is not allowed to consolidate
{:il
i.l
ii the diainage line is treta UoieA) under the cell pressure before
the (undrained)
shear phase of the test is performed. often no attempt is
made to measure
t"t recovered is the
U the poie pressure during tie test and the only information
streugth is
value of the deviato. ,i"o, gi at fallure. The undrained shear
circle at
rt ,rr"ify;*pi"ssed as co, where'c r: *Q'ris the radius of the Mohr's
failure urrd i, equal tJ the *"*i*r, ihear stress. The great virtue of
these
II
,o-.urr"a quick undrained tests is that the samples are not allowed
LI to
we shall now
change in specific volume from their state in the ground; as
ru
J
,"r, Ihi, has the conseguence that the measured shear strength of the
ground'
sample is representative of the shear strength of the soil in, the
iet us consider the undrained compression of a number samples at
of
lJ different overconsolidation ratios but all at the same specifrc volume
ur'
of
The samples will all fail on the critical state line at their maximum value
volume and the
1 q' (Fig.{q-r- However, because all samples have specific uo

i i.ri, u.. undrained, the samples will all end up on the critical state line at
the single point D : oo.The corresponding value of the mean normal effective
be oitained Uy putting i:,ointo the equation (Eq.
(10-2))
pr.rrui. pi
I "uostate line,
for the critical
0o: T-)lnPi. (14-r6)
Thus,
(14-1i)
Pi.: exP(l--uJ/Il'
The undrained shear strength c,, for all samples is then
c, = h|_: *Mp'r: NMexP (l'-rJ/ll. (1+18)

The undrained shear strength co, therefore, decrease( exponentially as

uo
volume,
increases, but is conLtant ior ati samples with the same soecific
irrespictive of overoonsolidation ratio.'In other words, there is a unique
value of co for a sample of a given specific volunne'

--li*Ei-_
 ROIIIINE SOIL TESTS AND CRIACAL STATE'MODTI 305

Figure 14-9 Effective stress paths for samples tested undrained

One important practical consequence is that ttre measured value

of clr
in a laboratory tesf on a sample fiom the ground will be relevant for the
of
unJrained failure of the soil rz situ, if, and only if, the specific volume
the sample at failure in the laboratory is identical with the specific volume

- the soil in the

of ground.
A-io.tf,rr i*ioita.rt-result is that the undrained shear strength of a
uo is independent both of
sample in compression at a given specific volume
thi total stress path followed during testing and of the total stresses at
failure. Thus, if a sample is normally consolidated to
a mean normeil stress
piwiththeporewaferpressurezerosoitisatpointAofthestressspaceof
the critical state line at
F?g. f+10, uft , undrained testing it will fail on
p"irt g ai a deviator stress gi (: 2cJ, irrespective :f .*l*lh"t the total
,tr"r, path followed in the test iipatn AC or path AD' Path AC corresponds
pressure is held constant
to a st'andard triaxial compression test where the cell
whilepathADcorrespondstoaspecialtestinwhichtheappliedstressesare
adjusted so the total mean normal stress remains
p constant' The sample
itself will follow an effective stress path AB that takes it up the Roscoe
between the critical
surface to the critical state line. The horizontal offsets
pore water
,i"i" fir, (point B) tird the total stress paths, AC, AD represent theof Fig' 14-10
The geometry
pressures'at failuie, u4q and aaD, -respectively'
implies that uag i, iirtu"ti.ity l"tg"t than fao. Siriilarly,
if tlie total
stress path followed path AE, the pore water
pl"rt*r usI- at failure would
. i. with its magnitude given by the horizontal offset BE.
The three t.tt;;th; Ic, Ro,Ien shown in Fig'
"rgutive, t+to-lt] started from the
zero (i'e', pL- Pr'
initial condition at A that the pore water pressure was
test paths' but
,,'
An identical ,"*ft.-"oold be iubjected to the same three
 i,
306 risr MEcHANrcs oF sorls

q.q

li
l,
t-t tical state line

n
ft
II
Qa=Qu
-Y^rffi -'.. C
n B

l#
II
tt

ra
lt
il
f,lr'l
l:

ti P,^
Figure 14-10 Total and efective stress paths for undrained tests
P, P,
on identical specimens

starting from the initial condition that the pore water pressure at A was at.a
u value aB different from zero. The standard compressi;n test would then
be
represented by the total stress path FG (Fig. la-l I), the path at constant
p
rl by FH and the third path by FI. As beforg the effective stress path fofiowed
[J by tha specimen will be on the Roscoe surface a4d will be given by the path
AB (Fig. 1+11) which is identical to the path AB or rig. t+-t0."Th;
n watei pressures at failure for the three paths are given by the horizJntal ;;;;
il' ".ft:*_uro
(: uas*u-p), ars (: uae*iy), and zl1 (:u'ra*us,), respec-
tively. If the slope of the total stress path FI was alteied sfig]rily, the point t
T. could coincide with the critical state point B and the pore pr.rru." at
failure
J of that specimen would be zero.
'i q, q'
j
'Critical state line
l
,lrt
UFG

l'
lrFH

l
I
:
i
\\
t
t t

A F P,p'
Figure 14-I1 Total andeffective:'itress paths for undrained tests on identical
specimens
 i 1.,

t. '1:,,

i
I
ROUTINE SOIL TESTS AND CRITICAL STATE MODEL 307

:t-.
:-...:
j.i:
For convenience, this discussion was developed for normally consolidated
specimens. The same arguments would apply with equal force for a series of
I tests on identical overconsolidated specimens;'the effective stress paths
I

J
foliowed by the specimens would be the same whatever total stress path was
applied, but the pore water pressure at failure would depend on the applied
n total stresses.
The failure states of the tests of Figs 14-10 and l4-l I can also be
I
t
represented on a Mohr's diagram in terms of both total and effective stresses
:r
I
@ig. 1a-12): At failure,'ttre effective stresses are identical for the six different
J
!
total stress paths AC to AI, and so the effective stress state can be represented
by the single effecti:re stress Mohr's-circle B- The total stresses'at failure are
'l
different for each of the six total stress paths, but .because the deviator stress
at failure is the same for all specimens, all circles have the same radius. The
I
i

total stress circles C to I corresponding to the six total stress paths AC to AI

are, therefore, shifted horizontally from the single effective stress circle B by
different amounts, depending on the magnitude and sign of the pore water
pressures at failure. Thus, so far as total stresses are concerned, it is correct
&
to think of a horizontal (i.e., Co:O) Mohr-Coulomb envelope with the
cohesion given by the undrainSd shear strength c..,. However, it must be
noted 'that the strength parameters do:0, and co are only relevant for
specimens which all fail at tlie same specific volume.
Of course, if the specimens were allowed to compress before failure, the
specific volume at failure would be less than the initial specific volumq the
corresponding values of q' and p' atthe critical state would be larger, and so
-the effective stress Mohr's circle would also be larger; the original value of
the undrained shear strength co would then no longer be relevant.
The technique of considering the undrained strength of saturated soil in
terms of total stresses is common in soil mechanics practice and is similar
to the technique discussed in Sec. 134 of calculating elastic strains for
undrained loading in terms of total stresses. The soil strength is still dependent
on the effective stresses but these are controlled by the requirement that the

Figuro 14-12 Mohr's stress circles for the failure of thd samples whose strels paths'are
shown in Figs 14-10 and 14-11

i
I
}L-
,.1
 r..l
?:- )
l-ix

,--f
!i
1:
ir
iaii
,?
TIIE IlEcHANrcs oF Sorls
,l
soil maintains constant volume. In both cases of undrained strength and
undrained elastic strain the total stress technique ii valid onty for
the special
I-') case when the soil is saturated and qndraiued so that volumetric
It strains are
tltl z*ro; in all other cases the total stress analyses are not valid and calculations
must be carried out in terms of effective stresses.

Example l&3 calculation of pore pressures,at failure in undrained

tests
with different total stress paths
:

A.sample of clay is isotropically normally consolidate d to p, : 400 kN m-2

with p :400 kNm-z (i.e., u:0)
and is subjected to a standard un-
drained triaxial courpression test (o, increasini, Aor:0).
The observed
v_alue of co is I20 kNm-s aad the poie p*rsrre at
faiiure irirzzskNm-z.
calculate the pore pressures of failure for the following undrained
I compression tests on samples isotropically normally consoli-clated
r to the
J given initial conditions
A. Compression test withp: constant; po: p,o:400 kNm-2.
I B. compression test with o1. constani und o, reduced to fairure;
t P'o: Po:400 kNm-z.
C. standard compression test with o, constant and o1 increased to
:
4pkNm-z, po : 700kNm-2.
failure; pi
E D. Compression test with p : constant; p,o :
400 kN m-2,
Po:700 kNm-z.
E. compression test with o, coustants and o, reduced to failure;
p'o: 4W kNm-z, po : 200 kNm-2.

For a standard triaxial compression test, where Aor:/o":g,

lqllp:3, and go:0,
Pt: Pa*iQt
for the given test,
q7:2co:240 kNm-2
and, from the geometry of Fig. El,S2(a),

bo-p)+tqL: u,
or
pi :
+ e4Dl3) -Z2S : Z5S kNm-2.
M
All samples are isotropically normally consolidated to p'* 4OO kNm-2
and are all loadgdrindtained, i.e., wilh ao: a, and so'au
."*prlr;u
fail in compression at the same point on th; criticar siaie line with
Ai:240 kNm-2 and pl:2,55 kNm-2.
 li
1L:i

il
i-
ROUTTNE SOIL TEIITS AND CRITICAL STATE MODEL 309
'l::'l'

iI: q, q'

u1
€- Ut
li
tl t.H Qr= 4i
l-+-.>l
r-!
t!
ti Total stress
path
trr pi"pL :po
t!
tt P, P, P'l P'o= Po P, P
ii
(a) o)
r-1 q, q'
itl!
t.::l
.l
,i

.t]
f

r-l

!I
:I

:1 .
iI
rr!^

I
1
r
]

i'l

-j

P't P'a PoPP

l:' l
;
(e)
*l:
Figure E14-2
j

i
t
:
.. /
Test A. The total stress path has p : constant. Hence, from the
:
geometry of Fig. l+z(b),
ut': Po
'Pl:400-255'
,,j !tt:145 kNm-2
 310 rrlr MECHAirrcs oF sorrs

Test B.The total stress path has Aor:0 and./or<0, so

lq I Ap : 3(l ot_ I or) I (l o, + 24 or) : _
+.
He3c.9, from the seom-ety of Fig- Er4z(c),noting that the pore
pressure
at failureis shown as being-negative,
u, : 2qil3 - (po- p,t) : (Z x 240)I 3 _ gAO_ 25 S),

ut- -15 kNm-z,

Test C. The initial pore pressure uo=pi-pi,:3@kNm-2.
From
the geometry of Fig. EI+2(d), noting 7n^i-liip:3
compression test,
io, a standard
ut : (po- p) + : trq7i eOO _ ZSS) + 24013,

ut:58 kNm-z.
,Test D. The_initial pore pressure ils:
the geometry of Fig. El4-2(c),
300 kNm-a and Ap:0. From
ut: po-pi:700-255,
ut= 445kNm-2.
Test E.The initial pore pressuta uo :300 kNm-2. From the geometry
of Fig. El4-2(t), noting that lqpp: - f
as for Test B,
ur : (po_ pi) _ goi : e00 _ 2ss) _ (z x 240)13.
' ttf : 285 kNm-2.

14.5 GENERAL STRESS STATES

The discussion of the failure of soils has so far

been restricted to a study
of failure in triaxial compression. soil elements *il
u. ,"i;ected to a wide
range of stress paths in fierd situations, and
many st.es, pitrrs wifi be very
different from that imposed in a standard triaxiar
.o*prirrron test. Thus,
we now consider what governs fairure under generar
siates of stress, and
how ideas of behaviour deveroped from compression
tests can be appried
to more general situations.
-rn aThe next simplest test after triadal compression
triaxial extension- test the roading ram ii attached
is triaxial extension.
p11*,.the ram ispulled uplaldq and sl,
to the top Ioading
from nq. 1s-11, o..n.We .should .

note, however, that the axial stress remaint

"oapiorir.irri',t"ril;;
sample fails by erongation. The intermeaiat" princif"i
;; is equar to the
major principal stress in triaxial extension;
h*"r, o1 : orJ ,rand o, := o..
To distinguish between triaxiar compression and iriaxiat
extension, it is
convenient to define as discussed i;-a;;p;ei 9, in'rhich
.Q-oa_o,_Q,,
case ? will be negative in triaiiali"*t"nrio,t
and wili pioi Oo*.rvards irr
I
ROUT,INE SOIL TESTS AND C*,MCAL STATE MODE! 31I

I q' i p' space, as illustrated in Fig. lr$-13. We then expect some separate
Iocus of failure states ia 4' : p' space corresponding to extension failure,
A first possibility for the failure locus in extension is that it is the mirror
I

imnge about the p'-alir of the failure locus for compression tests, i.e.,
q' : - MP'-. (14.19)

For extension tests, Eq. (l+19) may be rewritten as

M : -Lp':3(!-:?= sjt+:infl;t +='1"+a : jYd:,, (t+zo;)

o',+2oi l-sin{i+z+?siai; 3*sin/i' \- ' --l

where d; ir-t-he effective angle of internal friction relevant for extension.

Thus, after reari.anging Eq. (l+20), we may write, foi extension,
sin{i:3Ml$-M). (t+2t)
However, for triaxial compression, when o'o> o'r, the equivalent equation to
Eq. (l+20) (Eq. (lzl-13)), is

,c
:ti. r-" M : q'lp' : 6sindJ(3-sinf), (14-22)
tlr where /i is the effective angle of internal friction for compression, and so
sin/i :3Ml$+M). (t4-23)
Hence, if the failure condition can be described by Eq. (14-19) for extension
tests, the consequence is that the measured value of {' in compression tests
(i.e., C) will be smaller than the measured value of f in extension tests

Figure 14-13 Locus of failure states for compression anil extensigii tests
 312 rsr MIcHAMcS oF sorr.rs
i
(i.e., Conversely, if
i). is the samq in compression and extension, the
f
value of M for compression failure (.e.,.MJ will be larger than the value of
M for failure in extension (MJ. 'failure
This apparent iinomaly arises because the two criteria,
M: constant or C' : constant, imply different general relationships
between the three principal stresses at failure.
For general states of stress we must adopt the full definition for q' from
E;q. ($24),i.e.,
q' -- (l l,l2) [(o', - o)z + ("L' "A'
+ (o', - o'Jzt z r (t+24)
The M: constant failure criterion can then be obtained by squaring
Eq. (14i9) and substituting Eq. Q+2$:
(o'r- o)z + (o:r- o{)2 + (oi - ,')' : Mz(o'r+ oi* oC'. Q'+25)
z,

The interpretation of Eq. (l+25) in principal stress space is eased 'by

reference to Fig. 4-5, reproduced in slightly different forrr as Fig. 14-14.
The position of a general stress point M' in principal effective stress space
can be represented as the sum of the vector O'N' along the space diagonal
I
I
O'R on which oi: oL: oi, and the vectoLNM' perpendicular to the space
diagonal. The magnitude of O'N' is {3) "l*, where oi* is the octahedral
normal stress and the magnitude of N'M' is {f)"|"t, where ri", is the
II octahedral shear stress, where
olor: [(oi+oi+o$), (14-26)
I Tocr : |[(oi - o)2 + (oi- ofz+ ( oi- o'r;12|rz. (t+27)
tE

Eqrration (14-25) is thpn

ro&,: l,t2M o'r"r. (14-28)
I
Equation (14-28) implies that, at failure, the radius (N'M) of the stress
point from the space diagonal is a constant [,!2M times the distance
(O'N') along the space diagonal from the origin. Equation (14-28) does not
contain a term specifying the angle the radius from the space diagonal makes
with a reference direction and so the surface traced out by Eq. (l+28) is
axially symmetric about the space diagonal. Equation (14'28) represents a
cone of the form sketched in Fig. 14.15; the intersection of the conical
surface with a plane perpendicular to the space diagonal (Fig. 14-16) is
obviously a circle. fire failurecriterion q' : Mp' can be teimed the extenlled
von Mises failure criterion, by analogy with the von Mises criterion which is
oftenusedasayieldcriterionformetals. ',' .'.' ."
In order to Lxamine tle relatidnship between the Mohr-Coulomb and
the extended von Mises failure criteria we will need to investlgate the effect
of the intermediate-prlncipal stress and its relationship to the major and
minor principal stresses. To do so it is convenient to designate the principal
, stresses as o'o,of, and oi, without ordering their magnitudes.
 xotrrnc sou, resiu nxo inmcar, sf,ATE MoDEL 313
.:

{ig*e 14-14 Principal stress space

':
i
,j

4
_x

t
x

*
{
N
I
g

f,

I
Fisure f+fi ffre surface coqe$Fittdiog to the M : coostant {
II
ii

:
t
't
:l
\,
 1*
ti
314 THE ragg&{Nrcs oP
sols

r_l
ii
II
i.i

n
:!
ii

tr
tl

il

I
o\
secrion perpendicutar to the spae
,:.1

I
fltlff::frlfJ diagonal of the M : coosrant
I
rJ

_t '
The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.(i.
I e-.,-i,
on a Mohr,s stress diagram Tconstant) is represented
.I
,
",
,r,o*n iii;:?ir(.);;[:,i"rticurar
circlo shown the soir is airi-l-g
,;;,rr;-or11
to'trr"
srress
prui"'"o'tuining
directions of o,o and9i, as i6;;d;;iig. the
l geometry of the Mohr's l+r7@) ,.aid o;>oj. From
arcle o,o, and o,oare related by rhe

, ll +sind'\
o":
T
(I;E-C? Ko'6 (say).
I" Equation (r+zg) does not
)o'r: (t+2e)
contain the third principar stress
value of oi is irrerevant
for trris raiiuie critqoo. Td;
oj and so the
bilities for faiture of th9,di;;;;;;;;;e ur.lir"rn"rive
I is greater than oi g'e', o1:11op;;; the soir."t;;iuirirg so thar oi
possi-

extreme stresses are o[ so, may u" ruiri"g such that the
I
uid o;; "[
^;i;i. tr,J; ,i'rl]*o,,ities must be
I
i

I
l

ub o',
.
' (a)-.-.".
Figtrre I 4-t 7 The rvr oh1--Couioiil i"if or" cri terion

,'
 ROUTINE SOIL TESTS AND CRITICAL STATE MODEL 3I5

incorporated into the general failure criterion. One way of representing the
general failure criterion is as follows:

@L- K")(oL- K")(sL'KC.X"L- Ko)(o',"- Ko)(o!.- Kq

: g. (1+30)
The first bracket of Eq. (1430) is exactly equivalent to Eq. (L4-29)', the six
possible failure conditions apply when each of the brackets in turn are equal
i
to zero.
:
The best way of examining the form of the surface corresponding to
,:: Eq. (1a-30) is to study thelnlers,ection of the surface with a plane perpendicular
to the space diagonal, i.e., a plane on which (o'r+ o!o+ o) is constant and
i
.t i
-equal to oi, say. Becausg of the form of Eq. (l+30), we expect the inter-
=l rc"iion to- have six separatq segments, each segment corresponding to
t conditions when one of the six brackets is equal to zero. The expression
(o'"-Ko'):Q (1+31)

dpfines a plane in o'o: which passes through the origin of the

o'u: o'" space
axes. The intersection of this plane and the plane normal to the space
diagonal must be a'straight line, so we need only to define two points on
!
I
the line to fix its position iq principal stress space. The line of intersection
AB of the two planes is shown in Fig. 14-18, which is a view down the space
.T
diagonal.
j We may locate the point A, for which o'": o'6, and the point B' for which
oL: oL. In the first case, the M6hr-Coulomb failure criterion is
T
E
oL : :
K"L KoL and
$ o,o : :
oL+ oL*o," o,rrr+ (zrK)r. (t4-32)

t Now the radius OA is J(3)"1,* : (,l2llZ)(o'"-"L); hence,

I
I
oA:ffi"; (1+33)
I
I
I In the second case, for which o'": o'o, the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion
is o'o: Ys;: o'"and
oL : oL+ oL* o'" : o'"[2 + (l I K)) (14-34)

and the radius OB is given as before by {l) r!"r; hence,

:ffi"'a (14-3s)

and the intersection of the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and the plane
normal to the space diagonal is the line AB in Fig. 1418,-
By symmetry, or by-repeating this argume4t for the six brackets jn 1ur1
of Eq. (t+-:Oy, ihe complete Mohr-Coulomb failure locus can be obtained
as shtwn in fig- 14-lg; it takes the form of,-an irregular bexagon
in this
view. Stress siates A, C, E correspond to triaxial compression 4nd states
B, D, F to trihxial extension. The extended von Mises criterion is circular,
r ii
t.1'l
--!

t#
3f trre MEcHANrcs oF sorLs
i::
:!: o:a
'.:

A
lr
lt
tt
T'

n
tl
lt
l. I
-l /
I I
f,:l
lf
I
i-i
i I
I
I
.,-!
I
t
i
I
\
::i
..)
I '1
-:.!
\..*.

,+
-, -?'"/
I Figure 14-18 The Mohr-Coulomb criterion plotted on the ptane perpendicula.r to the
space diagonal
-I
aud, if the two criteria are fitted at point A, coresponding to triaxial
I
compression, a direit compailson may be made between the two criteria.
I It can be seen from Fig. 1+19 that there is a layge difference between the two
I
criteria, especiatly at points B, D, F, which correspond to triaxial extension.
I
The shape of the.complete Mohr-coulomb failure surface in principal
stress space is shown in Fig. l+20.
i

r{oulomb

/ \
I \
t
I von Mises
I
I
\ I
\ /c

Figure 14-19 The Mohr-Coulohb criterion anil the extended von Mises eriierion

t i-
\tr
 ROUTINE SOIL,TESTS AND CRITICAL STATE MODEL 3I7
-.
i'
:::

e-:
ti
ll
l-:i

f'"!
I'
ll

FI
ll
I,J

I1
ii
1t

l:r.i
4. ..
l.i
t'l
1t
IJ

n
t.l Figure 1420 The Mohr-Coulomb criterion in principal stress space

ft
Lt "
Li The two failure criteria have been discussed at length because it is found
that each criterion applies to different stages of soil deformation. Thus, the
n.
it effective stress patls for undrained tests in a true triaxial apparatus on
tI isotropically normally consolidated samples are of the form sketched in
fie. i4-2t, where tni initiat isotropic state is represented by point I. The
=I
efective stress paths define a smooth axisymmetric surface directly analogous
I
,l to the Roscoe surface observed in standard triaxial compression tests. The
observation that the surface is axisymmetric suggests that the pre-failure
ri behaviour is governed by a function of tbe von Mises type. Nevertheless,
at failure, it is found that'$'is approximately the same for all tests, that is,
failure is governed by the Mohr-Coulomb 'criterion.
:
The geometry of the intersection of the axisymmetrical Roscoe surface
with the itregular hexagonal cone defining the Mohr-Coulomb criterion
has not been established experimentally with any certainty. Nevertheliss,
the ,Roscoe surface itself will have th9 approximate geometry.shg$ i1
Iiiig l+2Z,with the line of intersectionsketched as ABCD . . . Points A,.C
co-rrespond to triaxial compression and points B, D to triaxial extenqion.
'. ,,The Roscoe surface shovm in Fig. l4-22is that for one fixed r-ay.9f
specific volume. There will bc a succession of.ych surfaces, all gebmetrically
similar, but of different sizes, fss diftrqnt dpecific volumes, as shown in
Fie.l*23:
 l:::i
li:J
6

ii
31\ rur MEcHANrcs oF sorls

n
ta
TT

FI
Ill
II
la
tt

lt
I .ll
il
-n
U

tr
Figure 14'21 Etrective stress paths in principal stress space for undrained tests on
isotropically consolidated samples
ft
For overconsolidated samples of clay, we expect that there will be some
state boundary surface in principal stress space analogous to (and containing)
fi the Hvorslev surface observed for triaxial compression tests. It was shown in
Chapter 1l that the Hvorslev surface for triaxial compression tests was given
by the equation
q' : gPl.+hP', (t4-36)
where g and h are 'soil constants and pi is the equivalent pressure.
Unfortunateln ther6 is little or no experimental evidence available concerning
the behaviour of overconsolidated clays in stress states other than those
which can be imposed in the triaxial apparatus, and so the form of the
generalized Hvorslev surface in principal stress space is uncertain. However,
P{ry (1956) performed an extensive series of triaxial tests in which samples
of weald cJay were failed in both compression and extension and so we can
at Ieast sxamine one compiete'section of the generaiized Hvorsley.surface.
The failure state.$ oisiicimens tested in comprission and extension,''drained
and undrained and with a wide va.riety of applied stress paths, are plotted
in tt|lpl: p'lpl spacq in Fig. t4-24. The convention adopted is that values of
Q' aie plotted upwards for compression tests and downwards for extension
tests; Fig. 14.24 is, therefore, a normalized section through the gen"eralized
 L I

ncuTi:iE sc'i;. tEsts AliD cRITTcAL srATE lrooer

319
L

L
bL=oL

L
Roscoe
/,tI
L
surface /,,, ont /,rfrl ,.t, "
'// l/rr,/z
' -,/ri'
L
{ur ,,i y', tr,;ti./l rctqr, lri*
L /,, qa f, /'1"4u1 (y',nsrt" /qls
A, B, (tD 7"rry ,/ t"$,/ttty-,
I -r, 4la, I f/( fu/lt/
J
L ila t/Lhr- 4,lu,o
l-
,L

l. .i
L . ,{,: t.,::

:)*
Figure 14-22 The Roscoe surface in principal
stress space 11 )q- / Y** 's t-'.r'11-2-r
' ,I-
.
:..
^_
, .1.
'"
' ;.r
. .+.,'
1
(_ Eyglrl.asurface which includes the soace di I (o',, : o'^: ol and the
.1..'.:1.,
,

pointsfromtriaxialffi nts A and D, re,s ively,

'
. l,'ttt
-j ria 1 irlrl

from Fie. I4:i9I

,L l
The data points of Fig. 14-24 clearly define two straight
lines, one for
:. compressibn and one for extension, but itre lines are ptace"J

1b:lt the p'lp'u axis. Both lines intersect the p,lO,o axis "r;;.,;i;;i
at p,lp,":_0.1;i,
{q._ but for compresston
e
.l q' :0.72(p'+0.107p'.) (t+37)
'l
{- and folgSjeng[orl
M
1_ q' : 0.58(p' + 0.107p'.). (14-38)

1=
I
The slopes of the two lines from the,?k.-:ji-gii p-,1:0.lo7p,rare
such that
J- they correspond exactly with lines : lgo i7, 'fcx the
d, compression (Eq.
{L l,V/.'= 2!- (14-21)) and extension (Eq. (r4z{!3)) cases,
respectiverv. w. *ay tt e..[ie
" d- rv1
interpret the lines by a Mohr-Eouio*b failurl criterion
I
: 0.0363p1., with tgJ47l /,:
and..c'
n. u4' -.. ,,- _:
 320 rgs MEcHAMcs oF sorls

= o,b = or,

N,( ML

u
,r.

Figure 14-23 Roscoe surfaces corresponding to different specific volumes

i A,o)
If the extension and compression poinfs of_the generalized Hvorslev
_$&e qa4 bq lt -
able to suppose that the complete state boundary surlace for one constant
ygl11glg1yglll4 haye thg 14-25. The generalized Hvorslev
sut&cq i.s qs-stqe"4_tg_!q g! lqggulqt hqxry.i,ql-cqng whose (virtua
9-l oon
lies the
l ""llglP-?r gtgs.
$skl -? tssslivtivee mean
IT' e-?
q normal effective pressure. The
"

<, surlace is circular in cross-section near the space

Loscoe surface diasonal- but either
snace diagonal, e
L- -^,)-\oscoe
'' blends into or intersects with the Hvorslev surface in a line (the precise
orecise
g,intersects
geometry of&]il&r vhidh has not been established experimentally)
exoerimentallv) which separates
seoarates
the two surfaces from one another. The states A. C, E which separate the
Roscoe and Hvorslev surfaces on sections p'IA, O'IC, and O'IE, each of
which corresponds to triaxial compression,'have previously been identified
as being on thlc$Jical state line ace- The line ABCDEFA,
-_tferefore, represents q g!_!-e=!4iz?!igl of the__qriticel _gl4te li_ne frqm tlp
/v \t' q:: p' space applo_priate fq tiq{re! _._o_+_g1qrj_,gl tgqts*iglg_ the p4qqipgl
stress space apprqpglat_e fg_r g9ngfel_q!qE!--ql q!$!s. @
 RourINE soL TEsrs AND cRmcAL srATE MoDEt 321

o oi constant, o! increased
. ol constant, oi decreased
f:'.1
+ p'constant
l: rl Undrained
l',
(.
i
.l x o, constant, oo increased
tr od constant, o, decreased
r-1
tt
II
LJ

Drained
il a or constant, oo decreased
o o, constant, o, increased
iI 1 p'constant
Undroined
.I E of constant, o, decreased
v oa constant, o, increased
I
-!
I
J

.t
:l

'j
I
0.4
.! p'lpl
Figure l4-?l Data of failure states in triaxial compression and extension t6sts on
i Weald clay (data from Parry, 1956) r .
i
ABCDEFA thq critical state locus,It is simply, a line'which separates the
I RoScOe and Hvorslev surfaces corresponding to a fixed specific volurne.
' ',:Ihe Roscoi and Hvorslev surfaces and the critical state locus ABCDEFA
of Fig. 14i25 arethose that apply for one fixed value of the specific'volume u. -'
TherJ wi[ be similar surfaces oi aiferent size, but of the same shape, corre-
sponding to different specific volirmes, as illustrated in Fig.' 14-23 for thel

--Jf-- \
 -il
t5
I'
I
II I

I
I

3*2, 'rw,MEcrrAMcs op solt.s

Figure 1n,25 Tbe comprete state boundary

surface in principar stress space.

Roscoe surfaces. The shape of the generalized state boundary

surfaces then
lfpears, at first sighg to be rather complicated, and seems to require four
dimensions for its representation (i.e., d* o'o, o,", and t).
The essential point about this way of tninung of th" state
boundary
surface is that it allows simple statements to be made
about practical cases
of interest, and yet allows the full range of behaviour to be corretated
into
a coherent w-hole. Thus, for compression tests in the triaxiar
only necessary to consider one section (i.e., that "pp"r;;; il;;
irassing through the space
diagopal and point A (or, c or E) of the surface iluctrateo
in Fig. r4-2s.
The whole discuision of the prerious chapters has been developed
refeiring
only to that one section of the generalr*rutuua#;;rf"*. rn the same
way, for extension tests in the triaxiar dppasatus,
ii ir .rrv
consider the section.of the i,-r. u"rroary surrace ;i
,"o116';;
includes the space diagonal and point n
r; 14-25 which
ioio or F). au ir,3 arguments we
have develofed for compression roading .then carry
"ir.iE;";,;l;;"";

\
 ROLTilNE SOIL TESTS AND CRTrICAL YTAIE MODEL 323

q'lpl

fi
.ll L.i

n
1E
ii
n
t,
ti
a'1
ti
il
iJ

L
a:l
l:l
ij

,,
.tf
."1
Flgure 14-26 The normalized state boundary surface forcompression and extension tests
I

t h
discussion of loading in extension. Then, adopting the convention that q'
is plotted downwards for extension loading, a normalized view of the state
boundary surface for extension czrn be drawn as shown in Fig. 1426,. The
T intersection of the Roscoe and Hvorslev surfaces at point D must now be
t
t thought of as a point on the critical state locus, and so the ratio q'lp' at D
may be different from that observed in triaxial compression tests, where
: q' : Mp' on the critical state line at point A.
I
In general, for any defined stress path, there will be relevant sections of
the Roscoe and Hvorslev surfaces whose size changes as the specific volume
I
of the specimen changes. The state of specimens will be limited by these
state boundary surfaces, and, if shear deformation continues, all samples
will eventually move towards the appropriate point on the critical state locus.
The expected patterns of behaviour will always mirror those observed in
triaxial compression and so the patterns of behaviour discussed in earlier
chapters will be relevant.
,Ho\ryever, ahdough the patterns of^ behaviour discussed for., compression
tests will always be rilevant; the.gxact shapq of thL geniral three-diminsional
state boundary'surface of Fig. l4,.Llnsstill controversial. It is important,
therefore, if field predictions are to.be made on the basis of the generalized
state boundary su-rface of Fig. 1+25, thht the shape of the relevaht section
of the surface is explored by specierl laboratory tdsts. The comtrronest
example is the use of plane strain laboratqry testiidg to determine strength
t.
rr.
i::i
l
Y
!

... l:
:

i!

34'
t rticMEcHANrcs oF solrs
parameters relevant for soil which is constrained to deform in plane strain
('l
l1
conditions in the field.
ti
ii
A more general application of this philosophy is the stress path method
of prediction which will be described in Sec. l5-7.
rl
!t
J:
1t
:l
1+6 PORE PRESSI'RE PARAMETERS FOR TINDRAINED
-st LOADING
ti
tl
It is often convenient, in'practice, to be able to estimate the pore pressures
f-l which develop as a body of soil is loaded undrained. It is often pos,ible
li
ti
ii to estimate the. changes'in total stresses which are applied to the soil, e.g.,
in an earth dam, and it is required to know what pore pressures are generated
by these total stresses (e.g., in order to compute the stability of the earth
dam durin! construction). It is helpful, therefore, to define, as in Sec. l3-4,
the pore pr€ssure parameters a and 6, where
* iI
i Au: b(Ap*a/q), (l+3e)
-j
which relate the change in pore pr.essure Au daring undrained loading to
*-r
! the changes of the total principal stresses, as measured by changes in p
!
J znl q. The parameters a and D for a particular soil may be determined from
the results of a laboratory.undrained triaxial compression test by substituting
3 observed changes in pore pressures and stresses into Eq. (14-39). It is
.,I simplest to measure b by conducting an isotropic compression test, increasing
the cell pressure by Aos, with 4:ot.-os:0, and observing the chauge
I
r Au in pore pressure while the sample is held undrained. Then, b: Aulhoe.
j The parameter a is determined from the shear phase of the test.
We should note that Eq. (1a-39) is written in terms of large inoeuents
l
I of total stress /p and, hence, unless the effective stress path happens to be
straight in q':p' space, the parameter a will not be a constant even for a
single test. Once a and, b have been found from a laboratory test, the chaages
of pore pressure in the field can be predicted provided that changes in total
stresses are known.
Some insight into Eq. (14-39) can be gained by considering the behaviour
of an element of a saturated soil; the behaviour of which, in terms of effective
stresses, is isotropic and elastic. The element of soil of volume Z is subjected
to total stress changes /or, Aor, Ao, and we wish to determine the change in
pore pressure Au, which occurs during undrained deformation (F,ig: l+27).
The strain incrernents 1 er, Ae2, Aercanbe found from the changes in effective
stress lof, Ao'r, Ao'ras "-:* _--i::--rl . I

A e, : (l I E:) (A4- v' Aof,- v' 4o'r),

A e, : (UE') (/ o'r- v',4 o'r- v' / o'r), (1440)
A e, : (l I E') (/ o'r- v' dol- v' I o'r),
 RourrNE sotr- TEsrs AND cRrrrcAl srerr uoosl 325
.::,
-_a:-
i;:

n
titi i
t..

ltlq
Ii
,iir
,: I
It
tt
t. I

Figure 1*7il An element of soil undergoing undrained deformatj.o.l -:

t"l
where the elastic constants E, v' refer to the behaviour of the soil subjected
to changes 'of.effective stress. The change AY in volume of the element is
iri
tl
then - Y A er; where the iucrement of volumetric strain le" in the soil skeleton
is
i-l
:i
q-J
Aer: Aer+Ae2+Aer. (l+41)
Hence;
i! le" : -AYIY : l(l-2v')lB'l(/o'r+Ao'r+Ao'r). (1442)
il Substituting the bulk modulus Ki of the soil skeleton for E'l(l -2v') and
writing the clariges of effective stress as
ft
I Ao'r: Aor-lu,
J
Ao'r: /or-Au, (1443)
J-*
I q'+
Ao'": /o"-/u,
glves

- AY : (Yl K) (/ o1* Ao2* Aos- 3 Au). (t+44)

The volume Yn of water in the element of soil is
V-: l(o-l)lolv: nY, (14-4s)
where n is known as the porosity. Since the soil is undrained and no water
can enter or leave, this volume of water must compress by exactly the
same amount as the soil skeleton (the soil grains themselves are assumed
incompressible as compared with water). The compression of the water
AYn:-nY(/ulK*) due to a change of pore pressure Au may, therefpfe,
be eqiialeil .tO the compression of the soil'and hence
ti,
nY (A u! K*) = (YI K',) (A o, + A + A ou
- 3 A u), (14-46)

where Ko is the bulk modulus of the water. Collection of terrns givos-_.. ,

ilo1*Ao2*Aos '1
=

/u: 'KI (14-47)

6irJ4i75
 tt
326 TTTE MECIIAMCS,OF SOILS

tu= /e@r*J+r' (l.l-48)

comparison of Eqs (r+39) and
eaa\ indicates that, for an erastic soir,
Ll
":6gqyg1, a:0. (t+4le)
If the sample is fuily saturated, the burk
modurus Rn ofthe pore water is
much Iarger than modurus Ki otthe so,, uri ,o ih"
parameter D becomes:h_e lutk por. pressure
very close to l:llf. the pore noio-i,
for example, it contains.air bubbres), /e corrpressibre (i[
rnay not be.rarge.compared with
r(i and so b may be significantty tess'ihan t.
fore, gives an indication of the a.gr..
rn"o,orur.Jrr-tili}]};a-
of saturation of a sampre. For saturated
isotropic elastic soil where r.,o ;s-rarge
compared with (i, we have 6: 1.0
and a - 0, which is the result obtained
in Sec. I34.
Although a: 0 for an isotropic erastic soir,
in rearity soil is not perfectly
elastic and considerabre poru p.rrru*
be generaied by changes in q.
Thus, in generar, a*0, aidthe rralue
of soil, usually in the triaxial apparatus.
*rriu"?;ilil
or o "un for each sarnpre
Despite the more logicar .rroi.. of
the por€ pressure parameters a,6 as
defined in Eq' (r+39), it is conventi*"r
to o"rrrr., ui;;;;.rrpton (1957),
alternative pore pressure parameters
I and g, where

ir,i,a,n,itionor^,ri^i;l,i:;:"y",;,'0",11,"-,",testsor,"rff
the effects of changes oi *: i'?
c"u pressure
stress (lor- Aor) on the changes rz"Jr-- the
"ilrrr"r'r, the deviator
values of a' and B are determin.o
1Zi1 ii*rJpor" pro"ir. i,
sampte.
i'ro* triaxiar test in a manner precisery
similar to that for finding a and b. "
values of A and -B for erastic soil
may be determined from Eq.
as in a,*nau.a-.o-pression
(r',,).
I}ffrj*:Oor, rest, Eq. d+qtlmay be

du : g(a o1-a or)1.

Comparison of Eqs
ffi [a os * (l+51)
0450) and (14-51) indicates that, for oz: ds,

(t+s2)
rf a triaxial test is performed in which the sampre is faired in. extension

lu:
-' - ll@ll4jltos
----J_- t * $(a o, - a o")1. (t:+53)

\
 cRrrIcAL stere uootl 327
RourINE soIL TEsrs AND
equal to
oarameter '/' for an elastic soil is'' therefore' indicates
The Pore Pressure I that given above
g.ror this *r.. straii conditions' we
see'
r'_l thatA: I for "u"ili];;;i;';u"ii'i'o
";:;"'*;id;Jt'd";;; on the
""
the narue of the pore ,rr"t",il;;;;;ttt L.d"n"nd*pressure
I
therefoSe, that illt that the Dore
*if. of the
test path, bven for "'r.ri.rit, "r*" absolute mt"'u"t
""nfirms
'-t parameters A
and"# *;;'v '"ti'^f;";;;
I t"at'l'different test coirditions' comparing the
behaviour of o putiJ'r"ut't'lf
8.*:;il;;;;;fi" *"ff
I
t
.t
Nevertheless, valuesof ''{.1d in-total stress' see
rl of different 'u'npil-to "T"g::
pore pressu" tests on two samples
I
I '"'pon'"for example'
i Table 1zt-2. Consider' 'otil'Ju'drained
A at failure
of the po':l:**e parameter
.,
Table 1#2 Typical values
iffiil;;'ano irenxgt' n''fl.-
I of ilifferent samples "*'
*:i
PlasticitY Value of
I
index A
I Type of soil
60 + 1.3
Marine claY: undisturbed 52 +0.9?
Looaon claY: remoulded 25 +0.94
Weald claY: remoulded +0.47
NormallY
consolidat6d erirJJ ti"a Y' claY : undisturbed +0.08
Loose sand : -o.32
Dense sand
c.25 -o-62
Weald claY: undisturbed
Weald clay: remoulded'
" ratio : 8 25 -o.22
Overconsolidate d "r"ico"sofidation
fondon clay: remouliled'
o-iit*ouaution ratio - 8 52 -0.11

f
C and D at the san
,e specln? 1"r",: r f;; : rl Tilitl
Jll:":troJt.t j-;'"}ji,IJ'tl;
. '- r- :-- ^r,6r^,
-!::
.'":l$'i",::'ff .'1"H,'$l;:*r:*i:::"*lt;[',tf J
;:s*:ltlil3;?fr"':J*.#l#liiy*::*'l;:*:;"El:iif
:11'#:i'J:: ffi ffi ;;;""'"'q*tion
lly,
(Eq' 4'50) (1

ilffi:3Jt'1 :T
then reduces to aaq. (14-54)
au_ A(ao;ao):
the pore
the same deviator stress 4o and so, at-failure'
Both specimens fail at

i5il',:,:l'ffi 'Ei*#iiffitlfi,,'fr:T:Hr**;;,:
y7ll:fr:,Ii,ii;ii"u;i;;",,h";osampres
_"*:i::kil:1'fi
approxrmation' we write
tbat
As a first
Au:'/'Aq for SamPle C

and
Att: AoAq for SamPle D'

.
 rlI
I
32E r:re MEcrrAMcs oF sorls

-'!
t

t
.,'

-a
I
i
!
,

-li

D C p,p,
Figure 14-28 Tests.paths for undrained tests on a normally consolidated sample (C)
and an overconsolidated samplc (D)

rt would be usual to treat As,As.as being constant, i.e., to idealize the test
paths of Fig. 14-28 as being straight between points c and u and between
D and u, as indicated by the dotted lines of Fig. 1428. In reality, the stress
!!
paths are uot straight in q' : p' spacr- and so the pore pressure parameter I
$ changes as the testproceeds; the incautious use of Asand, Aaior values of
J
lq less than qo gives errors in magnitude, and perhap.s sign, olthe predicted
_t
I
pore water piessures.
I
I
In summary, then, the pore pressure parameters r{ and B are helpful in
giving an indication of the likely pore pressure response of a specimen to.
changes in total stress. The parameter B gives a clear iidication as to whether
a sample is saturated. The parametet a cannot be viewed as a soil constant
for it depends on sample state. Further, the varue of ,{ depends on the
applied loading, even for an ideal elastic material, and so its deflnition is
fundamentally unsatisfactory. This last criticism can be overcome if the
parameters a,b, defrned in Eq. (l+39), are used instead. However, even the
pore pressure parameters a, D must be used with considerable care, for, again,
a depends on sample state.

Example trG4 calculation of the pore pressure parameter$ in an undiained

triaxial test

A sample of saturated clayis isotropically compressea"to p' 700 kNm-z

=
and allowed to swell to p:p':35kNm-z (i.e., a-0). The drainage
Ieadis then closed and the cell pressure idcreased So thatp: 135 kNm-2.
 ROUTINE SOIL TESTS AND CRITICAL.STATE MODEL 329

The pore pressure is observed to rise until u: l@kNm-z- The celt

pressure is reduced so thatp:35 kNm-z and the pore pressure reduces
to zero.
The sample is then subjected to a standard undrained triaxial com-
t

I
pression test: At an axial strain eool2per cent, the observed value of pore
pressure a is 6kNm-z and the deviator stress q' is 26kNm-2-'Failure
of the sample occurs at eo:27 pet cent with u:-43 kNm-2 and
I
I
Q':95 kNm-z.
Calculate thS value of .B and the values of A at eo - 2 and 27 per cent.

From Eq. (l -39), .

lu: BVot+A(Aor-Ao)).
When the cell pressure is increased by I00kNm-z, the pore pressure is
observed to increase by 100kNm-2. Thus, substituting in Eq. (14-39),
noting that /or: Aqs,
100: ^Btl00+l(0)1,

J
I
*B:1.0.
In tlre standard triaxial compression test, /o":0 and so
Aq: Aor-Aor:7',
and, puttinE B:1, Eq. (l+39) reducei to
I
I A: lullq.
!
1
At eo : 2 per cent,
A:*
II
A:0.23.
At eo: 27 per cent
A: -#
A: -0.45.

14-7 VARIATION O.F cu WITH DEPTH

It is often important in practice to know the variation of the undrained

shear strength c.'. of a deposit with depth. We shall, therefore, consider the
expected variation of cu with depth in deposits of normally consolidated
and overconsolidated clay. We consider first a stratum of normally con-
solidated clay with, for simplicity, the water tab'le at the grouad surface.
lVe will consider two sarnples of the clay, one flom near the surface and the
o-ther at depth. Both samples will have been o[e.dimensionally compressed
during deposition of successive layers of sediment and so will'lie at poirits A
 I
I
I
I
I
i
,

3:0 nrelr.rncHANrcs oF sorls :

and B, respectively, the ro consolidation line of Fig. l+zg.If the samples

are tested undrained,9nso that they fail at the r"*"- rp""ific
volume fi"t
each had in the lround, the sampres will follow "; will
the tesi paths shown and
fail at points c and D on the state line. Each sample will follow the
relevant section of the Rosboe "ttiol
state boundary surliace fro; the;; ir"i a it
state line; the two paths AC and BD wil!, thereforg be geometrically"
"It^*l
l similar, but of different sizes. In particular,

PUpli: pblpls. (r455)

1
j

I
Critical state Iine

l
I

I
..1

Normal consolidation line

(3,!inr

PL p'e pb 'pi "''.p'

Figure l&29 Test paths in q' : p' and, r
sample (A) and a deep sampre
r r' ,0""., ror unaraine'a tests on a sha*sw
1n; r.o* ,tratu*
" "r ""r-"iry'*"r-"ito*u "i;;t''"
 . ROUTINE SOIL TESTS AND CRITICAL STATE MODEL 33I

The effective mean normal stresses pt,p|in the ground can be written as
pL: y, ztft(t +2(r)J, (t4-56)
p;: y'4ff{t +ZKil, (t4-s7)
where za and zs &ta, respectively, ttre aepttrs of Samples A aud B, and
--l
I
y' : y,.-y* is the submerged unit weight of the soil. Thus, using Eqs (14-55)
l
to (14-57),
-! ztlzn: p'tlpL: MpUMpi: qUqi: c-a/c,s, (r4-58)
i
t where co^ and cos are, respectively, the undrained shear strengths of Samples
A and B. The undrained shear strength of a normally consolidated clay is,
therefore, proportional to its depth below the surface. In practice, the ground
water table is not usually at the ground surface, and it is more convenient
to express this result by saying that the ratio (co;/oi) of undrained shear
strength co to effective vertical stress o! is constant for any particular clay,
thoigh the value of the constant will be different for different clays. The
value of cJo'o for normally consolidated clays was related to the plasticity
t
index PI by Skempton (1957) as follows:
J
cjo'o = 0.11 +0.0037P/; (r4-5e)
a relationship quoted after a study of the data shown in Fig. 14-30.
I The variation of strength of overconsolidated clays with depth is less
straightforward than that of norrnally consolidated clays. During one-
I dimensional swelling of a clay, the stress paths followed in u: p' and q' i p'
I
, space are as shown in Fig. 14-31. The coefficient of earth pressure at rest .K0
varies during the swelling process from its value during normal consolidation
(found approximately to be given by Ko=l-sint') to a value greater than I
I when the sample is heavily overconsolidated.

0.6

'tr 0.4
(,=

o.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 t.2

Plasticity index, PI
Figure 14-30 Relationship between colo', and plasticity index (after Skemptorr, 1957)

t-
 \
332 ilrE MEcHANrcs oF souli

I
.t
1
i
I
:l
t

I
I

t.l
I
i
I

I
t.
I

Figure 14-31 One-dirnensional.swelling of clay

Let us now consider two specimens A, B,'which have been one.

dimensionally compressed' to ari effective mean normal stress a,^. but
specimen B has been allowed to swert onedimcnsionalry to piiEg:tl3a:
The failure states on the critical state line.for undrained t rii"r"indicated
!y noints C and D, respectively. The overconsolidatcd specimen B fiiils on
,tlie'.critical state line at a low vafue of p'(h.nd a high value of u) and s8 its

i
;t.
1
\
\,
 ROUTINE SOIL TESTS AND CRMCAL STATE MODEL 333

state
(slopr :':t'\
\r,[il'lr^r

lr

uA A
C\

ln p's tn pl ln p'
Figure 14-32 Failure of samples all consolidated to the same maximum consolidation
pressure

undrained shear strength will be less than that for the normally consolidated
Sample A. The undrained shear strength coa of Sample A which fails on the
critical state line with effective mean riormal stress pA is
cuA : *Mpb: gM exp [(l-- u^)/l], (14-60)
where Eq. (10-2) has been used to relate the specific volume l,c (: ur) to
p'.for point C on the critical
state line. The swelling line BA passes through
point A and has.equation
ua+rln (pLlfl.
u: (14-61)
If Sample B is allowed to swell to a specific volume us, b/ analogy with
Eq. (14-60), its undrained shear strength c,s will be
lMexp [(i"-udlf]
cuB - Q4-62)
Equation (14-61) may be substituted in Eq. (l+62), putting u : u,,; to give

cuB: Suexp[*-;,"(*)]' (14-63)

or
cuB: tMexp[+](4)* :,.*(*)'". Oq-oq)

,I
1
 .j-j I
::l
:::-:j

+
I
334 rrte MECHANTcs oF sorI-s

Now, for Sample A,

P'6: oulltt(l +2Kon)], (14-65)

I where Koa is the value of /(o for Sample A and oi, is the effective vertical
stress for Sample A. Similarly, for Sample B,
.i
pl-- "',y[i(+ZKotr)1.
( I 4-66)
I
I
t The value Kou of Ku for the overconsolidated Sample B will certainly be
different from the value /(oa of Ko fo1 the normally consofidated Sample A.
1 Equation (14-64)'may then be rewritten, using Eqs (14-65) and (14-66), as
x/.1
(r+-67)

A typical value of r/,\ is 0.25 while l(o might vary between (o,r :0.5 for
norma! consolidation and (or :2.5 for a very heavily overconsolidated
clay. Then, substituting these values, cu,/cu,r is found to be about I for
,'rrl"'o, of 32. Thus, c,' varies relatively little for large reductions in vertical
effective stress.
We should note that Eq. (la-67) will be reliable when the clay is lightly
overconsolidated, but that it will becomi progressively less reliabte as the
overconsolidation ratio increases. The difficulty is that extremely heavily
overconsolidated samples will have a strong tendency to deform non-
uniformly in the testing apparatus once the state of the sample reaches the
Hvorslev surface. Thus, the apparent nieasured value of co may be somewhat
less than the value that would have been observed had the sample delormed
uniformly and all parts of it reached the critical state line simultaneously,
as has been assumed in the derivation of Eq. (14-67).

Example I4-5 Calculation of the variation ol co with depth in an over-

I consolidated stratum of clay.
t
!
1

Due to erosion, the present surface of a stratum of clay is 700 m below the
originat surface of the deposit. The clay has a plasticity index of 34,
A: 0.2, r : 0.05, and the relationship between i(o and the overconsolida-
tion ratio is given in the table below, and plotted in Fig. Ela-3(a).

.Ro 1' 2 4 8 t6 32
Ko 0.64 0.86 r.08 t.43 1.95 2.40

It may be assumed that the ground water table has always ooincided with
the surfacO of the deposit and that the unit weight of the clay is 20 ftN.m-2.
Estirnate the variation of co with depth over -the top 200 m of the
presently existing clay stratum
 ii,{
,.il
.a
'il
*il
-i
,i
MODEL 335 :
ROUTINE SOII. TESTS AND CRMCALSTATE ::

-ii
f
iL-r -'Lar the fult depth of clay y*.p
It will.be assumed that wheq
r}.a frrll t resent' the 1
.:

stratum *u, norr"rf,Liroria"t

a throughout its entire depth- Then, I
:
-t
I
',
i
I :
cJ o'r: 0'1 I *0'0037 PI 0'l I +0'0037
x X4
..'
-t :0.236.
I
t
I

it
I'
I

I
I
I

,1
-i
,* -l

-t
I
I
J

l"
It-
I
I

o
oo

2001--
-.r0 --:.
cu tkN p-2)
Flgure Elzl-3
 @

il
336 rus MECHANIcS oF solls

originally, cu would vary linearly with depth in the deposit, and o'*

would be given as
o'o: (Y-Y*\z'
where z is thd depth below the'stirface. Thus, at an original
depth of
900 m (Present dePth, 200 rn),
c..:0.236x l0x 9ffi:2124 kN m-2'
The variation of (original) strength with depth is shown in
Fig. El4-3(b)'
The strengttr of ttre ciay after swelling to its present vertical effective

t, '.-

H:cffi)
xl

At a present depth of 200 m, the ratio of the present vertical effective

streisio the maximum vertical effective stress is
, q'os
ry: l.
4- -(y-yn)zs:
{Yt-l;^- eoo 4'5'
i.e., Ro :4.5. Thus, from Fig. E14-3(a), i(o: 1'15' Fig' El4-3(a)
also
girls tirt value of .I(o during normal consolidation, Koa, as 0'64'
Thepresentvalu-ecog_ofcoatapresentdepthof200misthen
given as
. t I l+2x1.1510'os/o'zo
cuB :2t24\4sTTT;T:u)
coB : 1598 kNm-z'
Results of a similar calculation for different depths in the stratum
are given in the Table below and in Fig' l+3(b)'

Present depth (m) 200 100 50 25

.Ro 4.5 8 ' 15 29

Kon l'15 l'43 1.88 2-72

O-Jginal value of co (cod GN m-2) 2124 1886 1769 l7l0
Preient value of co (cus) GN m-2) 1598 1279 1080 955

The estimated strengths become progressively leis reliable as depth

is

reduced, and the value of Ro increases'

i

14.8 INTERPRETATION OF TIIE INDEX TESTS

The index tests were.described in. chtrpter l. It may not be imnrediately
define points
obvious that both the liquid limit test and the plastic limit test

,
 i.;:;
u l::l

t 337
CRTTICAL STATE MODEL
ROUTINE SOTL TESTS AND

tests give more than

the critical state line for the soil' anId thus that the
on
*Ty,H"lllilx"l*'ffit'ffi ,soil.is.conrinuousrv-rem*9"d
before being
ri*it"'i"t"* (Fig' l+33(t) or in the
placed in the di,il;;; ilYiJ
test apiaratus (Tit'
The essence
container of the cone penetration -':'::,}b))'
volume' of the
t.n.", m: specific
of dach test is that the water content, "i[, strength defined by
r"ii hu, u n*.i rlar"ined shear
soil is adjusted,",iiit.
;ilr'lTi1l undrained shear strength
is denned
fi*tt;,,o:4"*ffi:-the to fail;;;;iiP surfaces such as AB as
the
when a sqrall slope is caused
penetration apparatus
dish is bump"a orltl ;";;;
b"re zs times]ln tii" "ont
causes a bearing
,r,.li;;;;s,h is defined wlren the :on:
the undrairr"a the clav in a tirne or 5 s'
-':' failure as it sinks;;;;;;;;*" *tigt'iio ni'into
Thetwotestsarearrangedsothattheundrainedshearstrengthotthesoilis
the same in each case' (ed to the correct
remoulded as it is mir
Because ,n" ,Ji-ir continuously
watgr content, it is in a critical ""," "i'"
,""" normal effective stress fixed
pore pressure'
ilv ii" ,"ru" or tn" negative remoulded in its preparation
In the same way, the soil is "onti"olriuslY t]1: *nd'tion' Now'
' for the plastic ri'ii?J"a so it is-aiii ara critical
pressure will be more
tt e soiiis iu'rt a'i"' and slo the pore water The
however,
on tlre soit wili be correspondingly higher'
negative; tt of tensile failure
t crumbling thr;iii;'t""
" "ft"ti" til; plastic ilit t; is reminiscent out if the plastic
"f test. iijt to find
a
, of concrete in the split cylinder "ii"t"rest
a standard undrained shear
limit test, like the liquid limit ,"r,, ."qrirts
!

I strenglh io be resisted by the-clay'. ,--. r t^r of ao soil snecir as

l d"#;;iJriquiaiti' index 'Lr "^it specimen
I We have

tl- w'PL (14-68)

"'- LL-PL
are the liquid
the water content of the specimen and LL and PL
where u' is
If the liquid and plastic limit tests
limit and the plastii ;*t,;;rp"",tv-elyjine soit can resist two specified shear
measure the water undrained
atl sgirs would have tle-same
"oni.nt-ui'rrnicn
strengths, we ,touti';};tlh"t limit) and a different' but agatn
shear strength wrrel rt:\-iG lin'10(,F and
shear strength when-.L/: 0 ;lastic-limit)' -skempton
constant, fo-ur soils against 'DI
Northey (1953) pr*.la-t" of the srr."rliii"nglh.of soils arc verv
ne,nu't^iiv, tt'" sh91 :lYstr :f llt-I"-:rremarkably'
fig. 1a-3a)-
,t liquid limits, Even more
the
similar both at ,n, nffi ur,a "
lt$ffiiffi;it ;;;tt exactlv 100 times'lhe shear
shear strength at
then write for any clay
strength at the riqiiiilit'
w"
"un
(14:69)'
l.OOqlr: Q'pL,
 t
338 rss uhro*"s oF solLs

:!1ll
:::
:-:.1

;,
il
IJ

n
iltt

t1

.* ..'i

*l
I
I
I

i
w
I
_t

:J
I.
J

I
II
,J

'i
,i

.Flgure 14-33 (a) The liquid.limii apParatus (from Scott, 1963). (b) The conc pcnctration
Spparatus

.l 1

L
t
\
1.,
 I lra

.81

{t
li
t: ROUTINE SOIL TESTS.A.ND CRMCAL STATE
MODEL 339

:,.

i.: : 2.O
:,:::

I
!] LL PL PI PI
ClaY

n 1.6 trort"n 30 16 14 0.36

II London 73 25 48 0'95
Gosport 80 30 50 0'89
Sheilhaven 97 32 65 l'27
FI
1.4
tI
-1
I -'t'.2
I

..l xt)
tt
+ .j ='
lc
a_
-6
l 5
0.8

0.6
]

0.4
I
o.2
I

-0.2
O.l 0.5 1.0 s l0 50 100 500

Undrained shear strength (kN m-2)

Figurq 14-34 Relationship between shear strength

and liquidity index (data from
Skemirton and NortheY, 1953)

I 1 r''l:::
"rr ,

ruiroipt s lt- art' 'ffrefer to the tiqJia and plastic limitS resPec-
where tl"
tively. Putting.qr: Mp' in Eq' (14-69) gives
(14-70)
lffiPLr.- P!ir,.
the critical state line ia tt: p!
wre can then go some way towaids. locating

t
 tl
T
li
li t ;'

340 rriE f,rEcHAMcs

oF sors
':l
l].:
i::
il"tr''ll'i;if"liay,IiiJf equation (Eq' (r0-2))
ror the criticar srate
rine,

IJ
aLL- I_Alnp,aa
and, for the plastic limit, (14-71)

fi n Pbz'
subtracting Eq. (t +7
2)**;,;,;# (14-72)

ff
U ) In loo. :
):*: recarring rr';a' ::; :::!',
1
soil grains, Eq:
a!e)O;"r",1,;XfrAI"- G" is the specific gravity or the
I
tazz_wpl:
zv&'.ut rw'
e/GJIn I00.
t:l
since wat,r contenr
}, is normallY exPressel,usa o+74)
I ana ptastiild#j fraction,
, white rhe liquid
e normally expressed ,
. :.J as percentag"r,
"l
J ;H;r:,:,;t1;,,1.";;;-"_::*lijl;,,henormar**",,:;;?
I = (G"pI)1461.
] For most soils, q-2.1, andso, approximately,
(14-76)

:
f'I Thus, the plasticitvi:
during noimar
) P1fi71'
soil givesadirect measure
ofits,
04-77)

II
coirJ,ff * compressibility

I
I

The position of the

critical stale lirre in ,l: p, spa""
ln

--.--+--
**{
ili:
RorIflNE#lF. TESnl AND cRrrIcAL sute uoosr 341

This interpretation of the index tests follows that of Schofield and Wroth
(1968, pp. 151-161), where the analysis is carried.further.
lt;,
ti
Er<ample 1.{.6'Calculation of thd.eflect of changes in water content on cE

n
II A his water content yre : 0.39 and undrained
sample (Sample A) of clay
shear strength clra:l20kNm-8. Thf ptarticity indgx of the clay is
R 34 and the,specific gayi1ty of the soil grains,,|s,G. - 2,?O. Estimate the
tt
tI undrained shear strength cos of a.sample (Sample B) of the clay at water
content wa:0.41. ' '
-tI
I Using Eq. (t+77),
)\: PIllTl :34ll7l: 0.20.

Using the relationship,

0-l : wGa,

the specific volume r^ o.ltT{:::

0a: I +0.39 x2.70 - 2.053

and the specific volume us of Sample B.is

0B : I +0.41 x2.70 : 2.1O7.

. Both samples fail on the critical state line, as shown in Fig. El44,.

{l^ Failure of
sampte B
oB

Failure of
Sample A
I'A

Critical state line

ro pi ,, tL

ln P'

Figure E14-4

.T
t
l: i
li I
342 rP.z MEcHANrcs oF soll-s

At failure of Sample A,
quA : W^: |MPL= 120 kNm-z
and, at failure of Sample B,
cuB : hqi: LMptn.
Thus, dividing,
c,r.1/cou : p^lp;: l}}lcus.
From the geometry of Fig. E144,
t)s-u4: i(lnpL-lnpir)
or
p ilpi : exp (us - aJlll : exp lQ.lO| -2.0.53y0.201 : I .31 .

Using this value ior pnlp', gves

PilPL: l.3l - l20lco3,

cu':92 kNm-2'

14.9 SUMMARY
I
l. It is convenient to define the strength of a soil in terms of the Mohr-
Coulomb strength criterion,
I r' : C+o'tani'.
I 2. Shear and compression are not distinct, they are different aspects of the
f same phenomenon.
3. The undrained shear strength co measured in triaxial compression tests
is independent of the applied total stress path, but the pore pressure at
failure is much influenced by the applied total stress path.
4. The pore pressure parameters I and I are helpful in giving a quatit3tive
indication ofthe pore pressures generated by shear.
5. The expected variation of co with depth may be computed for both
normally consolidated and overconsolidated soils.
6. values of the liquid and plastic limits can be used to fix the slope I of
the normal consolidation line and of the critical state line.

REFERENCES

Bishop, A. W. and Henkel, D. J. The lvleasaremenl of Sbil Properties in the Triaxial Tesr.
Edward Arnold, London, 1962.
Parry, R. H. G. strength and deformation of clay. PhD Thesis, University of London,
1956.
 ROIIINE SOTL TESTS AND CRMICAL STATE MODEL 343

parry, R. H. G. Triaxial compression and exlension tests on remoulded:saturated clay-

Geotechnique, 10, 16GI80, 1960-
Schofield, A..N. ana Wroth, C.P. Ctitical State Soil Mechanics: Mccraw-tiill Book
Co., London, 1968.
Scott, R. F. Principles of Soil Mechanics. Addison-Wesley; Reading' Mass.' 1963.
Skegnpton, A.. W. biscussion on Planning and design of the new Hong Kong airport-
li Proc. Instn Cioil Engrs, 7, 306, 1957 .
i; Skempton, A. W. and Northey, R. D. The sensitivity of clays. Geotechnique, 3, 30-53,
1953.

f"
li1-,
 CTIAPTER

SOIL PARAMETERS FOR DESIGN

r-l
ii
tr
n
ti 15-1 INTRODUCTION
l!

3:":t:1:tJ:":r-1u_:lthe^testine.of soil samples taken from the grouna i, u

''-':""'-r.*::::-:t:::lrytl:rr.fo, aesign.""r.,utionr.l;;H, ;*;"::H"J";
rPLsr, wc Jllall

;.r
::*:L:t}'::, :i'j'T'*::::: :.:9"1 sussests
"uo,,
initiar stress states
ir,. or a.sig,l
;,ffi:;
when "noice
theyx'#;fi
..,i
* .ri
i:.iT:::.::.,r: ::,1:,1 1,*:*1
we. shatr also discuss rr,. r*rr- '
l? i"yll:,.I, ll l:...,:rs.
choosing soil parameters for design
catculations.
o'u;' o;
t
.tI
1$2 CHOICE OF ANALYSIS NrrrtrrONS
=I
I rn order that a safe design may be made for
,1 footings, retaining wars, and
other soil structures, it is-necessary
to consider the ;ttiry of the structure
at all times. from the end of constiuction
? to the end of the useiur rife of the
E
structure' sorie excess por. prlr**s
3
.I
construction process..and thesepore
wi, be set up in the soir by the
water pressures wil graauarty dissipate
with time unt, equiribrium ,utu* oi pore
water pressure, perhaps corre-
l sponding to steady--state seepage condiiions,
after severar decades. There u.. t*o
,r";J;;-;-the soil, perhaps
extreme conditions which must be
considered for design. The first
is that of immediar"riuiilirv, corresponding
to the end ofconstrugtion, before the
excess pore water pressures set
the construction process have artered up by
frlm their initiar varues. The second is
that of long term stability, correspo;ii;g
'pore water to the ,itu"tion *rrrn a, the excess
pressures trave dissiiut.J.
or course, io ,orrr- rpeciar circum-
stances; an intermediate condition
--J be more .ii,i."iiiu, either extreme,
may
but such cases are relatively rare.
we will now consider anaryses for immediate,and
separately dnd estabrish approiriate long term conditions
procedures and ,oiifiop..ties
for each

,, Fo' an analysis of the end of construction conditions, *.

the situation to one in which ,h*. idealize
any soil element from &e starr
;;;een "unor out of
no flow of water into
to ttre finistr;i;;,;ilrr. ,n" measured
undraigd,shear srrength c., of
be directly relevanr to tt. i.t
undisturu.a sampres of the,;i ffi: ;ffi;";
*i"r.
"f
,fr";tffi;; il;;
t 344
 'fm
ril
:
,-;iil

iiii
if,$
t!i I
als
;*
{}
;i[
The analysis used to calculate the conditions for collapse ofl the soil .tt
structure must, therefore, be one that requires cu as the only strength it

a!. parameter for the soil- An analysis Of this typq is known as a total srrers I
!
It
:l ,
analysis.
i-r
A simple example of a total stress analysis would be the analysis of the i
7l
'I
failure ofa long strip footing of width W, as shown in section in Fig. l5-l'
i
We can urrurng as a rough approximation, that, under load, the footing
AB displaces so that a circular failure surface ACD folms within the soil'
.rl I
The foice Q per unit length to cause failure of the footingcan be obtained
,
.j
i iry taking moments about B.
0GW): rWboW (1s-l)
I

.!
!
l
QllV :Znco. (ls-2)

More exact analysis (see, for example, Schofield and Wroth, 1968, pp' 258-
.i 262) suggests that
'i
(r s-3)
'I
QIW: (rr+2)c".
t
I Ffowever, both Eqs (15-2) and (15-3) indicate that the failure sttess QIW
depends only on the soil strenfrh parameter co. The value of the pore water
L

prir.rr" and the total (and effective) normal stress round the failure surface
are irrelevant for the analysis. Pore water pressures will automatically be
ge+erated in the soil so that the effective-stresses at failure will bring the
sample to the critical state.
As discussed in Chapter 14, soil elements at different depths will have
diferent strengths, with the strength increasing with depth in a regular way.
However, it would be wrong to ascribe to the soil strength properties crr, {s,
using the argument that the soil strength increases with depth because the
normal stress increases with depth.
The strength envelope for a soil element which is shallow is given by
line A in Fig. 15-2, and the envelope for an element which.is deep by line B.
In each case, the shear stress at failure (ci is independent of the normal
stress applied to the element.
The discussion so far has been relevant for clays, for which co is meaning-
ful. For sands, drainage will normally take place so fast that the immediate
(undrained) analysis is not relevant; sudden events like earthquakes are, in
any case, Iikely to cause extra pore water pressures. For clays,.some dr-ainage
will always occur duririg cbnstruction, and so the undrained'analysis is air
idealization; however, it is one of the extremes,which should bg,considered
in design.
The other extreme condition which must be considere(l is the long term'
I situation when all excess pore water pressures have dissipated. The soil will
have had time io expand or contract so that'its spedifiC volurne'is in
i

tl
't
a
equilibrium-with the applied total itresses and the equilibrium pore pressures'
Whether the soil expands or contracts will depend on the total stress path
:.t
l
 II
346 rnp MEcHANrcs oF sorrs

t'

Figure I5-I Failure.of a footing

applied to each soil element and On the initial state of the soil element.
Thus, for eleinents of a normally consolidated clay stratum which are
loaded by'an embankment being placed on the ruifur of the clay,
the
effective stresses will increase and the soil would fail at a point on
the critical
state line with a lower specific volume than the initial specific volume
of the
soil. of course, because the spaific volume rras ctrangea,-rrr" undrained
shear strength of the soil will also change from its initlal value.
It would,
thereforg be incorrect to use the initial value of co in a long term analpis.
However, the effective stress conditions at failure at the criti-cal state
can be
represented by q' - Mp', or, alternatively, by the effective stress
strength
parameters c' : o, i'. we must, therefore, perform
an analysis which uses
the strength parameters c', i', that is, an effectioe ,trro o"iiirir.
The effective stress analysis is developed in terms of the effective stress
acting in the soil, and so an estimate must be made of the equilibrium pore
water pressures in the soil, as well as of the total stresses, before
the anaiysis
can be completed.
"i
I

fl
:,i:
:;
l

(cu )s

Figure 15-2 Strength envelopes for shallow and deep samples

 soIL PARlurrcns ron osstcN 347

Asasimpleexampleofaneffective.stressanalysis,letusconsiderthe
length on a long, smooth retaining wall
calculation of the rcr[i aper unit
sand in which the water table
(AB, Fig. 15.3(a) w*"r,-supports saturated
that a failure surface BC forms within
is at the ground ,orr".r. wJ Lrr*"
the horizontal and consider the equilibrium
the sand at some i""fi"tiou sto
of the block ABC ;;;-soil.
we shall-consider the case when the wall is
from the soil'(i.e., an active failure).
on the point of *"rtr;;;*dl "yuy (c' :0) but frictional (o' >0). The
The sand is taken ;;;;hrsiontess
on by the normal force p fr11!he
blosk ABC is oro"iiniry-ant is.as^tea surface BC'
a total force 'R across the failure
i#il;a"t;i"g ",ii*a
rorc" nls;;" up of a (totat) shear force I
along BC and a
The total
gb. tfhe shear force is the inrcgral of the
total normal force iV u"too ^S
(totat) shear stress r along BC

S=S':I.lr,crdl:l-, Bcr'dl, (15-4)

notingthattotalandeffectiveshearstresses(andforces)areequal.

*F.:.1',1' (c)
sand
w.a$,'s-gooorting saturated
Figure l5-3 Active failure of a retaining
 i:: l

fi

iiii
ll
t
\
THE MECHANICS,OF SOIIS

The total normal force il is the integral of the total normal stress on BC:
r-I
li
ll
tt N: .fIscodl. (r5-s)

n The force JV is made up of a normal force u from the pore water, where
If
ri
IE t
A: .lIsc udt (ls-6)
FI
ti and an effective normal force .ly'', where

t-l
I
i:
x' : I o'dl. (15-7)
ti ., BC

,: il
Using the effective stress equation o' : o-ut integrating,
i',1
i'i
L-i
(l 5-8)
.[rro' '': Ir"odt- [ ,{o''
l'l
II
tt and substituting Eqs (15-r, (15-6), and (15-Z) gives
It
N': I.A[J. (15-e)
rx At failure of the sand along BC,
U
r' : o'tan6 (ls-lo)
rt and so
iIi_t
:.1'r"r' at : dl : Ni tan,i'. (1s-1 l)
r'1
"' [ .o'tan$'

.f Thus, the resultant.R' of s'and .l/'is inclined at $'to the normal to BC,
as shown in Fig. 15-3(b), and the total force lt is the resultant of _R, and u-
we then have sufficient information to draw the vector diagram (Fig. l5-3(c))
for the forces on the block ABC, since the directions of the forces and .n,
e
are fixed, though their magnitudes are unknown. The magnitude
e may then
be scaled from Fig. l5-3(c).
An alternative procedure would simply be to resolve in a direction
perpendicular to the unknown force .R for the block ABC; the force
e may
then be determined directly.
It can be seen from the vector diagram of Fig. l5-3(c) that the magnitude
of the force Q on the wall depends not only on th. weight of the soil and the
angl.9 of internal friction (which fixes the inclination of Jt), but also on the
magniqude of the forcn u from the pore water pressures on'gc- it rr, ii tt
pore water pressures were those corresponding to some "
ltbady-state seepage
condition in the sand, instead of the assumed hydrostitic distribution of
Fig. 15-3, the force Q would be different. This cogglusion should be con-
trasted with that reached for the total stress analysis of the footing, rvhere
the pore water pressure in the soil was not -known. and, in any case, had no
effect on the computed failure load.

f_
 I

L 'is 4
,"..

L SOIL PARAMETERS FOR DESIGN

]C:
t
ilxample 15-l calculation of the force on a retaining wall
by an effective
tr
I

stress analysis

A smooth, vertical retaining wall of height h: 5 m retains

a saturated
I

I stratum of sand which has a level surface. The sand is cohesionler;;;;

has an angle of internal friction with respect to effective stresses;;:;d1
,1, The unit weight 7 of the sand is 20 kNm-s.
t_ Calculate the total thrust per metre run of the wall when (a)
the "i
ground water table is level wiih the surface of the sand, and (bj ii ,

i"r,.i
I
there is steady vertical seepage of water from the top surface of
rJ
I
the
sand to an under-drain, such that the pore pressure is everywher
e zero.
l
We shall assume here that ihe inclination s to the vertical of
the failure
t* plane BC (Fig. El5-2(a)) in the sand behind the wail is (|r-]/,),
though
E) this result follows from a carculation similar to.that of Ex. El4_1.
I Consider a I m length of the wall. i

(a) Four forces act on the brock ABC of soil: lt, the total weight
I
tl
of '.4
!: J

1i the block; u, the resurtant of the pore pressure.on nc; til, the i.,
resultant of the effective stresses on BC;
I

i
e, thte total iorce on
AB. The forces, and their inclinations, are shown in Fig. Er5_l(a).
The length x of AC is
l'L :'l '. l
'I L

, x: htanc:5tan25o:2.33 m
A and the length / of BC is .;i' ::-'
I

i
l-- l: /rsecs : 5sec25o : 5.52 m.
C:
Then,
. ,,
I ,,, hxxx"2 5X!-b:xZO
| : --. Z -::tr
'>7
( I16.5 kN
d
and
-:
I

S.32"5x10
)n
I
')
: I38 kN.
\
! , \'' '
t^
'\( Resolving perpendicular to R, (which is unknown) gives
il L
I\J
Qsin(/'*a) : lV
-r'
cos(d'+") + (t sin$,,
/.'
ll
'; O: (l16.5cos65" + t3g sin40d)7sin 65.
a:
l1

rl
.1 152
IkN'
)! /'1
I
rf ,t ii
i The corresponding vector diagram is shown in Fig. EI5_l(b).
)t _ (b) The flowner is sketched in Fig. Els-r(c). Tlree forces ('w, R,,
"(- and Q) now act on the block ABC of soil fs u, the resultant of
tlie pore pressure on BC, is ,e[(r, As before,

ar],e

ii. I-
l

I ;,. .i :H.
t: 1..1i:il''-
t-
!= t-:_

. ---.---_
--
 I
\

350 TIre MEcHANrcs oF soIIJ

.J.
z z.l
tn
..d \o
I ll
= >
zla.
$
.I
o
zL
C{
3
il
Al
zJ
o
I

o
Gl-
zJ4 q c
o
t
tr o
o a
I )o (r
lL tl)

a)

s
e,
!0
q,
c
ql
o

a
ra
d
H
rD ,. -

o0.
,xt
,.,,:",],i.. '

t
t, .r.fi

SOIL PARAMETERS FOR DESIGN 351

- Resolving perpendicular to R' gives

Q : w cos{/'+c)/sin16' + o; : I 16-5 cot(65o),

Q:54kN'
The corresponding vector diagram is shown in Fig. Els-l(d).
' We note that the total force on the wall is substantially affected by the
vatue of pore pressure in the soil.

It is of' course important to decide whether stability analyses' should be

carried out in terms of total or effective gtresses- Broadly speaking, if, in a
|""
particular situation, the pore pressures everywhere within the soil are known
,i
!
or mn be estimated, then the stability analysis should be carried out in terms
:i
of effective stresses, making due allowance foy the pore water pressures.
trf, on the other hand, as was the case below the footing in Fig; 15-1, the
i'r pore pressures are unknown, but no change of volume has occurred, then a
total stress analysis is appropriate. In any stability problem in soil mechanics,
(l the first decision to be made is whether the analysis should be carried out
:i:i
r-I in terms of total stresses with the strength parameter cu or in terms of
effective stresses using c'and f.

tI 1$3 CHOICE OF STRENGTH PARAMETERS

The choice of the value of co for a total stress analysis is straightforward so
&
long as reliable and consistent measurements have been made of the
undrained strength of samples recovered from the ground. Of course, there
E
ig. may be difrculties if the soil is heavily fissured, or if the sampling operation
was not performed satisfactorily. However, our understanding of the
behaviour of soil suggests that there are no fundamental difficulties arising
from the expected behaviour of the soil.
Similarly, the choice of effective strength parameters for a normally
consolidated clay is relatively easy; it is appropriate to choose a value of
/' corresponding to the critical state condition. The choice of effective stress
parameters is harder for an overconsolidated clay and for sand. The difficulty
is that the specific volume of the soil will change with time and so the size
of the relevant constant u section of the Hvorslev surface will also change.
Thus, in Fig. l5-4, a clay element in the ground might be at a state G with a
specific volume such that the constant u section of the state boundary surface
is given by ABC. The sample might be loaded,in the ground'along a pat
GH, until it sustains its maximum possible shtlar stress at H. The sample
would then dilate, suck in water, and soften so that its specific volume
changes and it reaches the critical state line at E, the cofresponding constant
u section of the state boundary s-urface being DEF. Although it is easy to
choose strength parameters to represent the critical state condition of the
 \
352 rar MEcHANrcs or soEs

sample at E, it is much less easy to choose parameters to represent

the peak
strength H. This is because the exast point at which the test path touches
!: the Hvorslev surface depends on whethbithe loa.dingpath
ii upto H is imposed
slowly o: sufficiently rapidly so rhat no change ior!*lno rirurc
l.i Lo-;;.
A related diftculty is that due to progressive faiture. Th'e point can be
ll illustrated by the following qualitative example. consider a cutting in
stiff
tili
q
E-t
i,i
il

,l
til1
ii
li

i. 'i-j
l'
l!
tl

ii
ii
G p'
Figure 15-4 Constaat u sections of the Hvonlev surface at different times after
a construction
t
rl
overconsolidated clay with properties such that when a sample of the clay
't is tested in a drained triaxial compression test, it gives a stress-strain curvi
I as shown in Fig. l5-5.t rhe stress-strain curve has a peak deviator stress
t
-t (point B) at a strain of e3, but, after a strain of es, the sample toft n,
-! reaches the critical state condition at c. we know from model tests "nd
l
and
analysis that, on applying a surcharge load to the cutting, the soil will deform
I
in the pattern indicated by the contours of shear strain shown in Fig. rs.i.
There is a concentration of shear strain near tte toe and.strains oilor*".
magnitude elsewhere in the soil. The consequence is that the dbviator
stresses on ihe potential failure surface Dr wlt vary along. DE.
Thus, at
point H, where the strain is e1, the deviator stress will be that given by
noint A in Fig. I5-5, at point G the deviator stress will be ttrat !r"n uy
point B and at point F, the clay will have softened to the critical state
(point c, Fig. l5-5). The average deviator stress mobilized on the
slip
surface will be some weighted average of the deviator stresses at pojnts-,i,
B; and c. In any case, thi aoerase rtiis wil be r;;;;r;i;il-|,ro*., than
peak stress the soil can sustain.
rhe :,..i.;.r
f It
is assumed here that there is no pre-existing failure ' ::r.:'

wbich there has bein targe shear dispracement; trr-" o.,,rrr"r,

surface within the-ciay on
slip surface is discgssed in Sec" l5-5.
tt"r" i, u pr+existing.
 rtrl
i.a
'.,t
.iil
tx

SOIL PARAMETERS FOR DESION 353

tl
n
JI
l!
li

n
t!
ti
n
il eA €3 €6

clay
Figure 195 Stress+train curve for an overconsolidated
l.,i --i'r; as the cutting was surcharged to
['i paftern of strain would remain
failure surface would be at the critical
state
rl failure but now *oi" of the would'
deviator stress on the slip surface
it condition (i.e., e> "ti'it'" o"'age
stress (point B' Fis' l5-5) and
therefore, be less t#"^t'* ;;[ -oi'F"t dwiator stress (point c)' It is'
iJ
woutd probably b" ;i;;.;;
ihe critical siate
every-
rt peak deviator stress being mobilized
therefore, unsafe a;;r, ;;,h"
J where on the sliP surface
state strength parameters for an
It would b" #;;; use the critical on the slip
x we can- argu: that the deviator stress
analysis of the cutting, for
the vafue corresponding to critical state
surface will not ,";;; b"low
,T

togi"ut' but conservative' and it

would be
conditious. Thi'
";;;;;;-i' of safety in the design than would commonly
reasonable to use r"'rJ", .*gins
I be used if paramete"
to peak conditions were chosen'
'o*t'ponding
t
I

l
1

I
i

eg'
strain in a sloPc
Figure 15-6 Contours crf ihear
 E,
I
j
I ,:

\
354 rse MEcHANrcs oF sorls

15.4 WET AND DRY STATES

: l'--t lve will now discuss the factors which deterrnine
whether the immediate
tl (undrained) or the Iong term (drained)
,orrg,rr'rr
The behaviour of a ,o.*atty consoridatsd is the.rower.
,oiii, ""rrro,.
air*silo n.st.
n rmagine that a normafly consoridated
ti ,oil sraa"nrv subjected
t-i to an increasing deviator stress, but that "r"rn.nii,
held constant.
the totar ,run normar stress p is
stress p"mr rouowed are indicatJ-
a
['i ' Jhe
a: p' ptots of Fig. t5-7. Tiie erement on the q,,: p, and
LI normal consoridation rine, and, when "r,r,-ir';ild; at point A on the
the in*easirrg JJl stress
the so, deforms at constant vorume is appried, -
and moves-towaJs", the criticar
Iine at B. The corresponding deviator state
n
rf the soil erement is ailowed to drain asat the
failure will be qi].
LJ stress

slowly, the erement wiil move up J";il;, stress is appried

the conslant p, pathAC and arrive
l:',
l::l
t
critical state point c, with thl correspondin'g at the
II element is loaded in.increments,
;;;;; stress 96. If the
witt dr;inage Inowea-u"r*."r, incremenrs,
the path foflowed wiil be trre patr,
11 srrown dotted on Fig. r5_7; provided
the
II :ffixr3,;firffiinr*gr, ir,. ,p".iren will,,,ri rril"se ro the point c
FI We note that gi.is greater thln q,r,and,
thus, the drained strength of the
specimen is greaterthan the
il compress
undraint strength. Thus, if the soir has
^ffir. time to
during deformation, it wi, hardei
critical state rine wifl move rr". ;J',h; point on the
n t" c. crearry, depending on the rate and
pattern of loading, there are
n an infinite number of intermediate
the critical state tine at which points on
sampres may fail. Howeu.r, in generar,
I
,t
Ionger the loading process
The same argument wi,
takes, the stronger will be the sample
at
the
failure.
;I appri to aiisamptes whose initiar state
the critical state line and the is between
we shalt define a, such r"d;;-;;iJing .*.t,, line ;;;. ,: p, diagram.
normat consoridation

higher specific volumes for they exist at states with

those sarnpres on the criticai
6;;il ,rrti; water -of
.wetrer)
than
".ri"r,*'l.
rr"i. iir? at the same varue p,.rwe may,
therefore, state, generally,
that wet samples gain strength with
thus, the immediate stabirity time, and
of soil structures constructed from wet
is likely to be criticar. r, ir soirs
plastic deformations as
*"r,i *ti"r- that wer samfte, *iil suffer rarge
they -or. orr. the Roscoe ,u.iau..
are analogous to consolidaiioo on paths which
proorrrr.
we will now consider the u"r,uuiou.
of a heav,y
specimen. Iniriauy, the
specim"r;;;;,ri'",-o"'#i,,irloverconsoridated *" q,: p, an;d

t we must be carefur not to misunderstand this definition

soil is always assumed r" u" of the term .wet,. The
A 'wet' soil has a water content ""n.,orl"ir'l"iur",.a with warer fring the pore spaces.
larger than the water content al its
same value of p'and its ;ritical
state in r-:p, rpr"}., to the rigiioiii"""rrt;.ur state at the
theconverse is true state rinej
Itt ;,XrJ'soit, i*,"L'i s o i p,space.ries ro the left of the
"ra criticat
 l: li
:1
t:::i
l1:; 'ri
I
,l
a
I i
rl
:i ,l
sotr. PARAMETERS non oesrcN 355 'l
!

r"!
ll

it
fi
tI

n
ti
n
II

i-l
,t.i,
* .:)

I
J

n
I
J

for normauy consolidated soil

stress paths in q, i p, arld o i
p, spac6
Figure 1$7 The

u:p,plotsofFig.l5.S.WenowsuPposethatthesampleissubjected-toa
rapidlyincreasingdeviatorstressbutthatthetotalmeannormalstressp.
if oo;;;;g" path,will follow path
cari occur, the stress
is held'coirstart-
B' The corre-
en *;pf" *iff fuif "J"r the critical statetine at point is
";a-rfr.
sponding deviator stress is oi,' Conyjrsely'
if sufficient time "ll".Y:1-1::
thg..-P',,= constairt stress :'
the sample to drain, the sziriple -will move a"lq+g
path ACD, passing if'oueh apeak p.oiii oo iU.
firotir6n iiitf"te bt'C; i11d"'r'
- D with the deviator stress
i&:
eventually reaching the critical starc line ai-p"i" ';"'"''
o

J.
 r
\

356 rHr MEcHANIcs oF sorls

,
4'Q

Critical state line

Qs

qD

p'
Figure I5-8 The stress paths ia q' i p and r 2 p'spaces for an overconsolidated soil

being equal to q'r. The value of 4i is certainly less than Qb, as will be the
peak deviator stress qA. Th" sample, therefore, has a high strength when it
is tested rapidly, for it remains undrained, and a much lower strength when
it is allowed time to soften and swell.
If some drainage of the sample were allowed, the sampre would reach
the critical state line at a position intermediate between B and D. However,
I in general, the more a sample is allowed to drain and soften, the weaker it
will be.
i The sarne argument will apply for all samples whbse initial qtateq ary
I
below and to the left of the critical state line. Such sdmples will be termed
tdry';:for they are at lower specific volumes (i.e.,
with lower'water contents
or'drier') than samples at the same value ofp'on'thecritical stateline.For
ciry-,sariiples then, the Iong term strength will bE tess than the immediate
str'ength, and so long term stability will be expected to be critical.
For simplicity, the discussion so far has been based on stress paths in
 I'
,
i
I
iI soIL PARAIYIETERS FoR DESIGN 357
1
I

I
, which the total mean noffnal stress has been held constaut. This assqmption
I is of course unrealistic f,or most practical situations, and so we will now
consider whether the same argument applles for other total stress paths.
A range of possible total stress paths, l-6, may be applied to the normally
consolidated sample A (Fig. l5-9), the effective stress path of which in any
undrained compression test is represented by path AB. For paths 14, the
failure value of the deviator stress would be higher than gi, if drainage were
allowed. For path 5, the sample would fail with q' : qL whether or not
drainage was allowed. Thus, for all total stress paths to thc right of path 5,
the long term strength of the soil would be higher than the immediate
. - strength.
n
t,
tt i
ll
Qr 4' Critical state
,.1
a i.i
I
:.,1

''t

j
3

I,
II
I
I

J
!
i

":;;,
. ] ,] . 1..:..-r ,. .. ,i,. , p
,

.,: ." j_.

Figure I$9 'Range of total stress paths applied,to a normally csnsolidated sample

t
 358 rns MECHANTcs oF sorls

for paih 6, the reCuction ofp' ri'itir increase of q'is so markeC

Con'r'ersci;-,
that, in a fully drained test, the sample reaches the critical state line at a
point where the deviator stress is less than qu. For path 6, therefore, the
long term strength is less than the immediate strength of the sample.

Critical state line

Norrnal consolidation

(-ri ti ca
state line

Figure 15-10 Range of total stresi paths applied to an overconsolidated sample

 3 }"7
t +** :.,
:

SOIL PARAMETERS FOR DESIGN

L
ata
I sirniiar nrgun:ent coi:lci .be fr:1:o,;.lc through.fcr ali san:ples
stare 9f the samples, as well as
*.;;id;;iin. ".i,i."I statp line;.the initialw(ether
on t

the drainid or the un-

the applied stress paths, would aetermine
1," drained strengths lYere higher' . embankments'
In practice, ,r;;; putii rorigwed. by soil near5 footings'l5-9 and so the
I
path on Fig.
or retaining rvalls *oura be to the righi of
However, for cuttings, when the
samples would ,t,.ngtt..n with tim"e.
I

reduced during excavation' it is

lateral, and perhaps vertical, stresses are
possible that the tJng t.r'n sirength even
of a normally consolidated clay is
L
iess than the immediate strength'
paths may be applied to samples
The same argument concerning stress
L onthedrysideofthecriticalstateline.ThesampleA(Fig'15-10)when
state line at point B' For total stress
rested undrained ;.;;i.;-the critical
paths l-3, p does not' change much as q increases' the drained
where
strengths of samplis will be less
thin the undrained deviator strength q'"'
to the undrained strength'
path 4 is such that the drained strength is identical
Forapathsuchas5,wherepincreaseS.rapidlyasqincreases,thedrained
.L wilt te larger than the undrained
strength of the overconsolidated specimen
strength qir. .t - ^-tli^.
I

.-
t Anyspecimenwhichisinitiallyclosetothecriticalstatelineinu:p,
Spacewillshowanincreirseofstrengthinthelong]termforanyloading
Conversely, an extremely heavily
paith in lvhich p increases" significanily.
,1
a loa<ling path in rvhich p increases
overconsolidated specimen wilt requirc
t-
I

veryrapidlywitl.rrTbeforethelongtermstrengthisgreatertlrantheimmediate
clay in slopes, cuttings'
I
stre.gth. Thus, we woulcl cxpect thzrt overconiolidz4c6
l
I
0rnearwal[swoulddccreascirrstrcngthwithtime.,However,evenanover-
t-
consolidated clay loadccl by a l'ootirr-g
might gain strength with time' but
depends on thc stresr patl applied
to the elemetrt of soil
rvhether it cloes
I
ancl on the initiirl statc of thc soil'
:and, long'terni'strengths ot'
Example l5-2 Calculatio* of the inrnrcdiate
sanrplcs subjected to dillerent 1.;
normally consolidatetl itrld ou.r.ol.,rollidated
I
strcss Paths

consolidat.l .to q,,:0i . ,f .,

A nutttbcr of sanrllles of clay, otte se|no;nral[y set cottsolidated and '' I'
nttcl tlic secolicl
1i :400kN m-.2, itnd t,:2.051 t' :2'052' and rvith an over- : ' " "
$
swelled lo c1' :0' p': 52'-kN nr'-.2' ilncl
ruu]..t.tt to the follorving stress parths '
"
I

consoliclation riltio ,;,

{,,: ";; "
t inthgj!:!;uiitltrpparattts:
*iJ)rr' ,, :, .t1. /S'
l"s '
l l, r r,,lf*-G) tf
i,,. r.,r s c c1 i . t l t e r it t i o .A ",J,1 "
" ? !'' I\
(ii) cr, ancl o, reducecl in the rittto J tr'f ao": t l+'
o-5

each type of l
Calculate tle ot'r7' at uitirl'rate contpressive tailurjior ' "
'altre (a) rapidly, with-no drainage -=--1.'
s.nrple in each test if the+ests ;;e perfor,r',ed
# arr<J(b)slolvly,,rr,ithfullclissipatiorrofporewater.pressure.Tlreclayhas,-..'''
o
M :0.94, F.:3.16, an&J: 0'2'
:)
:- ===- -:
--: -:-
-'
t--
I
 (a) Failure in all four undrained will occur on
line at o:2.052, where
tests -- the
---critical --state"
.---_
'' c': r-)hy'' ':

Hen@,
p, :""p (? - ..r1ffi6?):- rJ5 kNm-2
and
q': MP;:o'94 x255
q'.:240kt{m{
(b) For a drained.test, Au:0; hence,
AJ_4q _3(AorAo)
af -zi-z;ra*
For Test (i),
. AC _3(Ao1-Ao) 3(s-2)
W=iffi-ffi:+l'
For Test (ii),
Aq' 3(l-0 :-l'
ry-
These test paths are shown in Fig. Ers-z, each path starting from
:
Point q' :0, p' pi.
a
 r#
.$

ii
r'l

'i
' sotL.PaRanrErERs FoR uBsrcN '36I

From the geometry qf Fig, El5-2, at failure for Test (i) at stresses

@l p),
q1= MPi: +l@i-P')
or
pi: p'J!-M), C : MP't$- M).
ft
!t
At failure for Test (ii) at stresses (qlr, pD'
i.l
q;: Mp;: _r@L-p'o)
Of,, '.: - : i
Fl
it P' -- P['l(M+t)' qL: MPil(M+r)'
For the normally consolidated samples, p6:4@kNm-2' Hence, at
failure in Test (i), .: . , 1-:. . ,,,-.. - -'1.:. ,]
ql : Mp6l0 - M) : (0.9a x a00)/(l -0.e4)

' tli:6266kNm-r
and at failure in Test (ii),
.I

I
qi: Mp'ol!+M): (0.9ax400[l +0.94)
l
iL: l94kNfr-t'
I For &e ovqrconsolidated sample, P'o:52kNm-2. Hence, at ultimate in
,l Test (i),
q', : Mp'rl$ - M) :(0.94 x 52)lQ -0.g4)

I 9i:815kNm-3
and at ultimate in Test (ii),

I qL: MP\J$+M): o'94x s2l(t+o'94)

\L:25 kNm-''

These results are collected together below:

Overconsolidation
g'at failure
Test type AarlAo" (kNm-2)
ratio

t Rapid 512 240

I Rqo-id 114 .240
I Slow slz 0?,66
t SIow r14 , 194
l5 Rapid 512 240
'-"""
r5 Rapid u4 2N
+;t t
15 SIow s12 815
I
i Slorr u4 25
I
t
l5
i

t
i \
, ,l
 t\
362 rna MEcHANIcs oF soils

1.5-5 RESIDUAL STRENGTH

It is found that a specimen of clay is tested in a ring shear apparatus then

il
I I
the shear stress to cause slidingof one block of clay over anothef continues to
decrease for large shear displacements. The reduction in shear stfess continues
for displacr*"nir of the order of several metres. Of course, because distortion
- of the ctay is limited to a very narow slip zone in the clay, the shear strains
tl in the slip zone are enormous. The platey clay particles rotate and gradually
-t
become atigpea so that their faces lie parallel to the shear zone. It is not
I
-I.
surprising, in.r.for", thuiit u;gf" of internal friction associated with such
"
sliding is significantly lower. than that at critical state conditions wheq the
soil siructure is essentially random ard the (nominal) shear strains are no
I rnore than a few tens of percent. Skempton (1964) introduced residual shear
I
strength parameters (c:r,{r) which are defined to apply after large displace-
ments have occurred on a slip surface. It is found that the cohesion interccpt
:l
-:l ci is ofteri close to zero, but that the residual angle of internal friction,
-l measured with respect to effective stresses, can fall below Ci: 10o- for
London clay, as compared with {'-22i" at critical state conditions
I (Schofietd and Wroth, 1968, pp. 222-221).
J
The two sets of parameters will be relevant in different conditions- The
residuhl strength paiameters apply only when there has been large relative
movement on a narrow surface of sliding, while the critical state parameters
3
apply
- -In
only for the initial failure of a soil mass-
the failure of a cutting, an extensive region of the soil will suffer large
I shear strains before failure and large relative shear motions between blocks-
of soil will only occur during catastrophic failure. In contrast, in a natural
slope, a pre-existing slip band may be present in the slope as a result of
I p."uiorrr landslides- It might be expected, therefore, that the soil strength
on the pre.existing slip band will be at a value corresponding to the residual
state.
We may summarize by arguing, with Skempton (1970), that the critical
state parameters are relevant for first time slides, but that the residual
strength parameters are appropriate for sites in which pre-existing slip
surfaces are present. It is crucial, therefore, in the site investigatiol fo1.a
cutting slope" that it is established whether or not there is a pre-existing slip
surface in the clay which could be reactivated by the excavation of the
cutting.

15-6 .MATERIAL ITIEALIZATtrONS i

Wb have seenin Secs- l5-2 and l5-3 that, depending on thestate ofthesoil,
either the immediate or the long term situation is likely to be critical fOr the
stability of the soil- For. an analysis of the immediate, end of construction
ri before any drainage of iore water'has occurred, it way be assumed
"u,io,
 i-i PARAryT ron oesrcN '363

that $o - 0 and the shear strength is simply co, which depends only on the
specific volume. Alternatively, f,or an analysis of the long term situation
a, wh"o pore pressures are known, it can be assumed that C : 0 and {'*O
ti and the analysis should be carried out in terms of effective stress. Thus, two
L.r
different idealizations are made for.the behaviour of the same soil at different
times. We can think of the soil as being purely cohesive in the one case and
n purely frictional in the other.
iI
It is fortunate that there has been much analysis of structures composed
of material which is either purely coheiive or purely frictional. In particular
n the co#0, Co:0 criterion is identical to thd-faiiuie criterion assumed for
li
metali in the plastic-range. The methods of p[asticity theory are, therefore,
I relevant in the soil mechanics context. Thus, for example, the calculation of
i
I tle pressure required to indent a long punch into the surface of a metal is
identical to the calculation of the immediate bearing capacity of a long
a
:.j
t,f fooling on the surface of a clay stratum. The same slip line field (Fig. l5-l I)
.i serires for both. Of course, many other well-known results in metal plasticity
are relevant. Tha book by Calladine (1969) can be recommended as giving
"-l
I a clear introduction to the subject; the use of plasticity theory in the context
-t
I
of soil mechanics (Chen, 1975) is beyond the scope of our book.
Although structures composed of purely frictional materials have been
li analysed by many workers, there is no simple introductory texl The book
-! by Sokolovskii (1965) gives a comprebensive survey of the calculations for
e range of problems. However, the pore water pressures must t': taken into
I account in an effective stress analysis, and the distribution of pore water
I pressure is likely to vary.widely for practical situations. Thus, there have
arisen a number of ad hocmethods of calculation for particular soil mechanics
I" problems.
should be remembered that the co*O, Cu:0 aud C :0, {'*O
I
.It
idealizations are indeed idealizations of behaviour. There might be
particular circumstances on a site which make the idealization a Poor
representation of soil behaviour. Thus, for example, the undrained strength
of a clay stratum is often found to be anisotropic. One-dimensionally

Figure 15:11 Slip line field under a punch or a footing

 364 rrrg MEcHANrcs oF sorls

-g.ompressed- samples of clay have a structure in which the particles are

!* ;ri orientated so that mor.e particles lie in a direction r

''
I

Preferentially so they are i

face on to the direction of the majoi stress

than lie in other directions.
when a sample is cut from the ground such that
its axis is vertical, the sample
has a different strength (usuaily higher) than
thai of u ,u*pre which is cut
horizontally from the ground. Th; r"uron ir trrai,
at failure in the triaxial
apparatus, the slip surfaces in the two specimens
are orientated differently
with respect to the layering of the clay structure.
we would expect that the value of co wtuld
In the field, therefore,
vary around a failure surface,
e.g., under an (Fig. ti-lz),
.embankment as the inclination of the failure
surface to the direction of preferred orientation
of the clay particles varies
around the slip surface. For the analysis of the
stability or irr" embankment,
it is possible either to use a correction factor to allow for
the variation of co
(Bjerrum, 1973), or, more commonry, to take
an ayerage value or co.

.t )o w l5-7 TI{E STRESS PATH METHOD

?J/ u-,,1
/) \./
/': , , ].:t-'_tr,:$ornlft lefod is.a procedure that may be used to
estimate either the
, , l; *l:'f'h the deformation of representative elements of soil in the field.
\r/' ,' '-/ The basic idea is simpre..o-bviousry, a good way of discovering how a soil
\ t ( element in the field will deform ,nJ.. ,"tr.r, is
to observe how an identical
Nl.\t element in the laboratory deforms when
it
::il is subjected to the stresses
ty,,t1{ilL:1i!!iH"1ll#}H1,:,:ffJj:iJr*$ j?lil j:j;il:*H:
ground, and then sub.l:ect it to the total
" ^,,1')u'
'u estimated to be applied to the soil
anJ effective stress paths which are
' )l^ element in the field. observations are
,o,tiiq:r[H:'.:'i1l]:fi:"#x]iffi 11,Hri]::;r#t::,.1*'fl
soil element :.,,ff :Jl:
in the ground, and so, by repeating the procedure
r/ r.iU for other soil
Y :rii elements, to compuie overall displacements
of the soil.
dul,'D,'!
/- -", rvD-f .'(f\' ,(\\'
.V- /Y
, Y", ',:ti - lt2
J,*, )t' , , ,/
,.' Em bankmen t

/, o

\r/
|
r,4
',

,L.

Figure 15-12 Failure surface under

an embankment

I
i.:;l
I: ri

!--i SOIL PARAMETERS fOR DESIGN 365

tl
:i
lr

Itisimportantthattheinitialstateofthespecimeninthelaboratory
t tn, i"itiA s,ute of th. tP*;"" tUul is being modelled in
test is identical from tlre
shorii4 therefore' be recovered
the.field. Undisturbed samples of soil
r"l groundurdr.tu*.a,inthetestingapparatus;tostressesasnearaspossible.
ri
tl ;-,h*" estimated to exist in the ground' that occur in the element of
soil
The estimated changes in total ,,rJ*
l, inthegroundduringthevarious,ogooftheconstructionproccssmust
i! t]renbeappliedtothesoilsampleinthetatoratory.Theporewaterpressures effects
i-,
generated by eacl ihang" i, i"t"l
rtr* rl"ufd be monitored. Thp to
therfield lshoula U" *JJfJ by allowing.the soil sample
of drainage.in at
iirooro*"tion is slow, or only
a'l

drain between each stage of tne roaainf

i
.t i, *iia. For all :lig.t of undrained the
and
the end of loading if construction be-recorded, wlrile
I drained loading, ri"i"i"r-"tion of the'sample.shoukl^ sh9{d be noted'
failure of tie
I
sample
stress condition, uitn eventuat to
_l
field deformations
or ine
The observed strains then allow estimates
aiui"ra or undrained, while the
-i
,l be nrad.e for each stage of loading,.whlter to the field
strength parameters appropriate
observed failure ,t .i., allow
path method which
'n'i*T.l:r::f:*"1* certain difEculties with the stress
-;;;i;ait from
is extremelv difficult to retrieve samples
I must be faced. F'-
airtortun"?--of u sample will usually
the ground urat are-'t'irrir"air*o-ro;
or tne sample will be somewhat reduced'
I have the effect ,t u, it-""rriffo.*
w."1* is likely to be affected only slightly'
I although ,u, *r*it-.;,ur in stress which will occur
-t
. It is ufro oft n'aimcult to;stimate the changestoaa is.applied to the soil'
I in a soil the gro,rnd as a bouodary in
t. "t"*"ri-io estimate-ln: U]::tin^ttion of stresses
It is usual to "t u' ;;;'t" analysis to only be approximate, for soil is not
the soil. rrowever, this analysis
can -**"iilo* satisfactorily for any
I perfectly u, ,turti" analysis
the excess pore
which o..oi d*irg dissipation of
I
I
changes of
"lurti",?uit,
total ,ir"rr*
*"T|#,il;tii;:* to be imposed
difficulty is that the stress paths calc,lated
to-.sim:l.ate in the laboratorv'
in the ground #;;ffi;it,irnotisrpossibli,predicted bv an elastic aualvsis
For examp,", *ii*l#;'il r;ii.i"*.r,t
the elemeoi, though the body of soil
may be ,oot u'io *ur. fuiUi"
of
"u"n
asawholemaybeinaperfectlysafecondition.ofcourse,inreality,the the
stresses *iu ."Jiri'iiiu," #
ro*r iailure of the soil.occurs; nevertheless'
path carcuiatJ f'o- uo tl+it anaiysis
wiil ue impossible to apply
stress
tothesoilsampleinthelaboratory_Anotherdifficultyofthesamesortis
in a soit element may rotate as a boundafy
that the p.in"iplir*r.iir""l""s
at.present,.there is no testing
load is appliJ;;,a; soil. unfortuuately,
apparatus *ru.n J.rl"ppiv'"
c"*.rtLa.oiatioobf principal stress directions
I to path method is, in
i
i-t;;[il,H despite these difficurties, the srrels
t<
rogi'"i*If ot the fikely behaviour of a soil specimen
principle, "'""ing
"

t
..--.-
 a_l
ti
366 tw MEcHANIcs or sou's

in the field. It is discussed in detail by Lambe and Whitman (1969,

pp.216-220).

fi
llli
It
t,
15.8 SUMMARY

F1,
i{
I. It is usually appropriate to use a total stress analysis with the soil strength
,., parameter c,, in an analysis of short term stability'
!.t
Z.i is uSually appropriate t9 use an effective.stress an3.lysis wi& the soil
,4, ,,,r ,strength paramCters C, $' for an analysis of long term stability; ' '
q

l\ :. Anhougli due account must be taken of the applied stress path and of the
. initial state of the soil elements subjected to stress, it is probable that soil
' -'r- '', ::
{'
:.i,'r.:;' elements which are dry of critical will weaken with time and that soil
',-.i
eltriinii''\,rhich'bre wet'of critical will strengthen with time.
4. It is logical, but perhaps conservative, to choose soil strength parameters
.a,: c,, {'iorrerpooding to critical state conditions fsr an effective stress
;
anaiysis of the long term stability of situations where there is oo pre-
existing slip surface in the soil,
5. The rt."ogtfr, of soil may reduce substantially below the critical state
-r

strength ifthere is further movement on a sfip surface across which there

I
-)
has already been a large relative displacement; the residual strength
't
t parameters are then aPProPriate-
J
I
O. is often convenient for mathematical analysis to idealize soil as either
it
purely frictional or purely cohesive.
*
t 7. The itress path method'is a simple but logical method of assessing the
I likely behaviour of soil elements in the field.

REFERENCES

Bjerrum, L. Problems of soil mecbanics and construction on soft clays-aod tqryt11l.I

unstable soils. Proe 8th Int. Conf. Sott Mech. and Foundn Eagng, Vol. 3, pp; 111-159,
Moscow, 1973.
Calladine, C. R. EngincerW Ptasticity. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1969'
chen, w. F. Limit Analysis and soit Plasticity. Elseqier, New York, 1975.
Lambe, T. W. and Whitman, R. Y. JorT Mechanics. Wiley, New York' 1969'
Schofield, A. N. and Wroth, C.P. Critical State Soit Mechanics. McGraw-Hill Book Co',
London, 1968.
Skempton, A. W. Long term stability of clay slopes. Geotechnique, 14,77-lQl, 1964.
Skemlton, A. W. nirst time slides in over-consolidated clays. Geotechnique.,20,3m'324,
1970.
Sokolovskii, V. V. of Grawtar Media. Pergamon Press, OxfoS$, 1065'
^Srarics
i-l:;

' 1:

'I
I

\
 ih,,

CHAPTER

SIXTEEN
CONCLUDING REMARKS/
)
i tll
,.
the
ril Our aim in this book has been to convey a fundamental understanding of the
sdil behaviour of soil under a wide variety of conditions.. ,

Our discussion of the nature of soil, of the concepts of stress and strain, l+
rs and of the'principle of effective stress was an essential preliminary to the
fess Iater discussion of seepage, compression, consoridation, and shear. In each
section,,the discussion has been written in a way which was intended to
expose the conceptual framework on which a detailed understanding of the
; behaviour of real soils is based. Thus, most o.f our,discussion oflteady-
,tate
i-re state seepage has been based on the (unrealistic) assumption that soils are
t*rh uniform and have the same permeability in all directions. Similarly, in our
discussion of compression and consoridation, we have assumed that the
l* er relationship between specific volume and pressure during normal con_
solidation is linear on a ., : ln p' plot. Many real soils have normal con_
the solidation lines which are only approximately straight. In the same way,
most of the simplilying assumptions of the Terzaghi consolidation theoiy
are also gross idealizations of reality. Nevertheless, the mathematical
relationships derived for these highly idealized conditions give us the basis
for all calculations of the behaviour of real inhomogeneous soil when it
consolidates or when there is seepage flow.
14lly In the same way, the bold idealizations introduced in our iliscussion of
. i9, the shear behavioirr of soils allow us to develop a skeleton of ideas which
gives us an indication of the behaviour of soil under a very wide range
of
conditions. Of course, we accept that this framervork, Iike those for seepage
and consolidation, may have to be modified for particular soil condiiions
in nature.
The later chapters of the book have discussed horv the critical state model , ' , :::-

applies for routine testing and for design. The model,is powerful and general '; "r

but the extension of the moclel for general stress states and for the priiction
of stress-strain behaviour could onry be discussed i, a simple way. some of
the further ideas are covered by schofield and,wroth (196g) bui the major
part of the application of these ideas to engine6rin-e situations is at present
covereilonly in research papers and theses
The lfechanics of Soils will have succeeded in its aim if it has conveyed i'
to the rqader our conviction that there are certain simple underlying physical

367
 i-,

1:..!
o'

\
i.j
t. ! 368 rHe ,*rn*r"a oF sorrs

concepts from which the behaviour of qoil under conditions

or.seepage,
compression, consolidation, and shear may be predicted.
wg hope that the
reader will be.able to apply these conceps to engineering
disign and con-
stnrction, and thai tre *ti be able to assess trre conyentional
ii "ati""tty
yetlods of design and anarysis of soil constructions whicir urrrrJrouti;;t
by civil engineers.
f1
it
ll
l, _r

Fl
'i
i_.1

-'I ._ _: , _:-l i-
i ' .:r'_ _

I
i

],.
't

l"

t
a,
*,i
3

!
[,,
the INDEX
LI
rely
-....'",..
L
Activity, 13-14 Chen, W. F., 363
Amerasinghe, S. F., 126 Chilver, A. H., 28,62
Angle of internal friction, 134, 292-299, Classification tests for soil, l0-13
L 311-314, 346-351 Clay: typical values for soil constants, I90
Anisotropic soil: (see also Normally consolidated clay;
seepage through, I 13-l t4 Overconsolidated clay)
strength of,363-364 Clay, results of laboratory tests:
L Apparatus, 7l-85 isotropic compression, 125-132
(see also Direct shear test; Oedometer; one-dimensional compression, I 36-141
Ring shear test; Simple shear test; triaxial compression, 175-183, 184-200
L Triaxial test) Clay-sized particles, 4-5
, i,-,i: ;r
Artificial velocity (see Velocity) Clough, G. W., 132, 239, 243, 248-249
A.S.T.M. Part II, ll Cobbles, 5
Atterberg limits, I 1-14 Coefficient of compressibility mu, 142
L (see also Liquid limit; Plastic limit) Coefficient of consolidation c", 147, 16A- li ''
Axial stress, 72-75 t66 ri'. llt;;'
Axial symmetry,62 calculation for, I63-166
strain parameters for, 59 determination from oedometer test,
L stress parameters for, 54 I 60-1 66
..'.'r li.li
.i'.rl if 1\
,t. .l ,i ,r:
Coefficient of earth pressure at rest, 134-
Bhck pressure,Tl,124 t4t, 299-304
L Balasubramaniam, A. S., 204 in one-dimensional compression test, I,
134-141
Bearing capacity,362
Bishop, A. W., 25,74, 176, 178,211,236, variation with overconsolidation, 136 . i: . -1.t
Coefficient of permeability, 93-ll6 ;i, n
237, 327 i ''
,' ',:
,.

L Bjerrum, L.,83,364 calculation of, 94 ",lrr

Boundary conditions: typical values of, 93
for a flownet, 105-106 Cohesion, 292-295,363
for laboratory tests, 72 Cole. E. R. L., 240
L for one-dimensional compression, 134- Compression (see Isotropic compression;
One-dimensional cqmpression ; Tri-
135
for one-dimensional consolidation, 148- axial compression; Triaxial test;
Unconfi ned compression)
150
Compression:
Boundary surface (see State boundary
surface)
failure, 310-324
Brasted sand, test results: triaxial com-
inder. 142
grodel for, I l8-122
L pression, 236-237
Consolidation:
BS 1377,5,91
coefficient of, 147, I 60-166
Bulk modulus (see Elastic bulk modulus)
model for, I l8-122
Burland, J. B., 283
L theory for one-dimensional, 145-166
Contained florv, 106 "; tl
Calladine, C. R., 2,283,363 Continuum idealization, I8

t Cam-clay theory, 263-291

Casagrande, A., 163
Case, J., 28,62
Contours of constant water content, 199-
100
Crandall, S. H., 28
CelI pressure, 75 Creep, 124-125
Chattahoocn-e€ River sand, test results:
L isotropic compression, 132, 239 calculation of, 193, 195, 232-233, 26{u--
triaxial compression, 243, 248-249 262

369_
L - 'j,

-t:,it '1:t

L
 ir*{

370 tNoex

Critical state: Excess pore pressure, 119-122, 145-166

for normally consolidated soil, 189-195 Extension (see Triaxial extension; Tri-
for overconsolidated soil, 217 -220 axial test)
for sand, 238-262
Critical state line, 189-191, 217-220,238- Failure (see also Strength)
240 calculation of, 193, 195-196,216, 232-
(see also State boundary surface) 233, 249-251, 260-262
Critical state locus, 321-323 on the Hvorslev surface, 212-216, 247-
Critical state model, 292-343 259
Cutting, 362 Mohr-Coulomb criterion of , 292-299
of normally consolidated clay, 17 6-179,
Dahl, N. C.,28 1 85-209
Darcy's law,93-116 of overconsolidated clay, 177-182, 210-
in consolidation theory, 145-147 220
Degree of consolidation U;, 150-166 pore'pressure chan ge at, 21 8-220
average degree of consolidation, 1 50-1 66 progressive, 352
local degree of consolidation, l5l of sand, 235-262
Deviator stress, 75 von Mises criterion of , 312-317
Dilation, 251-262 Failure plane, 293-298
Direct shear test: calculation of direction of , 296
apparatus, 73, 8l-83, 167 Failure state (see Failure)
dilation in,25l'255 Flocculated clay, 10
interpretation of, 167-168 Flow (see Seepage flow)
Dispersed clay, l0 Flow function, 100-105
Drained loading behaviour: Flow rule, 271-291
ofelastic soil, 62-65, 266-271 associated flow rule, 277-283
of normally consolidated clay, 185-209 normality condition, 27 7 -283
of overconsolidated clay, 2lO-234 Flowline, 88-l l7
of plastic soil, 278-291 Flownet:
of sand, 235-261 boundary conditions oi, 105-106
Drained plane, I 9 -l 95, 223-228, 268'27 I
1
calculation for, 108-109
Drained test, 70 for one-dimensional seepage, 96-98
processing data for, 76-78 rate ol flow through, 102-105
Drained triaxial test results: solutions by sketching, 106-109
normally consolidated clay, 176-180, square flownet, 103-l l7
I 85-l 9l, I 98-200, 204, 207, 321 transformed, I l4
overconsolidated clay, 177-182, 207, for tw'o-dimensional seepage, 102-l l6
2ll-223,321 Ford, H., 52
sand, 236, 243,248-219 Foundation:
Dry states (dry of critical), 232, 354-359 settlement oi, 160
Dr) unit rveight (see Unit weight) stability of, 363
Friction (see Angle ol internal friction)
Effective stress, 20-27
(see also Principle of effective stress)
Elasticity: General stress state, 45*46, 310-324
bulk modr"rlts, 64, 267-272 Crading, 4-6,11,14
calculation for elastic strains, 64-65, Gravel, 5
2't3-274 Grim, R. E.,4
shear modulus, 64, 267-272
strains for undrained loading, 27 1-274 Hallam, A., 3
theory, 62*65,266-271 Hardertins, 264, 27 4-29 1

Elastic wall,266-274 hardening law', 276

(see also State boundary surface)
Eldin, A. K. G.,2-35
Engineering soils, l-3
Engineer's shear strain, 16-17, 38-39, 44
as a parameter ol strain, 57
Eqr.ri potential, 97 -1 17
Equivalent pressure, 201-209, 244-245
Flenkel, D. J., 74, 176, 178, 199,200,271,
236, 231. 321
Hollow cylinder test, 73
Holmes, A., 3
Hooke's law, 63, 766,271
Hvorslev surface. 212*21 6
(see also State boundary surface)
 I

l
I

{ , .
INDEX 371

lHydraulic gradient, 90-98 . Extension; Shear . . test; Strain-

I
I calculation of, 9l-92 , controlled loading; Stress'con-
critical hydraulic gradient, 95-96, ll7 trolled. loading.; Triaxial test; Un-
drained test)
Idealizations: Loudon, P. A.,iO7,223
t.
for isotropic compression of clay, 125-
127 Mineral grains, 14
for isotropic compression of slnd-' -1-33 clay minerals, 4, l0
t'7 - for material behaviour, 362-364, 367 rock minerals, 4
)..,
for one-dimensional compression, 138- specific gravity of, 10
140 Mitchell, J. K., 7
l=-,
Illite, 4 Mohr-Coulomb criterion of failure, 292-
t^- , Increment of strain, 26 299,310-324,342
Mohr's circle for' 43 Mohr's circld of strain, 39-44
Increment of stress, 26 calculation of ;4243
Mohi's circle for, 43 pole of, 40
Internal friction (see Angle of internal trtbhr's circle of 'stress, 29-34, 44, 168,
friction) 294-296,307
Invariant (see also' Parameters): calculation of, 3l-33, 34
of strain, 56,61-64 pole of, 30,44
of stress, 52-54,61-64 ior total and effective stress, 33-34,44
Isochrone, 147-158, 166 Montmorillonite,4, l0
parabolic isochrone, I 52-l 5 5
' Isotropic compression behaviour:
--ti consoiidated clay, 125-130 Nadarajah, V., 137
"or*"lly
of overconsolidated claY, 127 -130 Natural sloPe, 362 ;
of sand, 132-134 Normal consolidation, 128
Isotropic comfression test, 23-25, 122-124 Normal consolidation line, 128-130
apParatus, 72 (see also State boundarY surface)
, calculation for, 130 Normal strain, 15, 26, 37
:;: i
,:,,.,

results for claY, 125-126 calculation of, l7 ,. ::1.

r

results for sand, 132,239 definition of, l5 l

in Mohr's circle, 39-42

Kaolin, test results for: Normal'stress, 15, 26, 28 : .:,
isotropiq comPressio n, 126
'l
calculation of, 17
one-dimensional comPression, I 37 definition of, l5
triaxial tests, 204, 207,223 in Mohr's circle, 28-34
Normalization:
for clay, 201'206, 212428 , ij,:- l.l
il
I
LaboratorY tests, 67-85 for sand, 244-249
(see also Apparatus; Loading tests) NormalitY condition; 277-283
,i: ,

n) Lambe, T. W., 366 (see also Flow rule) r. 1

Landva, A., 83 Normally consolidated claY :

Laplace equations for two-dimensional drained strength of, 194-195, 354-356
seepage, 100 "''failure of, 185-191
solutions for, 10O-117 loading behaviour of, l9l-209 -- -

Lardner, T. J', 28 stressitrain behaviour of , 283-29 I

Layered strata: triaxial test results for, 176-180, 185-
ialculation for seepage through, I I 2-l I3 : 191, 198-200, 204'207,321
seepage through, ll0-ll3' 117 undrained strength of, 193, 304-310'
Leighton Buzzard sand, test results for: ' 329-331, 337-339, 354-356.
in simple shear, 240, 248 Northey, R. D., 337-339
/t l, Liquid limit (see Atterberg limits)
apparatus, 338
cone penetration test, 12-13,338 Octahedral strain, 58
I
Liquidity index, 13, 337 Octahedral stress, 52-54
calculation ol 13-14 Oedometer (see One-dimensional com-
' pression tesi; One-dimensional con-
Loading tests, 6?-85
lsee -also C@ession; Draineb test; solidation test)

--

*\
 i;;;;i i1i
Progressive failure, 3 52-3 54 Shear modulus (see Elastic shear modulus)
Shear strain, l5-16, 26,37-39
tfure shear strain, 3840, 44 calculation of, 17-18
Quick undrained test, 304-310
l
I
definition of, l6
I
g Quicksand, 95 in Mohr's circle, 39-43
Shear stress, l5-18, 26,28
Radial stress, 72
calculation of, l7-18
Reference section, 245-258
definition of, l6
Relative density' 10
in Mohr's circle, 28-34
Rendulic, L., 199
Residual strength, 220, 362 -
Shear test, 167-172
(see a/so Direct shear test; Ring shear
:

Retaining wall, 347'351

calculation for, 349-351
Ring shear testr 73, 362
Rock,2
R'oscoe, K. H., 83, 170-171, 283
Roscoe surface, 196-209, 221-228
(see also State boundarY surface)
Rowe, P. W., 81, 255
Sand:
loading behaviour of , 235-262
, peak failure of,235-260
I test; Simple shear test)
Sieving, l2
Silt-sized particles, 4-5 ., '
' Simple shear test:
apparatus, 73, 83-85, 170
results for sand, 240,248
Skempton, A. W., 25, 326, 337, 339, 362
Skinner, A. E., 25
Soil constants:,typical values, 190 ,':
Soil testing apparatus (see Apparatus)
Sokolovskii, V. V., 363
- :'

de shear,and dilation of, 251-255

.es- ultimate failure of ,238-244 Sbecific giavity, 7, l0
.es- Sand, results of laboratory tests: calculation of, 9 I

Specific surface, 5-10

i
ri e
isotropic compression, 132-134, 239 i" ,l I

shear tests, 240,248 Specific volume:

7 triaxial comprcssion, 23 5-237, 243, 248- calculation of, 9
249 definition of, 8
I Sand-sized particles, 4-5 typical values of, 10
Saturated,soil, 3, I4 uselfor analysis of test results, l7O-172
Scating (see Normalization) Square flownet (see Flownet)
I
-''r Schofield, A. N., 109, 170-171, 190, 263,
283,341 calculation for retaining wall, 349-351
I
Scott, R. F., 109, 338 effective stress analYsis, 34G348
Secondary compression (see Creep) total stress analysis, 344-346
Sedimentation, l2 Standpipe, 19,88-97, ll9, 148
Seepage: State boundaiy surface :
across a boundarY, I l4-l l6 for general states of stress, 310-324
one-dimensional, 96-99 for isotropic compression, 128-129
steady state, 86-l l7 for normally consolidated clay, 201-209
through an isotroPic soil, ll3-ll4 for. one-dimensional compression, 299-
transient, 87 303
10 two-dimensional, 99-l I 7 for overconsolidated clay, 212-233
.t
l Seepage flow: for sand, 244-262
calculation of, 98-99, 108-109 'as a yield surface, 265-267, 218-291
rate of flow, 88, 102-103 State of strain, 35-43
Seepage force, 94-96 Mohr's circle for, 39-41
Seepage velocity (see VelocitY) State ol stress, 28-34
Settlement: Mohr's circle for, 29-3'{
calculation ol consolidation settlement, Steady state pore pressure, ll9
n)
Stoke;s taw, iZ . ' :
l56-l57, 160
in compression model, 120*122 Strain (see Mohr's circle of strain; Plane
in one-dimensional compression test, /straini Three-dimensional state of
1 35-l 36 . . strain)
in one-dimensional Ge$sotidation, t 52- Strainl
155 elastic strain. 62-65, 263-27 4
settlement-time relationship, 124-125,
octahedral strain, 58 ., 4_
-: -- -.,'
: :.:1 .
--=-- ll

{
I Strain (cont.):
plastic strain, 263-266, 27 +-291
principal strain, 4l-44
shear strain, 15-16, 26,37-39
in triaxial test, 169*170
volumetric strain, 57-61
Strain hardening (see Hardening)
Strain invariant (see Invariant of strain)
Strain parameter (see Parameter for strain)
Strain path, 57-59, 65
Strain-controlled loading, 70
Strength (see also Failure;
strength; Residual strength; Ulti-
mate strength; Undrained shear
strength)
short and long-term strengths, 354-361
Strength parameters for design:
critical state strength, 351-353
peak strength,352
residual strength, 362
undrained shear strength, 351-352
Stress (see Mohr's circle of stress; Prin-
ciple of effective stress; Three-
dimensional state of stress; Two-
dimensional state of stress)
axial stress, 72-75
deviator stress, 75
effective stress, 20-27
horizontal stress, 134-137, 299-304
normal stress, 15, 26, 28
octahedral stress, 52-54
principal stress, 20-21, 3A-34
radial stress, 72
seepage stress, 94-95
shear stress, I 5-l 8, 26, 28
stress space, 45, 312-324
total stress, 18
in triaxial test, 75, 169
vertical stress, 19-20, I 34-l 38, 299-304,
. 329-334
Siress invariant (see Invariant of stress)
Strei5 parameter (see Parameter for stress)
Stress path, 45-56,65
calculation of, 47-48,
204-206
for normally consolidated
209,354-357
for one-dimensional compression, 299-
303
for overconsolidated clay,
358-359
for sand, 241-244, 25G260
for triaxial tests, 172, 182
for undrained loading, 304-310
Stress path method, 364-366
Stress-controlled loading, 70
Stress-strain behaviour, 263-291
of Cam-clay,283'289
I
:
1
of elastic soil, 62-65, 266-274
. of plastic soil,274-283
Stroud, M. A., 239,240,248
Surface effects, 5-7
Swelling index, 142-143
Swelling line, 130-143
Taylor, D. W., 157, 159, 162-163, 254-
255
Tensile failure, 2'13-21 5
Terzaghi, K., 2, 2O-Zl, 145
Peak Test apparatus (see APParatus)
Test results (see Isotropic compression
test; One-dirnensional compression
test; One-dimensional consolida-
tion test; SimPle shear test; Tri-
axial test)
Three-dimensional states :
of strain, 58-59
of stress, 54
Time factor f", 150-166
Torsion test, 73
Total stress, l8-20
calculation of, 19-23
in the ground, l8-23
Triaxial compression, 72, I 69
results for normally consolidated clay,
176, 178, 184-191, 198-200, 204,
207, 321
results for overconsolidated clay, 177-
183, 207, 2ll-223, 321
results for sand, 235-237, 243, 248-249
Triaxial compression behaviour :
of normally consolidated clay, 184-209
of overconsolidated clay, 21o-234
of sand, 238-249, 255-260
Triaxial extension, 76, 169-170, 31V324
test results, 321
Triaxial test:
apparatus, 74-76
calculation for, 7G80
True triaxial test, 72
Two-dimensional seepage (see Seepage)
Two-dimensional states :
55-56, of strain (see Plane strain)
of stress, 28-34
r 9l-
Ultimate strength:
of normally consolidated clay, 185-209
of overconsolidated claY, 217 -/33
221-234, parameters for design, 352-353
of sand, 235-262
Ultimate state (see Critical state)
Unconfined compression test, 72, 76
Uncontained flow, 106
Undrained loading behaviour:
ol elastic soil, 27 l-27 3
of normally consolidated soil, 191-209
of overconsolidated soil, 221-234
*"iw:
 ,l '
) t rNoex 375

Undrained loading behaviour (cont Volume change:

of plastic soil, 287-289 "): control of, 7G-71
I
ofsand,238-262 at failure, 218-219
Undrained Plane, l9F2A9, 268 to ultimate state, 228'233
Undrained ihear strength, 304-310, 351 Volumetric strain, 57-61
calculation of , 334-136, 341-342 von Mises failure criterion, 312-317
t_ variation with dePth, 329-336
variation with liquidity index, 337-340 W$ter content, 7, 14-
4= , calculation of, 9
Undrained test, 7O
processing data for, 78-79 contours of, 199-200'
L
I

Undrained triaxial test results: measurement of, I I

.normally consolidated clay, l76.178, Weald'clay, test results:
.,, 184-191, 198-200, 204'207, 321 ^- triaxial compression, 176-183, 189-191'
d .overconsolidated clay, 177-183' 207, 200,211-213, 321
d._ 2ll-223,321 triaxial extension, 200, 321
la- Webb, D.L.,25
sand,235-?17
'i Unit weight,7, 14
calculation of, 9
Wet states (wet of 'critical),232,354-359
Whitman, R. V., 3'66
L-
dry unit weight, 8 Work, 6l-62,254,283
measurement of, I I Wroth, C.P., 109, l7O, l7l, 190, 263,
*L- i Unsaturated soil, 8 283, 341, 345, 362, 367

Velocity: Yield:
artificial veloo[{Y, 89'90' ll6 yield curve, 274-291
i calculation of,92-93 yield strdss, 264,274
L. seepage velocitY, 89-90 yield surface, 2'l 6-291
Yertiial stress in the ground, 19-22 Young's modulus, 63, 270
calculation of, 19'22 for undrained loading, 271-272
i,,t_ variation of co with, 331-336
t7- Vesic, A. S., 132, 239,243,248,249
Voids ratio, 7 Zienliewicz, O. C., 109
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