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Power Plants
ME-430

Topic 1 - Review of basics of thermodynamics including rankine

cycle
 Definition
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• A power station, also referred to as a power plant and

sometimes generating station or generating plant, is an
industrial facility for the generation of electric power. Power
stations are generally connected to an electrical grid.
• A power plant is an industrial facility that generates electricity
from primary energy. Most power plants use one or more
generators that convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy in order to supply power to the electrical grid for
society's electrical needs
 System
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A defined space/region across whose boundaries, transfer of

mass and energy is studied

• Open system: Mass and energy transfer

• Closed system: Only energy transfer
• Isolated system: Both mass and energy transfer are restricted.
Energy transformation may occur within the system
boundaries.
 Energy
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• Energy is the capacity to produce an effect, such as to do

work, generate heat or emit light
• Intramolecular energy is associated with the bonds within a
molecules. This energy is released during an exothermic
oxidation reaction of a fuel
• Intermolecular energy is associated with bond energy
between different molecules. (ideal gas assumption allows it
to be neglected)
 Energy
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• Potential energy (PE): mgz

Mechanical Energy
• Kinetic energy (KE): ⅟2 mV2
• Internal energy (U): measure of the molecular activity at
microscopic level
• Total energy = KE + PE + U
• Flow energy (FE): or flow work is the work done by the
flowing fluid to push a mass into or out of the system.
FE = P x V = Pmν
 Heat
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• Heat is energy in transit and only appears on the boundaries of a

system due to a temperature difference between the system and the
surroundings.
In a system:
Net heat added:
Q = Q A − QR
QA is the heat added (positive)
QR is the heat rejected (negative)
Q = mCn (T2 − T1 )
 Work
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• Work like heat, appears on the boundaries of a system when

the system changes its state by the movement of a part at its
boundaries.
• Work is also energy in transit
• Work is negative when done by the system on the
surroundings.
• Work is positive when done on the system by the
surroundings.
Reversible steady-flow work vs boundary work
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2
Wsf = 1
vdP

2
Wb = 
1
Pdv
 Reversible steady-flow work vs boundary work
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The boundary work per unit mass of system associated with the moving boundary
of a closed system is determined by wb = ∫ P(v)dv while the steady-flow work per
unit mass flowing through a control volume is wsf = - ∫ v(P)dP. In each case the
process provides the required pressure-volume relation required to complete
these integrals. It should be noted that calculating the steady-flow work by the
later equation is often difficult to do because of the complicated nature of the
integral. This is especially true when this equation is used to determine the steady-
flow work for steam turbines and refrigerant compressors because tabular data
must be used to provide the pressure-volume relation. It is better first to try to
determine steady-flow work by the straight-forward application of the first law for
a steady-flow control volume and relate the work to the change in enthalpy.
However, the steady-flow work of an incompressible fluid is quite easily
determined from the integral since the specific volume of the incompressible liquid
may be assumed to be constant.
 Work
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2
• Equation Wsf =  vdP requires a relationship between
1
pressure P and v for the evaluation of the integral
• Second equation can be reduced to:

PV = constt.
n

Where:
n is the polytropic exponent
which varies from zero to
Infinity.
 First Law of Thermodynamics for an open system
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• Based on the principle of conservation of energy

PE1+KE 1+IE 1+FE 1+ΔQ = PE 2+KE 2+IE 2+FE 2+ΔW sf

Where g c is a conversion factor, its values are

11/2
 Enthalpy
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• Enthalpy is a combination property of state with SI units of J/kg

• Like U; H is independent of the process, defined as:
H = U + PV
 u 
Cv  
 T  v h = u + Pv
 h  h = H /m
Cp  
 T  P
& C p − Cv = R
dh = C p dT 2

du = Cv dT For Δh =  C p (T )dT
Δh = C p ΔT large dT 1
2
Δu = Cv ΔT Δu =  Cv (T )dT
1
 Examples of open systems in power plants
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• Fluid side of a steam generator/boiler

• Condensor
• A gas or steam turbine
• A water pump (incompressible fluid)
• A nozzle
• Throttling valves
• Piping
• Cooling towers
 First Law of Thermodynamics for a closed system
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• PE, KE and FE are eliminated:

PE1+KE 1+U1+FE 1+ΔQ = PE 2+KE 2+U2+FE 2+ΔW
U1+ ΔQ =U2+ ΔW
ΔQ = ΔU+ ΔW
Δq = Δu+ Δw
2
Wb = 1
Pdv
1 and 2 now refer to the initial and final states instead of inlet and exit conditions
in open systems
 Examples of closed systems in power plants
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Δq = Δu+ Δw
1. A closed rigid tank or fuel side of boiler:
Δw = 0
Δq = Δu

2. Insulated piston cylinder assembly:

Δq = 0
0 = Δu+ Δw
Δw = - (u2 – u1) = - Δu
 A thermodynamic cycle
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• A process begins at a specific state and finishes at a different state

• A cycle is a series of processes which begins and ends at the same
state, making it repeatable
• Ideal diesel cycle (example)

• For a cycle, ΔU = U 1 – U 2 = 0
• First law for a closed system becomes: ΔQ net = Q 2 – Q 1 = ΔWnet
 Property relationships
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• Ideal gases obey the following relationships

 Property relationships
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• Non-ideal gases are such that their molecules are close enough to
exert forces on each other
• When an ideal gas is compressed or highly cooled, it behaves non-
ideally
• The ideal equation of state is modified as following:
PV = mZRT
Where Z is the compressibility factor depending on the P, T and the gas
itself with values in compressibility charts
Property relationships
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 Property relationships
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• Properties of vapors are provided in tables and charts (T-s, P-v, h-s ).
• A liquid is sub-cooled or compressed when its temperature is below its
saturation temperature at a given pressure OR its saturation pressure
is lower than the pressure being exerted on it.
• Data is provided for:
1. Subcooled liquid
2. Saturated vapor
3. Superheated vapor
In order to find the properties of a two-phase mixture, a quality
parameter is used, named the dryness fraction; x.
x = mass of vapor / mass of vapor and liquid
 Property relationships
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• Specific enthalpy of a two-phase mixture is:

h = hf + xhfg
hf is the enthalpy of saturated liquid
hg is the enthalpy of the saturated vapor
hfg = hg – hf
Similarly:
v = vf + xvfg
s = sf + xsfg
Property relationships
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Property relationships
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 Second Law of Thermodynamics
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1. It defines direction of the process.

2. It introduces a concept of irreversibility.
3. A process can not happen unless it satisfies both the first and second
laws of thermodynamics.
4. Work can be converted completely into heat.
5. Heat however is not entirely available in a cycle.
6. Unavailable energy has to be rejected to a low temperature heat sink.
7. It sets a limit on the extent of energy conversion (work – heat
conversion).
8. Helps determine the theoretical limits of the performance of
thermodynamic systems (e.g. Carnot engine is the most efficient
theoretical heat engine)
 Concept of reversibility
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A reversible process is an ideal process which can reverse itself exactly by following
the same path it undertook. It restores the same work and heat to the system and
surroundings as previously exchanged.
Sources of irreversibility's are:
• External irreversibility
Friction (shaft & bearing)
Heat transfer
• Internal irreversibility
Internal fluid friction (non-ideal fluids)
Throttling (Joule Thompson expansion a form of fluid friction).
Mixing (mixing cant be reversed)
 Entropy
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• Like the concept of irreversibility, concept of entropy appears

as a consequence of the second law
• Its concept lies in the unavailability of useful energy.
•For reversible and adiabatic
process:
Integral is +ive

and T cant be zero so dS = 0 and

this is known as an isentropic
process.
 Entropy
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Polytropic turbine efficiency: ηT = Actual work / Ideal work

 Entropy
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Polytropic compressor efficiency: ηc = Ideal work / Actual work

 Entropy
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The degree of reversibility is given by turbine efficiency

Pump efficiency is ratio of ideal to actual work

 Carnot cycle
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Q-Wnet=U
U=0 for a cycle
Wnet=QA – QR
 Carnot cycle example
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An inventor claims to have invented a power plant that develops a thermal

efficiency of 80 percent when operating between two heat reservoirs at
1000 K and 300 K. Evaluate his claim.
TH = 1000 K
TL
 th , rev = 1 −
QH TH
300 K
= 1−
WOUT
HE
1000 K
= 0.70 or 70%
QL

TL = 300 K

The claim is false since no power plant may be more efficient than a Carnot
engine operating between the same heat reservoirs.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
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Power plant

Q-Wnet=U
TH U=0 for a cycle
QA Wnet=QA – QR

Thermal efficiency
Power Plant Wnet th=Wnet/QA = (QA-QR)/QA
=1-(QR/QA)
QR
TL Question: Can we produce an
100% efficient power plant?
QR=0?
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
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It would be a power plant that violates

If QR = 0 :
the Kelvin-Plank statement of the
second law.
Kelvin-Planks statement:
TH
QA It is impossible for any device that
operates on a cycle to receive heat
from a single reservoir and produces a
Heat engine
net amount of work.
Wnet
Meaning:
The heat sink can’t be absent
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
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Refrigeration cycle/Heat pump

• Coefficient of Performance (COP):

TH COP=QH/Wnet=QH/(QH-QL)
QH = 1/(1-QL/QH)

Heat pump Wnet • COP>1, a typical refrigeration

cycle/heat pump has a COP in the order
QL of 3
TL
• Question: can we built a heat pump
operating at a COP of , that is
Wnet=0? QH=QL?
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
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It would be a device that violates Clausius

If Wnet = 0 : statement of the second law.
Clausius statement:
TH It is impossible to construct a device that
QH operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a
Heat pump
lower-temperature body to a higher-
temperature body.
QL Meaning:
TL Heat cannot flow from sink to source
without work input
The Rankine Cycle
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 The Rankine Cycle
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Assumptions in case of Ideal Rankine cycle:

• Ideal Rankine cycle is internally reversible (no fluid friction)
• KE and PE changes are neglected.
• No pressure losses in the piping.

Heat added; q A = h1 − h4

Turbine work; wT = h1 − h2

Heat rejected; qR = h2 − h3

Pump work; wP = h4 − h3

Pump work; wP = 3 ( P4 − P3 )
 The Rankine Cycle
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Net work; wnet = wT − wP = ( h1 − h2 ) − ( h4 − h3 )

wnet ( h1 − h2 ) − ( h4 − h3 )
Thermal efficiency; th = =
qA h1 − h4

• Work ratio WR is the ratio of the net work output to the gross
work output.
wnet
Work ratio; WR =
wT

• Carnot cycle has lower work ratio compared to Rankine cycle.

 The Rankine Cycle
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• Another performance parameter is specific steam consumption (ssc).

• It relates the power output to steam flow necessary to produce it.
• It is the mass flow of steam required per unit power output.
• It gives a relative comparison of two steam power plants.

1
Specific steam consumtion; ssc =
wnet