1

Power Plants
ME-430

Topic 2 & 3 - Fuels (Coal Types, Analysis), Crushers,

Pulverization, Bed Furnaces, Cyclone Furnaces
 Introduction
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Fuels available to the power generating sector are

• Fossil fuels
• Nuclear fuels
Fossil fuels are formed as a result of the slow decomposition
and chemical conversion of organic matter. Most common fossil
fuels are:
• Solids: Coal
• Liquids: Heavy furnace oil
• Gaseous: Natural gas
 Background
3

• All of the fossil fuels were produced from the fossilization of the
carbohydrate compounds
• These compounds with a general formula of Cx(H2O)y were formed by
plants through photosynthesis, converting solar energy into chemical
energy
• Most of the fossil fuels were produced some 325 million years ago
during the Carboniferous period
• The plant carbohydrates were converted under high pressure and heat,
in the absence of oxygen, into hydrocarbon compounds with a general
formula of CnHm
 Coal
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• Coal is classified into four grades (classes) as done by the ASTM.

• This classification is according to the degree of metamorphism.

i.e. according to the change in form and structure under the
influences of heat, water and pressure.
Metamorphosis of Coal
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Peat: It is not a grade of coal. It is

the first geological form of coal. It
contains 90% moisture.
 Grades of Coal
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1. Anthracite: Highest grade of coal

It is shiny, hard, dense brittle coal
• Fixed Carbon: 86 – 98 mass %.
• Volatile matter: 2 – 14%.
Anthracite is further classified as
a. Meta-anthracite (C > 98%)
b. Anthracite (92 – 98% C)
c. Semi-anthracite (86 – 92% C)
 Grades of Coal
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2. Bituminous coal (grayish black)

Second grade coal and the largest group.
• Fixed Carbon: 46 – 86 mass %.
• Volatile matter: 20 – 40 mass %.
• Heating value: 11000 – 14000 Btu/lbm
Bituminous coal is subdivided into 5 groups:
a. Low volatile. (has higher heating value)
b. Medium volatile.
c. High volatile A.
d. High volatile B.
e. High volatile C. (has lower heating value)
 Grades of Coal
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3. Sub-bituminous coal (brownish)

• Heating value: 8300 – 11500 Btu/lbm
• Has high moisture content (15 – 30%)
• Lower sulfur content.
4. Lignite (lowest grade – brown and laminar in structure)
• High moisture content (up to 30%).
• Heating value: 6300 - 8300 Btu/lbm
• Not economical to transport (used in mine mouth plants).
 Coal Analysis
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Two types of analysis:

1. Proximate 2. Ultimate
Both give gravimetric fraction of components in coal. Results of both types
can be reported in many ways. Moisture and ash contents can vary hence
it is common practice to report coal analysis on:
a. Moisture free basis
b. Dry ash (mineral-matter) free basis.
c. As mined basis (moisture and ash are accounted for)
d. As received basis (moisture and ash are accounted for)
 Proximate Analysis
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Fixed carbon:
• Mass of original sample – (Volatile matter + moisture + ash)
Volatile matter:
• The portion of coal which escapes during a test, by heating a sample at
1750oF for 7 minutes in the absence of oxygen.
Moisture:
It is obtained by drying a sample in an oven in a standard test.
Ash:
Determined by the combustion of dried coal at 1380oF.
 Ultimate Analysis
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• Heating values of the fuels are determined in a calorimeter

• Higher (gross) heating value: water is liquid in the products.
• Lower heating value: water is vapor in the products.
LHV = HHV − mw h fg
Mw
LHV = HHV − h fg
M H2
LHV = HHV − 9mH 2 h fg
 O
HHV = 14, 600C + 62, 000  H −  + 4050S
 8
• The Dulong-type formula gives the approximate heating values of anthracite and
bituminous coals.
Example
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Example
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 Example
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80.7
Example
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 Coal Firing
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• Main objective of coal firing mechanisms is to have a high

combustion rate with steady operating conditions. Many
different coal firing technologies have been developed, over
the years.
1. Mechanical stokers
2. Pulverized coal firing
3. Cyclone furnace
4. Fluidized bed combustion
 Mechanical Stokers
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• Wide variety of coals can be burnt

• Its use is limited to low capacities (<50 kg/s)
• Capacity is limited due to low burning rate, and furnace size
(width)
Classifications of mechanical stokers:
1. Spreader stoker
2. Traveling-grate stoker
3. Underfed stoker
4. Vibrating grate stoker
 Spreader Stokers
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• It is the most widely used among the mechanical stokers and cover a big
range of capacity (9.5 – 50 kg/s).
• It can burn a wide variety of fuels, ranging from high grade coal such as
bituminous to lignite. Wood waste, pulpwood and bark.

Mechanism:
• Hopper gives fuel to the individual feeder-distributor units, which have
curved blades
• The coal is fed as a projectile on to a moving or stationary grate
• Forced daft fans are always used to feed air into the furnace in two ways;
undergrate air & overfire air.
• Removal of ash is a major problem in case of stationary grate.
Spreader Stokers
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 Traveling Grate Stokers
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• Coal may be injected or fed directly from hopper

• Ash is deposited in an ash pit at one of the end
• Continuously cleaning grates are designed with reciprocating or
vibrating design
• Continuous ash removal results in higher combustion rates
Traveling Grate Stokers
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Reciprocating Grate Stokers
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Underfed Stokers
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 Pulverized Coal Firing
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– A landmark in the history of steam generation

– No standard technique of coal grinding has been developed and the
process is based on different mechanisms.
– Rittingers Law was published in 1867 which states:
The energy required for the size reduction is proportional to the new surface area created.
– The ‘run-of-mine coal’ (usually bituminous) is of the size 8’’. Different sized
coal is graded and it is used for various purposes, e.g. 5in coal called lump
might be used for domestic purposes.
– The coal is dried and ground in a pulverizing mill before feeding to the
furnace.
 Crushers
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Many designs are available but important ones are:

1. Ring crusher (granulator)
2. Hammermill

Ring crusher
Hammer-mill Coal Crushers
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 Bradford Breaker
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• It is used for large capacities, mainly at mine mouth, but

may also be used at plant site
• Foreign matter is easily rejected
• Crushing force is limited
 Roll Crushers
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• Not satisfactory for coal grinding.

• Normally used for limestone breaking.
 Pulverizers
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Stages of pulverization process:

1. Feeding
2. Drying
3. Pulverization
4. Transportation to the burner
• The first three are accomplished by a feeding system which controls
the amount of fuel-feed and air rates to meet the steam generators
demand
• The feeding system supplies dried coal to the pulverizer, which is then
carried with the air to the burner.
 Pulverizers
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Drying:
• Dryers are the important integral part of the pulverizers.
• Air from the air-preheater is fed to the dryer (pulverizer) at ~650oF.
Pulverizer:
• Mechanism of grinding: Impact + crushing + attrition
1. Low speed (<75 rpm): the ball tube mill.
2. Medium speed (75 – 225 rpm): i) ball & race , ii) roll & race.
3. High speed (>225 rpm): Impact/hammermill, attrition mill.
 Low-speed Ball Tube Mill
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• It is a tough hollow cylinder with conical end.

• The inside of the cylinder has heavy-cast wear resistant liners.
• It is less than half filled with forged steel balls of different sizes.
• It reliable and requires less maintenance.
• It is large and heavier in construction and consumes more power.
• Works less efficiently with wet coals.
Medium-speed Ball Tube Mill
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 Hammer Beaters
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• These are mostly used with low rank coals with high
moisture content.
• Flue gas is used for drying.

Classifiers:

• After exit from the pulverizer the fine coal enters a cyclone
with internal vanes.
• The heavier coal particles are separated and fed back to the
pulverizer.
 Pulverized Coal System
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Bin system
 Pulverized Coal System
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Direct firing system:

• More than one systems can be
used to deal with varying loads
 Burners
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Purpose:
• To mix the fuel-primary air mixture with secondary air (main
combustion air) and sustain a flame
• The fineness requirement varies (from burner to burner) but not too
much
A usual case:
• A pulverized coal with 80% passing a 200-mesh screen
• And 99.5% passing a 50-mesh screen possesses a surface area of
approximately 1500cm2/g with more than 97% of that surface area
passing through the 200-mesh screen
 Burners
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Arrangements:
1. Burners independent of
each other creating
individual flame
envelopes
2. Burners arranged to
create a single flame
envelope
 Burners
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• Initial ignition is achieved by a light

fuel oil jet, which is itself started by
spark ignition
• Air – fuel ratio is slightly greater than
the stoichiometric
• Burners require periodic maintenance,
especially the impeller which is
normally replaced every year
 Cyclone Furnaces
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• What if you have to burn poor grade coal,

containing 6 – 25% ash content, up to 15% volatile matter and high
moisture content
• Cyclone furnace removes the ash as it forms
• But high sulfur and iron oxides are to be avoided. These form iron and
iron sulfide in the slag, which easily solidify
• 60% ash is removed as molten slag
• 40% ash goes with the flue gasses (it was 80% in case of pulverized coal
firing)
 Cyclone Furnaces
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•Whirling motion results in

high heat release rate
volumetric densities.
•3000oF is reached.
 Cyclone Furnaces
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Advantages:
1. Reduces erosion and fouling of the steam generator surfaces
2. No pulverization is required, crushing is sufficient
3. Also suitable for other fossil fuels (oil and gas)
Disadvantages:
1. Formation of NOx
2. Higher forced draft pressures (high power requirements)
3. Maintenance of the burner (erosion resistant materials are used as
burner liners, e.g. tungsten carbide)
 Fluidized Bed Combustion
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• The coal particles are fluidized (suspended in air) and

combusted.
 Fluidized Bed Combustion
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Minimum fluid velocity for fluidization:

Weight = drag
g V f2
V s = CD AC  f
gc 2 gc
Total pressure drop P is:
P = Pw + Ps + Pf
g
P = Ps = H (1 −  )  s
gc
1−  Ho
=
1 − o H
 Fluidized Bed Combustion
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• Crushed coal (6-20mm) is used

• Desulfurization is carried out by the addition of limestone
1
CaCO3 +SO2 + O2 → CaSO4 +CO2
2
• The rate of reaction is maximum at bed temperature of between 1500oF and 1600oF. But a
practical fluidized bed combustion temperature is 1380 – 1740oF.
• Less NOx
• Reduction in 90% of SO2 can be achieved
• Lower stack temperatures can be achieved
• High efficiency for heat recovery, less fouling because of liquid ash, carbon
• Absence of pulverization equipment
Problems: Feeding the coal and limestone. Control of carryover. Atmospheric or pressurized
 Liquid Fuels
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• Liquid fossil fuels extracted as crude oil.

Emulsion firing of liquid fuels: Suspension of finely divided fluid in an

another e.g. water in heavy oil.

• It improves atomization.
• Reduces soot and prevents fouling.
• Reduces excess air requirements and improves combustion efficiency.
 Coal-oil and Coal-water mixtures (COM & CWM)
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• It’s done to reduce or replace the use of oils as fuels

• These mixtures can be burnt in existing systems
• COMs usually have 50% coal on QHV basis
• CWMs can replace oils altogether
• It contains 70 – 80% coal
• These are used in the form of slurry
• Can be easily handled, stored and transport.
Read 4 -10, by products
 Synthetic Fuels (synfuels)
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• These are gaseous and liquid fuels produced from coal or biomass.
• Abundance of coal and its unclean combustion has resulted in efforts to
make clean burning synthetic fuels from coal.

1. Gaseous synfuels are made by coal gasification.

2. Liquid synfuels are made by coal liquefaction.

 Coal Gasification
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1. Town gas: The volatile portion of the coal is heated and separated to
be used as fuel gas.
• It is a by-product of the coke making industry. Coal is converted to
coke by destructive distillation (pyrolysis) to be used for the smelting
of iron.
• Town gas is also known as “coke-oven gas”.
• Its heating value is: 550 – 600 Btu/scf.
 Coal Gasification
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2. Producer gas: is obtained by partial combustion of the coal, coke

or wood in the presence of steam.
• Its heating values are low, 100 – 180 Btu/scf.
• Underground coal gasification
• Low grade, un-extractable coal seams are burned underground
with insufficient air, only enough to drive off volatile matter, any
hydrogen and produce CO.
• This method allows use of thin-seam low grade coal deposits
which cannot otherwise be recovered economically.
Underground Coal Gasification
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 Underground Coal Gasification
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Coal gasification product gases are graded on the basis of their heating values.
1. Low Btu (180 – 350 Btu/scf)

Reaction of coal with mixture of air and steam.

C+O 2 +3.76N 2 → CO 2 +3.76N 2

CO 2 +C+3.76N 2 → 2CO+3.76N 2
C+H 2 O → CO+H 2

The resulting gas mixture contains CO, H2, N2 and some CO2. It may also contain some
H2O, CH4 and C2H6.
 Grades of Coal Gases
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2. Medium Btu (250 – 500 Btu/scf).

• Reaction of coal with O2 and steam.
• The reactions are the same as in previous case, the only difference
being the absence of N2.
• During the formation of these low and medium Btu gases, certain tars
and heavy oils are left behind which are condensed by quenching and
are separated out.
• H2S formed during the process is broken down to form sulfur which is
removed.
• Solid coal residue, ash and dust is cleaned in a cleaning process.
 Grades of Coal Gases
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3. High Btu (950 – 1000 Btu/scf)

Purified medium Btu gas can be converted into high Btu methane gas in two steps:
i. Water gas shift conversion reaction:
CO is saturated with steam and passed over a catalyst.

CO+H 2 O → CO 2 +H 2
The CO2 is removed.
ii. Methanation:
CO+3H 2 → CH 4 +H 2O
The H2O is removed.

This gas is free from SO2. Its combustion has low temperature due to H2O and CO2, hence
low NOx formation.
 Coal Liquefaction
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• H2 is generated just as in the coal gasification. This H2 is added to carbon

to form hydrocarbons.

nC+(1+n)H 2 → Cn H 2n+2

• Oil Shale: A fine-grained rock containing organic matter called kerogen. It

can be heated in retorts (distillation vessels) to form synthetic crude oil
called syncrude or shale oil
• Tar sands: It is sand containing viscous bitumen.
• Biomass. Study 4 – 12.
 Combustion
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Combustion & open system:

The first law of thermodynamic applied to an open reactive system.
H R + Q = H P + Wsf
• Heat of reaction by enthalpy of formation.

C 2 H 6 +3.5O 2 → 2CO 2 + 3H 2 O

2C+3H 2 → C 2 H 6 + 1211.38Btu/lb m
C+O 2 → CO 2 +3846.7Btu/lb m
Enthalpy of Formation at Standard State
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Enthalpy of Formation at Different Temperatures
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 Combustion
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Combustion & closed system: e.g. a cylinder or a bomb.

The first law of thermodynamic applied to an closed reactive system.

U R + Q = U P + Wnf
H  U + PV = U + nRoT
 (nMh
R
f − nRoT ) + Q =  (nMh f − nRoT ) + Wnf
P
 Heating Values
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• Heating values are measured and tabulated by keeping the reactants

and the products at a standard state throughout the reaction.

HV = [ (nMh f ) −  (nMh f )]T 1

P R

• Numerical value of HV is different for any standard temperature, state of

water in the products and the state of fuel in the reactants.
• Higher heating value: Heat of reaction when water is condensed in the
reaction products.
• Lower heating value: Heat of reaction when water is in vapor state in the
reaction products.
 Combustion Temperatures
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• Some portion of heat of combustion increases the enthalpy or

internal energy of the gases (hence the temperature).

• Heat of reaction is calculated by using the enthalpy of formation (for

fuels whose exact chemistry is well known) and by using heating
values for any fuel (blends or pure-substances).

• The enthalpy of products is used to find out the products

temperature by trial & error.
 Adiabatic Flame Temperatures
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• If all the heat of reaction increases the temperature of the gases, this temperature will be
the theoretically maximum temperature the products can achieve.
• This can be achieved, in an adiabatic rigid vessel (no work and no heat loss)
• Thus, such a product gas temperature is called adiabatic flame temperature.

• Equivalence ratio affects the adiabatic flame temperature.

 (nMh ) =  (nMh )
P R
( F / A) actual
=
( F / A) S
 = 1; stochiometric
  1; fuel lean
  1; fuel rich