College of Science

Physics Department

PHYS4101 (Quantum Mechanics)

0. Introduction
“Anyone who is not shocked by quantum theory has not understood it.”
Niels Bohr
“I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics. ... Do not keep saying to yourself,
if you can possibly avoid it, 'But how can it be like that?' because you will get 'down the drain',
into a blind alley from which nobody has yet escaped. Nobody knows how it can be like that.”
Richard Feynman

What is a Quanta?
The word quanta means a discrete amount of a physical quantity. In classical mechanics
physical quantities are continuous. In quantum mechanics some these turn out to be
discrete. That is not every value of the physical quantity is allowed. For example a
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harmonic oscillator of mass 𝑚 and frequency 𝜔 has energy 𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑥̇ 2 + 2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2 .
Classically, the oscillator can take any energy depending on the initial values of speed and
position. On the other hand, in Quantum Mechanics the allowed energies take discrete
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values 𝐸𝑛 = (𝑛 + 2) ℏ𝜔, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, ….

Why do we need quantum mechanics?

Classical physics fails to describe nature at the microscopic level. For example considering
the hydrogen atom as a positively charged nucleus with the negatively charged electron
moving in the field of the nucleus we obtain using classical mechanics the electron moving
in an elliptic orbit around the nucleus, the size of which depends on the electron initial
energy. The acceleration of the electron is provided by the electron-nucleus interaction.
However, from classical electrodynamics, an accelerating charge emits radiation. The
electron will lose energy on emitting radiation and hence the size of the ellipse will shrink
and very quickly the electron will drop to the nucleus. Quantum mechanics saved the
situation as we shall see.
Quantum mechanics is required for understanding all microscopic processes and systems.
It required to understand materials from bulk to nano to atomic and molecular systems. In
fact without quantum mechanics there will be no chemistry or nuclear science.

How is Quantum Mechanics Developed?

The story of the development quantum mechanics is the story of understanding light. The
long story of light extends over a period of more than few centuries. In short, light was
considered as particles, then as waves and finally as both. However, as in other sciences,
its interesting chapters started at the seventeenth century with the rectilinear motion ideas,
the laws of reflection and refraction and geometrical optics. Under the thrust of Newton
(1642-1727), light was considered as rays of particles moving in straight lines. When the
rays enter glass from air, their speed increases. The laws of reflection, refraction and
geometrical optics were consequently explained. Newton also observed light dispersion

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and concluded that light is composed of particles of different colors. At the same time as
Newton was pursuing the corpuscular theory of light, Huygens (1629-1695) was
developing the wave theory. Huygens correctly predicted that light slows down on entering
an optically denser medium. He proved the laws of reflection and refraction for waves. The
wave theory reached its apex with the observation of light interference by Young (1773-
1829) and its explanation through wave theory. Corpuscular theory could not explain the
phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization. There was no need for the
corpuscular theory. Light was found to have speed of order 3X108 m/s (Fizeau 1819-1896).
The triumphant wave theory entered the stage of determining the waving medium. This
was called aether. However, this aether turned out to have some contradictory properties
and it could not be observed. The rescue of the wave theory from the aether catastrophe
was on the hands of Maxwell (1831-1879). Maxwell electromagnetic theory showed that
light is an electromagnetic wave of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The waves are
self-sustained and require no medium (aether) to carry them.
The wave equation for light has the form

𝜕 2𝑢 1 𝜕 2𝑢
=
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2

Here 𝑣 is the speed of light and 𝑢 is the strength of the oscillating field. In general, the
wave equation holds for all classical waves with 𝑢 being the displacement from
equilibrium.
Seemingly all the problems were solved for the wave theory to dominate. However, the
twentieth century brought new problems. For example the black body radiation and the
photoelectric effect. These problems represent the genesis of quantum mechanics. The
wave theory failed to explain these phenomena. Planck (1858-1947) explained the black
body radiation. He assumed that light comes in discrete quanta, called photons. Einstein
(1875-1955) explained the photoelectric effect similarly. The corpuscular nature of light
reappeared. Now, what is the nature of light? In quantum mechanics, it has the dual
character of particles and waves.
The photon, the quanta of light, has energy

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = ℏ𝜔

according to Planck’s assumption. This is one of the fundamental assumptions of modern

physics.

On the other hand, phenomena that are described by particles possessing mass also had
trouble. The Thompson-Rutherford picture of the atom, consisting of a nucleus and
electrons orbiting around was prevailing. The classical electromagnetic theory predicts that
an accelerating charge emits radiation. Hence, in this case, the electron will lose energy
and the atom should collapse instantaneously. Bohr saved the situation by proposing the
existence of stationary orbits where no radiation is emitted. Radiation is emitted when the
electron jumps from orbit to another. This approach explained the observed spectrum of H
atom and failed for other atoms. It is de Broglie, who asked a further question for particles.
Based on the observation that light, which is a wave, exhibited particle features, why cannot
true particles also exhibit wave features. He established the link between a particle and its
corresponding wave through the relation

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 ℎ
𝑝= = ℏ𝑘
𝜆

Here 𝑝 is the momentum of the particle and 𝜆 its wavelength. The Planck and de Broglie
relations represent the most fundamental assumptions of modern physics on which
quantum mechanics is built. The first question to seek an answer for is what is the resulting
wave equation? The answer was provided by Schrodinger in his complex wave equation.
Hence, at the microscopic level, normal particles are describable through wave approach.
In classical mechanics, the position of a particle is given as a function of time: 𝐫 = 𝐫(𝑡).
This no longer holds in QM. The position coordinate is not a function of time.

Is there only one approaches to Quantum Mechanics?

There are many approaches to quantum mechanics in addition to Schrodinger wave
approach. There is Heisenberg approach which uses equations that look similar to classical
mechanics equation. There is also Feynman approach, which use path integrals.
The quantum mechanics we consider here address conserved particles. That is the number
of particles in a certain confinements remains fixed. This does not hold for particles like
photons, where photons are continuously annihilated and created. Because of such particles
the approach quantum field theory was introduced. This field approach holds for all
particles