OECD-South Eastern Europe Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo

Reviews of National Policies for Education
South Eastern Europe

The aim of the Stability Pact is to strengthen countries in South Eastern Europe in their
efforts to foster peace, democracy, human rights, social development, economic prosperity
and a favourable environment for sustainable security, in order to achieve stability in the
region. These objectives of the Stability Pact were adopted in the Cologne Document and
the Sarajevo Declaration, signed in 1999 by more than 40 partner countries and
organisations. The principal strategic goal of the Stability Pact is the fullest possible
integration of the countries of the region into the European political and economic
« Reviews of National Policies
for Education
South Eastern
Europe

mainstream. Therefore, the Stability Pact is particularly committed to regional co-operation,
as it serves as a catalyst to the efforts of the countries in the region to integrate
themselves into European structures.
Educational work is a key element for both human capital formation and the promotion of
peace and democratic values. It has therefore been identified as one of the priorities of
Working Table I of the Stability Pact. The OECD was asked to be Co-ordinator for “General
Education Policy and System Change” within the Education and Youth Task Force, and to
carry out “Thematic Reviews of Education Policy” in the countries of the region. The main
outcome of this project is a series of reports which provide both country overviews and a
regional overview. These reports offer an analysis of the education system and address
issues and barriers to reform and recommendations. The recommendations are designed to
be of use for national policy-makers and to assist Stability Pact partner countries
and institutions target regional assistance in order to achieve the goal of supporting
South Eastern Europe towards European integration.
These reports are part of the OECD’s ongoing co-operation with non-member economies
around the world.

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FOREWORD
The Thematic Reviews of Education Policy on education in South Eastern

Europe have been prepared within the framework of the Centre for Co-
operation with Non-Members (CCNM) of the OECD as part of its programme
of co-operation with the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe. The
Secretariat, as Co-ordinator for General Education Policy and System Change
of the Task Force for Education on Table 1 of the Stability Pact, prepared
individual reports on Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, FYROM,
Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia and a regional overview
which focuses on common findings and provides general recommendations and
conclusions for education reform in the region. The themes covered are
teachers, curriculum, governance, and early childhood education and care. Each
report provides an overview of the education system, issues and barriers to
reform, and country specific recommendations. These recommendations are
designed to be of use for policy-makers, educationals and to assist Stability Pact
donor countries and institutions target regional assistance.
The transition of the region towards a pluralistic democracy and a market

economy has been marked by economic, social and political changes of
extraordinary breadth and depth. The talents, skills and knowledge of the
population are crucial in this process; hence the ambitious scale and urgency of
the reforms being advanced for education which led the members of Table 1 of
the Stability Pact to designate education as one of the four priority areas.
This OECD activity was made possible by grants from Austria, Belgium,
Finland, Greece, Switzerland and UNICEF. Additional assistance was provided
by New Zealand, the British Council, Bureau CROSS (The Netherlands), the
European Training Foundation (ETF), the World Bank, the Open Society
Foundation and the Centre for Educational Policy Studies (CEPS), University of
Ljubljana.
Fourty-three experts from 28 Countries formed the OECD review teams.

The reports of review teams were drafted by Johanna Crighton (The
Netherlands). Pavel Zgaga (Slovenia) assisted with the overview. Overall co-
ordination and substantive support were provided by Ian Whitman and Christine
Stromberger of the OECD Secretariat.
3
The volume is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of
the OECD.
Eric Burgeat
Director
Centre for Co-operation with Non-Members
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ..................................................................................................3
REGIONAL OVERVIEW ..............................................................................9

Introduction ...............................................................................................11
Education in SEE.......................................................................................12
The Thematic Surveys ...............................................................................13
Main findings of the CEPS study ..............................................................18
Demographics............................................................................................19
Principal regional recommendations .........................................................27
ALBANIA.....................................................................................................31
General Data ..............................................................................................33
Introduction and Context ...........................................................................35
Legal Framework.......................................................................................37
The Education System ...............................................................................38
Education Governance and Administration...............................................43
Curriculum.................................................................................................51
Textbooks ..................................................................................................54
Assessment of Learning Outcomes ...........................................................56
Teachers and Teacher Training .................................................................61
Early Childhood Development and Care...................................................71
Vocational Education and Training ...........................................................81
Higher Education.......................................................................................86
Recommendations by Section....................................................................87
REFERENCES............................................................................................103
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA...............................................................105

General Data ............................................................................................107
Introduction and Context .........................................................................108
The Education System .............................................................................110
5
Legal Framework and Policy Objectives.................................................115
Administration and Systemic Reform .....................................................117
Governance and management..................................................................120
Equity in Access, Attainment and Achievement .....................................123
Finance Issues..........................................................................................127
Curriculum: Intended, Delivered and Achieved ......................................128
Education Personnel ................................................................................140
Early Childhood Education......................................................................147
Vocational Education and Training .........................................................151
Higher Education.....................................................................................155
Recommendations ...................................................................................161
FIGURE 1. EDUCATION SYSTEM IN
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA...............................................................167
REFERENCES............................................................................................168
BULGARIA ................................................................................................169
General Data ............................................................................................171
Financial issues........................................................................................176
Other issues..............................................................................................176
Statistical data..........................................................................................178
Legal and Policy Framework...................................................................178
Administration, Governance and Finance ...............................................179
Equity in access, attainment and achievement.........................................186
Curriculum: intended, delivered and achieved ........................................199
Issues and Barriers in education personnel..............................................219
Early Childhood Development and Education ........................................219
Vocational Education and Training (VET)..............................................221
Issues and Barriers in VET and adult education......................................236
Issues and Barriers in higher education ...................................................257
Recommendations by Section..................................................................257
REFERENCES............................................................................................264
CROATIA ...................................................................................................267
General Data ............................................................................................269
6
Equity in Access, Attainment and Achievement .....................................276
Financing .................................................................................................278
Curriculum...............................................................................................280
Textbooks ................................................................................................285
Teacher Policy .........................................................................................286
Standards and Quality Assurance ............................................................290
Early Childhood Education and Care ......................................................292
FIGURE 1. EDUCATION SYSTEM IN CROATIA .................................313
REFERENCES............................................................................................314
KOSOVO ....................................................................................................315
General Data ............................................................................................317
Legal Framework and Policy Objectives.................................................325
Administration and Systemic Reform .....................................................327
Equity in access, attainment and achievement.........................................328
Finance issues ..........................................................................................329
Curriculum: Intended, Delivered and Achieved ......................................331
Early Childhood Education......................................................................347
REFERENCES............................................................................................372
LIST OF EXAMINERS ..............................................................................375
7
REGIONAL OVERVIEW
The thematic survey of 10 education systems in South Eastern Europe

(SEE) shows commonality in the challenges and problems, e.g., low GDP
for education, low teacher salaries, child poverty and overloaded curricula,
but that there are no common solutions. The regional diversity is too great.
The thematic review covered the current status of the system; equity and
access issues; early childhood education and care; governance and quality
issues. Like in other regions, the education system can be evaluated in
terms of four main characteristics: availability, accessibility, acceptability
and adaptability. This overview contains basic data and demographics:
demographic information on migration, birth rates, ethnic composition of
the population, poverty, participation in education, enrolment patterns and
number of institutions. Attention is paid to curriculum development,
administration and teaching, facilities and equipment, as well as costs and
financing of education. The overview quotes the main conclusions from a
study carried out by the Centre for Educational Policy Studies (CEPS) in
Ljubljana and lists the principal regional recommendations of the OECD
examining team.
REGIONAL OVERVIEW
Introduction
The Balkan peninsula in South East Europe is one of the world’s most
complex areas in terms of ethnicity, language and religion. Nation states mean
less, generally speaking, than ethnic allegiances that cross borders: there are
Albanians in Macedonia, Macedonians in Bulgaria, Croats in Bosnia, and Serbs
in Croatia – the mix is often uneasy, and in recent times has been explosive (e.g.
Kosovo, Bosnia). It can be argued that as there is no majority ethnic group in
SEE as a whole; all are, in some sense, minorities, and should be regarded as
such.
This regional diversity does not apply only to languages, religion and
ethnicity – it permeates the entire geo-political history of SEE, preceding even
the division of the Eastern and the Western Roman Empire. Later, the Austro-
Hungarian and Ottoman Empires affected most parts of the region with
divisions, (re-) unifications, shifting allegiances and diversity. The perception of
the region during the second half of the 20th century as a homogenous unit in a
political or ideological sense is “a mistake based on ignorance”. The former
Yugoslavia, as a “neither an Eastern – nor a Western” country, was highly
decentralised and diverse in itself. Since the mid-1960s it was more connected
with the West (with one million workers abroad) than with the East. Albania to
the south west side of the peninsula was isolated until the late 1980s, while
Bulgaria and Romania belonged to the “Eastern bloc” and Moldova was an
integral part of the Soviet Union. To the south of the Balkans, Greece was the
next frontier to the West, politically speaking.
At the same time, it is important – in terms of longer-term policy and

strategy – to “think synoptically about the Southern Balkans as a whole”.1 It
does not help to approach each country’s interests piecemeal, in isolation from
any other. It does not help to try and placate every country or ethnic group by
encouraging it to achieve all of its constitutional and territorial ambitions, as
1
Katarina Tomasevski (UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education). The
Right to Education. Preliminary Report submitted to the UN Commission on
Human Rights, 1999.
11
these tend to be mutually exclusive – and as one set of problems is resolved,
another one is created. For example, Kosovo cannot be considered as an isolated
issue or territory: crucial links (with Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia and
Albania, for example, must be taken into account.
Equally, it is naïve simply to assert the right of every Balkan child to an

education of acceptable quality and duration. Access, equity, language of
instruction, quality – all must be negotiated sensitively, patiently and with a
deep understanding of how each community has been shaped by its (often
painful and bloody) history.
Education in SEE
Analysing the state of education in countries undergoing economical and

political transformation is a sensitive exercise. First, it is easy to identify issues
and dilemmas that are universal and relevant almost everywhere, and do not
bring any added value to previous reviews of the education system. Second,
most of the changes needed to improve the system are so costly that they are not
feasible in present circumstances. It is therefore paramount to make only
recommendations and suggestions that are within each country’s existing
resources and structures.
The main message that emerges from the 10 studies is that some problems
are common across the region (low share of GDP for education; low teacher
salaries; child poverty; overloaded curricula; deteriorating material base etc.),
but that there are no common solutions to these problems. The diversity among
and within the systems is too great. Some that are closely linked by language,
history or culture (Romania, Moldova) can and do find ways to work together
across borders, but no easy assumptions of “regional policy” should be made.
In general, at the end of the 1980s the education systems in most SEE
countries were well developed: therefore, problems that arose during the
turbulent transitional period should be seen as a “retrogression” from an
essentially sound starting point. These are by no means countries without
educational traditions and expertise; but they face serious problems, and
therefore need support.
After World War II, all SEE countries changed their education systems,
mostly (but not completely) due to Soviet influence. The most common aims
were the elimination of illiteracy and the extension of basic education from 4 to
8 years. Undeniably, the new systems were highly ideological. At least three
distinctive types emerged: the Albanian, the Soviet and the Yugoslavian. Four-
year technical schools became common, while vocational education and training
12
were linked to the socialist industrial complex, organised differently in each of
the three types.2
The Thematic Surveys
The reviews of the 10 education systems participating in the OECD study

were “thematic” in the sense that they focussed on certain themes. These were
(1) the current status of the system – its governance, administration, financing,
and the main reforms; (2) equity and access issues; (3) early childhood
education and care; (4) quality issues, in relation to standards, curriculum,
teaching and learning methods, textbooks and materials, and learning outcomes.
Each review covers these four main themes and gives country specific
recommendations. However, in the course of gathering and analysing the
material for the reviews, a wide range of important issues emerged that needed
to be included. Therefore most reviews also cover vocational education, higher
education, and the education of children with special needs.
These thematic reviews are not intended to be full-scale OECD reviews of

education policy such as have been carried out in many countries. They are
meant to be of use to policy makers involved in the work of the Stability Pact,
and to the wider education community for discussion, debate, and possible co-
operation.3
The Four A’s
Any education system can be described and, to some extent, evaluated in

terms of four main characteristics: the availability of education (provision,
resources, school network); its accessibility (and equity of opportunity); its
acceptability, in terms of culture and quality; and its adaptability to changing
circumstances and individual needs.4 These four characteristics are considered
below with regard to the 10 education systems included in the OECD’s
Thematic Reviews.
2
See Pavel Zgaga, op. cit., for details about the introduction of Career Oriented
Education in Yugoslavia, 1970s and 1980s. General education was disregarded,
and the traditonal gimnazija (grammar schools) were abolished.
3
The thematic reviews are available on www.oecd.org/els/emerging/education.
Click on “Documentation” and then on “Working Papers”.
4
See Tomasevski, op. cit., for a more extensive analysis.
13
Is Education Available?
In general, the answer here is “yes”. A high percentage of the compulsory

schooling age cohort is in school; there is, if anything, an over-supply of
qualified teachers with low pupil-teacher ratios (P:TR can be as low as 10:1);
and the school network, despite the ravages of war, time and lack of
maintenance, is generally in place. In other words, nearly every child of
compulsory school age can find a place in a school not too far from her/his
home, and find a teacher there who is qualified to teach and has some supply of
books and materials.
But the picture is not uniform. Resources are scarce because (again in
general) the share of education as a percentage of GDP is well below the OECD
average. Some schools are so small they are not viable as birth rates continue to
fall. At the same time, due to employment patterns and “urban drift”, many
urban schools are over-crowded, and forced to work on two or even three
shifts.5 As a result, instructional time and “opportunity to learn” are seriously
eroded, at a time when new curricula and more demanding standards require the
opposite. The infrastructure (buildings, books, materials, equipment, heating in
winter) is often poor, especially in rural areas. Decentralisation and finance
reform have not always resulted in more resources being available to local
schools, and their accountability for delivering high-quality education is weak.
Is Education Accessible?
Again in general, the answer is a cautious “yes”.6 The following

observations can be made, however:
x Participation (enrolment, attendance, continuity) is not what it ought

to be, especially at post-compulsory (upper secondary) and pre-school
levels. Percentages here have been dropping, perhaps not dramatically
(except in pre-school) but steadily, even at compulsory schooling age.
What are the barriers here? The possibility of early “push-out” by
increased selection cannot be ruled out.
5
One school visited in Serbia was on four shifts because of the language mix and
high refugee population.
6
Each of the 10 reviews covers access and equity issues in some depth, and
should be consulted.
14
x Survival: more children leave school early. Drop out and irregular
attendance during compulsory schooling are becoming a problem, and
secondary school coverage is falling behind OECD countries.
x Enrolment rates at upper secondary and tertiary levels are strongly and
positively related to family income. Access to better-quality schools
and universities increasingly depends on paying “informal” fees and
bribes.
x In terms of gender, the balance is generally even (a legacy from the

previous system); in higher education, some countries show more
female than male students in some subjects. In our surveys, however,
two minorities are consistently at the bottom of the social and
educational scale:
First, the Roma (Gypsy) population. Not only do they face the
typical problems of any ethnic minority, they are often a focus for
deliberate unequal treatment, injustice, exclusion and violence,
even where they constitute a large minority such as in Bulgaria,
Hungary and Romania.
Second, children and young people with special educational

needs. The term “defectology”, traditionally used in SEE in
relation to educational provision for special-needs children, clearly
reflects a tendency to focus on the “defect” (which can be “fixed”)
rather than on the child and his or her value as a human being.
Fortunately, fewer children than before are now institutionalised,7
and the OECD team noted a growing awareness of the need to
integrate special-needs children as much as possible in mainstream
schooling. However, much remains to be done in terms of teacher
training and public acceptance, and it is certainly our
recommendation that this be done as a matter of priority.
International experience can help.
x The team noted more emphasis on policies of selection (especially for

the more prestigious schools) than on the principle of education for
all. There is an understandable pride is setting high entrance &
performance standards, but too little attention is paid to what happens
7
This is not universally so. UNICEF notes that in some countries more children
are now in public care than used to be the case before 1990. See Education for
All?, UNICEF-ICDC, MONEE Report No. 5. Florence: 1998.
15
to youngsters who are not lucky enough, or clever enough, or rich
enough, to be “selected” into high-quality schools. These schools also
tend to be in urban areas, raising concern about the realities of access
for children from rural areas.
x Access to jobs and university places is also unequal, and weighted

against those from disadvantaged backgrounds. Payment for
education, especially at tertiary level, is becoming prevalent and
obviously creates inequities.
Is Education Acceptable?
Education quality, which used to be high and well respected, has suffered
over the past decade. Chronic under-funding, as well as disruption and conflicts
in the region, have taken their toll. The disparities between “good” and “poor”
schools are increasing, not helped by a post-1990 rush to decentralise and
devolve responsibility for education to the local level. Clearly, some localities
are better able to provide quality schooling than others, making quality a matter
of geographical accident rather than an entitlement for all.
x Most systems adjust in ad hoc ways to funding shortfalls. The most

common responses are (1) closing schools in winter for lack of
heating; (2) deferring maintenance and major repairs; (3) running up
large arrears (for example, in payment of teacher salaries, or utility
bills); (4) reducing instructional hours, to well below OECD averages;
and (5) shifting costs to families, formally or informally, without
regard to equity for all.
x Additional quality issues are (1) the quality of the curriculum, which
remains overloaded and too “heavy” for most students; (2) rigid
approaches to teaching and learning, with emphasis on the acquisition
of large amounts of factual knowledge rather than competence; (3)
lack of high-quality learning materials, such as books and
supplementary materials linked to standards; (4) insufficient in-
service development of teachers, for example in standards-linked
teaching and learning, and in supporting special-needs children in
regular classrooms.
Quality monitoring systems are inadequate or simply lacking. At best,

teachers see their jobs as “teaching the content of the curriculum in the time
available on the timetable”; very little attention is paid to what students actually
learn and can do. A fundamental shift from a “teaching” to a “learning” view of
education is needed. A comprehensive, standards-based quality monitoring
16
system is lacking. A revitalised system of school support and inspection, as well
as standards-based assessment of learning outcomes, are needed urgently.
Is Education Adaptable?
All countries surveyed have undergone profound social, economic and

political changes in the past decade, and many are still struggling in an unsteady
and volatile political climate. Moreover, the “material base” of the education
system is poor and deteriorating, with little prospect of improvement in the
short term.
How does an education system “adapt” to changed circumstances,

particularly when resources are scarce? How can it serve new generations of
children whose futures will be completely different from their parents’?
Overall, the reviews show that SEE’s education systems are making
admirable efforts, but that they lack a coherent strategy to tackle the new
demands they face. These include:
x Changes in population and employment structures, and therefore in

the demand for certain types of education rather than others (this is
especially a problem in VET and adult education);
x Decentralisation and equity issues, for example the newly affirmed

rights of all children (special needs, minorities) to an equal level of
education;
x Relevance to, and links with, the labour market; vocational and adult
education and (re-) training;
x Wider access to early childhood care and development, especially for

disadvantaged populations so that any difficulties can be spotted and
remedied early;
x Greater understanding of the human value and rights of children with

special educational needs;
x Greater expectations of (and demand for) upper secondary and tertiary

education, and life-long learning.
Several countries surveyed are now formulating longer-term strategies to

deal with these and other issues. “White papers” and “Strategy papers” are
being prepared, and in a sense the OECD Thematic Reviews seek to contribute
17
to their formulation by bringing cross-country comparisons to bear on the
debate.
Main findings of the CEPS study
Data8
In autumn 2000 and in 2001, the Centre for Educational Policy Studies
(CEPS, University of Ljubljana) carried out the project Support to OECD
Thematic Reviews of Educational Policy in South Eastern Europe, on the basis
of an agreement with European Training Foundation and as part of OECD
Thematic Reviews of Educational Policy. The CEPS study (11 reports in total)
was produced jointly by researchers from CEPS and experts from each
education system9 covered by the OECD reviews.
Obtaining data presented a number of problems. In some countries of the

region – particularly in those affected by wars, ruined institutional networks,
changes in population, huge migrations as well as destroyed archives reliable
data were difficult or even impossible to obtain. Moreover, human resources in
data gathering and analysis are scarce, and in most cases no appropriate training
has been provided for a long time.
Based on the CEPS experience, therefore, there is a clear need for a

support programme to develop the data gathering and monitoring capacity in all
countries of the region. Such a support programme can be more effective if it is
linked with governmental institutions (e.g. statistical offices), or some NGOs
that have already launched important national projects in this direction.
8
See Pavel Zgaga, “The Situation of Education in the SEE Region: Final Content
Report on the Project 'Support to OECD Thematic Review of Education Policy
in South Eastern Europe”. (Report prepared for the European Training
Foundation, Turin.) Ljubljana: Centre for Education Policy Studies, University
of Ljubljana. March 2002. All CEPS Project documents are available on web site
http://www.see-educoop.net.
9
Researchers include: Dr. Dukagjin Pupovci (Kosovo) 6XDGD 1XPLü %+ –
)HGHUDWLRQRI%RVQLD +HU]HJRYLQD$OHNVDQGUD*DNRYLü%+– the Republic
of Srpska), Pavli Kisi (Albania), Blagica Novkovska (FYR of Macedonia), Iskra
3HWURYD %XOJDULD 6HQND %RVQHU &URDWLD 1DWDãD äLYNRYLü 0RQWHQHJUR
Liliana PUHRWHDVD 5RPDQLD *RUGDQD =LQGRYLü 9XNDGLQRYLü 6HUELD DQG
Anatol Gremalschi (Moldova). See http://pef.pef.uni-lj.si/ceps/ for details.
18
The data gathered for each country report were structured into seven
clusters:
general data,
participation in education,
enrolment patterns and numbers of institutions,
curriculum,
administration in primary and secondary education,
facilities and equipment,
cost and financing.
Demographics
Migration
Data from all countries surveyed by CEPS show significant changes in

population, often due to large migrations both within (e.g. urban drift) and
among countries, sometimes due to economic circumstances but often also to
ethnic conflict and war. Flows of refugees during periods of conflict resulted in
parallel or temporary – mostly improvised – school networks, but many
children also missed out on education for some time.
The projections of both the OECD’s and the UN’s population statistics
indicate a continuing fall in European birth rates, and on the economic growth
that continues to make the EU attractive to migrant labour. But at the heart of
the migration debate lies the issue of development – of how disadvantaged
economies can get themselves into some sort of alignment with wealthier ones.
It remains the case that few of the world’s 6 billion people migrate:
according to the International Organisation for Migration, only about 200
million people (3.3%) live outside their country of origin. But those from
disadvantaged economies who manage to do so, or are forced to do so, are
‘ferrymen of wealth and aspiration’ for many others. Often one migrant from a
poor country represents a huge investment on the part of his relatives. The
global figure for remittances in 1998 was estimated at USD 52.8 billion,
significantly higher than official aid flows from donor organisations. In some
19
SEE countries (Albania, Moldova) remittances from migrant workers are a
significant factor in the national economy.
Remittances, like aid, can be divisive and can create conflict and envy in
local communities. Unlike aid, however, they tend to hit the mark and are less
vulnerable to plunder by corrupt governments. Either way, it is obvious that
migrants play a far greater role in the transfer of wealth than anything Western
governments can hope to contribute. This is a serious point for those involved in
setting or revising migration policy.
The down side of migration, of course, is “brain drain” especially at a time

when birth rates are falling dramatically in many SEE countries and their
resource starved education systems struggle to build the kind of home grown
human capital they will need for their nations’ future. The review teams heard
some cynics say that the purpose of education in some Balkan countries is “to
provide a trained work force for the West” – this cannot be in anyone’s long-
term interests. As populations shrink, SEE countries will need to build strategies
to retain their “best and brightest” by making it possible for them to support
their families as well as their own countries.
Declining birth rates
While the general trend for the SEE region is downward, there are large
differences, e.g. Croatia has one of the lowest birth rates 9.9 % (per 1000
inhabitants) in 1999, Kosovo 21.3 % in 1995 and Albania 17.2 % in 1989 are
amongst countries with the highest birth rates in Europe.
Mixed ethnic composition of populations
Ethnic minorities are an important issue, also in education. Ethnic

majorities vary, e.g. from Montenegro (62% ethnic Montenegrin) or Moldova
(64%) to Albania with nearly 98%. However, it is not easy to get a clear
statistical picture. In Bulgaria, the new Statistical Law does not allow data
gathering according to ethnic origin. In the Republic of Srpska it was not
possible to gather these data at all. In many cases data that are available are not
always reliable.
Poverty
Increasing numbers of households in the region are living in poverty,

especially households with children. The direct relationship between poverty
and educational attainment is well documented. The poor face three specific
problems in education (1) in an inefficient system, the poor suffer most because
20
scarce resources are less likely to be spent on them; (2) the cost of education
takes a larger share of (low) family income, especially in larger families; and (3)
the perceived benefits of education – in terms of access to jobs, or escape from
poverty – are low. Poor families see little evidence that the sacrifices they make
to send children to school will lead to a better life.
Participation in education
Low educational attainment of the (active) population, particularly in mid-

life and older generations although in areas affected by conflicts during the last
decade this may also be true of young people. Girls, women, older people and
some ethnic groups (e.g. Roma) are particularly marginalised. Unemployment
rates are high, especially among young people. All too often, schools do not
prepare students for the radically changed labour market, so that even those
with qualifications cannot find jobs.
Structure. Only Romania and Moldova (2002) have 9 years of compulsory

schooling; all other SEE countries still offer the traditional 8 years, although
changes are planned. The average number of years of schooling is low (mostly,
it does not exceed 8 years; below average in Bulgaria and Moldova; some
countries even reported that these data could not be gathered).
Participation in pre-school education is low, and particularly alarming in

the Western Balkans (Romania and Bulgaria do better). In the Western Balkans,
Croatia and Albania with approximately 35% of children included in pre-school
education report the best participation, while Kosovo with only 3% (an
estimation) reports the worst.
In basic education all countries report high participation. It has

traditionally been high; and, despite conflicts and huge migrations in some parts
of the region, the basic obligatory education network seems to have been
preserved. In general, there are no reports of alarming dropout from basic
education; however, the quality of education could be questionable. In some
countries girls are more at risk of not being enrolled at all or dropping out,
especially in rural areas.
In upper secondary education, participation has increased. However,

particularly in the Western Balkans, the situation is not comparable with other
transition countries. Considerable numbers of students who finish basic
education do not continue in upper secondary education. Serbia reports the
highest share of the age cohort continuing in upper secondary education (78.3%;
over three times more in VET than in general education), followed by Romania
(69.4%), Bulgaria (67%), Macedonia (65.08%) and Croatia (63%). There are no
21
data available for Montenegro, but it is estimated to be in this category as well.
reports only half of the age cohort in upper secondary education (56.67%; there
are no data for the Republic of Srpska, but the proportion could even be lower).
Data are not available for Kosovo, either; according to rough estimation its
proportion should be close to the Federation Bosnia-Herzegovina. Albania
(41%) and Moldova (39% with almost all the population in general education
and only 9% in VET!) are at the end of this scale.
It is characteristic for most SEE countries that the proportion of students in

general education is lower than it is in VET (Moldova, which was once part of
the former Soviet educational system, is an exception).
In general, the proportion of female students to male students is equal.

There are no data on participation by gender available for Kosovo, but the share
of female students is probably lower than in other countries. At post-
compulsory level, dropout seems to be an increasingly serious problem.10
For tertiary education, all countries report greatly increased participation.

Studying in tertiary institutions at the turn of the millennium:
Bulgaria 35.0% of the age cohort (19-24),
Croatia 31.3% (age 20-24),
Moldova 29.0% (age 19-22),
Romania 28.0% (age 19-23),
Serbia 22.63% (age 18-24),
Federation Bosnia-Herzegovina 21.6% (age 19-25),
Macedonia 21.5% (age 19-23),
Albania 15% (age 18-23).
10
All country experts reported a lack of reliable data on dropouts from basic and
upper secondary education. Therefore, the methodology of calculating dropout
was simply based on the number of students who did not complete the school
year in relation to the total number of students registered and does not take into
account those who were never in the system.
22
For some countries the corresponding data are not available.
Enrolment patterns and number of institutions
School network, number of institutions. School networks have traditionally

been well developed. There is no evidence of any radical closing of institutions,
although some countries obviously encounter severe problems with an
extremely low enrolment in rural areas or in some types of institutions. The size
of institutions differs greatly: there are many institutions with fewer than 50
pupils or even only a few pupils while on the other hand – particularly in urban
centres – huge institutions and frequent. The average Pupil:Teacher ratio in
most cases is low. In pre-schools, it differs from 7.76 (Republic of Srpska) to
20.73 (Montenegro), in primary schools from 12 (Bulgaria) to 21 (Federation of
Bosnia-Herzegovina), in general secondary schools from 11.0:11.8 (Federation
of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia) to 19 (Kosovo; Serbian schools excluded), in
VET schools from 6.5 (Moldova) to 21 (Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina), at
universities from 10 (Bulgaria) to 20 (Kosovo) and in non-university higher
education institutions from 8.0:8.8 (Bulgaria, Moldova) to 68.0:32.18
(Romania, Serbia). However, these are only averages. VET schools and non-
university institutions represent the highest extremes within the region.
The subsystem of private kindergartens and schools is not very developed.

In some countries there are no such institutions in pre-school and basic
education at all (Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro), in some other countries there
are only few (Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Republic of Srpska, Kosovo).
Adult education is mostly an un-recognised problem in all SEE countries.

The former system of adult education has disappeared, and in most cases no
new development is taking place. Since there is no relevant monitoring of adult
education, there is a total lack of data, which makes a detailed and correct
diagnosis impossible.
Curriculum
Only in some countries – and only since the late 1990s – new curricula
have been approved and implemented in basic education, general secondary
education, and for at least some professions in VET (Bulgaria, Moldova,
Romania). Parallel to this, teachers have been trained but in most cases their
training seems to have been insufficient, sometimes lacking appropriate new
instructional materials. In other countries, there were only some slight changes
in the curricula, often limited to deleting ideological content from textbooks.
23
For the countries of the Western Balkans, a comprehensive reform of the
curriculum should now be top priority. Note that this reform should focus on the
curriculum framework as a whole, rather than on piecemeal changes in subject
syllabuses.
Administration and teaching in primary and secondary education
School administration is generally neglected as a profession; there is

almost no systematic training for school principals.
In general, initial teacher training remains traditional and unsatisfactory.

Teachers, however, need more support today than they did in previous times.
In-service teacher training is almost absent in some countries; what is offered
tends to be haphazard and insufficiently related to education reforms. This is
particularly important for (future) teachers in VET.
Under – or unqualified teachers and educators are mostly found in pre-

school education (30% in Macedonia, 21% in Romania and Croatia) and basic
education (19% in Romania and Federation Bosnia-Herzegovina 13.5% in
Kosovo). The ratio of under – or unqualified teachers is surprisingly high in
VET schools in Moldova (46%) and Romania (13%) as well as in non-
university higher education institutions in Romania (33%).
Facilities and equipment
Not surprisingly, all SEE countries report severe problems with facilities
and equipment. The situation is most severe in these areas affected by war,
particularly in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo. Restoration of buildings and
modernisation of equipment should be linked with the development of a
comprehensive education reform strategy (particularly with regard to
rationalisation of the school network).
Costs and financing
This was the most difficult part of the CEPS study. Reliable data on
education costs and financing are scarce, and the research team had difficulty in
collecting and analysing them. It was necessary to use a different methodology
in each country. In Kosovo, for example, there has so far not been an education
budget as such; education has been financed from the so-called “consolidated
budget”, which has mainly been supported from international sources. Pre-
school education is self-financed in most cases.
24
In general, public financing of education is rather poor: on average 3-4%
GDP, sometimes even below 3%. Foreign aid is not always sufficiently
organised, nor is it properly co-ordinated or sustainable.
Nearly all resources available are allocated to salaries (almost all in pre-
university education in Romania, 90% or more in Croatia, Montenegro,
Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina). Funds for school equipment (2% or even
less in Croatia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania) and investments (3% or even
less in Montenegro, Macedonia, Republic of Srpska, Romania, Serbia) are very
poor. Chronic under-funding erodes the quality of education, especially in
education systems that were clearly designed for a much higher level of public
financing.
Some conclusions arising from the CEPS study
x Pre-primary education must receive more attention, in policy as well

as in financial support. Simply waiting for an “economic boom” will
only prolong the present inertia. Moreover, as birth rates fall and the
numbers of children in pre-schools decline, new opportunities appear
to improve provision and quality of early childhood care and
development.
x Elementary education probably receives the most attention and

funding, but it also has to cope with the most severe problems. All
SEE countries have reached a level where access to basic education is
not the main issue, but quality elementary education for all –
including rural children, children of minorities, children with special
needs, and children who are socially or emotionally at-risk – is the
real task..
x General upper secondary education today seems to occupy a better

position than vocational education and training, in most SEE
countries. At the same time, schools of general secondary education
(gymnasia, lycea, etc.) in this region are faced with a situation quite
different from some other countries: not only do they offer general
education, often they are also expected to be a substitute for the lack
(or low status and quality) of vocational schools. This problem is
reflected in issues of access and equity, but also in the transfer to
tertiary education institutions.
x The term “tertiary education” deserves more attention and debate.

Mostly, a traditional model of university education is still in force, and
the existing universities – confronted with serious problems – often
25
become the last refuge for young unemployed people. Unfortunately,
this only sharpens questions of access, equity, and quality. The
development of a diversified system of tertiary education could be an
effective step forward.
x Adult education and life-long learning seem to be under-valued. High

unemployment and a completely altered structure of industry demand
the development of a labour force that has different, broader work
skills. The age group between 35 and 50 years is probably most
affected by the lack of educational and training opportunities. Public
funds have nearly dried up, and most new (re)privatised companies
have neither the interest nor the financial resources to support training
and staff development efforts.
x Teachers’ education and development need radical modernisation,

both in its pre-service and in-service forms. The entire region needs
modern institutions in this area, not only:
As a place of quality teachers’ education and development, but

also,
As a place of substantial educational research, particularly in

policy studies, as well as in pedagogical methods and didactics
which should be moved out of their traditional and outmoded
forms, and
As a place of support for further educational renewal and

curricular development in each country.
x The image of education in society must be improved. The share of

GDP spent on education in all systems is lower – sometimes critically
lower! – than is recommended by international organisations. In
consequence, the social status of teachers is weak, their working
conditions poor, and their readiness to engage in educational renewal
questionable. But apart from improving the material base for
education, it is also necessary to link renewal of (national) education
to a change of public values and public opinion. Democratic and open
societies are based upon individuals who should support equal rights,
solidarity with others, and similar values, including quality education
for all. These aims cannot be achieved if education (in public opinion)
means ruined schools without basic equipment, poorly paid and poorly
26
trained teachers, outmoded curricula, passive learning of facts, and
poor prospects for employment.
x A national, regional and international campaign is needed to improve

the position and esteem of education in societies throughout the
region. Various activities could be launched: public appearances of –
regionally and internationally – distinguished personalities drawing
attention to education as a tool of individual promotion and national
prosperity, but also promotions of successful economic – or cultural –
activities based on new knowledge and skills, etc. The planned peer
reviews in SEE countries could play an important role here for the
VET sector, but the other sections of the system also need attention.
x External involvement (from international and bilateral donors, and

from NGOs) is essential in the Balkans for a number of reasons.
Obviously, resources (both financial and human) are needed to repair
the ravages of war and years of under-resourcing under previous
regimes. More than that, however, is the need for external mediators,
people who can bring others together, work towards consensus, defuse
confrontations, and help to focus on long-term common interests
rather than short-term disagreements. This is often best done not by
large international organisations but by smaller NGOs working
directly with people in the community. Naturally, NGO activity needs
to be co-ordinated and monitored with care, and integrated into the
larger development strategy for the region.
Principal regional recommendations
Keeping in mind the observation – that while there are many common
problems across the region, there are few common solutions – some general
recommendations can nevertheless be made.
x Make concerted, strong efforts to increase the share for education in

national and local budgets. Reform of the financing of the education
system is an essential precondition for further progress on education
reform at all levels. Additional investment in education is needed.
This is linked to overall economic growth, but problems in financing
education also appear to be related to the structure and management of
current policies.
x Redefine the responsibilities and strengthen capabilities of the

ministries of education and shift the role of ministries from “micro-
managing the system” to setting policy and monitoring quality linked
27
to explicit standards. Increase efforts and capacities of ministries for
policy analysis, research and evaluation of policy implementation.
x Develop a comprehensive strategy for the entire education system,

based on a philosophy of learning for all. This includes children
across the ability range, children with special needs, and those from
minority ethnic or linguistic backgrounds or from poor families. Pay
attention to rural development issues and narrow the disparities
between rural and urban areas.
x Related to this is the need to increase management and leadership

skills and continue to realign the role and responsibility at all levels of
the education system to support a more decentralised, responsive and
accountable school and institutional network. It is also necessary to
improve the co-ordination between the ministries and institutions
concerned.
x Pay more attention to the emotional needs of children (and their

teachers!) who have been traumatised by war, conflict, displacement,
and family breakdown. No community can be expected to function
normally in abnormal conditions; expert help may be needed.
x Renew and slim down curricula, emphasise integrated and cross-

curricular teaching and training. Reform both vocational education
and general secondary education to ensure that all students completing
secondary education gain the core knowledge and skills to be
competitive in the labour market and to counter serious problems of
school leavers (dropouts) with no useable qualification. In developing
national standards and curricula for general secondary education, the
core knowledge and skills graduates will need to be successful in a
changing labour market should be emphasised.
x Improve the formal professional qualifications of teachers and their

on-going qualification by improving and intensifying pre-service and
in-service training. Improve teacher status and pay greater attention to
their development. Make every effort to raise the level of teachers pay.
Low salaries and poor career prospects have serious consequences for
educational quality. Evaluate performance, and ensure that teachers
and schools are held accountable for the quality they provide.
x Develop a coherent national policy for the social and educational

protection of children, including fair and transparent procedures and
28
decisions in the school career of the child or student. Children and
their parents should be helped to obtain information about educational
and social opportunities suitable to them. Every effort should be taken
to avoid any exclusion based on social, ethnic, gender or religious
reasons and focus on the principle education for all.
x Develop programmes to identify and diagnose children having special

needs and ensure that adequate educational possibilities are provides,
wherever the child may be, at home or in a regular school or in a
special needs educational institution. Provide teacher training for
children with special needs and target social support to at-risk children
and families.
29
ALBANIA
The Thematic Review of Education Policy of Albania describes the current

status of the education system and reform efforts underway. The country is
introduced by general and demographic data; language, the geographic and
historical context; the political, economic and the labour market situation;
it also describes the structure and the legal framework. The whole
education system is covered, from general education to vocational
education, from higher education to lifelong learning, but focusing on early
childhood and care, teachers and teacher training, curriculum and
governance and administration. Equity in access, attainment and
achievement are central issues, and special consideration is given to ethnic
and minority questions and education for children with special needs.
Attention is paid to decentralisation and financing of education; to quality,
assessment and evaluation in education; to pre-service and in-service
teacher training; working conditions and teacher salaries, the role of school
inspectors; textbook provision and material and resources in general. The
report describes issues and barriers at all levels of the education system
and gives recommendations for policy makers, practitioners and donors.
ALBANIA
General Data
Area: 28 748 sq.km.
Number of inhabitants: 3 387 327 (41% urban, 59% rural).
Age structure and Age 0-4: 9.70%; 5-14: 22.6%; a total of

population characteristics: 48.86% of the population under 24 years
old. Birth rate: 19.47 births per 1 000
population. Infant mortality rate: 41.33
deaths per 1 000 live births. Population of
working age (16-65): 62%.11
Population density: 118 per sq.km.
Ethnic composition: 97.96% ethnic Albanian; 1.85% Greek

(nearly all in the Gjirokastra and Saranda
districts); Macedonian 0.15%; small
numbers of others (Serbs, Montenegrins
[near Shkodra], Vlachs, Roma) 0.04%. 12
Religion: Muslim 70%; Albanian Orthodox 20%;

Roman Catholic 10% (Statistical Yearbook
1991). Religion is not a divisive issue in
Albania.
11
Source: Institute of Statistics (INSTAT), Albania.
12
Sources: CEPS, Ljubljana, based on population census of 1989. Estimates for
the Council of Europe. (J.P. Liegeois, see References) indicated that in 1994
there were some 95 000 Roma in Albania (2.5% of the population); however,
many Roma are likely to have identified themselves as “Albanian” or may
not have participated in the census of 1989. (“Official” figures about Roma
from different sources can vary as much as 500%).
33
Languages: Albanian (Tosk is the official form; Geg is
also spoken widely in some parts of the
country); Greek. Language is more
important than religion in Albanians’ sense
of national identity.
GDP [1999 est.]: USD 5.6 billion purchasing power parity, or

USD 1 650 per capita.
Percentage of GDP spent on 2.7% (2000 est.), down from 4% at the start
education: of transition and 3.7% in 1995. Public
spending on education as a percentage of
total public spending: 9.7% in 1999 (down
from 11.4% in 1995, when it was fairly
close to the OECD mean of 12.6%). During
the 1990s, total public spending on
education decreased by 35% in real terms,
enrolments by 15%, and spending per
student by 20%.
Inflation rate [1999 est.] 0.5% (consumer prices).
Registered unemployment (Labour Force

Survey 1999): 17.1%. Youth
unemployment: 25.5% (below age 29),
higher among males than females. 90% of
all unemployed are jobless for more than
one year. (1999) (Figures: INSTAT, CEPS).
Only 3.5% of registered unemployed
benefited from job training projects in 1999.
Unemployment: See Table 1, below.
Levels of education Three. (1.) Central level [Parliament;

governance: Parliamentarian Committee of Education
and Culture; Council of Ministers; Ministry
of Education and Science; Institute of
Pedagogical Research] (2) Local level:
Districts, and Municipalities or Communes13
[Education Directorates; Municipality or
Commune Councils; District Councils and
13
Albania has 37 municipalities covering 320 communes.
34
their Departments for Education and Health]
(3.) School level: [Principal, Deputy
Principal(s), teachers’ council, parents’
council, school board14].
Introduction and Context
From Palaeolithic times, there has been human habitation in the lands
comprising modern Albania, and many Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age
archaeological sites of interest have been discovered. The most contentious
issue is the appearance of the Illyrians, considered by most Albanian
archaeologists as an autochthonous people who developed a common Illyrian
language and culture during the Bronze Age. Others believe that the Illyrians
arrived in Albania at the time of the Mycenaean civilisation in Greece, and yet
others that their appearance, in substantial numbers at least, did not occur until
the 10th century BC. Unfortunately, knowledge of early Illyrian language and
culture is scant there are no surviving inscriptions or written fragments.15 The
Illyrian period lasted until 230 BC, followed by the Roman period (until the 6th
century AD) and the Slavonic period (7th-15th century AD) at the end of which
Albania’s great hero Skanderbeg led the last resistance against the Turks.
For all their long history, of all the peoples of the Balkans the Albanians
remain the most mysterious and least known. Albanian history and culture have
been profoundly shaped by its geographical features it is a harsh country, with
more than two-thirds of its area dominated by mountains. In the south, the large
rivers swell with winter rains from the mountains, and for centuries the marshes
were flooded in spring and autumn until modern drainage schemes brought
improvement. However, these geographical and climatic features have made
Albania a land of small isolated communities, with a long history of small
kingdoms and pastoral tribes. Later, Greek influence in the south led to a certain
degree of “urbanisation” and to diversification from agricultural to skilled
occupations metalwork, pottery, crafts. Such cities were often surrounded by
14
A school board is a consultative body representing the local community. It
has powers to propose the appointment of a principal, or the appointment or
dismissal of a teacher, to the Education Directorate, but not every school has
a school board and by no means all boards exercise these powers in practice.
Their main function is to raise extra-budgetary funds for the school.
15
The first documents in written Albanian language date from the 15th century
and were mainly related to religious ceremonies (baptism) and Latin-
Albanian vocabularies.
35
defensive walls, creating new divisions between rural and “urban” communities.
Illyria (especially “urban” Illyria16) embraced Christianity relatively early (2nd
Century AD) although from the 16th century AD onward the influence of Islam
spread, especially among Ghegs in the North.
The history of Albania since the end of the Second World War has, again,
been essentially a story of isolation from the mainstream of European and
international events. 17 When the war ended for Albania in 1944, the country
was economically devastated as a result of the Axis occupation, the antiquated
pre-war infrastructure, and the havoc reeked by years of occupation, resistance,
sabotage and guerrilla activity. There was very little capital, either in financial
or human resource terms; and in this context it was natural that Enver Hoxha
and the (communist) Party of Labour allied themselves, and Albania, with the
Soviet Union. By December 1944 most of the means of production were under
State control, followed by land reform in 1945 and elimination of the private
sector by 1947. After the split in the international communist movement in
1960, the Soviet Union withdrew its technical and financial support, and
Albania formed an uneasy alliance with the People’s Republic of China.
Through all these years, Enver Hoxha maintained a tight grip on power and
developed an overwhelming cult of personality and an ultra-centralised,
authoritarian form of decision-making that remained unchallenged until
Hoxha’s death in 1985. Thereafter, a cautious “liberalisation” programme was
overtaken by the much more radical changes in neighbouring countries
(especially Romania) of 1989-90. Riots and mass emigration became common.
In September 1990 legal reforms loosened the grip of the State on public
behaviour, and during the winter of 1990-91 all remaining symbols of the one-
party state were demolished including the gigantic gilded statue of Hoxha in
central Tirana. The first democratic elections were held in March 1991;
however, instability continued throughout the year, including a mass exodus in
August when an estimated 25 000 people seized ships in Durres and forced
them to sail to Italy. Food riots and other bouts of unrest (e.g., the collapse of
the “pyramid schemes” in 1997 and the reverberations of wars in former
Yugoslavia, especially in Kosovo and more recently in FYR-Macedonia) have
so far hampered economic and political progress. In parts of the country,
continuing insecurity, the easy availability of arms and the activities of criminal
gangs have led to a re-emergence of locally enforced “law and order” led by
powerful families or social groups, and of traditional forms of community
16
The terms “Albania” and “Albanian” did not come into use until the time of
the Byzantine Empire.
17
James Pettifer, 1994, p. 41.
36
justice (kanun), to compensate for dysfunctional state institutions, in particular
the police and the courts. Mistrust among these kin-based clans or social groups
is pervasive, and militates against the development of a national civil society18.
The civil conflicts of 1991 and 1997 have created a strong sense of
insecurity that continues to affect the daily lives of Albanians, and their
attitudes towards and participation in schooling. Young men in particular
are drawn more to criminal life, often in gangs, than to education; and many
parents express fears about insecurity in the schools, especially for their
daughters.
Moreover, the unrest of 1991 and 1997 left many schools “little more than
damaged shells without any of the basic equipment necessary for good
education,”19 and especially the violent events of 1997 further undermined
people’s confidence in Albania’s political and social stability. There is still a
sense that at any moment chaos may return, as to some extent it did in the north
during and after the Kosovo crisis.
Legal Framework
The Constitution (1992, with Main Constitutional Provisions adopted

1992-95) lays down the right of all citizens to education; schooling is available
to everyone under equal conditions, and resources for this are made available
from the state budget. The Constitution further assigns the authority for passing
education laws to Parliament, while the Government (in particular the Ministry
of Education and Science) is responsible for formulating education policy and
drafting legal and sub-legal documents.
The basic laws for the education sector are:
x The Law on the Pre-University System of Education (1995).
x Normative Provisions on Public Schools, Labour Code of the

Republic of Albania (1995).
18
Nora Dudwick and Helen Shahriari, Education in Albania: Changing
Attitudes and Expectations. February 2000. The World Bank, page v. This
social assessment contains a detailed discussion of socialist and post-socialist
Albanian education, tracing social attitudes, institutional relationships, access
and equity and a number of other issues germane to SEE Thematic Reviews.
19
Ibid, page 17.
37
x Private Education Law (1995).
x Higher Education law of the Republic of Albania (1994).
x In addition the MoES has issued a number of rules (sub-legal acts)

relating to education, such as assessment of students, rules for
enrolment in upper secondary schools, standards for teachers, in-
service teacher training etc.
The Education System
Education in monasteries and churches began during the Byzantine period;

the first Islamic schools were founded in the 17th century. The first Albanian
(secular) elementary schools appeared in the 1890s. After November 1912,
Albanian became the official language, and the main municipalities all
established education directorates. Teacher training institutions were opened.
By 1939, 60 000 students were enrolled in elementary and secondary schools.20
In 1990, 906 000 students were registered, or about 73.3% of the school age
population (3-22). This had dropped to 719 000 by 1997, a decline of 14%.
Age at which compulsory 6

education starts:
Age at which compulsory 14. If a pupil fails, he/she is obliged to
education ends: remain in school until the age of 16.
Structure of the education Education is free at all levels. General

system: education consists of lower primary 4 years
+ upper primary 4 years + (non-compulsory)
secondary 4 years. Vocational: after
primary, 3 and 5-year vocational and
technical secondary. 5-year programmes
lead to Maturita exams. 4-year vocational
programmes were phased out after 1998.
Examination/transition Class 8 primary certificates based on

points: continuous assessment and passing marks in
school-based (promotion) exams. Size of
cohort approx. 54 000. Class 12 secondary
Maturita exams are set by the MES (written
20
N. Terzis, Educational Systems of Balkan Countries: Issues and Trends.
“Albanian System of Education”. 2000: pp. 13 et seq.
38
+ oral) but marked by teachers. Cohort size
in general education approx. 12 500; class
13 vocational education: approx. 15 000.
Higher education: 4-, 5- and 6-year university programmes in

11 institutions (39 faculties/schools); non-
university programmes (avg.) 3.5 years, in 3
institutions. Total enrolment 1999/00:
approximately 40 000, 15% of 18-23 age
group. Growth mostly in part-time students:
from 20% of total in 1990/91 to 45% in
1999/00.
Literacy rate: Raised from about 20% in 1945 to an

estimated 89% by the end of the 1980s; but
closer to 75% in recent years.
Schooling expectancy for 9.5 years (1998), 2 years less than in 1989
average Albanian 6-year old and 6 years less than the average for OECD
child (excluding pre-school) countries (15.4 years).
Education attainment rates: 8 years (compulsory basic education) for

59% of the population; secondary education
for 33 % of the population (20-59 year olds,
1999).
Private education: In 2000, there were 2q543 children in private

pre-schools; 4q717 in private basic schools;
1975 in private upper secondary; and no
students in private tertiary education. Private
schools are registered and accredited by the
MoES, and are obliged to follow the state
curricula although they may teach additional
subjects as well.
39
Table 1. Total Registered Unemployment (in 000’s)
1989 1992 1994 1996 1997 1998 1999

Female 52 194 141 88 109 127 130
Male 61 200 121 70 85 108 110
TOTAL registered 113 394 262 158 194 235 240
unemployed
Source : INSTAT: Labour Market Development, July, 2000. Cited in Fracesco Panzica,
November 2000, page 43.
Special features
Enrolment decline and drop-out problems. Gross enrolment rates for basic
education (grades 1 to 8), (Table 3) dropped from above 100% in 1989 to 90%
in 1998. Official drop-out figures for compulsory education are shown in Table
2.
Table 2. Drop-out rates during compulsory education
Years 90-91 91-92 92-93 93-94 94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99 99-00
% 3.9 6.3 4.1 4 3.1 3 3.2 3 3.01 2.8
TOTAL 21 710 34 232 21 532 20 939 17 134 17 162 18 300 16 779 16 730 15 232
Source : MoES 'LUHFWRU\RI6WDWLVWLFVDQG&(36-Ljubljana.
A Living Standards Measurement Survey carried out in 1996 showed that

more than 35% of Albanian children who did not attend school at that time gave
“lack of financial resources” as the main reason (41.4% in urban areas) while
nearly 20% said they were “not satisfied with the quality of education” (21% in
urban areas).
At secondary (post-compulsory) level, declines have been more dramatic,

but not for all types of secondary education. Overall, the decline was from
78.6% of the cohort in 1989 to 41% in 1998. However, general (academic)
secondary enrolments increased from 24.4% in 1989 to 34.9% in 1998, while
those for secondary vocational education dropped from 54.1% to 6.1%. Indeed,
rural vocational school enrolments dropped from 49% in 1990 to 2% in 1998,
mostly due to the closure of many rural vocational schools and enterprises.
Enrolments at tertiary level have risen overall, but nearly all the increase is
in part-time enrolment while full-time enrolments have risen only slightly. The
issue of university entrance requirements and entrance examinations is
discussed in more detail below.
40
Education of minorities. Albania has two formally recognised national
minorities Greeks (mostly located in the south, e.g. in the Gjirokastra,
Saranda, Delvina and Permeti districts; and Macedonians (mostly in the South-
eastern part of Albania e.g. around Korca and Vernik. There are other, small
ethnic groups such as Roma (both travelling and settled), Vlachs or Arumuns,
etc. The Constitution (Art. 20) states that minorities enjoy equal rights and
freedoms under the law; that they have the right to free expression, and the right
to protect their ethnic, cultural, religious and language identity, as well as “the
right to learn and be taught in their native tongue”.
Poor infrastructure. The World Bank estimates that rehabilitating

Albania’s schools to an adequate level would cost USD 270 million (EUR 299.5
million).21 A combination of low-quality initial construction, at least two
episodes of widespread vandalism and destruction, and chronic lack of
maintenance over many years (about 35% of schools were built before 1960)
means that many schools lack basic facilities and furniture, heating, water
supply, electricity etc.
Fluctuating populations and changes in demographics. The

impoverishment of rural areas, the closure of many rural schools and
classrooms, and “urban drift” as a result of unemployment, unrest and insecurity
have led to overcrowded urban and suburban classrooms, multiple-shift
teaching, and poorer quality of learning. In addition, many ethnic Albanian
refugees came to Albania during the Kosovo and more recently the Macedonia
crises, most of them converging on cities (especially Tirana where urban sprawl
places great pressures on local provision). Many refugee children are
traumatised, come from deprived backgrounds, and have language, housing and
social adaptation problems.
21
Sue Berryman, Albania’s Education Sector: Problems and Promise. May
2000, p.iv.
41
Table 3. Gross enrolment rates by level of education as % of cohort, 1989-98
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Pre-school 56.7 57.9 48.9 36.8 36.1 36.8 39.2 38.9 36.0 35.8
Primary
TOTAL 100.9 102.1 99.3 97.3 99.4 100.4 100.3 99.5 97.1 93.9
Male 100.3 101.5 98.2 95.3 99.1 100.8 100.5 100.4 97.7 94.0
Female 101.4 102.9 100.5 99.6 99.7 100.0 100.0 98.6 96.5 93.7
Lower
Secondary
TOTAL 103.4 102.5 96.2 90.8 90.7 92.5 91.4 91.5 91.1 90.1
Male 104.8 103.7 95.4 88.9 89.0 91.5 90.3 91.7 89.3 88.4
Female 101.9 101.1 97.0 92.8 92.4 93.7 92.6 92.0 92.1 92.0
Upper
Secondary
TOTAL 78.6 78.0 57.3 47.0 42.4 38.1 36.6 38.5 40.3 41.0
General 24.4 25.9 28.3 29.6 30.1 29.7 29.1 31.6 33.9 34.9
Vocational 54.1 53.1 30.0 17.4 12.3 8.4 7.5 6.9 6.4 6.1
Tertiary
TOTAL 8.2 9.0 9.3 11.9 11.7 11.1 11.8 13.1 13.6 13.3
In full-time 6.6 7.0 7.6 8.3 7.8 6.9 6.7 6.6 7.0 6.9
Source : Statistical Office of Albania, cited in Palomba and Vodopivec, op.cit. page 63.
42
Education Governance and Administration
Patterns of education governance, management and administration vary

among OECD Member countries, but could be set out as a continuum with
strongly centralised systems at one end and fully decentralised ones at the other.
Most will fall somewhere in between; in former communist countries, the trend
is away from the centralised model and towards a more decentralised one,
although the degree of power devolved to local authorities and schools differs
among the transition countries.
The choice each government makes depends on the values to which it

gives priority, although these tend to be political rather than educational values.
For that reason, the rapid moves towards political decentralisation in post-
communist countries have not always led to improved conditions for schools,
teachers or students at the local level. One reason is that local budgets have not
been able to cope with new demands placed on them by changes in legislation;
another is that devolution of authority has only rarely been balanced by clear
lines of accountability whereby local units can be held responsible for the
quality of service they provide.
The Albanian Constitution provides the legal framework for

decentralisation: “Local Government on the Republic of Albania is founded
upon the basis of decentralisation of power, and is exercised according to the
principle of local autonomy”. The main structural change was the modification
of the role of the two levels of local government, (1) by strengthening the
functions of municipalities and communes as the basic level of local authority,
and (2) modifying the role of District Councils by giving them a mainly co-
ordinating function rather than one of direct-responsibility.
In public administration, the Albanian government set up an Inter-

ministerial Board for Institutional Reform (January 1999) and adopted a
Strategy for Institutional Reform and Public Administration later that year.
Organisational structures will be slimmed down and standardised, and the aim
is to encourage horizontal liaison among central institutions as well as embark
on legal reform. A series of laws has already been adopted to reinforce these
changes, and to bring greater openness and transparency into public
administration. In education, new laws on pre-primary, primary and secondary
education were enacted in the late 1990s, and a law on Higher Education was
under discussion in Parliament at the time of the team’s visit.
43
Levels of Education Governance
The Parliament of Albania has 155 members. There is a special

Commission for Education with 8 members. High consensus on the importance
and the development needs of education is prevailing. Laws on pre-primary,
primary and secondary education have been enacted in the second half of
1990´s. A proposal for a new law on Higher Education is coming to the
Parliament. The Council of Ministers is the national executive body.
The Ministry of Education and Science (MoES) is responsible for

education. Ministry of Health (MoH) is responsible for pre-school care and
education. All schools are owned by the state. Ministry of Labour has
responsibilities to train unemployed people, but the volume of training is very
limited. Institute for Pedagogical Research (IPR) Albania, under the
supervision of MoES, co-ordinates the curriculum development processes.
There are 36 provinces and 65 municipalities in the country. MoES has

Regional Departments with a mission of advising and inspecting the schools.
The municipalities have educational boards.
Every school is meant to have a school board. The School Board system is
important and functioning. However, these bodies are completely subordinated
to MoES.
Education Finance22
During the transition, real resources for education have fallen from well
over 4% of GDP in the early 1990s to 3.0% in 1998 (the mean level among 19
transition countries was 4.8% in 1998). Real spending per student also fell,
despite a decline in the number of students. As a result, chronic lack of
resources has weakened the system year by year, and the quality of education
suffered. This, in turn, affects the way the value of education is perceived,
especially by poor families, families with a number of school-age children, and
families in rural areas with high rates of unemployment.
The effects of poverty on school attendance and duration of schooling in

European and Central Asian transition countries are well documented.23 The
22
For a detailed analysis, the reader is directed to the three World Bank studies
(see References), in particular to G. Palomba and M Vodopivec, Financing,
Efficiency and Equity in Albanian Education, March 2000.
44
poor face three specific problems with regard to education: (1) the system as a
whole does not work well, and while this affects all children, the children of the
poor suffer most; (2) the cost of education to families has gone up, so that
education as a commodity competes with other claims on the shrinking
household budget; (3) the perceived benefits of education (in terms of higher
earnings or better jobs) remain low, undermining long-term incentives for
families to invest in education. Although a “taste” for education remains, there
is an increasing risk that poor children drop out of education and inevitably fall
into poverty themselves. “The lower the quality of education and the higher the
opportunity costs of attending school, the lower the probability of school
attendance.”24
There is no doubt that in Albanian basic education (primary and lower

secondary), the shortage of financial resources has adversely affected the
demand for education. However, private returns (benefits to the individual) of
basic education are much higher than those for pre-school education or post-
basic education. For Albania, these rates of return have been calculated as 13 to
16% for basic education, 2 to 4% for upper secondary education, and only about
2.5% for tertiary education. The OECD team would therefore agree with the
conclusions reached by both UNICEF (1998) and the World Bank (2000) that
Albania’s government might do well to concentrate its resources on basic
education, rather than on pre-school or post-compulsory (upper secondary and
tertiary) sectors.25
Finance flows
Municipalities have no tax revenue but only miscellaneous own sources of

funding. They receive an annual grant from the Ministry of Finance (MoF),
which has some plans to transfer poverty tax and some other taxes to the
municipalities. Salaries for teachers and for other civil servants are paid by
23
Nancy Van Dycke, Access to Education for the Poor in Europe and Central
Asia: Preliminary Evidence and Policy Implications. April 2001. Technical
Discussion Paper. Washington: The World Bank, ECSHD.
24
G. Palomba and M Vodopivec, op.cit.,, March 2000, p. 19.
25
UNICEF International Child Development Centre, Education for All? (1998).
The MONEE Project CEE/CIS/Baltics. Regional Monitoring Report No. 5.
Florence: ICDC, pp. 67-71; and G Palomba and M. Vodopivec, op.cit., p. 54.
45
MoF. Unlike many countries of the region salaries have been paid regularly.
The municipalities are assumed to pay for other operational expenditure of the
schools from the state block grant but this rarely happens so as to satisfy the
necessary needs of the schools. The Economic Centre of municipality pays the
bills of the schools.
Money for teachers’ salaries and the grants for the municipalities come
from the MoF. Funding for construction and reconstruction of school buildings
comes from the MoES. During the recent years, money coming from
international donor organisations (especially AEDP-Soros) has played a major
role in rehabilitating schools. See section on “scattered responsibilities at the
central level”, below, for further discussion.
Remnants of the Past
Lengthy communist dictatorship combined with complete isolation from

the rest of the world have left deep scars in the human psyches, organisational
structures and all types of infrastructure in Albania. The recent history of
education in Albania is still strongly affected by the legacy of the Hoxha
regime.
After the winter of 1990-91, the search for stability in an often volatile
political and economic context has preoccupied both the national and
international community. During these turbulent years, the ability of the State to
govern was placed in question, and only now is some measure of guarded
optimism reappearing. Ensuring public order, controlling organised crime and
reducing poverty are at the top the government’s agenda. Inevitably, and
perhaps rightly, these compete for scarce resources with the education sector.
Education is not viewed as a decisive contributor to economic

development, but is seen as a cost rather than an investment. The governing
structures of the State and its institutions remain highly politicised, and the
organs of civil society (for example, non-governmental organisations) are not
sufficiently supported. Community-building is not high on anyone’s agenda,
and civic participation in local governance in general and education in
particular is restricted, although some success stories can be told of
communities that have begun to take responsibility for the quality of their
schools. The voices of various actors, stakeholders and clients are muted, and
mechanisms to express these voices are to be found mainly on paper.
Democratic theory and practice remain far apart. As one experienced
professional educator put it, “The cultural legacy of five decades of autarchy
and passivity continues to shape daily life in education and its management.”
46
Public order, poverty reduction and, as part of it, education are said to be
Albania’s priorities. But as in many other transition countries, there are huge
needs in Albania to build and improve the physical infrastructure of the country,
including roads, public and private buildings, sewerage and water supply
systems, waste and environmental management. Priority setting is therefore a
very difficult and complicated issue. In addition, people’s expectations are more
focussed on the short-term needs than on investment in the future.
In political life, a balance must be struck between concrete improvement in

living conditions, and investments in future development. “Education” is
experienced by teachers, pupils and their parents as “the day-to-day school
environment”; but from the point of view of the national economy, “education”
is a long-term investment. Because the education sector is so large and in such
poor condition, any across-the-board improvement in Albania’s educational
infrastructure would take the lion’s share of national and public resources;
therefore, careful priority-setting among education’s multiple needs is of the
utmost importance.
Public governance in Albania remains highly centralised. The regional

levels of administration are directly connected to the relevant ministries,
including MoES and MoF. Municipalities are highly dependent on the central
government, while local expenditure is directly funded (and property owned) by
the State. Local governments’ own revenues are very limited. This kind of
political structure, and the rivalry between the two leading parties, have caused
over-politicisation of public administration and services. Even if, compared
with other sectors, politicisation is not as strong in education, it is still a
dominant factor in the administration of the school system. Reforms are
therefore discontinuous, fragmented, and uncoordinated, and the professional
potential of principals and teachers is not given a chance to flourish.
For a country with 2 200 schools and 700 000 students, the organisational
structure of education is weak. The MoES is relatively small and without any
major capabilities to influence, for instance, funding of the schools or to make
the use of existing resources more effective. The other organisations at the
central level also lack human and institutional capacity to be useful for schools
and teachers in their very difficult everyday work. The regional level is directly
steered by relevant ministries, the Regional Departments are directly
subordinated to MoES and the District Finance Offices of the MoF. Regional
Departments (37) are not able to solve the problems of the schools. District
Finance Offices have an important but technical task to deliver money
according to the decisions of MoF. Municipalities (65) are weak and do not
have so much influence on, or resources for, education. The supply of and the
47
quality of textbooks are insufficient to give much help for the teachers without
speaking of development of teaching.
Scattered Responsibilities at the Central Level
The budget preparation process is an example of how the responsibilities

are scattered between the two ministries and the different departments of MoES.
Each municipality gives a proposal for budget to the district office, which in
turn sends a proposal for the budget to the MoF. Copies of the proposals are
sent to the MoES. The Department of Budget of the MoF prepares the budget as
a part of the whole budget for the state. The MoES gives also a proposal for the
budget for the Department of Budget. The Director of Finance in the MoES
further negotiates the proposal with the Director of the Budget Department in
MoF. Eventually, MoF approves the money to be allocated to the schools. MoF
pays the grants to the municipalities. These grants are for education, health
services and for all other expenditures for which the municipalities are supposed
to be responsible. The Director of the Budget Department in MoF negotiates
with every mayor on the needs of the municipalities. Except for the Financial
Department, the other Departments of MoES are not much aware of how the
funding is determined for those parts of the education system for which the
MoES is directly responsible.
The MoES is nominally responsible for the content of education. But

considering the size of MoES and the daily preoccupation of the Departments
with detailed decisions, there is no room for MoES experts to concentrate on
strategic and educational management issues, or on taking leadership in setting
the contents of Albanian education and training. Thus in practice it is the
Pedagogical Research Institute and text book publishing houses guided by the
MoES’s approval procedures that develop and implement curricula and
textbooks.
Vertical Decentralisation
Broad consensus has been achieved on the need to decentralise central

government competencies and powers. Perceptions have changed, and
legislation to effect this change in education is either in place or forthcoming.
Mechanisms, too, have been identified. But “decentralisation” is still little more
than top-down governance.
The reason for this is that while perceptions and legislation have changed,
the systems of finance and decision making have not. Local government has
neither the power nor the resources to effect changes in the public education
system. Similarly, schools and their stakeholders while in principle they have
48
a new management structure and increased management responsibilities have
been given neither an operational budget nor the power to make decisions in
key areas of management, such as teacher recruitment and evaluation.
At the same time, it should be recognised that the evidence does not
support the commonly held assumption that decentralisation will automatically
promote the efficiency and equity of decision making. Indeed, with regard to
efficiency, it has been shown that the notion of allocative efficiency is not
relevant to child welfare in country contexts where the right of the child to basic
social services has not been achieved. The impact of decentralisation on equity
of access, for example, can be damaging.26
The Draft Strategy for Development of Education in Albania
The strategy was presented as a draft mid term strategy of MoES. It is a

wide-ranging document containing a great deal of information on the
developments of education during the last decade as well as recommendations
for future directions in education development. Because it is so comprehensive,
it is difficult to see clearly which are the horizontal and sector-by-sector
priorities; yet clear priority setting is essential in times of scarce resources.
Moreover, the OECD review team could not determine whether there is any
consensus among stakeholders about the content of the strategy, and the next
steps to be taken.
Whether the Draft National Strategy on Education will redress this

situation is a moot point. Criticism of its conceptualisation, moreover, has
centred on lack of input from other stakeholders besides government and its
dependencies. One representative of the non-governmental sector, for example,
ironically described it as a “top-top” (rather than a “top-down” or “bottom-up”)
process. Stakeholder input has been limited. And while discussion and debate
will follow publication of the draft, it is unclear whether the draft will be
viewed as a government White Paper (where discussion and debate are invited,
but the main parameters remain in place) or as a Green Paper (in which
discussion and debate among stakeholders can lead to a restructuring of content
and priorities). Nor is it clear if the anticipated change process will include an
Action Plan in which the implementation process will receive the same amount
of time, energy and attention as the conceptualisation process.
26
Jeni Klugman, Decentralization: A Survey from a Child Welfare Perspective.
UNICEF, International Child Development Centre, Florence 1997, page 46.
49
Issues and Barriers in Governance and Administration
Much urgent work is still needed in restoring the infrastructure of the

education system. A reasonable level of infrastructure is a precondition for new
content and better quality of learning outcomes, for a more efficiently structured
national system of education, for renewed motivation of students to attend
school, and for the development of better governance. Therefore the first
priority must be to improve physical conditions in schools. This is not, perhaps,
the time for sophisticated and time-consuming management development
processes.
The division of responsibilities among levels and units of governance is

unclear. Nor is there sufficient clarity in the areas of responsibility among
various Ministries.
There seems to be no serious consideration of options and alternatives for

restructuring the national education system in a coherent manner. Participation
in education after basic schooling has fallen, and is the lowest among countries
in transition. For example, in the Office of the Prime Minister, the review team
heard that the next revisions of the Law on VET will change the structure of
VET by launching 1-2 year vocational study programmes, which would be
closely labour market oriented. While this may be a useful move, a more
comprehensive reform strategy for the entire system is needed, rather than this
type of piecemeal “change”.
Instability and discontinuity in education governance, due to political

pressures. While the nature of democracy requires debate and competition
among different ideologies and ideas about the development of the nation and
society, it does not mean that professionalism should be replaced by political
appointments of educational administrators, principals and teachers.
Financing of education and control of expenditures are poorly understood.

Because the funding of education and schools is scattered among at least two
ministries and many local authorities, clear information about resources and
expenditures is lacking. There are no reliable, relevant data available that could
form the basis for informed decision-making, for example with regard to
consolidation and rationalisation of the schools network to respond to declining
enrolments.
Transparency and criteria of funding are lacking. Partly due to the

diversified delivery of funding, the funding and expenditure of the schools
could not be reported at any level of governance. Except for one clear rule
that the MoF pays the salaries of teachers and other educational staff no
50
criteria for funding municipal expenditure and schools appear to exist.
Somehow, the allocations are made; but the review team could not discover
exactly on what basis this is done.
There is little or no reliable information available on learning outcomes.

Albania has no tradition of systematic measuring and comparing educational
results and trends. Except for a small unit in the Institute for Pedagogical
Research (IPR), there are no organisational arrangements for external
assessment of student learning, and no substantial capacity for consultative
inspection of the schools.
Lack of knowledge and skills to aid the reform in the governance of

education. Fluctuations in the political climate and relative strengths may be
one of the reasons why a decisive launching of a reform in education has been
delayed. Development of human capacity in governance of education is a
precondition for meaningful reform.
Curriculum
Curricula for primary and lower secondary schools are developed by the
Ministry of Education and Science. They contain compulsory and some optional
subjects, their content by grade and subject, the weekly and annual number of
lessons, teaching objectives, and methodology. School Boards, subject to
approval by the municipality, decide on the optional subjects and foreign
languages (both compulsory and optional) that will be taught in each particular
school.
In grades 1-4, all subjects are taught by a class teacher, while lower
secondary (grades 5-8) have subject teachers. Some schools have (some) subject
teachers from grade 4 onwards. Compulsory subjects are mother tongue; foreign
language; music, art, natural science, history, geography, physics, mathematics,
biology, civic education, technical education and physical education. The
optional subject at basic school level is a second foreign language, which can be
taught from grade 3 to grade 8 for two lessons per week.
Curriculum development is the sole responsibility of the Institute for

Pedagogical Research, but there is little communication between the Institute
and the University which prepares teachers. Better communication needs to be
established between the two. Curriculum development should have input from
both, teachers and professors. Textbooks should be objective and not politically
biased. One worrying thing is that new history texts are being prepared that
omit 1990-to the present! The Institute is very capable and held seminars in
51
2000 to inform teachers of the new strategy; however, the strategy could have
been developed by a broader group.
Curriculum Reforms.
Grades 1-4 and 5-8
After 1992, changes were made in the teaching of Albanian language and
literature, and military training as well as the History of the Party were
eliminated from the curriculum which had been heavily Marxist oriented. New
texts were written, omitting Marxist content. Sociology, applied economics and
introduction to the history of philosophy were included in the curriculum. One
text was produced for each class, and more than 80 new textbooks were
published.
New teaching methods have been piloted in the pre-school system; the
existing kindergartens and schools have been strengthened by the reconstruction
of damaged buildings and the construction of new ones.
A good part of the didactic material base has been renewed and
modernised, and politics has been largely eliminated from textbooks. New
concepts have been introduced in the content instead. School programmes have
been improved, and elements of civic education introduced. General education
and vocational education have undergone basic changes in terms of both content
and structure.
The school laboratories inherited by the former system were small in

number and “not suitable space . . . for the ever changing curriculum”. School
libraries are a very important part of the education process in schools that “helps
develop reading skills and carrying out the objectives of the teaching
programme of literature and also extending the knowledge in other subjects”. In
the school-year 1998/99, Computer Science (Information Technology) was first
introduced in 85 schools.
The draft National Strategy for Education stresses the urgent need to
improve material resources (school buildings, libraries, laboratories, equipment)
and didactic (teaching) resources such as teaching plans, programmes,
textbooks, teachers’ manuals as well as didactic, audio visual and computer
equipment. Curricula and content syllabuses prescribe teaching and learning
objectives for each grade, but teachers need help in working out more detailed
schedules and lesson plans.
52
Another new programme is the Human Rights Education Project, which
was extended system wide in 2001. Several other projects have been started, but
unlike its neighbours, Albania has not been able to attract many donors.
Nevertheless the co-ordination among the various measures and projects of
donors could be improved, and the intervention of donors should be focused on
implementation rather than on producing more and more reports.
Curriculum for Upper Secondary, Grades 9-12
The curriculum for general upper secondary includes 15 subjects taught

over 4 years, in two 17-week terms per year. The first two years include
literature, history, geography, foreign language, sociology, math, physics,
chemistry, biology, technology and physical training. In the third year
philosophy is added and computer science (information technology) takes the
place of technology. Economics is added in the fourth year. At the end of the
fourth year the students sit exams in Albanian literature and language,
mathematics and physics; these exams are both written and oral. They are not
standardised, and therefore not reliable.
A major change in the curriculum occurred in 1999-2000. After the second

year of general upper secondary education, the student may choose a “profile”
in either the social sciences or the natural sciences. At the end of the fourth year
the student will sit exams in the subjects in their profile, as well as in Albanian
language and literature. The main objective of this change is to attract more
students into upper secondary education.
Other Forms of Upper Secondary Education
Before 1990, the vocational schools provided agricultural and technical

industrial training, and 70% of the cohort attended those schools. Most were
subsequently closed, and today Albania has 43 vocational schools whose pupils
represent about 16% of the cohort (16 500 students). Largely through the aid of
NGOs, 35 profiles have been made. Some of them respond to market demand.
Broad reform is envisioned during the next few years to increase autonomy of
these schools and to enable them to meet the needs of the economy.
MoES has been provided with substantial support from OECD countries
and from different international organisations. As a result, “pilot” schools have
been established all over the country. The purpose is to test and implement the
modern vocational education system of developed countries in the realities of
the Albanian setting. The pilot schools and Albanian Institute for Pedagogical
Research (IPR) have worked together on teacher qualification, management,
53
curricula and the preparation of teaching materials technical and vocational
schools were in need of repairs after the civil disturbances in March 1997.
There are 5 language schools in Albania with 2 366 students. These

schools prepare students to teach English, French, German, Italian, Russian and
Spanish. There are also 1 151 students in 8 schools which train students in
music and fine arts. In addition, two sports schools train athletes to compete
both nationally and internationally. Four pedagogical schools in four cities train
teachers for basic education in rural areas. Private schools are allowed in
Albania and even encouraged because of overcrowded schools in urban areas.
Textbooks
By law, the preparation and publishing of textbooks for schools is the

responsibility of the MoES and its specialised institutions. The MoES
determines what textbooks are needed for all grades in pre-university education,
and expert panels organised by the Institute for Pedagogical Research evaluate
manuscripts for their suitability for use in schools. The School Textbook
Publishing House then prepares the textbooks for all levels of pre-university
education, while the Publishing House of the University Textbooks (PHUT)
prepares textbooks for the university education system. Their distribution is
generally done by the Enterprise of School Textbook Distribution.
For the year 1998/99, 95% of the titles needed for use in basic schools
were published, and the demands of the entire basic school population could be
met. In addition, publishing houses for textbooks and teaching materials also
prepare supplementary materials such as teachers’ guides, readers, etc. For
upper secondary education, publishing houses also print books for compulsory
subjects, and are able to cover about 70% of the number of books needed.
Before 1990, the State Publishing House had a separate department for
pre-school materials; this was dissolved in 1990 and no new books or materials
for pre-schools have been published since. Recently a special department for
pre-school (ages 3-5/6) has been set up to produce new books for young
children which will hopefully improve the situation..
Under a World Bank project there are plans to open up textbook provision
by encouraging private book publishers to enter a competitive bidding process.
There are also plans to privatise textbook distribution, or at least open it to
competition.
54
Issues and Barriers in Curriculum and Textbooks
The reforms of the political system and public administration unfortunately

do not enjoy the unconditional support of the population. Due to past
experience, the people do not invest either politics or administration with much
trust. In various discussions with our partners there, it seems that many
Albanians fall back on pre-democratic clan structures or simple corruption to
solve conflicts or problems. (See recommendations.)
How society-at-large deals with the issue of which roles the present actors
played in the system of Albanian communism is of tremendous importance to
the whole area of the development of human resources in general and in the area
of education in particular. (See recommendations.)
The understanding of teachers is often quite different from that of

policymakers concerning the content and skill changes expected of them,
perhaps because they receive only brief and superficial training and guidance.
Thus, teachers tend to change their classroom activities, but without a
conceptual understanding of the reason for these changes. The result is that
activities are structured in ways unintended by the change agenda. Teachers
tend to interpret and enact new instructional policies in light of their own
experience, beliefs, and knowledge. This phenomenon is also the case
considered in in-service training.
Planning for the future is difficult because of lack of knowledge regarding

numbers of students in the country. Until an accurate census is taken, it is
impossible to know how many dropouts there are or how many potential
students are not in school. One of the major causes of non-attendance is poverty
in the rural areas where parents need their children for work at home.
Qualified teachers are leaving the profession due to low salaries as well as
lack of status. They are also frustrated by lack of input; they are not motivated
as they are too often bound by the textbook and do not have an opportunity to
be creative. Some school principals encourage teachers to bring outside
materials to class, to find their own solutions, to begin team teaching, but these
are in the minority.
Decentralisation and community involvement in schools are important

issues. Extra-curricular use of schools by the community would give all people
“ownership “of their local schools. The local schools could be managed as
community education centres as well as service centres for pupils’ learning
needs. In order to accomplish these goals, a number of changes are essential:
developing local leadership; educational management training for local
55
principals as well as the directorate; the allocation of funds so that budgets are
available for use of principals without bureaucratic delays; the delineation of
duties in order to avoid overlapping; and the development of quality criteria for
all levels of the educational system.
Pilot Schools are considered to be instruments for innovation to show what

is possible, to encourage other teachers to work with them in in-service training
and in teacher training as well. An additional contribution to professional
development would be evaluation and dissemination of experiences and results
of the training.
Assessment of Learning Outcomes
The present system of assessment and examinations
Assessment in pre-school
No systematic assessment takes place in pre-primary schooling, which is

non-compulsory and covers ages 3-6. On registration, schools may ask for
medical records of the child, but teachers are not trained to observe pupils for
possible learning difficulties. In any case, because only about of all 3-6 year
olds attend school, nothing at all is known about the remainder of the age group
until they appear in primary grade 1. Some newly introduced programmes for
pre-school children, such as “Step by Step”, do assess some elements of school-
readiness by the time a child reaches primary school age, but again this benefits
only a small number of children.
Continuous assessment in grades 1-4
In the first four years of primary, the assessment of pupil learning is

entirely school- and classroom-based. The objectives for primary education are
implicit in the teacher guides for each grade (1-8) and within the various
chapters in textbooks that cover the year’s content. Teachers assess their pupils
using a variety of methods, including oral questioning, short quizzes or end-of-
chapter tests, work done in class, or homework. Twice a year, an overall mark
for each subject is given; these are aggregated into a final mark at the end of the
school year. Promotion from grade 1 to grade 2 is automatic; thereafter,
promotion from grade to grade is based on teacher assessment (oral tests). A
pupil who fails (i.e., receives less than a mark 5 on a 1-10 scale with 10 =
highest) in more than two subjects must repeat the year. If he/she fails in two
subjects or less, he/she is allowed to take “autumn examinations”; if successful,
the pupil is promoted but otherwise must repeat the year. School-based
56
assessment is controlled by the local education authority through its
inspectorate.
End of grade 8
Examined subjects are mathematics and Albanian language. From 1996

onwards a small committee from the MoES and the IPR set the question papers
for the entire country, in order to introduce some standardisation and
comparability into Albanian examinations. The Examination Commission of
each school (consisting of the head of the school, the subject teacher, and
another teacher of the same school) writes the items on the blackboard, and all
pupils copy them onto their papers. The exam lasts 4 hours. In each school,
there is a representative of the local education authority to observe the proper
administration of the exam. The Examination Commission marks the papers and
gives a final mark to the pupil; this mark also includes marks for the oral
component, weighted 50% for the oral exam and 50% for the written part. The
certificate is awarded by the school.
End of grade 12
This is the school leaving or so-called “Maturita examination. Examined

subjects include mathematics, physics, and Albanian literature, written and oral.
The procedure is as described for grade 8, except that a representative from the
MoES or the IPR (not the local authority) serves as an external observer. During
oral examinations, at least one teacher other than the student’s own teacher must
be present.
University entrance
In previous years, competitions for university entrance were based on a

100-point system, of which a maximum of 30 points could be earned by a
candidate on the basis of his/her performance during the four years of secondary
schooling. The remaining 70 points were at the discretion of university faculties
on the basis of performance on a faculty-set and -scored specialised entrance
exam. Faculties issue their own ‘programme’ or syllabus in each subject, and
students who wish to compete for a place study these ‘programmes’ in the
summer leading up to the entrance examinations in early September of each
year.
This system, in particular the 30 points available for school-based

performance, was seen to be open to abuse. In 1998, the Minister announced on
television that from 1999/2000, no school marks or leaving exam results (which
used to constitute up to 30 of the possible 100 ‘points’ for University entrance)
57
would be considered, and that the University entrance exams would be the only
selection instrument. He stated that University professors would be assisted by
subject teachers in setting these exams, but that every University – and indeed
every faculty – would set its own without any attempt to equalise or standardise
among Universities.
While involving experienced subject teachers was a big step forward, the
dangers here were clear. First, the upper secondary curriculum would be
entirely dominated by what teachers believe the universities will require (even
though only about 30% of secondary school graduates continue into tertiary),
and the universities would be de facto in charge of the school curriculum.
Second, because everything would hinge entirely on a one-shot examination (of
doubtful technical quality), university entrance would be even more of a lottery,
with the stakes higher than ever, and the dangers of bribery and corruption
rising along with them.
An interesting compromise was reached whereby the IPR and expert

committees set the “general knowledge” part of the entrance examination across
nine school subjects (60% of final mark), while the second, subject-specific part
of the examination was set by each faculty (40% of final mark). In September
1999, this system was applied for the first time. There were about 9 000
candidates taking some 15 000 exams.27 Each exam took 5 hours and consisted
of a great number (more than 150) questions, both duration and size of the
exams seem excessive and the team hopes that they now have been reduced.
Nevertheless, the process appears to have gone relatively smoothly, although
the technical quality (reliability, validity) of the question papers remained
doubtful, especially the part set by university faculties where there is little or no
understanding of the ground rules of educational measurement.
However, until there is a credible and trusted school-leaving examination

(Maturita) in place, Universities are unlikely to abandon their own entrance
examinations altogether.
Next steps in assessment of learning outcomes
Assessment is an important issue in Albania. There have been some

positive developments; a new Centre (the Centre for Evaluation, Assessment
and Examinations or CEAE), based at the Institute for Pedagogical Research
(IPR) was established in 1994 with a small staff of about two or three people. A
27
Students are allowed to apply to more than one university for a place; if they
are successful for more than one, they can choose the one they prefer.
58
World Bank financed project supported the through training and equipment, and
its expertise and staff size have grown steadily. Key staff of the Centre were
trained abroad, at ETS (United States), CITO (The Netherlands), UCLES
(United Kingdom), and at the National Examinations and Assessment Service
(NAES) in Romania. There were also a number of in-country training
workshops and seminars which allowed Centre staff, specialists and teachers to
be trained in assessment issues, thereby building the necessary capacity for
future work.
Aside from preparing the general part of the university entrance test, the
Centre has also carried out successful sample-based national assessments at
grades 4, 8 and 12 in three core subjects, for example mathematics, Albanian
language, and foreign language; and Centre staff work with teachers in schools
to improve their skills in assessing student learning.
Under a second World Bank project, the Assessment Centre is expected to

become a semi-independent organisation, remaining under the policy control of
the Ministry of Education and Science but no longer a part of the IPR. The
Centre will continue its work on national examinations, on the production and
maintenance of test item banks, on university entrance examinations and on
assessment of pupils in grade 4. It will also take part in international
comparison studies such as TIMSS-Trends and OECD/PISA, and build links
with testing agencies in other countries.
Experts working in and with the Centre have already done a great deal of
good work. With the independence of the Centre, however, a different set of
problems will arise. The most important will be the sustainability of the Centre
itself once external funding runs out. There was some question among members
of the OECD team whether a system of external examinations at the end of the
secondary school (as now introduced in many other countries in CEE and SEE)
is appropriate for Albania. There is not only the question of starting and running
costs for such a project, but also of the feasibility of running centralised exams
from Tirana, considering with the very poor infrastructure of the country and
the high levels of corruption reported to the team. Is there any real “added
value” in changing the present system, and if so, who would benefit from this?
It may be useful to look at a range of assessment methods and protocols
developed around the world. Albania needs to look very carefully at the
available resources, and then decide what would be most appropriate given the
country’s specific circumstances.
Nevertheless, there is little point in trying to improve curricula, textbooks

and teacher training if no attention is given to results – that is, to the
improvement of learning outcomes, and to their reliable and valid measurement
59
and reporting. More and more countries around the world are using sound
information about student learning for evidence based policy making.
Unfortunately in Albania – as in many transition countries – little use is made of
outcome data for supporting strategic evaluation and policy decisions. Schools
rarely look beyond their own walls; district education directors know almost
nothing of what happens in other districts. However, the introduction of new
management structures – especially decentralised decision-making – will
require management information systems at all levels, and reliable data on
student learning outcomes will help schools monitor their performance over
time as well as compare their own performance against that of other schools,
both within Albania and internationally.
Issues and Barriers in Assessment
National standards for content and achievement have not yet been agreed
for all subjects, grade levels, and all abilities including the slow learners as well
as the more able ones. Although a great deal of good work has been done, there
is as yet no system-wide, coherent strategy for defining such standards; without
them as a frame of reference, evaluation of outcomes cannot be meaningful.
Pupils are probably still over-tested but under-assessed in terms of

flexible skills. Albania’s young people, like those in other transition countries,
need to prepare for a world where they will have to make intelligent choices,
solve un-anticipated problems, and take responsibility for finding their own
paths in a rapidly changing economy. None of these skills was highly prized
under the old system – centrally planned economies emphasise the learning of
carefully selected facts, because these leave little room for uncertainty, and do
not encourage independent thought. By contrast, life in a market economy
means that most young people will change jobs and occupations several times
during their working lives, and to do this they need independent thinking and
learning skills rather than facts.
The introduction of new-style assessments and tests must be phased so that

they reflect and reinforce the new curricula and new textbooks, and so that
teachers and administrators can be trained in their use and interpretation. For the
time being, many teachers and students still have to work with existing
resources that do not always match the changes that are being introduced.
Public and political reaction to changes in the assessment and

examinations system. There are two main issues here. First, there is the
educational concern that high-stakes external examinations may have a negative
backwash effect on teaching and learning in classrooms and will narrow the
curriculum to what will be tested. Second, there is the political concern that if
60
exams are more rigorous, fewer pupils may pass and more will find their paths
to further education and employment blocked. Both are legitimate concerns and
should be openly acknowledged so that steps can be taken to minimise their
effects.
There are entrenched vested interests (especially at the secondary/tertiary

interface) that may resist change. Also, a more rigorous assessment may
initially increase the failure rate of students, which will cause concern and put
pressure on politicians to abandon the (much-needed) reforms.
Teachers and Teacher Training
The economic and social development of any country depends on well

educated and trained human resources, and this can only be achieved through an
effective education system which has teachers and school administrators who
have received proper initial training and continue to have in-service training to
keep them up to date. However, the economic situation and under-managed
transition processes in Albania have a strongly negative impact on the education
system, through the decline of participation in pre-university education,
discrepancies in rural/urban development, migration of rural populations to
urban areas, low status of teachers, poor teaching environment, poverty, and
low private and social returns to education in the present labour market.
There is a need for improvement in all aspects of the system. As stated in

the Mid Term Strategy of the Ministry of Education and Science (MoES)28 “the
situation in the pre-university education is not yet brought to normal”. That is
why the MoES has given priority to normalisation of the education system,
increasing efficiency, and raising the quality teaching and learning. Teachers are
at the centre of all these crucial issues.
The current situation of teachers in Albania
In 1998/99, there were 39 417 full-time teachers (excluding tertiary) in

Albania (see Table A30 in Berryman29): 4 092 pre-school, 29 428 basic
education 1-8, and 5 897 upper secondary school teachers. There are
approximately 450 vocational teaching staff in the 41 secondary vocational
28
Republic of Albania, Ministry of education and Science, Minister’s Cabinet.
March, 2000. “Mid Term Strategy of the Ministry of Education and Science”
(Draft), Tirana.
29
Berryman, Sue E. May, 2000. “Albania’s Education Sector: Problems and
Promise”. (Discussion Draft, not for quotation). World Bank.
61
schools. 2/3 of them teaching vocational theoretical subjects and 1/3 involved in
vocational practice instruction. Judging by available statistics, in contrast to
many other countries in the region, Albania is delivering relatively efficient pre-
tertiary education, as measured by the use of educational staff and
infrastructure.30 But this is at the cost of constricting the supply of quality
educational services in rural areas, overcrowded classrooms in urban areas, and
the ability of the sector to attract qualified teachers.
Teaching is a low-status profession in Albania; therefore the teaching

profession does not attract bright university graduates. University departments
that prepare teachers are not considered prestigious, and attract candidates of
low or mediocre quality. Although the OECD team was not provided with exact
data, the estimation by Elbasan University (meeting with the Rector) is that only
30%-40% of graduates from teacher training programmes go directly to work in
schools. The difficult circumstances that the teachers are experiencing have a
negative effect.
The sole responsibility for appointing (emërimi) school staff lies with the
37 Educational Directorates – Drejtoria Arsimore (an ED is essentially a branch
of the MoES). The ED submits the figure required for the coming year’s salary
expenses to the Ministry of Education and Science. The local government
bashkia/komuna (municipal/district authority) has no power to influence either
the allocation of funds for teaching purposes or school staff appointments.
The OECD review team heard that usually a three-member committee is

formed to select a teacher. When there is more than one candidate for a position,
the criteria used are: (a) level of education of the candidate, (b) number of years
in teaching in relevant school type and (c) non- professional factors. School
Directors are appointed by the EDs on the same basis as other teachers:
qualification, number of years in teaching, other non professional factors.
New teachers interested to be appointed need to register their names on a

waiting list at the ED. In reality, at present – due to a shortage of qualified
teachers – the selection committee tries to persuade the applicant to take the
position, especially in rural areas.
The insecurities created by the present contracts system whereby some

teachers are appointed me vendim – officially (a permanent teaching position
though not necessarily in the same school from year to year), while others are
hired on a contract – kontratë (a temporary appointment only, with lower pay),
30
Ibid figures 2.11, 2.13, tables A 39.
62
actually helps create movement away from the countryside. Teachers who do
not have the requisite qualifications are usually hired on a three or six-month
basis.31
It can be assumed that due to low status, low salary, high proportion of
unqualified teachers and temporary appointments, lack of differentiated
performance-related salary schemes etc., the underlying cause of problems in
education in Albania are related more to motivation rather than to poverty.
Teacher qualifications
Based on the statistics provided by the MoES, the number of teachers with
higher education or professional high school diploma is decreasing, Across all
levels, 22% of teachers are under qualified. In the upper grades of 8-year basic
education, this percentage increases to 33. In the school year 1998/99, 90% of
pre-school teachers, 50% of 8-year school teachers, and 4.3% of high school
teachers did not have appropriate education. Big differences between rural and
urban teacher qualifications can be observed: in school year 1997/98 in 8-year
school 70.3 % teachers in urban schools and only 44% of teachers in rural
school were well qualified. (see table A34 in Berryman, op.cit.). For example,
in Mirdita’s 51 basic 8-year schools in 1999-2000, 60% of the 69 Mathematics-
Physics teachers were not suitably qualified (De Waal, op.cit.).
Teachers are neither hired nor promoted on the basis of systematic

evaluation of their subject matter knowledge, skills and teaching practice, using
the pre-set criteria.
31
De Waal, Clarissa. January, 2000. “Report on Rural Education in Albania
and Suggested Reforms to Increase its Effectiveness. (Draft). Albanian
Education Development program, Tirana, Albania.
63
Table 4. Teachers’ qualifications in kindergartens
Years 1990/91 1991/92 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99
Number and education attainment of

teachers in kindergartens
Kindergarten teachers 5 664 5 440 5 081 4 578 4 428 4 416 4 463 4 116 4 092
Secondary 95% 94% 92% 93% 90%
Higher education 5% 6% 8% 7% 10%

Source : Source: Key Indicators 1999 – Albanian National Observatory and MoES
Table 5. Teachers’ qualifications in basic (8-year school) education
Years 1990/91 1991/92 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99

teachers in basic education
Teachers 28 789 29 553 30 557 32 098 30 893 31 369 30 926 30 111 29 428
Secondary 49% 48% 48% 47% 47.9%
Higher education 51% 52% 52% 53% 52.1%
Source : Key Indicators 1999 – Albanian Observatory and MoES
64
Table 6. Teachers’ qualifications in secondary (general and vocational) education
Years 1990/91 1991/92 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99
teachers in secondary education
Teachers 9 708 9 553 9 298 7 834 6 365 6 321 6 118 5 989 5 897
Secondary 4% 5% 5% 5% 4.3%
Higher education 96% 95% 95% 95% 95.7%
Source: Key Indicators 1999 – Albanian National Observatory and MoES
Table 7 Percentage of Albanian teachers with higher education
TOTAL 1997/98 Percentage

Pre-school 7.3
Basic 8-year school 52.6
Upper secondary school 95.3
Urban areas
Pre-school 13.7
Basic 70.3
Upper secondary 96.6
Rural areas
Pre-school 2.7
Basic 44.0
Upper secondary 92.4
Source: Statistical office of Albania. In: Sue E. Berryman (2000), Albania’s
Education Sector: problems and promise. (Discussion draft), World Bank.
65
Teacher salaries
Teacher salaries are below the already low average public sector wage, and
no longer cover living expenses and low salaries have led to a great number of
qualified teachers and faculty leaving the education system. Some teachers
leave because low salaries undermine teachers’ authority in the community.
Those who leave the public education system either start businesses or take a
teaching post in private schools where approximately 510 teachers are
employed and some of them emigrate to other countries. Many of those who
stay in the system but cannot make ends meet, take second or third jobs selling
sweets, chewing gum or other items, or offer private tutoring – even to students
in their own classes, which is a clear conflict of interest.
Years of experience count for salary payment. All fully qualified teachers
get a 2% increase in salary annually, and all unqualified teachers get 1% annual
increase. In 1998, when the teacher unions joined efforts to persuade the
Government to grant a general increase, the Government increased the salary by
30% for a certain category. The present system pays in fact uniformly, whether
a teacher is negligent or actively dedicated. The system also does not
differentiate pay for school directors according to responsibility and time loads;
the director of a small school with under 50 pupils and the director of a school
with 900 pupils and two shifts, are paid the same salary.
Work environment
As people have freedom of movement within Albania, migration to the

towns and cities has strained the urban educational infrastructure. Internal
migration from the north and south to the centre and coast of the country has
caused the formation of crowded classes. The average number of students in
each class in Tirana schools, for example, is 55. Lack of instructional materials,
textbooks and equipment force teachers to do their work under pressure and
with difficulty. Bad roads, especially in rural areas, and lack of public
transportation make teachers’ commuting to school very difficult. Most of the
school buildings, especially in rural areas are in very bad condition, with broken
windows, falling walls, leaking taps and dripping toilets – if, indeed, the school
is lucky enough to have water at all. If, in addition to these poor conditions, the
teacher is under-qualified and the School Director politically appointed with
low motivation and no power, the working environment of the school provides
no support to teachers who might want to introduce reforms.
The MoES defines the teaching load of the teaching staff. A pre-school
teacher has 36 teaching hours (45 minutes is a teaching hour) a week, a teacher
at grades 1-4 teaches 23-27 hours a week, a teacher at grades 5-8 teaches 20-24
66
hours a week, and an upper secondary (high school) teacher teaches 20 hours a
week or 620-650 a year. Supervision of the teaching work at school level is the
responsibility of the Director, and Inspectors of ED.
It can be assumed that the frequent change of School Directors for political
and other reasons undermines school management, and has a negative influence
on teachers’ motivation and student learning outcomes.
Teacher training
Pre-service training
It is the expectation of the community that the teachers employed should

have a university education. Tirana University and the regional universities and
secondary pedagogical schools prepare students for the teaching profession. The
graduates of Tirana University are awarded a diploma that enables them to teach
in high schools, to get a teaching assistantship at a university, and to obtain
other jobs where the diploma is accepted. During 4 or 5 years of training at the
university, students are mainly provided with scientific knowledge and some
special training for the teaching profession. For example, in the Department of
Mathematics in Tirana University, the 4-year study programme leads to the
diploma “Teacher of Mathematics for Secondary School”; students study two
semesters of Psychology, 2 semesters of Didactics of Mathematics, and have 8
weeks of pedagogical practice in schools.
Regional universities prepare their students for the teaching profession at

basic elementary education level. Teachers for pre-school (kindergartens),
teachers for grades 1-4 and teachers for grades 5-8 at compulsory 8-year basic
education levels are prepared for the profession at regional universities.
Students at teacher training departments of the regional universities in Shkodra,
Elbasan, Gjirokastra and Korça. are required to have teaching practice in
relevant education institutions for 3-4 weeks during the third and fourth year of
their education. However, in order to meet this requirement, there is no
arrangement for university students go to local schools to observe experienced
teachers and practice teaching under their guidance. Teacher training
institutions have weak links to local schools and the administration of
education, and lack a meaningful educational research and policy development
capacity important for improving the quality of teacher education. Thus, while
previously students only spent 8% of their time in schools, now they spend up
to 20% of study time in observing school and classroom life, and in practice
teaching. Teachers in the practice schools do not have a special status and are
not qualified to lead the teaching practice process.
67
The diplomas granted by regional universities are not very well defined in
terms of the areas of competence in which they specialise, so that graduates
from these courses sometimes end up teaching in the secondary education sector
although they are trained as basic school teachers.
There are also some teacher training institutions where teachers for special
fields are trained, such as the Academy of Arts where teachers of arts are
trained and Higher Education Institute for Physical Training where teachers of
physical training are prepared. From 1995, pre-school teacher education is
offered in all the universities, except for the University of Tirana.
Among the vocational high schools, there are some (three) “Pedagogical
High Schools” (pedagogical secondary schools for students up to the age of 18).
The first one was established in 1909 in Elbasan and is still functioning; it was
founded to train teachers for pre-school and primary education. Although the
graduates of these high schools should go on to teacher training in the education
departments of the universities, due to the shortage of teachers many of them
can obtain a teaching position immediately – without a university degree – at all
levels of the pre-university education. According to the information of Elbasan
Pedagogical secondary school Director, about 50% of the year 2000 graduates
of Elbasan secondary pedagogical school started working in rural schools, while
40% continued their education at Elbasan University. In Gjirokastra
Pedagogical High School, there is a department for “Minority Teachers” where
teachers are prepared to teach minorities in their language in the minority
schools.
There are no national standards or requirements for pre-service teacher

training. Though prescribed by the Law of Higher Education (1999), the
accreditation of study programmes was not yet functioning at the time of the
OECD team’s visit. The goal is therefore to establish standards for teacher
training on a national basis. This requires a system of external examinations and
also procedures for monitoring and evaluating teacher training. In addition there
are no study programmes for education management at the universities.
In-service teacher training
In-service teacher training has changed over the last 10 years, but it
remains an ill-defined aspect of Albania’s education system. Currently it is a
responsibility of Education Directorates (Drejtoria Arsimore) MoES started a
new programme in 1998 for in service training. This programme empowers EDs
to offer in-service training at the district level, using school inspectors as
trainers. The OECD team was informed at the Institute for Pedagogical
Research (IPR) that the in-service training for high school teachers and
68
principals is provided by the MoES through IPR consultancy, based on a needs
assessment. The programmes are developed by IPR and sent to EDs at the
beginning of the school year. In-service training is considered by IPR as very
important for teachers in vocational and professional education. But the OECD
team saw no evidence of any serious needs assessment for in-service training. A
report prepared by the AEDP (Albania Education Development Program,
funded by Soros), states that the effectiveness of this programme has not yet
been proven, and there seems to be no systematic approach to issues of teaching
quality, training needs, and content of training. Besides, the inspectors
themselves do not have the appropriate training and experience to carry out their
new responsibilities.
The Directorates define content and purpose of training. Teachers are

required to participate once or twice a year, according to the subjects they teach.
The MoES (IPR) provides consultants to the EDs, and are invited to deliver
training.
In-service training within the school can be done on an individual or

collective basis. Individual training may involve taking an approved upgrading
course, studying professional and scientific literature, professional and scientific
activities such as giving experimental lessons and professional lectures,
publishing professional papers or acquiring a higher level of qualification.
Collective in-service training is done within the professional teachers’ work
groups and teachers’ councils in one or several schools in the area of a
municipality or region, or within professional societies. The school principal
and inspectors of local education authorities and the MoES monitor this type of
in-service training.
In its discussions with Albanian counterparts, the OECD team found that
the concept of in-service teacher training was often confused with the
programme for teachers’ attestation, which is organised by local education
authorities. Serving teachers are tested for competence (teacher upgrading) in
their subject every 5 years, until they have completed 20 years of teaching after
which they no longer have to undergo tests. Teachers without the requisite
qualifications (i.e., without a pre-service teacher training diploma) are also
tested, although attendance at these tests is certainly not 100%. There is no
evidence that any one with the requisite qualifications has ever failed these
tests; they are therefore more a seniority-related “rite of passage” than a serious
appraisal of competence.
No systematic reform related in-service training for teachers (for example,

in relation to changes in the curriculum, the assessment system, or classroom
methodology) appears to be taking place. Professional development
69
opportunities for school principals and inspectors are not provided. There are
plans to start this kind of training in Tirana University; but, in general,
university departments are not involved in in-service teacher training.
Foreign NGOs and foundations, such as the Albanian Education

Development Project (AEDP) and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), also contribute to teacher training activities in co-
operation with government institutions or Albanian NGOs. However, these
projects are scattered, poorly linked and solely depend on donor preferences. At
the moment there is no strategy for integrating those efforts into mainstream in-
service training.
In-service training does not appear as a separate item in national or local

budgets, so it is not possible to determine how much is being spent on it.
Teachers and teacher training in the Mid Term Strategy of MoES
The draft Midterm National Strategy of MoES identifies teachers as the

most important element to ensure and improve the quality of Albania’s
education system. Decentralisation to distribute powers between central and
local administration in a balanced way and to create community participation;
privatisation to increase choice and competition; and evaluation to promote
performance development and career planning are emphasised in the draft
Strategy.
One important aim is to increase the number of qualified teachers. The

MoES considers putting in place a quota planning policy to attract young people
to teacher training programmes in higher education institutions; continuous in-
service teacher training will be provided. Specialised training Centres at local
and national levels will be established. A distance education project called
“Kualida” is aimed at teachers from remote areas.32
32
AEDP for several years has run a very successful and popular programme
called “TV for Teachers”, which concentrated on improving teachers’
knowledge of teaching methods and innovative approaches to the teaching
and learning of thinking skills. The programme was accompanied by
excellent training materials developed with the help of the Open University
in the UK.
70
Early Childhood Development and Care
Importance of early childhood education
An important starting point in respect of children’s rights to and need for

early education is found in the UN “Convention on the Rights of the Child”
(CRC) (1989). The CRC regulates the children’s rights and parents’ obligations.
Article 28 points out “The right to free education” and Article 29 “The
objectives of education”.
In Albanian pre-school education, certain curricular innovations have been

made with the help of NGOs. The more successful include “Step by Step”
which is a child centred methodology programme begun in 1994 in pre-school;
in 1996 in grade 1, and in grade 4 in 1999. In 2000 it was offered in 7 districts.
The MoES has prepared a short-term strategy for the development of pre-
school education, based on several considerations, such as:
x The role of the first years of education as the foundations for

adulthood;
x The contribution early childhood education provides to developing

skills and creating values like co-operation, solidarity, and respect for
others opinions;
x The importance of quality institutions for pre-school children with a

direct positive impact in the cultural, economic, and social life of the
children, family, and society.
Facts and figures
The Ministry of Education and Science (MoES) is responsible for pre-

schools in Albania. They include children of ages 3 to 6. Children from 0 to 3
years old may attend nursery schools/day care centres which are under the
jurisdiction of the Ministry of Health. The nursery schools have never been
considered part of the educational system. All teachers are, according to present
data, female. They are trained in 3-year courses in pedagogical schools or
universities.
The OECD review team learned that more private pre-schools are opening.
Parents perceive these schools as offering better quality, and if they can afford it
they prefer to send their children there. The emergence of private pre-schools
also helps the state budget, which at present allocates a substantial portion of all
71
education funds on non-compulsory sectors of the system (pre-school, post-
compulsory upper secondary, and tertiary).33
In 1991 60% of the children aged 3-6 attended kindergartens. By 2000, this
had dropped to 36%. Before 1990 there were 130 000 3-6 year olds in
kindergartens; the number in 2000 was down to 80 000 children. There were 70
nursery schools in 1990; now there are 40. Even though there has been great
migration to Tirana from the rural areas and many parents would like their
children in both nursery school and kindergarten, not enough places can be
found today.
Governance and administration of the pre-school sector
The MoES makes all decisions about the pre-schools concerning budget,
staff and curriculum and local municipalities still have very little power. They
collect certain taxes but only for the central government. However, the Law on
Local Government is due to be amended, and if these changes are implemented
local municipalities could have more say about pre-schools within their
jurisdiction.
The general impression is that devolution of powers to the local level will
have a positive effect on education, but it was often said that such changes
should come slowly. One person in the MoES said: “You should not sell your
old shoes before you buy new ones”.
Pre-schools are still known by a number, as under the communist regime

(e.g. Kindergarten No. 42, etc). There is great demand for kindergartens from
parents, but there are no figures on how many children cannot attend pre-
schools due to lack of provision. Unemployment and poverty seem to be the
overriding problems for parents in not being able to send their children to
kindergarten, apart from the lack of places.
The state stipulates that each group of children should be no more than 25
but in what are considered good kindergartens there are often many more
children in a group. In one of the pre-schools visited, as many as 50 children 3-4
years old were in one group; in another group of 5 to 6 year olds, they had 54
children. They had two staff for these children. According to national statistical
data, the average Pupil:Teacher ratio at pre-school level is 20:1. That obviously
33
Palomba and Vodopivec (op.cit.) gives the following ratio: if spending on
basic 1-8 education is 100, then spending on pre-school is 85, upper
secondary 144, and tertiary 596 per student. World Bank, 2000, p. 73.
72
was not the case in the five pre-schools visited by the OECD team. The national
average probably reflects lower attendance figures in rural areas.
In each school, there is usually one large classroom with another room as a
dormitory, as all children in pre-schools sleep for two hours every day. As the
school yards mainly consist of mud, chickens and weeds there is nowhere for
the children to play outside. Only one of the five schools visited had a good
playground with equipment for play. That school is supported by UNICEF, and
works according to the “Reggio Emilia” pedagogical method. “Step-by-Step”
schools (supported by AEDP-Soros) also tend to have better furniture and
equipment.
In Albania there are 18 “Step by Step” kindergartens, set up by the Soros

Foundation. The Foundation finances the equipment in the schools, while the
state provides the rest of the funds. Parents pay 2 000 leks (15.9 EUR) for food
per month. According to statistics, the number of kindergartens with food
provision totalled 97 in the urban areas, and 0 in the rural areas in 2000. This is
a drop from 665 in the urban areas and 351 in the rural areas in 1990.34
Concerning the curriculum, the educational programme for kindergartens

is prepared in the MoES and all kindergartens implement it. The “Step by Step”
methodology was introduced in 1994. The Reggio Emilia method (from Italy)
came later, but both these methods are now being developed and used. They
both focus on children, and are action-oriented which is a totally new concept
for most teachers.
Other private pre-schools have been set up by religious organisations, and

these schools are very popular. In Elbasan, that parents register their children
for such a pre-school as soon as they are born, so that they will be assured of a
place when they are older.
34
Source: mid-term Strategy, MoES 2000.
73
Number of kindergartens and children
Table 8. Pre-schools
Enrolment Number of Teachers

Year Number of TOTAL Female TOTAL Female
schools
1990 3 426 130 007 62 148 5 664 5 664
1991 3 174 108 889 51 784 5 440 5 440
1992 2 784 81 117 41 549 5 081 5 081
1993 2 656 80 395 41 154 4 578 4 578
1994 2 668 80 348 39 685 4 428 4 428
1995 2 669 84 026 41 589 4 413 4 413
1996 .. .. .. .. ..
1997 2 408 80 240 41 006 4 116 4 116
1998 2 048 80 418 39 952 4 116 ..
1999 2 330 81 734 40 950 4 092 ..
2000 2 111 80 337 40 788 3 806 ..
Source: MoES Directory of Statistics
Issues of Equity and Access
Universal access to free basic education (primary and lower secondary, or

on average the first 8 or 9 years of education) is a key element of human rights
recognised in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. By the early 1980s
this was largely achieved throughout the socialist bloc. In Albania, about 80%
of the population was still illiterate after World War I; by 1955, with the
introduction of rural schools and adult literacy classes, illiteracy among
Albanians under 40 years old was said to have been nearly eradicated. By 1990,
pre-school enrolments were about 60%; compulsory enrolment 100%; and post-
compulsory secondary enrolment 80%. About 45% of the population between
35 and 45 had completed at least upper secondary education.35
Recent studies, however, have found growing marginalisation of

disadvantaged groups, in particular the poor, those living in rural areas or areas
of high instability, criminality and unrest; migrants living in semi-squatter
communities especially around Tirana; and others seen as “outsiders” in
Albanian society. This fragmentation creates closely-knit sub-communities with
35
Nora Dudwick and Helen Shahriari, Education in Albania: Changing
Attitudes and Expectations.2000. The World Bank, page 2.
74
strong in-group loyalties and rules, but limited trust and co-operation between
groups. It is therefore difficult to speak of “community” or “society” values on
which a national education reform strategy could be built.36
The severe marginalisation of rural migrants in cities, as well as of Roma,

need active and positive measures if the cycle of exclusion and self-exclusion is
to be broken. Efforts are being made by NGOs, but the school system itself has
yet to take responsibility for creating a more welcoming and inclusive
environment. The “child-friendly school”, one of UNICEF’s main goals for
education in the 21st century, seems a long way off.
Roma children
A 1994 estimate for the Council of Europe stated that there were then some
95 000 Roma in Albania.37 Although the actual number can be (and frequently
is) debated, there is no doubt that there are at least four distinct Roma “tribes”
and communities of different types (urban/rural, assimilated/non-assimilated) in
Albania. Nearly all these communities are settled (as distinct from travelling
“gypsies”). Roma in Albania have been “so isolated that they are only dimly
aware of their millions of Romani brethren in diaspora throughout the world.
Still, the Roma of Tirana have more in common with those far-flung Romani
than with their Albanian neighbours, among whom they have lived for nearly
600 years. They get along – but they remain apart.”38
The OECD team saw few Roma children in pre-schools, and there was
almost no information available on Roma participation. From what little
anecdotal information could be gathered, it is clear that they seldom attend
school and if they do, they were either pointed out to visitors or they were
talked about by teachers as having been pupils in the past. Either way, they were
treated as something of a curiosity. A real change in attitudes is needed in this
area.
Children with special educational needs (SEN)
It was similarly difficult to gain any up-to-date information on children

with special needs in Albania. It was however clear that children with
36
Ibid, page 8.
37
J-P. Liegeois, Roma, Gypsies, Travellers. 1994. Strasbourg: Council of
Europe.
38
Isabel Fonseca, Bury Me Standing: The Gypsies and their Journey. London:
Vintage Press, 1995, page22.
75
disabilities have no status, and that some parents still hide their disabled
children. A real change of attitude is therefore needed. No SEN children seem
to be integrated in ordinary schools; those who attend any kind of education are
in special schools. These are specialised in the care for blind or vision-impaired,
deaf or hearing-impaired, and mentally impaired children.
According to the “1998 Annual Report” from the Ministry of Labour and
Social Affairs (published in 1999) there are 7 centres for mental and physical
development in the country. They serve children aged 6 to 14, but up to the age
of 18 some can stay on in these centres. Of these 7 centres, 5 are residential and
the others are day-centres. The total capacity of all the residential centres is 250
beds but the demand for placement is far greater. The day centres can serve
about 400 children more, but again this is quite insufficient in a country the size
of Albania. Clearly a large number of children with special needs are hidden
away at home and are not in any type of education at all. Moreover, despite
legislation to the contrary, students with diagnosed disabilities are rarely offered
opportunities to attend non-vocational upper secondary schooling or higher
education. It is often assumed that children with SEN can expect no more than
to finish basic education, with perhaps a little vocational training if they are
lucky. This is often a matter of physical access and unsuitable facilities, but also
a matter of social attitudes towards disabled persons. Under Hoxha’s regime,
families with “defective” children were ostracised; the stigma of mental or
physical handicap extended to the entire family as well as the handicapped child
her/himself. Such social habits die hard, and it will be some time before SEN
children are accepted as valued members of the educational community.
On the other hand, there is also special legislation which favours disabled
students, orphans and those persecuted by communism. This legislation is
applied in allocating places in institutions for disabled children and special
schools, and (more rarely) in mainstream schools and universities.
In the pre-schools, no psychologists are employed at present. The first

psychologists graduated in 2001, after five years of study and it planned that
some should be employed in schools.
Diagnosis and placement are the responsibility of a medical/pedagogical

commission in each local authority. Curricula for SEN are supposed to be
adapted to the type and degree of disability, but the logic of such adaptations is
not clear. For example, children in special schools for deaf and hearing impaired
children, and mentally impaired children, are expected to complete the regular
4-year primary curriculum in 9 years, while the school for blind or vision-
impaired children uses the regular 8-year basic school curriculum, with
appropriate teaching methods and materials. The assumption seems to be that
76
deaf children are less able to handle normal school programmes than blind
children.
There is no discussion of integrating (mainstreaming) disabled children

into regular classrooms. Partly this is because school buildings in Albania are
generally in poor repair with few facilities even for healthy children; but the
chief reason is strong social prejudice, and resistance from teachers and the
parents of able-bodied children. Nevertheless, the Constitution states clearly
that all citizens of Albania enjoy equal rights to be educated in all levels of
education, regardless of their social or economic status or their health; and
Albania is a signatory to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which
similarly emphasises equal rights to education for all children.
There is now a clear need to put this issue on Albania’s educational

agenda.
Children with social problems and children at risk
Some institutions for children with social problems have been set up.
Residential institutions for children have a “theoretical capacity” of 595 places.
Foreign NGOs have started to work in this area to set up some smaller
institutions for these children.39 The concept of “children with problems” has
recently changed. It used to mean orphans and children born out of wedlock.
Although it was pointed out to the team that the number of children born out of
wedlock has increased in the last 10 years, it is now recognised that even
children who live in families with both their parents can also have problems.
These are categorised as: poverty; illnesses (especially psychological); family
break-up; emigration, especially where parents have left for an unknown
destination. A Central Commission has been set up to co-ordinate the
movement of persons in institutions of social protection.
There is an increase in the number of children who are abandoned or left in

such institutions, often because their parents or young mothers believe they will
be better looked after there. Because the number of institutions and places are so
limited, it is also difficult to put children in the same age group in the same
institution, and therefore there are groups of children of mixed ages, which is
not beneficial for the children’s development.
It is also obvious to the observer that, especially in cities, a number of

children and school-age youngsters live in the streets, apparently without
39
The 1998 Annual Report, Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs.
77
parental care or control. In Albania after the 1997 crisis, when hundreds of
thousands of weapons were looted from arms stores, such children are at serious
risk of becoming involved in serious criminal activity, including armed robbery,
drug trafficking and prostitution. Especially in the south and near borders with
neighbouring countries, boys who have dropped out of school see contraband
smuggling as an easy way to make money. Drug use is also rising. Parents often
express fears for their children’s safety, even in schools as well as on the
streets.40
Apart from the AEDP (Soros Foundation) and UNICEF, according to the
1998 Report by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, a considerable
number of other international donors are active in institutions for children with
social problems. Among these can be found the Danish Red Barnet (Save the
Children) and “Mother Theresa” Mission, and bilateral projects e.g. with Swiss,
Austrian, and British funding.
The national NGOs are mainly focused in Tirana, with networks spread
also in big cities. Their main purpose is to help in offering better possibilities
for children, especially less empowered sectors of the society, such as children
with disabilities, homeless children, Roma children, other minorities. These
organisations also work for children’s rights. The organisations and other
individuals are organised in Albanian Children’s Alliance, which is an open
forum for all children of Albania. The steering Committee is selected by the
General Assembly, which gathers once a year.
When the Soros Foundation’s “Step by Step” method was introduced as a

pilot scheme, a family co-ordinator was added to support the teachers’ work and
relations with the community. In the schools using the “Reggio Emilia” method
a teacher for the atelier was added to the teaching staff to document what the
children tell the teacher about the work they are doing in the atelier, where four
children always work together. In Reggio Emilia classes there can be 35
children and two teachers.
Quite clearly, the Soros Foundation with its “Step by Step” method has had
the strongest impact on pre-school education. They are active not only in pre-
schools but also in primary schools. An evaluation is being done by the Soros
Foundation and the MoES on the impact on pre-schools. It was stated that
foreign expertise is needed for evaluating the system but there is no line in the
budget for this. A similar monitoring of management should also be done on the
40
Dudwick and Shahriari, op.cit., pp. 12-13.
78
“Step by Step” method, and the project should include all of Albania. Foreign
experts are needed to introduce “Step by Step” in grades 5-8.
The “Reggio Emilia” method has not been evaluated and there is as yet no
follow-up in primary education.
Issues and Barriers in Early Childhood Development and Care
Governance and finance. Some municipalities are said to “re-direct” funds

allocated by the central government for education to other purposes. At present,
the MoES has no mechanism to ensure that local governments fulfil their
obligations.
Facilities. School rehabilitation has been financed by international donors,

but other issues have lagged behind such as teacher training and curricula. This
applies to pre-schools as well as to primary and secondary schools. The State
pre-schools are badly in need of repair, and need teaching and learning
materials. Many lack basic facilities such as electricity, running water and
functioning toilets. (Even in schools that do have running water, it can be turned
off for several days at a time, and power cuts are routine.) There is also a lack of
proper heating in the winter. Heating stoves have, in many cases, been looted or
vandalised in recent crises, and there is no money to replace them. Fuel is also
difficult to obtain, and expensive.
Textbooks in the “Step by Step” pre-schools the children are encouraged to

make textbooks themselves. Otherwise the schools use books from the official
State textbook publishing house. The manuals for teachers in kindergartens also
come from the State publishing house. In some of the schools visited by the
team there were no books apart from those in English and German which had
been given by foreign donors. All children buy the set of textbooks in the school
in the beginning of September when they enrol for next school year. There are a
number of quality books especially for children ages 5-upwards, for younger
ones there are fewer books.
There is an almost total lack of teaching materials and toys in pre-schools.

Equipment has mainly been provided by foreign donors. The state funds
available are insignificant compared to the needs. The calculated financial needs
for infrastructure and equipment for pre-schools are huge. The MoES has
calculated that the total needs for the year 2000 would be USD 1 172 000 (EUR
1 285 440). The state budget covers USD 380 000 (EUR 416 781), which leaves
a deficit of USD 792 000 (EUR 868 659). Initiatives for involving private
enterprise should be encouraged.
79
Process issues: curriculum, teaching, overcrowding. The quality of
education is suffering due to poor teacher training and low teachers’ salaries.
Many teachers are forced to leave the profession because of low pay. Curricula
are being updated, in some cases with the help of international donors, but there
is often no co-ordination of such projects and implementation is uneven
especially when curriculum changes are not accompanied by appropriate
teacher training and materials (books in particular).
The pre-school state curriculum is in the form of a manual prepared by

MoES in 1993 and it is the actual curriculum in use. The quality of this manual
is not up to acceptable standards. The MoES is aware of this problem and it has
given space for new methodologies in pre-school education recognising them
officially and being the only level of education with a decentralised programme.
Step by Step and Reggio Emilia methodologies have this status. These two
models are the basis for the compilation of the national pre-school standards,
which are being finalised. There is a lack of resource books for teachers, even
though many projects have published high quality ones.
There is a lack of additional extra and cross-curricular materials. The

literature published by the State institutions is relatively poor. Many NGOs
have published updated literature for teachers and students, which is in a small
number mainly for pilot schools and teachers involved in projects and it doesn’t
satisfy the needs of the market.
In the “Step by Step” pre-schools the teachers received 80 hours per year
in-service training. These teachers are trained to become trainers themselves.
UNICEF offers seminars for teachers as in-service training three days per year
for the five schools in Tirana and two schools in other cities that use the
“Reggio Emilia” method. One teacher in a newly opened UNICEF supported
“Reggio Emilia” school had spent three months in Italy learning about the
method.
Overcrowding is a problem in pre-schools. It is not possible to teach 54

young children in a single classroom, in particular where there is poor or no
equipment and little room for children to move and play. Teachers with poor
training do not know how to teach children in such circumstances. Someone
expressed the children’s situation as “benign neglect”. After the 1997 upheaval
people migrated from the rural areas to the urban in large numbers which has
put a tremendous strain on the entire education system, including the pre-
schools. In the rural areas there are fewer children in the schools. Parents in
rural areas often cannot afford to send their children to pre-school, and in the
new urban shanty towns around Tirana the situation is no better.
80
Gender and work conditions All pre-school teachers in Albania are women
and there is no association for pre-school teachers.
Vocational Education and Training
Governance
Initial vocational education and continuing vocational training fall under

the purview of the MoES, in charge of the entire education cycle including
higher education and secondary VET. The Ministry of Labour and Social
Affairs (MoLSA) is responsible for adult and continuing training.
Secondary education is divided into general and vocational education.

General education programmes last 4 years, and vocational study programmes
from 3 to 5 years. The total number of students at secondary level (in 2000) was
102 971 of which 14 501 were VET students.
Prior to 1990, vocational schools provided agricultural and technical

industrial training, and 70% of the cohort attended such establishments. At
present, VET does not play an important role in the context of secondary
education in Albania and there are only 41 VET schools, of which 30 are 3-year
vocational schools and 13 are 5-year technical schools. Enrolment has dropped
to 15% of the total number of students in secondary education. A huge number
of children (around 50%) do not participate in post-compulsory education and
training and a large number of students leave education and training
prematurely.
Albania does not thus far have a specific strategy for VET, although at the
time of the team’s visit there was a draft to be discussed with stakeholders
before it was published. The Albanian government has set up a working group
aimed at preparing a strategy paper on education that will include also the VET
sector. The paper should be ready in July 2002.
81
Table 9 Enrolment in education/training (14-25 years old) 1999-00
Years General Education Basic Vocational

Males Females TOTAL Males emales OTAL
14 8 032 8 777 16 809 1 903 852 2 755
15 9 723 10 625 20 348 2 303 1 032 3 335
16 8 454 9 239 17 693 2 003 897 2 900
17 7 609 8 315 15 924 1 803 807 2 610
18 2 959 3 233 6 192 701 313 1 014
19 1 268 1 386 2 654 300 134 434
20 760 832 1 592 180 80 260
21 930 1 016 1 946 220 98 318
22 803 878 1 681 190 85 275
23 878 970 1 848 210 94 304
24 423 462 885 100 45 145
25 435 463 898 103 48 151
TOTAL 14-25 42 274 46 196 88 470 10 016 4 485 14 501
Source: Francesco Panzica, Albania Labour market and VET Sector Assessment. ETF:
2000, p. 44.
MoES has been provided with substantial donor support and pilot schools41
have been established in various parts of the country to test and implement
modern vocational education systems of developed countries in the realities of
the Albanian setting. There are currently a total of 41 VET schools some of
which are well supplied, able to hire qualified teachers, and able to implement
new curricula. The pilot schools and Albanian institutions, in particular the
Institute for Pedagogical Research (IPR) have worked to upgrade teacher
qualifications and have provided management training, consultancy on school
management, the introduction of new curricula, and the preparation of teaching
materials. These schools have been partially reconstructed with donor
assistance. Many if not most technical and vocational schools were in need of
repairs after the civil disturbances in March 1997, when much of the equipment
and furniture was stolen or vandalised.
There are 5 specialised language schools in Albania, with 2 366 students

for English, French, German, Italian, Russian and Spanish. There are also 1 151
41
See Francesco Panzica, Albania labour Market and VET Sector Assessment,
ETF, November 2000, p. 45. Most active have been the World Bank, the
European Union, the International Labour Organisation (ILO), UNDP and a
number of European bilateral donors and NGOs.
82
students in 8 art schools which train students in music and fine arts. In addition,
two sports schools train athletes to compete both nationally and internationally.
Teachers are trained at 4 pedagogical high (upper secondary) schools in 4 cities;
graduates are qualified to teach in basic education, and many go to rural areas.
Private schools are allowed in Albania and even encouraged because of
overcrowding in the cities, but there is no significant private VET sector at
present because VET schools tend to be expensive and “resource-hungry”.
Some private institutions offer training courses in languages and information
technology (computer) skills, but these are all in the larger cities and not in the
rural areas.
National VET Council
A proposal to establish a tripartite National VET Council was being

discussed in Parliament at the time of the OECD team’s visit. Due to
complexity of the law and the new elections in June 2001 the regulation was
only approved in March 2002. The Council will be a body convened to provide
a tripartite forum to advise the Government on policy, strategy, and resource
allocation. It would promote VET across the economic and social spectrum and
ensure that the needs of the social partners are taken into account. Duplication
and fragmentation of current national and international agencies, donors and the
public sector would be reviewed and monitored through the Council. The World
Bank may also provide funding to establish the Council.
Curriculum development, standards and assessment in VET
As for general education and secondary VET, the MoES is responsible for
curricula design, which is carried out by the Institute for Pedagogical Research
(IPR). Since 1998, there are 5 and 3-year technical and vocational programmes;
the 5-year technical education programme leads to the Maturita examination set
by the MoES (through the IPR), and gives access to higher education for
successful candidates. Four-year programmes have been phased out as of 1998.
Concerning VET centres for adults, the competence is with the Ministry of
Labour and Social Affairs, also with regard to curriculum development. In
reality, however, MoLSA does not take a strong role in this, so that the trainers
themselves are directly responsible for curriculum design and delivery. There
are 9 training centres offering short-term vocational courses for different
categories of adults, a total of about 70 instructors are teaching in such training
centres. The real local needs of the market are poorly represented. There is no
recognised methodology for curriculum development and there is a lack clear
approval procedures and infrastructure for delivery. In the private and NGO
83
sector, the curriculum situation is characterised by confusion. Without a
national qualification framework, training centres operate in complete freedom.
There is a lack of continuity between initial VET and further/adult training,

and the concept of “lifelong learning” is totally unknown in the curriculum
environment. Vocational/professional curricula at higher education level give
more priority to academic knowledge than to the practical and technical skills
needed in the labour market. Theory still outweighs practical training by 80% to
20%, which is a serious constraint on the acquisition of marketable skills. Youth
unemployment in Albania is high, and many young people (even with VET
qualifications) are unable to find employment.
EC-Phare assistance to VET Reform in Albania
The EC-Phare Project met its objective by improving the capacity of the
VET system to deliver critically needed skills development to a small group of
recipients. However, initiated reforms may not be sustainable without
significant additional finance and technical assistance. Pilot projects were
supposed to prepare for a larger Phare intervention in the VET sector; this,
however, did not materialise as expected due to recent political developments in
the Balkans.
The team who provided technical assistance to the programme was obliged
to spend considerable time and energy on unnecessary administrative and
logistical problems, such as customs clearance of equipment, which detracted
from the overall success of the project.
Course length in each pilot school exceeded the duration of the project and
funds for the provision of equipment were insufficient to cover the needs of the
courses being developed.
Guidance and counselling, as foreseen in the programme, has not been

systematically addressed by the training providers. Staff of each of the pilot
locations were reluctant and/or unable to establish a linkage with the National
Strategy on Education or with the employers in their immediate vicinity.
The civil unrest in the spring of 1997 caused major disruption to the timing
of the EC-Phare Project’s activities. However, this problem was overcome by
the positive and flexible attitude of all contributing parties involved in the
project. Now a new programme has been launched within CARDS 2002-2004
(a regional EU programme) which will include both VET and TEMPUS
projects.
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State Training Centres are located in 6 cities (Tirana, Durres, Elbasan,
Vlore, Korca and Shkodra); they have trained a total of about 27 000 trainees in
16 specialities including automobile repair, electronic and TV repair, plumbing
etc.). There are also a number of private training centres, especially for
occupations such as foreign languages, computers, and fashion design/tailoring.
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have supported courses on business
administration, human resource management, computer networks, industrial
management etc. In 1999, a total of 634 trainees were in public training
institutions, most of them enrolled in secretarial courses (more than 50%) with
the remaining trainees taking courses in hairdressing, fashion design/tailoring,
and electric and car repair.
Issues and barriers in vocational education
Lack of long term integrated economic development and/or employment

policy or strategy at State level; this effects the VET system which does not
have sufficient guidelines from the demand side to direct its development.
Young people are confronted with the uncertainties of the labour market and
need to be provided with transferable skills and a broad knowledge which will
permit their flexibility.
Absence of structured involvement of social partners representing the

demand side in developing employment policies. Provision of management
training in Albania is inadequate to respond to the challenges and opportunities
presented by the adaptation of existing and developing companies to
technological change and the international market.
Responsibility for VET centres for adults, including curricula, is with the
MoLSA. There is no recognised methodology for curriculum development and
there is no centralised infrastructure in the Ministry so individual trainers are
directly responsible for curriculum design and delivery. Without a national
qualification frame, training centres operate in complete freedom.
There are many unemployed qualified teachers for the VET sector, and a
huge number of teachers in the system, not fulfilling the requirements for
teaching according to the needs of change and reform. As there is no possibility
to dismiss them, there is an urgent requirement for an action plan, including in-
service training for part of them and social measures for those who cannot be
reconverted through appropriate training to the teaching staff.
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Higher Education
In 1999/2000, a total of 39 848 students were enrolled in tertiary education

of various kinds (5% of the total number of students in the education system in
Albania). Of these, 60% were female. Higher education is offered in 4, 5 and 6-
year courses in universities (ISCED 5A) and in 3.5 year courses in non-
university tertiary institutions (ISCED 5B). Doctoral studies take on average 3.5
years (ISCED 6).
There are (2000) 8 accredited universities and 3 non-university higher

education institutions and a lack of vocationally oriented non-university higher
education institutions. Just over half the students are full-time. The number of
students nearly doubled between 1990 and 2000 (from 21 000 to 40 000), but
almost all the growth is in the number of students studying part-time (4 000 to
18 000). There are no private tertiary institutions in Albania. There is an
awareness that students will be exposed to the market and that its challenges
and that reforms are necessary.
Issues and barriers to higher education
The most recent education law was passed in 1999, but changes are under
preparation and a Bologna Process oriented reform of higher education is
planned for 2003. The 1999 law reflects a number of improvements according
to the identified priorities in a strategy paper elaborated with the Council of
Europe (1996-98). Following this, legal changes will be necessary in the fields
of quality assessment, election of governance bodies, financial and institutional
autonomy and improvement of admission procedures.
The structure of the HE system remains very centralised and university

autonomy is very limited, especially with regard to financing issues, although
this was foreseen in the 1999 law. The university is free to choose its staff, but
the number is limited by the Ministry. The State is the only source of funding,
there are no private institutions funding HE although possibilities were given by
the law. The existing tuition fees do not significantly contribute to funding.
The setting up of a National Accreditation Council and a quality assurance

system is foreseen by the 1999 law, but not yet fully realised. The Accreditation
Agency exists (through an EC-TEMPUS project) but has so far achieved limited
results. The aims of the National Council are supposed to be to examine the
results of the Agency, the evaluation of the quality of the universities and to
report to the Council of Ministers.
86
Higher education has attracted little support from the donor community
over the last 10 years, particularly when compared to basic and secondary
education. The corroding impact of that fact on the quality of teaching, research
and service is very much in evidence. Infrastructure (laboratories, libraries etc.)
are in a poor state, and as a consequence, the conditions for students and young
professors are hardly motivating. Experience of university staff and academic
knowledge is not used to a wider extent on large scale infrastructure projects
currently being carried out in other sectors of the economy.
The economic development of Albania is rather weak, nevertheless slowly

increasing. The future labour market, foreign investment and the democratic
reform process of society will create more and more need for highly qualified
(academic and vocational) professionals. The relationship between universities
and civil society as well as with enterprises is not very developed. These
questions do not seem to have priority for the government, but have a negative
impact on the general development of the country.
Recommendations by Section
Governance and Administration
Develop basic structures. The post-1997 pessimism is receding and

progress can be observed, for example in the legal framework that is emerging
and giving shape to governance structures in education and training. A mid-term
financial framework for the years 2001-2003 has been drafted. The budget now
reflects both investment and operating costs. Education is seen as a major
instrument of reform in the reduction of poverty and the decentralisation of
power. Proposals suggest raising the percentage of GDP allocated to education
and also raising the very low salaries of teachers by 10-20 per cent. There is
evidence that the reconstruction of school buildings, which has been a high
priority since 1997, is paying off in terms of an improved physical environment
for learning and teaching. In higher education, institutional autonomy has been
confirmed, governance structures put in place and curricular reform introduced.
Develop and strengthen the mission of the MoES and its departments.
Even if the State treasury system and the delivery of money under the
supervision of MoF cannot yet be changed, more responsibility of funding for
education should be given to the MoES. Inside the Ministry, the line
departments should be given full responsibility for the planning of and the
decisions about the allocation of money. School by school allocation of the
budget should not in the longer run be decided by MoES, but the review team
considers that (for the time being) this may remain necessary due to the lack of
a competent intermediate body.
87
Policy and standards, the Ministry of Education and Science should
concentrate on strategic issues and on the steering of the education system by
setting policy and standards. The leadership position of the MoES should be
strengthened in the governance of education. A framework budgeting procedure
is needed to make it possible for the Ministry of Finance to decentralise
planning and decision making on funding to the line ministries.
Clarify the roles and relationships of the various “actors” in education

governance. Besides the MoES, there are four levels of actors in the governance
of education: the Institute for Pedagogical Research of Albania, Regional
Departments of the MoES, municipalities and School Management Boards. In
higher education the actors are universities and faculties. Their respective
missions and roles should be reformulated, concentrating on the type of
expertise expected from them and on the most important and urgent issues.
The expert organisation at the central level should be under the

supervision of the MoES and focus on the quality of education and training by
developing a coherent curriculum framework, subject curricula and standards
for learning outcomes, and by disseminating good practice, results and
materials. It should also support the development of the contents and quality of
textbooks.
The Regional Departments of the MoES should focus on reporting and

giving information for the MoES on the state, development and needs of the
schools in their districts. They should also assist the municipalities and the
School Management Boards in solving problems. In addition, the Departments
should, in co-operation with the central expert organisation, disseminate the
changes in the national curriculum framework, the subject curricula, and
learning standards.
The municipalities and communes should focus on guaranteeing the safety

and the maintenance of the schools and the welfare services for students, and on
mobilising additional resources for schools.
The School Management Boards should be given more power, for instance
the appointment of principals and teachers, use of funds, and planning of the
school year.
A new and firm formulation of missions and responsibilities, combined

with the strengthening of the power of the School Management Board, would
create a solid basis for decentralisation of governance in education both during
and after the implementation of the mid-term strategy.
88
Create a Task Force for the National Strategy of Education. Consensus
and commitment on the strategy of education in Albania are needed, and can be
reached by bottom-up discussions and initiatives on the issue. For the
implementation of the strategy, an action plan must be developed. Therefore, a
Task Force for the implementation and follow-up of the Strategy should be
established by the Minister of Education and Science. The mandate of this new
strategy unit of MoES should, in close co-operation with the line departments
and the other levels of education governance, give first priority to developing
the infrastructure of education, crucial issues like the school network,
rehabilitation of school buildings, reformulation of the structures of education
and training, retraining of principals and teachers according to the strategy,
developing the quality of the production of text books.
Improve co-ordination of reform projects. The central government’s efforts

to co-ordinate its priorities and projects with those of the donor community are
laudable. Joint projects between it and the Albanian Education Development
Programme (AEDP-Open Society Institute,) are exemplary cases in point. The
establishment in 1999 of the Ministry of Education’s Office of Monitoring and
Evaluation and its co-operation with the Donor Board (23 main donors have
been identified) are also promising in terms of reducing overlays between
projects. So are the guidelines and procedures for data collection which it has
developed. These technical functions, moreover, could usefully be joined by a
much-needed strategic function – namely, the carrying out of horizontal as well
as vertical evaluations in which the input, output and impact of projects are
assessed. Such assessments could then be used to inform the transfer of the
findings of successful innovative projects into more system-wide application.
A strategic function should be added to the Ministry of Education’s Office

of Monitoring and Evaluation by the introduction of horizontal assessments (as
opposed to the vertical assessment of individual projects) leading to the more
system-wide application of successful, innovative projects his new function
would give added value for the overall steering conducted by the Ministry and
assisted by the strategy unit recommended above.
Develop criteria for and transparency of funding. The present methods and
delivery of funding are highly centralised. In addition, the money flows to the
schools from at least three different sources (MoF, MoES, municipality)
supplemented by the funding provided by parents and other private sources.
Closely connected with the recommendations made above, the models of
funding should be altered so that there would be only one flow of money for the
school from the central level. The responsibility for funding schools should be
strictly defined and given to the State and the local authorities so, that there is
no doubt as to which body and who is responsible for funding a given
89
expenditure. A formula based funding model should be developed for the MoES
to give an objective and administratively helpful method for funding different
kinds of schools in different regions of the country. Also, a new formula based
funding model for the subsidies for the municipalities should be developed by
MoF. Alternatively, the present grant for municipalities delivered by the MoF
could be altered into a system whereby ear marked money for schools is
included in the formula based funding delivered by the MoES.
Structure an outcome-oriented information and evaluation system.

Measures to raise quality, efficiency and accountability of the education system
and the schools should be launched. A declared goal of the Draft Strategy on
Education is to raise educational standards to the level required for eventual
integration into the European Union and world system of education. A good
start is the agreement whereby the Open Society and the MoES initially helped
finance the national costs of participation of Albania in the OECD/PISA (the
Programme for International Student assessment) project. Although additional
funding will be necessary if Albania is to remain in PISA42 for a second round.
In addition, internationally comparable standards of achievement must be
introduced and applied throughout the school system on a systematic basis, with
learning outcomes used for evidence-based priority setting in the allocation of
scarce resources.
The MoES should introduce, as a matter of urgency, internationally

comparable measures of learning quality, efficiency and accountability at all
levels of the school system. Professionals, administrators and teachers should be
trained to apply them on a regular, systematic and transparent basis, with results
being made readily available to interested stakeholders. The education
management information system should gradually be developed to contain
performance indicators of schools.
Build human and institutional capacity at the tertiary (higher education)

level. The governance and management of higher education were addressed
legislatively in 1995 and again in 1999 University autonomy was confirmed and
elected governing structures have recently been put in place. Curricular reforms
have been carried out. What is now needed is the introduction of financial
management systems, and capacity building in this area for senior university
administrators and their staff.
42
The international costs of the PISA project are covered by a grant from
Finland.
90
A capacity-building programme should be introduced to back up to the
introduction of the Strategy steps. Separately, a similar programme should be
developed for senior university administrators and staff in the area of financial
management systems and their operation. These programmes could be provided
by either the State or international donors or a combination of both, but in either
case, supported by international experts.
Review financial support for higher education. Higher education has

attracted little if any support from the donor community over the last 10 years,
particularly when compared to basic and secondary education. However, World
Bank figures43 show that private returns for investment in higher education are
only about 2.5% (compared with 13-16% for basic education), while social
returns are only 1% (compared with 11% for basic education). Therefore, in
Albania’s current circumstances, state financing should concentrate on
compulsory (grades 1-8) education, while other options (e.g., means tested
tuition fees) could be considered for tertiary education.
At the same time, Albania needs its higher education sector in order to
secure the country’s economic and social development. Lack of funding has had
a corrosive effect on the quality of teaching, research and service. Laboratories
are in a poor state of repair, modern scientific equipment is conspicuously
absent, and IT networks and access to electronic libraries are weak. These
weaknesses, coupled with the brain drain of young professors (about 40% have
been lost to the University of Tirana over the last decade) have cast serious
doubt over the timely replacement of senior academics. It is no exaggeration to
say that the critically important contribution of higher education to the nation’s
economic development and prosperity is being needlessly jeopardised.
On a more pressing and practical note, it is difficult to understand why

more use is not made of university staff on the large-scale infrastructure projects
(highways, ports, etc.) currently being carried out. Several experienced
observers and government officials confirmed this anomaly but could offer little
in the way of explanation.
National capacity building and a more equal regional development of the

country need the scientific knowledge and practical skills available among
university staff. Therefore, the National Strategy should not neglect a solid
development of the higher education sector. In addition, government and donor
projects of all types (but especially those in public works) should routinely
43
G. Palomba and M. Vodopivec, op.cit, page 14.
91
make use of the skill, competence and experience of the staff of Albania’s
scientific institutes.
Curriculum.
Simple and transparent structures and processes need to be created at all

levels of politics and public administration in order to enable every user of the
system to contribute input and control the processes. The participation of the
local actors – parents, teachers, pupils and representatives of the local public
administration – should guarantee the possibility to co-determine agreements
and processes that affect them in their own areas. (For example, setting up the
selection criteria in the case of insufficient places in kindergartens, schools and
universities). Comprehensive information in readable form is a necessary
precondition for building trust.
In order to prevent the recurrence of past experiences that have yet to be

worked though or taboos that have yet to be removed from becoming an
unbreakable barrier in the present level of communication, an attempt should be
made to confront and work through the themes of continuity and disruptions in
the transition from the old to the new political system on a scientific, systematic
and public basis (by broad public debate). Civic education projects should be
provided for all the levels of the (educational) system in terms of life long
learning and adult education.
The Midterm Draft National Strategy for Education is a good beginning as

a plan for the future; however, since it was written by only a few people, the
document should be made available to teachers, parents and administrators and
their input should be included in the final document. For further projects it is
recommended to involve all possible partners in terms of horizontal and vertical
co-operation. Then an action plan to accomplish prioritised goals can be put in
place as quickly as possible. The ultimate goal, as stated, is more effective
education for all by increasing the efficiency of the system, which can only be
accomplished with concerted effort.
Decentralisation is a goal of the Draft Strategy, but in order to make it

effective, training in management and leadership skills should be given to those
with new responsibilities and relationships. For example, the local government
will now be working more closely with the Education Directorate which works
directly with school principals. Each needs to clearly understand their roles in
the system. The inspectorate will report to the Ministry; again the roles need
clear definition and elimination of overlapping duties. People in leadership roles
of any kind need training, especially coming out of an extremely authoritarian
society.
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Involve teachers successfully in co-operation at the local level and
contribute to professional development. An increase of salary should be
provided that would require teachers to spend additional time each week in the
school (two afternoons) for planning work, team preparation, advisory
discussions with colleagues, parents and pupils, for in-service training, and for
curriculum development adapted to the local needs of the school.
Establish “quality circles” for internal feedback on the performance of

local administration and of instruction, to benefit curriculum development and
better quality. (Teachers quality is also stressed in the Draft Strategy paper). In
these circles all relevant actors at all levels of the educational system should be
involved. This could also contribute to normalising the educational system and
to raising internal efficiency.
There is little communication between the Institute for Pedagogical

Research (IPR) and the universities which prepare teachers. Better
communication needs to be established between the two. The universities also
need to work with the MoES to co-ordinate training for an effective preparation
for the labour market.
Based on work in the pilot schools, curriculum reform in vocational

training should lead to national standards that are worked out in close co-
operation with all partners involved. In order to implement these ideas,
autonomy and responsibility in all schools (not only vocational ones) need to be
increased.
A part of teachers’ in-service training should be shifted to local centres

and offered to single schools. To be able to focus more on local needs, there
should be more flexibility in realising in-service training. (See also
recommendation on teacher salary and presence in school.).
The IPR has been given the responsibility for curriculum development as
well as other duties such as teacher training, writing the Draft Strategy, and
textbooks. It needs more technical support as well as contact with similar
organisations in other countries, to determine exactly what role it should play.
They need more direction and monetary support from the government in order
to speed the pace of curricular reform. Improved communication between the
universities and the Institute, with clear definition of responsibilities of each, is
necessary to avoid overlapping, particularly in teacher training – which is an
essential part of curricular reform. The system today is focused on inputs rather
than outputs; the majority of teachers must teach the text page by page rather
than the subject as a whole. Curricular reform would establish accountability at
each level, but freedom of choice in methods and materials are also needed.
93
Internet servers should be established outside Tirana. To permit, students
and teachers learn the latest advances in any field; at present, students are
obliged to use Internet cafés rather than school computers. Communication
advances are important in modern education. Both teachers and students need
computer skills.
Assessment of Learning Outcomes
In response to educational concerns about the influence of external exams

on the curriculum, assessment and curriculum specialists in various subjects
should work together in Subject Working Groups to ensure that all important
content and skills/competencies set out in curriculum objectives are also
covered in explicit assessment objectives. These assessment objectives should
be contained in subject specific syllabuses which are, in effect, “contracts”
whereby the examining body says clearly what the student will be expected to
know, understand, and be able to do in that subject, so that teachers in turn
know clearly which content and competencies they should work on with their
pupils. As long as the assessment objectives include the important objectives of
the curriculum, teaching and learning will in fact be better-focused and less
dependent on a particular teacher’s preferences.
Political and public reaction to change is more difficult to overcome,

certainly at first. Pass rates of the present Maturita examination are high, and
there are re-sit opportunities for failing students. If external exams are to be
more rigorous, and if classroom teachers have less control over the giving of
marks and grades to their own students, it is likely that failure rates will rise.
Two actions can be taken in response. One is to make sure that everyone knows
what to expect (through a positive, open information campaign); and another is
to ensure that failing students are offered chances for remediation and re-
examination.
The second Government of Albania/World Bank Project has a substantial

assessment and examinations component with a great deal of foreign technical
assistance built in. It will be essential to use this assistance intensively to build
capacity at the Centre for Evaluation, Assessment and Examinations (CEAE),
but also to introduce an evaluation culture44 into the Education Directorates,
44
“Evaluation” differs from “inspection” in that it seeks to look at system,
school and learner outcomes in relation to national standards. “Inspection”
usually looks at inputs (buildings, materials, textbooks, number of teachers)
and processes (class sizes, time-tables, teaching methods, student
attendance). Albania has a system of inspection (delivered through the EDs.
There are also “formators” in each district who serve as subject advisers and
94
(EDs) the schools and the classrooms so that, along with decentralisation, the
accountability for delivering high-quality education can be backed up with
reliable evidence of student learning.
It is of the utmost importance that Albania continues to participate in

international studies of learning achievement. Albania did not take part in the
1999 grade 8 international study of achievement in mathematics and science
(TIMSS-R), although efforts were made to train key staff and find the necessary
funding. However, Albania will, in 2002, complete participation in OECD’s
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). PISA measures how
well young adults at age 15 – therefore near the end of compulsory schooling –
are prepared to meet the challenges of today’s “knowledge society”. The
assessments are focussed on students’ abilities to use their knowledge and skills
to meet real-life challenges, rather than on the extent to which they have
mastered a specific school curriculum. The first PISA 2000 assessments were
carried out in 32 countries; another 13, including Albania, will complete in
2002. The tests relate to reading literacy, mathematical literacy and science
literacy, and will be extremely helpful to policy makers and schools in Albania
by offering a worldwide comparison with student outcomes in other countries.
The PISA surveys will be repeated every 3 years to monitor trends over time,
but Albania’s continued participation and will require funding.
Teachers and Teacher Training
Low status, low salaries, emigration, unqualified teachers, private tutoring,

shortage of teachers, teachers with second or third jobs, teachers on the waiting
list . . . Even the terminology used indicates how difficult the situation is.
However, during the last few years the Government in co-operation with some
NGOs and International Organisations has gradually introduced some changes.
Those in charge of teachers and teacher training are well aware of the
challenges, and are trying hard to find solutions. The following suggestions are
intended to support those efforts.
Hiring and firing. Criteria and minimal requirements should be developed,

to be used in the hiring, transfer and dismissal of professional staff. To this end,
a national working team might be formed, and expertise can be obtained from
an international organisation or an NGO.
in-service trainers. What is needed is an evaluation function to complement

the present inspection/formator approach.
95
Staffing of education positions should be professionalised and de-
politicised by developing and publishing hiring criteria based on skills and
knowledge. Dismissals should be based on clear evidence of incompetence or
wrongdoing.
Supply of qualified teachers. The number of qualified teachers should be

increased, and efforts should be made to keep qualified teachers in the
profession. Mandatory work assignments of qualified teachers to rural schools
ended with transition: as a result, rural areas have a much smaller percentage of
teachers with higher education than urban areas. As an incentive to work in
rural areas, qualified teachers can earn a bonus of up to 25%. Other incentives
could be considered as well.
Good-quality pre-service training of teachers is always cost-effective, and

a better way to ensure a qualified teacher cadre than to try and “pick up the
pieces” later through in-service training. Close school-university co-operation
should help by exchanging information, experience and even staff. The
Government might also encourage co-operation with international institutions
and with partner countries. Training of trainers should also be considered,
through project activities within Europe.
To attract bright promising young high school graduates to teacher

training departments in universities, scholarship grants are already available for
students of mathematics and physics at Tirana University. This scheme should
be expanded; in addition, incentives (such as job guarantees) should be
established for young qualified teachers to work in rural areas or places where
the needs are great.
Continuous in-service training. Emigration, internal teacher migration, and

teachers leaving the profession because of low pay and poor conditions, have
created a system where there is an over-supply of teachers in some areas, and a
lack of teachers in others. In particular the rural and more difficult areas of
Albania are poorly provided.
Training for unqualified teachers should be given due importance. Basic

training course programmes should be developed by the IPR or a university
department, to be offered to unqualified teachers in rural areas, preferably in
summer. Classroom management, use of active teaching/learning approaches,
and related techniques, community relations, and subject teaching methodology
could be included. A flexible, perhaps modular programme would be best,
based on the needs of the teachers.
96
At present there is no reliable system of in service training. The education
sector has to establish mechanisms that can be used to help teachers integrate
the new curricula, teaching materials, and teaching methodologies into their
classroom practice. Most of all, provision of in-service training should be
demand-driven – i.e., based on the real needs of teachers – rather than supply-
driven, which means that teachers are merely given a chance to choose from
whatever courses or seminars might be on offer. A great deal of time and money
is wasted on in-service training that is not related to what teachers themselves
say they need. School based in-service, whereby the whole school (including
the director) participates in a training programme carried out in the school itself,
has proved effective in other countries and should be far more widely used in
Albania.
School Boards. School directors should have increased powers of decision

making and financial authority. School Boards made up of parents, teachers, ED
representatives and where appropriate one or two senior students, could work
with the director on the development of school policy and the use of resources,
in particular where schools are given greater autonomy and directors have
greater powers over the way their schools are run and financed.
Early Childhood Development and Care
Set priorities. When making recommendations for the education system in

Albania, it is important to remember a comment made by a member of
Parliament interviewed by the OECD review team: “There is a big gap between
the Albanian reality and Western thinking”. His list of priorities for changing
Albanian society was as follows:
Reinstate public order,
Fight corruption and organised crime,
Improve education; and
Reduce poverty.
Meet basic needs. The schools desperately need funds to make basic
improvements, as there is an almost complete lack of the most essential
ingredients for educational quality. Most school buildings do not have a
separate dining room or activity room for all the children; few functioning
sanitary units; unsafe and inappropriate school yards or playgrounds; unreliable
heating systems, and few materials for teaching and learning. There is not
97
enough in-door space for the children to play. It was suggested that disused
buildings could be renovated and used for kindergartens.
Co-operation and co-ordination. Extend the joint projects of the MoES

together with UNICEF (Reggio Emilia) and AEDP (Step by Step). Both models
should be evaluated and monitored, and then extended to many more state pre-
schools as well as primary schools. All joint projects should be speeded up, and
others could be developed.
Improve communication and co-operation among various ministries

involved in education. These include the MoES, the Ministry of Finance and the
Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. International NGOs, too, should co-
operate and co-ordinate their work to the utmost. With the small resources
available, it is necessary to co-ordinate much more than in the past. The special
directorate at MoES for donor co-ordination and monitoring should take the
lead in this.
Explore regional initiatives. With shrinking resources, it is necessary to

cross borders and work together. Co-operation with neighbouring countries
within the pre-school area should be developed.
Promote civil society and environmental issues. Pre-school education is

important in many respects. As Albania is a young democracy, civic education
should start in pre-schools. Albania has little experience of civil society and it is
important to build up relationships with national NGOs that can work with
children (from pre-school onwards) on the principles of democracy. The same
applies to environmental education, which is an area that will be even more
important in the future for sustainable development.
Address the critical shortage of textbooks, children’s books and other

teaching materials. The great lack of teaching materials, text books and
children’s books must be changed. Again it might be necessary to appeal to
foreign donors in the short term, but the target must be to produce these
pedagogical tools within the country. The state publishing house has not
produced new books for pre-schools in 10 years, and it will presumably take
some time before they can develop new books based on the new curriculum. In
the meantime alternative approaches should be explored.45
45
An example is the 5 000 children’s books given by the Swedish NGO
“Kvinna till Kvinna” (Woman to Woman) (very active in SEE countries
since the Bosnia-Herzegovina war). A Swedish publishing house, together
with the author and the translator (Swedish into Albanian), have all
98
Vocational Education
Formulate an integrated approach to reform the VET sector. This

approach should firstly focus on a close synergy between reform in labour
market, VET system and the general socio-economic context; and secondly
integrate VET reform into a lifelong learning system.
Consider a substantial institution building programme with a view to

bringing them into line with international approaches in key policy areas, such
as counselling and guidance, (re)training for employed/unemployed.
Develop a second chance VET programme to integrate children who do not

participate in education and training at the secondary level and who leave
school prematurely, as the percentage of children in VET education is very low.
Increase accountability of principals and teachers for the learning of their

students and reinforce their competencies. Provide training in school
management, budgeting, efficient use of resources etc. and envisage a greater
role for them in hiring teachers, organising in-service-training etc.
Evaluate the impact of decentralisation on the current system and

formulate reform proposals which address issues regarding the balance of
responsibilities between the different actors. This evaluation should be carried
out with full participation of the different stakeholders in the system.
Assure (MoES) quality of input and output by setting standards, developing

policies and assessing outcomes. Performance standards must be designed and a
systematic and reliable information system to assess how students are
performing should be in place.
Improve accreditation of teacher programmes, adequate knowledge and

skill criteria for selecting teachers, principals and inspectors, and develop the
monitoring of the functioning of the system, including dissemination of the
results of the monitoring activity.
Enhance the links between curriculum reform and the labour market.
Current progress in VET curricula and qualification reform should be more
focused on bringing them into line with prospective labour market needs. To
achieve this, structured consultation in the field of curriculum reform with key
contributed their work for free. The Swedish airforce has flown the books to
Albanian pre-schools in Kosovo. Maybe similar donations could be obtained
for Albanian pre-schools, from Swedish and other European NGOs.
99
stakeholders, including social and economic actors should be introduced as an
integral part in the curriculum and qualification review and development
process at State, local and school levels.
Review the teacher training system, including both assessment of teacher

training institutions and skills and qualifications audit of the personnel in the
schools. Set up a State level regulatory body to define common standards for
teacher and school manager training with a special focus on modern formative
learning methodologies.
Provide in-service training to teachers and principals who are involved in

the implementation of new curricula. To achieve this, an intensive programme
of focused actions (seminars, conferences, coaching) to upgrade current
standards would probably be required.
Higher Education
Strengthen university autonomy and the new institution (according to the

1999 law), the Conference of Rectors, which is supposed to co-ordinate
relations between the Ministry, universities and other institutions.
Decentralise the structure, especially concerning financial issues and

improve the relationship between the Ministry, universities and faculties. A
framework budgeting procedure is needed to make it possible for the MoF to
decentralise planning and decision making to the line ministries.
Introduce a capacity building programme for senior university

administrators and staff in the area of management and financing. This
programme should be provided by the State but supported by international
donors and experts. This should be linked to increasing funding of higher
education and improving quality of teaching, research and service.
Reinforced involvement of national academic capacity into the

development of the country which should rely more on the scientific knowledge
and practical skills and experiences of university professors and assistants. To
increase skills, competencies and experience of the university staff they should
be routinely considered and employed on governmental and donor projects of
all types.
Improve management and quality assurance at all levels; strengthen the

role of the National Accreditation Agency. The governing bodies should assign
priority to the introduction of internationally comparable measures of quality,
efficiency and accountability at all levels of education.
100
Renew curricula according to the Bologna Process.
Support research at universities, the setting up of a scientific research

network within Albania and other countries of the region and with international
universities and institutions.
Develop a post-university qualification system as well as instruments for

in-service learning and further qualification.
Establish vocationally oriented non-university higher education

institutions to meet the growing needs of the changing economy and labour
market.
101
102
REFERENCES
Berryman, Sue, (2000) ‘Albania’s Education Sector: Problems and Promise.’

Washington, D.C. The World Bank. Discussion Draft.
De Waal, Clarissa (2000) ‘Report on Rural Education in Albania and Suggested

Reforms to Increase its Effectiveness.’ Tirana: AEDP (OSI). Draft.
Dudwick, Nora and Shahriari, Helen (February 2000) The World Bank.
Education in Albania: Changing Attitudes and Expectations. Washington,
D.C. The World Bank.
Durham, Edith (1985) High Albania. 1909. London: Virago Travellers Series.
Reprinted in 1985 by Virago Press Limited.
Duthilleul, Yael; Hoxha, Artan; Llambiri, Stavri et al. (2000) ‘Albania: Issues
and Challenges in Education Governance’. The World Bank.
Fonseca, Isabel (1996) Bury Me Standing: The Gypsies and Their Journey.
London: Vintage Press.
Francesco, Panzica (2000) Albania: Labour Market and VET Sector

Assessment. European Training Foundation (ETF) Turin.
Hammarberg, Thomas (1997) ‘A School for Children with Rights.’ Florence:

UNICEF International Child Development Centre. Innocenti Lecture
series, 1997.
Kaser, Karl (2002) Governance and Management of Higher Education in

Southeast Europe. Visit to Albania and FYROM.Unpublished paper.
University of Graz, Austria.
Kisi, Pavli, ed. (2000) ‘Statistical data for background purposes of OECD
Review. Albania.’ Centre for Educational Policy Studies (CEPS),
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia.
103
Klugman, Jeni (1997) ‘Decentralization: A Survey from a Child Welfare
Perspective.’ Florence: UNICEF International Child Development
Centre, Economic and Social Policy Series No. 61. Florence.
Institute for Pedagogical Research (IPR) and UNICEF (1996), Tirana Education
in Albania: A National Dossier. Tirana:
Ministry of Education and Science (1998) and The World Bank (Mircea Enache
and EMI Systems Inc.) Education 1 Project: School Mapping Fact
Finding Mission Report. Tirana:
Musai, Bardhyl (2000) ‘Reforming Teacher Education in Albania: Innovations

in Partnership and Mentoring.’ Tirana: AEDP (OSI). Draft.
Palomba, Geremia and Vodopivec, Milan (March 2000) The World Bank.
‘Financing, Efficiency, and Equity in Albanian Education.’ Washington,
D.C.: The World Bank.
Pettifer, James (1994) ‘The Rise and Fall of Albanian Communism.’ London: A
& C Black, 1994.
Ringold, Dena (2000) The World Bank.’Education and the Roma in Central and
Eastern Europe: Trends and Challenges.’ Unpublished draft. Washington
D.C.: The World Bank. Paper presented at the European Regional
Education for All Conference, Warsaw, Poland.
Stability Pact Working Table 1 (October 2000) ‘Albania: Status/Progress

Report. Tirana: National Working Table 1 (Democracy and Human
Rights). ‘Unpublished paper for Bucharest meeting
Terzis, Nikos P., ed. (2000) ‘Educational Systems of Balkan Countries: Issues
and Trends.’ Balkan Society for Pedagogy and Education. Athens:
Kyriakidis Brothers Publishing House.
UNICEF (1997) International Child Development Centre. Children At Risk In

Central and Eastern Europe: Perils and Promises. The MONEE Project,
Regional Monitoring Report No. 4. Florence.
UNICEF (1998) International Child Development Centre. Education for All.

The MONEE Project, Regional Monitoring Report No. 5. Florence.
104
BOSNIA HERZEGOVINA
The Thematic Review of Education Policy of Bosnia Herzegovina

describes the current status of the education system and reform efforts
underway. The country is introduced by general and demographic data;
language, the geographic and historical context; the political, economic
and the labour market situation; it also describes the structure and the legal
framework. The whole education system is covered, from general
education to vocational education, from higher education to lifelong
learning, but focusing on early childhood and care, teachers and teacher
training, curriculum and governance and administration. Equity in access,
attainment and achievement are central issues, and special consideration is
given to ethnic and minority questions and education for children with
special needs. Attention is paid to decentralisation and financing of
education; to quality, assessment and evaluation in education; to pre-
service and in-service teacher training; working conditions and teacher
salaries, the role of school inspectors; textbook provision and material and
resources in general. The report describes issues and barriers at all levels of
the education system and gives recommendations for policy makers,
practitioners and donors.
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
General Data
Area: 51 129 sq. km. (slightly smaller than West
Virginia, USA). Within BiH’s recognised
borders, the country is divided into two
administrative divisions – a joint
Bosniak/Croat Federation (about 51% of the
territory) and Republika Srpska or RS (about
49% of the territory). The region called
Herzegovina is contiguous to Croatia and
has an ethnic Croat majority. Brcko in north-
eastern Bosnia is a self-governing
administrative unit under BiH sovereignty; it
is not part of either the Federation or RS.
Number of inhabitants: 3 835 777 (2000 estimate).46 Population
growth: 3.1%. Age structure: approx. 33%
under 23 years old, 9% over 65; birth-rate
12.92 per 1 000; infant mortality rate 25.17
per 1 000 live births.
Population density: 75 per sq. km. Urban/rural distribution (pre-
war): 49% urban/51% rural.
Ethnic composition: Serb 31%, Bosniak47 44%, Croat 17%,
Yugoslav 5.5%; other 2.5%. Religions:
Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman
Catholic 15%, Protestant 4%; Other or none
10%.
Languages: Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian.
46
All population data are unreliable because of dislocations caused by military
action and ethnic cleansing.
47
‘Bosniak’ has replaced Muslim as an ethnic term, to avoid confusion with the
religious term Muslim (= adherent of Islam).
107
GDP (pre-war): USD 3 500.
GDP (post-war): USD 800; up to USD 1 054 by 1998. Donor
aid represents 30% of GDP.
Inflation: 5% in 1999; 3% in 2000 (est.).
Official unemployment: 19% (EU avg. = 10%). Unofficial estimates
are 40% with peaks of 70% in rural areas.
Only 2% of registered unemployed benefit
from training and employment services.
Approx. 25% of the workforce are employed
in the public sector (IMF, 2000)48.
The background literature on Bosnia’s recent history is prolific, and

therefore no detailed discussion on the origins of or political issues around the
conflict is necessary except as they affected, and still affect, BiH’s education
system. A brief overview of the historical background will therefore suffice.
The first Yugoslav state was created after World War I on the ruins of the
Ottoman and Habsburg empires. It was called ‘the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats
and Slovenes’, and only later (1929) re-christened ‘Yugoslavia’. The young
monarchy was ruled by a Serbian dynasty, which quickly appropriated near-
absolute power. In 1941, the Axis invaded and partitioned Yugoslavia.
Communist Yugoslavia was declared in December 1943 at Jajce in central
Bosnia, and re-born in 1945 when Moscow installed Communist governments
in Berlin, Warsaw, Prague and Budapest. The Yugoslavs, however,
substantially liberated themselves from Germany with Tito’s partisan forces,
and only minimal help from Stalin. Tito’s wish was to create a post-war
Communist Yugoslavia where each nationality would have full national rights,
but be kept together by an omnipresent Communist Party and strong police
apparatus. Although Tito remained loyal to the Communist cause, he was seen
by Moscow as dangerously independent, and Yugoslavia was expelled from the
common institutions of the Eastern Bloc in 1948. In his battle to keep the
Republic on a stable footing, Tito repressed dissent and carried out purges on
Serbs, Croats and Muslims alike, but also introduced economic reforms and
48
In the Federation (FbiH) (1999) 341 000 persons were employed with another
66 000 ‘waiting’, which means a total of 407 000 formally, if not actually,
employed. Of these, 127 000 (31%) were employed in the ‘non-material’ sector,
including government, health, education and social services. Source: CEPS.
108
encouraged trade, tourism and contacts with the West culminating in
Yugoslavia becoming an associate Member of the OECD in 1961. By 1974,
when Tito drew up the Constitution, the country was decentralised to an
unprecedented extent, although Tito kept a firm hold on power. It was still a
one-party state under one-man control. National rivalries were kept in check by
the promise of a collective presidency for the post-Tito era, and a rotation of top
political posts among the six republics and two provinces. When Tito died in
May 1980, all of Yugoslavia’s nations mourned – but in truth the unity of
Yugoslavia was buried with him. Nationalism, especially on the Serb side,
began to dominate, and by 1991, Tito’s Constitution was essentially dead and
the break-up of Yugoslavia was unstoppable.
As Communism declined in the late 1980s, Yugoslavia was, on the face of

it, well placed to make a transition to multiparty democracy, either as a single
state or a group of successor states. But the stirring of Serbian nationalism and
the rise of Slobodan Milosevic (from 1986), the ‘Slovene Spring’ of 1988, and
confrontations in Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro, destroyed all semblance
of unity and soon led to the declaration (on the same day – 25 June 1991) of
Croatia’s and Slovenia’s independence. Then followed the descent into the
‘undeclared and dirty war’ between the Yugoslav Army (JNA) and the Croatian
National Guard, August – December 1991, which included the siege and fall of
Vukovar and the Serb advance into eastern Slavonia. From there, ‘The march to
war in Bosnia-Herzegovina was a terrible doomed procession.’49 In January
1992, the Bosnian Serb politicians declared their own ‘Serbian Republic of
Bosnia-Herzegovina’, proclaiming it part of the Yugoslav Federation. Two
separate referenda, one in Serb areas and one in Bosniak/Croat areas, supported
their conflicting views: ‘Serbs wanted to stay in Yugoslavia; Croats and
Muslims wanted to leave. It was clear then that Bosnia could not survive’.50
Bosnia’s independence was declared on 6 April 1992, and on 8 April the war
began.51 Sarajevo, a cosmopolitan city, was under siege for three years. Finally,
after terrible ravages, suffering and displacement of the civilian population
throughout the country, the war was ended by the signing of the Dayton
Agreements on 14 December 1995.
49
Laura Silber and Allan Little, The Death of Yugoslavia. London: Penguin
Books, 1995, pp. 226 et seq.
50
Ibid., p. 243.
51
UNHCR reported at the end of April 1992 that 268 000 people had fled Bosnia,
most of them to Croatia. By the beginning of June, this figure had risen to 750
000, and to 1.1 million by late July 1992. By the end of 1992, almost 2 million
people – half the population of Bosnia – had lost their homes. Source: UNHCR,
Geneva.
109
Dayton declared Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) an independent State,
consisting of two Entities – the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH),
and the Republika Srpska (RS). The fact that the Federation gained Entity
status, along with RS, disappointed the political aspirations of the Bosnian-
Croat leadership, who believe that the Croat position is being marginalised. This
accounts, to a large extent, for the continuation of parallel Croat administrative
arrangements, with little allegiance either to the Federal Entity or to the State.52
With regard to education, the FBiH has a Federal Ministry of Education

(FMoE); authority is then further devolved to the 10 constituent cantons, which
were set up earlier under the 1994 Washington Agreement. Some, but not all, of
these 10 cantons allow further devolution of education authority to the
municipal level, particularly if there are disputes over access by a national
group to education in its own language. There are no parallel sub-units of
government in the RS, where educational authority is exercised by a single,
central Ministry of Education.53
The system is organised as follows:
Age at which compulsory

7
education starts:
Age at which compulsory 15
education ends:
Structure of general Primary 4 years + Lower Secondary 4
educational system: years + Upper Secondary 4 years.
First 8 years are compulsory.
52
Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Governance, Finance and Administration,
Council of Europe. Strasbourg: 1999, p. 9.
53
The SFRY education system recognised three official languages and nine
‘nationality’ languages, but the communities in BiH mainly speak regional
variations of only one of these three official languages – Serbo-Croat. These
three regional variations are now considered ‘national’ languages; the politics of
language have become ‘a vehicle for promoting national separation. In
education, this separation manifests itself both in the context of ‘national
subjects’ (e.g. history, social studies, literature) and in the struggle for political
control over what are effectively three separate but parallel education systems.
See Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Governance, Finance and
Administration, op. cit., pp. 3 et seq.
110
Structure of upper The range of secondary schools includes
secondary education: the classical gymnasium (which was
abolished as part of the 1980 “Stipe Suvar”
reforms of secondary education, but re-
established later), two teacher-training
schools, religious schools, arts schools
(including music, applied arts and ballet),
technical schools covering approximately
20 technical fields, as well as three-year
vocational schools which specialise in a
broad range of particular trades and
occupations.
Examinations/transition End of grade 4: cohort approx. 48 000; end
points: of grade 8: approx. 40 000; End of grade
12: (gymnasium: approx. 9 000; technical:
approx. 20 000; vocational: approx. 7 000
in Fed.; not known for RS) (1998,
estimated).
Levels of education Four. (1) State (BiH); (2) Entity (RS and
governance: Federation); (3) canton (in the Federation
only); (4) municipality. RS is more
centralised than the Federation, which has
10 cantons each with its own Ministry of
Education.
Special features: There are 12 Ministries of Education in
BiH: the RS; the Federal Ministry (FMoE,
see below); and 10 cantonal Ministries.
The education system of BiH is fragmented
along ethnic lines, although efforts are now
being made towards agreed standards that
would apply throughout BiH and would
serve as a basis for comparable assessment
of student achievement. Ministers have
also signed an agreement to implement a
core curriculum (70% of content) with 30%
local content, but this has not yet (2001)
been implemented.
Other issues
Fragmentation, paralysis, and uncertainty about the future:
111
x Dependency on donor funding, which stifles civic initiatives;
x Serious disruption of education for many children and young people;
x Low teacher salaries, and lack of trained school administrators;
x Non-attendance and drop-out. In compulsory schools, the drop-out

rate is high (20.3%), and higher still in post-compulsory (25.9%);
x Lack of adult education, despite high levels of unemployment; lack of

co-ordination between education ministries and employment services.
x Statistical data.
112
1
Table 1. Schools by type and population [1999-2000]
School type
No. of Pupil: Teacher Avg. no. students

No. of schools No. of students
teachers ratio2 per school
All types FBH RS FBH RS FBH RS FBH RS FBH RS
Pre-primary schools
100 43 9 357 5 987 584 772 16 8 94 139
13
Primary schools 1-83 385 196 275 990 12 209 7 059 21 17 717 623
461
Lower secondary 5-8 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
4
Upper secondary: Gymnasia and sim.
212 n.a. 71 582 54 232 6 524 3 400 11 16 338 589
114 n.a. 40 328 1 853 22 354

Vocational5- 3 year
Total 92
5U+7 2U+4
Higher education institutions, 6 incl.
(62 (32 43 839 13 883 3 248 1 250 13 11 697 434
universities, post-secondary, and
institutions) institutions)
pedagogic academies
Source: CEPS, Ljubljana, 2001.

1. Education data for BiH are unreliable, because methods of collection vary and because of population shifts due to returning refugees and,
to a lesser extent, internal movements of people.
2. Teacher/pupil ratios in pre-primary in F-BH vs. RS is 2:1. There is no sensible explanation for this except perhaps that it is a result of
migrations (flow of population from RS to other countries). Teacher/student ratio in F-BH general secondary vs. VET is 1:2. This might be
explained because “second-level” VET students are not properly counted. According to Observatory figures, out of 113 000 students in
secondary schools, 93 000 are in VET secondary.
3. Division primary 1-4 vs. lower sec. 5-8 not available; only the total for grades 1-8. Upper Secondary: No division general vs. VET available
for the RS. Only the total is given.
113
4. Federation: Division is made between “gymnasia and similar” (teacher school, art school, religion school, technical & related) – 4 year
programmes and “vocational” – 3 years.
5. Number of schools: There are only a few “pure” schools that offer only general or only VET programmes. Mostly, schools offer both.
Similarly in primary education: there are central and “branch” schools; here the figure for central schools is used, because “branches” are –
from an administrative point of view – part of them with the same principal etc.
6. Higher Education: 5U+7 means 5 universities + 7 colleges of professional HE. According to local traditions it is better to calculate ratios and
average number of students by number of “schools” (= faculties, academies, colleges) and not by number of universities + colleges.
Number of institutions is noted as 62.
114
Legal Framework and Policy Objectives
In spite of the fragmented nature of education in BiH, the overall legal

framework still strongly reflects its common ancien régime heritage. There are,
however, variations in practice, especially in the mixed cantons and in the
relatively isolated eastern parts of RS.
In the Federation, canton ministries must invite public debate on proposed

laws, and must respond to public comments or justify their reasons for not
doing so. The Federation Constitution allows cantons to confer responsibilities
‘upward’ to the Federation or ‘downward’ to municipalities, but except in the
Croat majority cantons, there is little conferral of this kind. The Croat
authorities, however, consider that in the mixed cantons all responsibility is
devolved to municipal level. Because there is no adopted legislation, this has
never been formalised.
There is only very limited co-ordination at any level of education between

the Entities or among Federation cantons. Regular meetings of Entity education
ministers do take place, chaired by the Office of the High Representative and
attended by international representatives. However, the Bosnian Croat
authorities usually decline invitations to take part, and prefer to meet regularly
among themselves.
It has been suggested54 that legislative work could be improved by

providing expert support to the standing legislative committees that are
available to all assemblies in BiH. In the area of education law, drafts could be
created by these standing committees with the help of international expertise,
which is often freely available from professional associations or universities in
other countries.
Federation
Under Dayton, each of the 10 cantons has the authority to develop its own
legislation and regulations. While there are differences, these laws and
regulations are, by and large, similar.
In summary, of the five Bosniak-majority cantons, four have adopted laws

on pre-primary, primary and secondary education, the exception being Bosna
Drina-Gorazde canton which (1999-2000) had primary and secondary education
laws only. Laws on higher education are problematic, especially in Sarajevo and
Tuzla; only Una-Sana has a law on higher education (1999).
54
Ibid., p. 23.
115
The three Croat majority cantons (known collectively as Herzeg-Bosna)
have all adopted laws on pre-primary, primary and secondary education. There
are also regulations covering the University of Mostar.
The two ‘mixed’ cantons [Central Bosnia Canton and Herzegovina-

Neretva (Mostar) Canton] are openly partitioned, including administrations,
ministries and agencies. There is no canton-level education legislation, as the
canton legislatures are not functioning effectively. Meanwhile, the most
important education and related pre-constitutional laws are:
x the Law on Institutions (Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina Official

Gazette no. 6/92, 8/93, and 13/94);
x the Laws on pre-primary, primary and secondary education (Republic

of Bosnia and Herzegovina Official Gazette no. 39/90);
x the Law on tKH8QLYHUVLW\RI'åHPDO%LMHGLF
However, the pre-constitutional law in force has little bearing on actual

practice in mixed cantons. The Croat-majority education institutions and
parallel government administrations follow laws promulgated during the war by
the former State of Herzeg-Bosna, which was disbanded in 1996. These laws
include regulations on pre-primary, primary and secondary education, as well as
on higher education (Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosna Official Gazette no.
2/93). Since the Croat State of Herzeg-Bosna was never formally recognised, its
legislative acts are considered void. Education regulation in the “mixed”
cantons is, therefore, generally in want of a legal basis on both the Bosniak-
majority and Croat-majority sides.55
Republika Srpska
Here, the legal competence for education is centralised at the Entity

Ministry of Education, and all areas of RS are served by a single pedagogical
institute in Banja Luka. There are two universities – the University of Banja
Luka and the University of Sarajevo-Srpska (comprising most of the Serb
faculty members of the pre-war University of Sarajevo).
Education laws in RS include:
x The Law on Primary Education (RS Official Gazette No. 4/93);
55
Ibid., pp. 12 et seq.
116
x The Law on Secondary Education (RS Official Gazette No. 4/93);
x The Provisions on Higher Education (RS Official Gazette No. 13/94).
Vocational education
In vocational education and training (VET), strategic development is set

out in two main documents. At State level, a Green Paper produced through EC-
Phare VET was endorsed by both Federal and RS ministries in Spring 2000 and
is due to become a White Paper in 2001. In RS, there is also a VET paper
‘Strategy and Conception of Changes in the System of Education in RS’,
adopted by the Entity Government in 1999. The FBiH has no specific VET
strategy paper.
Administration and Systemic Reform
The decentralising logic of Dayton has made education a hostage to latent

nationalism in BiH. Politically, education is seen largely as a vehicle for
creating three separate national histories, languages and cultures, rather than as
a way to develop a common State identity. Although there are few substantial
differences in policy or practice across the Entities or cantons, the politics of
separation make co-ordination difficult. A second constraint is the lack of
clarity in the relative powers of the four levels of governance, particularly in the
FBiH.
Ironically, decentralisation has not led to greater empowerment of schools

and teachers. It is also premature to speak of ‘systematic reform’ as there is, at
present, not a clear ‘system’ in BiH.
There are at least 12 Ministries of Education in BiH: the RS; the Federal
Ministry (FMoE, see below); and 10 cantonal Ministries, in some of which (the
‘mixed’ cantons) there are essentially two parallel administrations. In education,
primary schools are under municipal control; secondary schools are under
cantonal and municipal control; and universities are under Federal and RS
control. Primary and secondary schools have local school boards.
Pedagogical institutes exist in the RS and in Bosniak-majority cantons,

with the exception of Una-Sana Canton where these functions are carried out by
the ministry. Central Bosnia Canton (‘mixed’) has no pedagogical institute. The
Croat-majority cantons – and the Croat education administrations in the mixed
cantons – maintain a single ‘Institute of Education’ which services to the Croat
canton ministries or the respective parallel branch of the mixed cantons. These
institutes are generally responsible for curriculum, data collection from schools,
117
school evaluation, teacher recruitment and evaluation, in-service teacher
training, and school development. However, they are under-staffed and more
accustomed to exercising ‘control’ over teachers and schools than to providing
advice and support.
As of September 2000, the Ministers of Education in BiH have signed an

agreement accepting a ‘70%-30%’ allocation of the curriculum. The 70% ‘core
curriculum’ will be taken by all students; the remaining 30% will be chosen
from compulsory subjects but the content may differ. The policy goal is to unify
the system by agreeing on a ‘single core curriculum’ which is ethnically neutral.
This agreement has been signed but cannot yet be implemented until new
textbooks have been produced that emphasise ‘tolerance, mutual recognition
and more sensitivity’.
Meanwhile, the content of education differs along ethnic lines, as

described below. Styles of teaching and learning are traditional and fact-based.
In RS, ‘defence’ as a subject is still taught in schools, but will be replaced in
2001 by the CIVITAS programme.
There are some experimental schools, mostly supported by NGOs. For

example, the ‘Step-by-Step’ programme – which encourages interactive
learning and parental involvement – is used both in the Federation and in RS,
but in only half a dozen schools.
Role of Federation Ministry of Education, Culture, Science and Sports

(FMoE)
Dayton excluded the FMoE from an active and explicit role in education,
by legally transferring nearly all authority for education to cantons and by the
decision to finance education through canton-level tax revenue. The FMoE does
have implied authority (under Dayton) to execute canton education
responsibilities where canton authority has not been implemented. However, in
practice, FMoE attempts only to perform a co-ordination role, and has influence
only in Bosniak-majority areas. Explicit canton mandates to delegate significant
responsibility to the FMoE have not been forthcoming from Croat or Bosniak-
majority areas. The FMoE has attempted to retain a role by referring back to the
Constitution, which states that the Federation’s mandate emanates from its role
of safeguarding human rights, but without financial leverage or administrative
authority this is only symbolic.
Attempts by the FMoE to co-ordinate by bringing the cantons together to

discuss policy reform or develop common programmes and textbooks, have
been unsuccessful outside the Bosniak-majority cantons. As mentioned above,
118
the Croat Ministers of Education prefer to hold their own parallel meetings. The
most obvious reason for the FMoE’s weak co-ordinating role is the built-in
dysfunctionality related to the ‘parallel’ structure of the institution itself. The
Croat political authorities take the view that the FMoE does not represent their
interests in education, and until this view changes, the FMoE’s capacity to play
a positive role will be severely limited.
Administration in the cantons of the Federation
The 10 cantons fall into three groups: the 5 Bosniak-majority cantons

where a “Bosniak curriculum” is used, the 3 Croat-majority cantons where a
“Croat curriculum” is used, and the 2 “mixed” cantons which are effectively
divided between the two groups. (Of course, all cantons in the Federation of
BiH are mixed to some extent; and in particular all 5 Bosniak-majority cantons
include Croat-majority municipalities in which the Croat curriculum is used.)
Where there is no constituent group of sufficient size to justify its own school,
children are free to attend classes in the dominant curriculum of the local
community, which is a common occurrence throughout BiH, including RS.
The 5 Bosniak-majority cantons – Una-Sana, Tuzla-Podrinje, Zenica-

Doboj, Bosna Drina-Gorazde and Sarajevo – generally implement a federally
developed ‘common core curriculum’ for primary and secondary education and
distribute federally approved textbooks, nearly all of which are financed by the
donor community. There are, however, many variations. Una-Sana Canton, for
example, has adopted laws on pre-primary, primary and secondary education, a
law on its university, and on its education inspectorate. Una-Sana also has
pedagogic standards for pre-primary, primary and secondary education, rules on
teacher examination, and professional development requirements for teachers.
Bosna Drina-Gorazde Canton has adopted laws on primary and secondary

education. This smallest of the 10 cantons (about 30 000 inhabitants) has
recently formed its own pedagogic institute, and maintains an inspector’s office
– a large overhead to support, considering its low revenue base and the lowest
level of spending per student in BiH. It implements federally approved
pedagogic and technical standards for pre-primary and primary education, but
applies its own pedagogic and technical standards for secondary education.
The 3 Croat-majority cantons are Posavina, Western Herzegovina, and

Livno-Tomislav (commonly known together as ‘Herzeg-Bosna’). There are no
non-public or higher education institutions in the Croat majority cantons, nor do
they maintain, as in the Bosniak-majority cantons, separate pedagogic institutes.
For these education support functions and higher education services, the Croat-
majority cantons depend on the Institute for Education in Mostar and the
119
University of Mostar, both located in the “mixed” Neretva Canton. Textbooks
are generally imported from the Republic of Croatia, and curricula are nearly
identical to those in use in Croatia, although reportedly amended somewhat for
local purposes by the Institute for Education. These three cantons have all
adopted laws on pre-primary, primary and secondary education.
The 2 cantons usually characterised as ‘mixed’ are Central Bosnia Canton

and Herzegovina-Neretva (Mostar) Canton. Their canton administrations,
including all ministries and agencies, are openly partitioned with very little if
any co-ordination taking place. Similarly, schools as well as higher education
are segregated by dominant curriculum and cultural orientation. No canton
education legislation exists in either canton, as the canton legislatures have been
paralysed since their creation.
Administration in Republika Srpska
Education administration in RS (as well as within the cantons of the

Federation, see above) operates in a classically centralised structure in which
the central ministry, together with its pedagogical institute, is responsible for
deciding priorities, preparing budgets, controlling standards and teacher
numbers and, through its inspectors and pedagogical advisors, ensuring the
implementation of a centralised curriculum. The curricula and textbooks in use
in RS closely resemble those in use in the Republic of Serbia. However, the RS
Ministry of Education, and its pedagogical institute, are clearly making an effort
to prepare their own curricula, books and learning materials.
Governance and management
In 1999, the Council of Europe and the World Bank carried out an in-depth
joint study of the education governance, finance and administration in BiH (see
References). The present report draws upon this study, in particular its analysis
of the roles of various levels of governance in the complex and highly
politicised ‘parallel’ structures, and the problems arising from lack of trust and
communication among them. Moreover, because the system is so opaque and
fragmented by narrow national interests, it is difficult for parents and other
stakeholders to know whom to hold accountable for issues like access, service
provision, use of resources, and quality of outcomes.
In the RS, with its traditional centralised approach and single pedagogical
institute, questions of accountability and co-ordination are less acute. But in the
Federation, the weak and uncertain role of the Federal Ministry of Education
(FMoE) vis-à-vis the Federation cantons (especially the Croat majority ones),
120
who claim legitimate authority to control both education resources and content,
negates the FMoE’s potential value as a co-ordinating or standard setting body.
Attempts by the FMoE to co-ordinate by bringing the cantons together to

discuss policy reform, or to develop common programmes and textbooks, have
been unsuccessful outside the Bosniak majority cantons.
In response, the FMoE has tried to retain a role by referring back to the
Constitution, which states that the Federation’s mandate emanates from its role
of safeguarding human rights; but without financial leverage or administrative
authority, this power can only be symbolic; moreover, ‘The idea that human
rights could serve as a justification for governmental powers warrants some
caution’.56
With regard to decentralisation, the international evidence57 does not

support the commonly held assumption that it would automatically promote
both efficiency and equity of government activities. Indeed, with respect to
efficiency the notion of ‘allocative efficiency’ is not relevant to child welfare in
countries where equal access to basic social services has not yet been achieved.
The impact of decentralisation on child welfare in BiH clearly demands better
data and more rigorous investigation, but the evidence suggests that
decentralisation is a political – not an educational – agenda and may not
promote equity from a child welfare perspective.
Issues and barriers in governance and management
The problems being confronted are:
x Small administrative units at Entity, canton and municipal levels.

They have insufficient capacity and weak governance structures, and
cannot take advantage of economies of scale.
x Lack of policy leadership and administrative skills in education

ministries. At the same time that 12 post-war ministries of education
were set up in BiH, many experienced professionals and managers left
the country or were no longer involved in public administration.
Moreover, modern educational leadership skills (policy development,
legislative and regulatory work, performance evaluation, resource
56
Ibid., p. 11.
57
Jenni Klugman, ‘Decentralisation: A Survey from a Child Welfare Perspective’,
Innocenti Occasional Paper No. 61. Florence: UNICEF/ICDC, 1997, p. 40.
121
management, transparent and accurate information systems) are
lacking at all levels. Some of these issues are being addressed through
donor-funded pilot projects, but systematic needs assessment and
training programmes are needed.
x No framework for students to study in different administrative units or

transfer from one to the other.
x Lack of legislation; over-legislation. With 11 different legal bases for

secondary education, for example, the legal picture is confusing, and
there are no common standards or quality measures across BiH.
x Unawareness of need to change. On many levels of governance –

notably the cantons, and in the RS the levels below the Minister –
there is no motivation to design or implement educational innovation.
In other former communist countries, changes have been faster, often
stimulated by European Union accession plans; but in BiH this
process has been delayed by the war and stifled by the ‘deep freeze’
status quo imposed by Dayton. Remnants of past bureaucratic
attitudes still block innovation.
x Lack of participation by parents, communities, schools and teachers.

Networks of parents, schools, universities and educational institutions
should be established to share ideas and jointly develop curricula. A
Conference of Rectors, and regular meetings of school-level
stakeholders and directors, should be established at the national level,
with subsidiaries at the Federation, Republic and canton levels.
x Over-politicisation, deadlock of national interests, and ‘top-down’

decision-making. All three constituencies in BiH need to co-operate in
a ‘bottom up’ approach to achieving change. The starting point should
be where all three agree, allowing for considerable flexibility to work
out areas where they disagree.
x Lack of accurate management information. A comprehensive database

(Educational Management Information System or EMIS) is urgently
needed. In terms of staff evaluation, school managers often use
information from Pedagogical Institutes on individual teachers to
evaluate their staff. There are no modern approaches for assessing the
added value of teaching in a particular school, or any systematic link
between teacher evaluation and in-service training needs.
122
x Education not linked to economic recovery. Education must be the
engine of recovery, driving and being driven by economic
development. There is a real need for ministries of education and
ministries of employment to hold regular discussions on common
issues. Education in the main must be directed at serving the
employment market, and people need advice on how this might be
achieved. A jointly developed employment/education plan, at least for
ages 15+, is critical.
Equity in Access, Attainment and Achievement
Equity and ethnicity
The subject of ethnicity raises a fundamental issue in the purpose of

education: education systems should not just be ‘fair’ to minorities – they
should promote a spirit of equality and tolerance among ethnic and cultural
groups. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child reflects this view of the
role of education in spreading the message of tolerance. No country in the SEE
region is ethnically, linguistically or religiously homogeneous; still, the extent
to which ethnicity and language are contentious issues in each country depends
largely on the way minorities were treated in the past. Resentment about
previous oppression and injustice is often strong. The break-up of SFRY into
different countries has meant that some former minorities have become
majorities in the new states, and some are tempted to use their power to rectify
old wrongs. Other minorities of the past are still minorities today, but
decentralisation can mean that they, too, gain control over local decision-
making to the detriment of others.
Of all European countries, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

(SFRY) was the least homogeneous. It was, until the changes in 1989, a multi-
national federation with a three-tier system of national rights. First, the six
officially recognised ‘Nations of Yugoslavia’ – Croats, Macedonians,
Montenegrins, Muslims (an ethnic category recognised as a nation since the
1971 census), Serbs, and Slovenes. Each of these had a national homeland.58
Second, the 10 ethnic ‘Nationalities of Yugoslavia’ which were legally
accorded language and cultural rights: Albanians and Hungarians concentrated
in the Vojvodina and Kosovo; Bulgarians; Czechs; Roma, Italians, Romanians,
Ruthenians, Slovaks and Turks. Third, the ‘Other Nationalities and Ethnic
Groups’ – Greeks, Jews, Vlahs, Austrians, Russians, Ukrainians, Germans,
Poles and ‘Yugoslavs’.
58
With the exception of the Albanians in Kosovo, an important point.
123
Patterns of minority access to education, language rights, political and
religious rights varied – and still vary – greatly, the one constant being the
generally low status of Roma (Gypsy) populations. Yugoslavia had the largest
Roma population in Europe – an estimated 800 000 in 1981. In 1982 the
Belgrade authorities confirmed that Roma had nationality status on an equal
footing with other national minorities, but this was not uniformly applied by the
six republics. (The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, for example, did
not accord Roma the status of an ethnic group as late as 1989.)
Although most Roma are now settled and no longer lead nomadic lives, the
majority continue to live well below the economic average. There is
discrimination in schools, in the workplace, in housing, health care, and in the
street, and only a few hundred Roma have had a university education and
entered the professions. There are incidents where Roma have been barred from
voting in elections or from burying their dead in local cemeteries,59 and violence
against Roma communities is on the rise.
Equity and language of instruction
In RS, Serbian is used as the language of instruction. In the 10 cantons of

the Federation, the language of instruction generally conforms to that of the
majority population: a ‘Bosniak’ curriculum is used in the five Bosniak-
majority cantons, a ‘Croat’ one in the three Croat majority cantons, and both in
the two ‘mixed’ cantons, effectively divided between the two groups. As has
been noted before, all cantons in BiH are to some extent ‘mixed’, and especially
in Bosniak cantons there are often schools where Croat curricula are used.
It is encouraging that wherever a minority group is too small to warrant

instruction in the relevant language, children are free to attend classes in the
dominant curriculum and language of the local majority. Rarely, if ever, is a
child in BiH turned away from any school, as long as that child and his or her
parents accept schooling in the dominant curriculum, with all its nationalistic
and linguistic elements.60
Equity and resources/provision
Tito’s 1974 Constitution devolved policy and financing for social services
(including education) to SFRY’s member republics and provinces. Local
59
Hugh Poulter, The Balkans: Minorities and States in Conflict, p. 90.
60
Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Governance, Finance and Administration,
op. cit., p. 12.
124
resources, however, varied considerably, and provision varied significantly not
only among SFRY’s constituent parts but also within each of them. Resources
for education in the Republic of BiH, for example, were about one-third less
than those in Slovenia, and not on a par with Croatia and Serbia. Within BiH,
per-capita expenditures by school ranged between 5 000 and 15 000 Dinar.
At present, taxes are raised and distributed differently in the two Entities.
In RS, tax collection and service delivery are centralised; municipalities have a
tax-sharing arrangement with the centre. In the Federation, each canton collects
taxes at municipal and local level. The Federation sets the tax rates, and retains
certain types of tax revenue (about 38% of the total collected). Cantons receive
about 54% of taxes raised at Federal level, and municipalities about 8%. No
account is taken of variations in needs and resources across regions or localities.
Geographical variations are therefore considerable – in 1998, for example,
analysis showed that the canton tax-raising capacity ranged from DM 250 per
capita to DM 990; a similar variation was found in per-capita expenditure.
Moreover, the age structure (and therefore the school population) varies from
canton to canton; in those with a university, the pressure to spend on higher
education is also greater.
The section on finance below shows that expenditure per primary and
secondary school students varies by more than two-fold in the Federation, and
three-fold at BiH level including RS. Croat-majority areas consistently spend
more per student than the Federation average. Expenditure on teacher salaries
also varies considerably, although pupil:teacher ratios are similar (20:1 in the
Federation as a whole, and 18:1 in RS). These variations can, however, be
justified by local conditions, and by the tendency to keep as many teachers
employed as possible.
International experience shows, of course, that low per-student expenditure

does not necessarily mean low quality, as long as minimum standards can be
met. Setting state-wide quality standards would therefore benefit equity more
than a narrow focus on per-student spending. A project has been prepared61 to
establish a Quality Fund to help the poorest or most socially deprived areas
reach those minimum standards by selectively distributing extra resources to
them, thereby improving equity of provision. Teacher training and education
support materials would be given priority. A second tool to improve equity is
the gathering and analysis of reliable input, process and outcome data through
the establishment of a BiH-wide Education Management Information System,
61
World Bank Education Development Project, 2000.
125
together with systematic and reliable monitoring of student achievement, see
Assessment, below.
Equity in the VET system
Decentralisation has slowed down progress towards common curricula as

formally agreed by the Federation and RS in May 2000. As administrative units
have differing economic and social conditions, access, range and quality of
VET options for students are not equal. Moreover, due to financial and ethnic
constraints, students cannot study in a different administrative unit from their
own, and qualifications are not always recognised elsewhere. However, the EC-
Phare VET project has led to the endorsement of 6 common curricula, including
both general and VET (2000).
Equity and special needs
Access for special-needs children is still limited. In the past, these children
were often placed in special schools. This did not promote their social or
educational integration, and failed to recognise their right to education leading
to the development of their full potential. The attitude towards special-needs
children is still reflected in the use of the term ‘defectology’ and the
predominantly medical approach of addressing the ‘defect’ rather than the child.
Some positive developments can now be cited, but the divisions and
deprivations of the war have in many cases only served to widen the gap.
Moreover, there are now a considerable number of children who were injured
during the war and are in need of special accommodation in schools.
Indeed, not only refugee and displaced children but all of BiH’s young
population is faced with personal and social trauma that may not be visible even
in classrooms. This may not be appropriately recognised, and in any case
teachers and schools lack he ability to offer care, treatment and help. As a result
some children drop out, stay at home, or look for other types of schooling e.g.
art schools where they are better able to cope with their feelings.
Refugee and displaced children have ‘special needs’, too. They may be
traumatised by their experiences; they are almost certain to lag behind in
learning, because of time missed, the destruction of their homes and schools,
and the loss of their teachers. Their families may be unemployed; and, in the
case of refugee children, they may have language difficulties in their new
schools. Efforts are being made to include these children, but the pressure on
schools is often very great especially in areas with a large influx of returnees or
internally displaced families.
126
While it is not always practical or in the child’s best interest to mainstream
every disabled child in ordinary schools, the response by school authorities
should nevertheless be inclusive rather than exclusive, and flexible rather than
rigid in order to give every child the best life chances.
Equity in early childhood development and care.
Kindergartens and crèches charge for services; the amount depending on

social and financial criteria. The exact criteria for payments can vary from
entity to entity, but a basic monthly fee of 60 DM is charged in RS, and similar
fees in the Federation. In general, children of veterans are subsidised according
to parental disability and those in need, including single mothers. There is a
waiting list for most kindergartens. Access to early childhood services is
concentrated in large municipalities. There are few kindergartens or crèches in
rural areas, and little is known about the need. Mobile kindergartens might be a
solution for children on isolated farms.
Finance Issues
Education expenditure on average represents about 33% of public

spending; however, there are variations of 200-300% among administrative
units in real expenditures. FBiH tends to spend much more than RS. Salaries
account for up to 90% of the budget, with spending on materials (including
textbooks) often as low as 1-2%.
Financial competence has been transferred from the State (BiH) level to
the Entities, and in the Federation to the cantons. However, canton funding is
often insufficient to cover various social services, including education. During
the war, financing of education was provided from Sarajevo and from Mostar.
This resulted in two separate systems with different financial norms; these
inequities are still evident in BiH today (see Table 2).
Funds are allocated to schools on the basis of the number of classes – one
teacher can be employed for every 28 students enrolled. Schools are entitled to
raise their own funds through commercial activities.
There is also a serious imbalance between capital and recurrent

expenditure. In 1998 in Una-Sana, for example, 92% was spent on wages and
salaries and only 2.1% on capital expenditure (0% on new construction); even
in heavy reconstruction areas like Sarajevo, the balance was 74.6% to 10.1%.
International donors have financed nearly all the capital investment in education
since the end of the war, but these contributions are not shown in cantons’ plans
and are clearly not sustainable. School mapping needs to be undertaken to
127
establish the basis for a systematic capital renewal programme, and to show
where new schools need to be constructed in areas with a large population
growth. In RS many schools are in poor physical condition, and capital
investment there is low.
Careful study has been made of education finance issues in BiH (see
references); only the main issues are reflected here. (1) The system does not
address inequalities of needs or resources; (2) there is no common pattern of tax
revenue transfers from State to local government level; (3) expenditure per
primary and secondary student varies significantly across BiH; (4) pupil:
teacher ratios are generous, resulting in a high salary bill and low salaries; (5)
the very low levels of capital investment are not sustainable without serious
damage to the infrastructure.
Curriculum: Intended, Delivered and Achieved
Standards and curriculum
As the designing and implementing of the curriculum is the strict

prerogative of the Federal cantons and the Republica Srpska, it is difficult to
speak about ‘curriculum’ or ‘standards’ in the BiH context – no generalisations
can be made.
However, under the World Bank’s new education project, a ‘Standards and
Assessment Agency’ (SAA) is being created. This Agency will serve all of BiH,
and is governed by a nine-member Board consisting of three Serb, three Croat
and three Bosniak members, with non-voting observers from the European
Commission, the World Bank, and the international assessment community.
The idea behind the creation of the SAA was that while in the present BiH
situation it is neither possible nor politically acceptable to aim for ‘a unified
curriculum’, it is possible, acceptable, and educationally useful to aim for
shared standards, especially in terms of student outcomes.
128
Table 2. Enrolments, budget allocations and unit spend
(Ranking of cantons by index of primary unit spending; column 5)
PRIMARY SECONDARY
Canton PS 1 SS P/S
Canton PS student Unit spend Index SS student Unit spend Index*
budget budget ratio2
number numbers DM000s DM/student numbers DM000s DM/student
Gorazde Drina 5 3 277 1 613 492 100 1 333 777 583 100 0.84
Tuzla Drina 3 68 239 45 056 660 134 25 193 19 600 778 134 0.85
Zenica Doboj 4 53 901 37 535 696 142 18 988 17 632 929 160 0.75
Central Bosnia 6 31 327 22 000 702 143 10 120 11 000 1 087 187 0.65
Una-Sana 1 36 408 26 905 739 150 11 734 12 570 1 071 184 0.69
Sarajevo 9 43 663 34 000 779 158 20 950 26 000 1 241 214 0.63
“Herzeg. 10
7 251 6 503 897 182 2 484 3 307 1 331 229 0.67
Bosna”
Neretva 7 24 784 22 727 917 186 10 023 13 128 1 310 225 0.70
Posavina 2 3 942 4 444 1 127 229 1 204 1 834 1 523 262 0.74
W Herzegovina 8 9 885 11 757 1 189 242 3 107 4 765 1 534 264 0.78
Federation 282 677 212 540 752 153 105 136 110 613 1 052 181 0.71
Republika
128 412 66 755 520 106 55 893 26 889 481 83 1.08
Srpska
1. Index of unit costs where canton 5 unit costs = 100.
2. Ratio of primary unit spending to secondary unit spending.
Sources: Student number (1998 enrolments) collected for Council of Europe/WB report, op. cit., 1999., p. 52.
Canton Budget allocations for 1999 collected by Federal Ministry of Education, RS budget allocations for 1999.
129
Quality of the curriculum7
Curriculum, teacher training, assessment and examination as well as

central and local governance of educational institutions should be addressed
together in an integrated way, not separately. The quality and functioning of
each of these components depend upon – and influence – the quality and
functioning of the others.62 The quality of the curriculum is affected by a too
narrow (quantitative) and technical view of what “curriculum” means, as well as
by political considerations. These issues are highlighted below under “Issues
and barriers”.
Current status of curriculum design and implementation63
Since the end of communist rule, there have been three periods of
curriculum renewal: 1990-1992, when curricula were ‘nationalised’ by the three
main ethnic groups; 1992 until the end of the war in 1995, when the three
curricula began to diverge; and the post-war period, during which three separate
curricula were consolidated.
Three typical features characterise all three curricula. First, each one is
national in the sense that it focuses on the language, culture and history of its
own ethnic group. In the Serbian group, the Cyrillic alphabet is used whereas
the others use Roman alphabets. Second, the curricula are overloaded in terms
of information and content that are to be taught in schools to pupils. This is an
issue especially in lower grades of primary school, where some of the
mathematics, for example, is so demanding that it poses difficulties to teachers
as well. Furthermore, there is a dominance of information and acquisition of
knowledge over skills and development of personality. Third, all three curricula
are fragmented, with little or no connection to pupils’ real lives.
After Dayton, curriculum policy decision making and implementation

procedures have been transferred to the two Entities (Federation/cantons and
RS) with resulting fragmentation and ‘de-concentration’ of the curriculum in
62
“Curriculum” as discussed here includes the principles, underlying educational
philosophy, goals and content of the instructional programme, as well as the
written and other materials needed to support this instruction. It also includes the
testing and evaluation regimen used for assessment and evaluation of the
attainment of curricular objectives.
63
Mostly qualitative assessment is given here, in the absence of sound quantitative
data (see Support in OECD Thematic Review of Educational Policy in South-
Eastern Europe, Preliminary Report, Centre For Educational Policy Studies,
Ljubljiana, September, 2000).
130
terms of policies and classroom practices. Until recently, attempts by the
Federal Ministry of Education (FMoE) to exercise a co-ordinating function by
bringing cantons together to discuss curriculum reform or develop common
programmes and textbooks have been generally unsuccessful outside the
Bosniak majority cantons. As a result, after Dayton, three different curricula are
being implemented in the State of BiH: a Bosniak curriculum – the Federal
core, see below – in the 5 Bosniak majority cantons, a Croatian curriculum in
the 3 Croatian majority cantons, a ‘mixed’ curriculum in the 2 ‘mixed’ cantons.
The RS has its own curriculum, mostly that of Serbia itself.
The core curriculum
After some false starts, the FMoE in 1998 produced a revised core
curriculum for the Federation. It replaces the curriculum that had been in place
for the previous 10 years. In principle, the 10 cantons of the Federation of BiH
are expected to implement ‘Federal core curricula’ in primary (grades 1 to 8),
gymnasium/secondary (grades 9 to 12) and secondary VET education. But
implementation has so far been very difficult, although there are signs of a
move towards more coherence. In reality, the core curriculum is implemented
mostly – if not exclusively – in the Bosniak majority cantons. Accordingly, the
current stage of the implementation is presented in the following Table
(estimates only):
Table 3. Status of the curriculum

Percentage
Implementation Issue Primary Secondary VET

Adoption and implementation of the new
60 60 60
curriculum
Coverage and dissemination of the new
60 50 50
curriculum
Teachers trained in the new curriculum 70 70 70
Availability and use of new instructional
60 50 50
materials
Source: CEPS, Ljubljana, September 2000.
131
The curriculum design process
Based on the new core curriculum issued by the FMoE – the ‘curriculum
framework’– the actual curricula for the Bosniak cantons in the Federation are
being developed in the Pedagogical Institutes (PI). These function in every
canton alongside or within the canton’s MoE.64 The same type of PIs develop
the curriculum for Croatian cantons and for RS based on curricula from Croatia
and Serbia. In terms of institutional structures, in both Federation and RS
subject-specific working groups produce draft curricula that are then submitted
for approval to the MoEs. The members (5 to 10) are mostly academics or
subject specialists that work in the PI and not professional curriculum
developers. Co-operation and cross-disciplinary co-ordination are rare. This
may explain to some extent the emphasis on content in the revised core
curriculum, as well as the lack of coherence across different subjects.
The components of the curriculum
In September 2000, the Ministers of Education in the three systems,

Bosniak, Croat, and Serb have signed an agreement accepting the 70%-30%
allocation in the framework of the core curriculum, whereby a 70% compulsory
core is complemented by a 30% locally (generally canton) determined
component. This change is meant to allow for students’ individual abilities or
interests, to cater for more able students or to accommodate to local needs or
interests. This agreement has been signed but not yet implemented, as textbooks
must be printed which incorporate “tolerance, mutual recognition and more
sensitivity.”
In principle, the stipulated ‘70/30% ‘division of curriculum allocation

should bring more freedom of choice to schools, and increase curriculum
planning in municipalities and in schools. However, at the moment this
‘70/30%’ division is still artificial and poorly implemented in practice. First, it
is not clear what these percentages mean. Are they content measures, time
quantities or quantified objectives? Second, real local influence is almost totally
missing. The only thing left for teachers to decide are the methodological
arrangements in the classroom – but even here, the overloaded content and the
knowledge-based nature of learning objectives determine the methods of
teaching altogether. In addition, there is little focus on pedagogy in the
curriculum and the concept of integration of what is taught with how it is taught
is almost completely absent.
64
In the case of mixed Cantons there are two acting PIs.
132
The revised curriculum document offers a short introduction concerning
the role of education as well as some objectives of the system as a whole. The
introduction is followed by a set of syllabi developed for every subject
according to the grade and the educational level under consideration (primary
and secondary). These syllabi are heavily subject-based; they are in fact more
like a ‘written curriculum’ as they exclusively comprise lists of content items.
The curriculum does not offer any kind of specification on how students and
teachers will work together in a classroom setting; in fact ‘curriculum’ is
generally perceived as a ‘document’ that regulates the system, and not as the
real teaching and learning process that happens in or outside the school.
The list of subjects
The idea of a common core curriculum for the Federation is undoubtedly a

step forward. However, there is no real change compared to the pre-war
situation. The list of subjects is broadly similar in the Entities and cantons. For
instance, in primary education, the number of subjects increases progressively
from grade 1 (10 subjects) to grade 8 with roughly 15 subjects (mathematics,
mother tongue, foreign languages, humanistic sciences and natural sciences,
plus arts and physical education). The curriculum in general secondary
(gymnasium) – with about 16 subjects – requires mother tongue, two foreign
languages and Latin, and the natural science requirement of biology, chemistry
and physics, as well as mathematics. Theoretical courses in philosophy,
sociology, logic, history and geography complete the list, along with art, music
and physical education. Except for some forms of civic/social education, no
new subjects have appeared in the curriculum of primary and secondary
education.
Curriculum content
As for the underlying philosophy and content of the curriculum, the syllabi
are roughly the same as just before the war, except the so-called ‘national’
subjects (mother tongue, history, social subjects, arts) that have been revised to
reflect and foster national identity. In fact, the most visible difference in terms
of subject titles between the different curricula consists in the names of the
mother tongues(s), listed as ‘Bosnian’, ‘Croatian’, and ‘Serbian’. In Croat-
majority cantons and municipalities, the content of the curriculum is basically
the same as that of the education system in the Republic of Croatia. In the RS,
the content is clearly determined by that of Serbian education. As far as
Bosniaks are concerned, their curriculum reflects to a great extent the pre-
Dayton cultural and historical ideal of that community. Even so, these curricula
have mainly been updated, not really renewed.
133
Teachers, students, and parents all agree that the curricula remain
overloaded, encyclopaedic and mostly knowledge-based. This has a critical
effect on teaching and learning, the depth of understanding and the development
of higher order skills, as well as the preparation of students for later life.
Teaching and quality assurance
External supervision of the quality in ‘the delivered curriculum’ is the

responsibility of the cantonal MoEs, the staff of the PIs or the inspectors.
Internal quality supervision is generally done by school principals and
pedagogues in the Federation, and by a supervisor or pedagogues in the RS.
However, quality control is deeply affected by the resource constraints.
In all three sub-systems, there are a few “experimental schools” mostly set
up by local or international NGOs. For example, the ‘Step-by-Step’ curriculum
– which encourages interactive learning and more parental involvement – is
used both in the Federation and in the RS, but only in 6 or so schools. As a
result, except in such isolated cases, the didactic approach in the classroom is
generally teacher-centred and out-of-date; most of the schools use the traditional
curricula taught in a rigid manner, emphasising memorisation and factual
knowledge. Lecturing is still the most frequent method even in Primary
education. This results in students being passive learners instead of engaged as
active participants in the learning process. As teachers did not have any
exposure to recent foreign experiences many of them are fully convinced that
they are meeting all European standards without being able to define those
standards. High quality school-based in-service training could develop a more
questioning and reflective attitude.
Textbooks provision and teaching aids
Similar issues can be raised about textbooks. For the non-national subjects,
there is no evidence that textbooks published by the FMoE are unacceptable to
cantons. As for the ‘national’ subjects, textbooks from Croatia, Serbia and the
Federation are used in parallel; even if – according to a regulation issued by the
FMoE – only instructional materials approved by the Federal commission on
textbooks can be used in the classrooms. The Office of the High Representative
(OHR), in co-operation with the Council of Europe has recently taken direct
action to remove inflammatory content from textbooks, and will continue to
monitor the process. According to previous reports,65 teachers, students and
65
See Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Governance, Finance,
Administration. Report prepared on behalf of the World Bank by a Project Team
134
parents believe that in the future debate should shift form ‘ethnic disputes’ to
issues like the quality and design of the textbooks, their authorship (mostly
‘academic’ at the moment), and to the shortage of supplementary instructional
materials.
Curriculum reform
There is no formal institutional structure or mechanism that can develop

and implement a set of common curriculum outcomes and learning standards at
the level of the State of BiH. These outcomes and standards would ensure the
conceptual coherence of the education system and overcome local differences –
which are normal – among Entities and cantons. In terms of institutional
structures, as many previous reports have already mentioned,66 Pedagogical
Institutes are not able to carry out curriculum reform. They are not adequately
staffed to design, pilot, implement and review curricula. On the contrary, they
contribute to the fragmentation of the system and the persistence of a heavily
subject-based approach to curriculum development and implementation.
One hopeful development has been an agreement between the Entities

following a meeting organised by EC-TAER in June 2001. The Ministers of
Education of the two Entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina i.e. the Federal
Minister of Education, Science, Culture & Sports and the Minister of Education
of the Republika Srpska, signed this agreement, in the presence of
representatives of the International Community, on the modalities and time
frame for the elaboration and implementation of a Shared Strategy for the
Modernisation of Primary and General Secondary Education in BiH.
This agreed strategy aims to bring General Education in BiH onto a par
with the standards of General Education which have developed elsewhere in
Europe; it builds upon the general principles of the May 2000 agreement,
including the values of multi-cultural education, and:
x based upon the concept paper prepared by the EC-TAER and entitled:
“Towards a Sector Development Programme in BiH General
Education - Proposal for the elaboration of a Shared Strategy for a
Modernisation of Primary and General Secondary Education in
Bosnia-Herzegovina”.
of the Council of Europe Legislative Reform Programme in Higher Education

and Research, Strasbourg, 1999.
66
See Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, op. cit.
135
x The establishment, by September 2001, of the Modernisation Strategy
Supervisory Board, its Sub-Committees and Working Groups,
necessary to elaborate the strategy.
x The granting of a mandate to the Supervisory Board and its Sub-

Committees and Working Groups, appropriate for them to carry out
their work; these bodies being accountable to the Entity Ministries of
Education.
x The possibility of incorporation in the strategy of a variety of methods

and approaches, developed within other educational programmes and
projects in BiH.
x The implementation of parts of the shared strategy on an experimental

basis in the school year 2001-2002.
x The full implementation of all the elements of the shared strategy,

directly after the preparatory phase has been terminated, anticipated to
be September 2002.
x The co-ordination of International Partner Contributions, assisted by

the EC-TAER project, thus ensuring local ownership in the
development of a General Education Sector Programme in BiH.
Assessment and examinations
In the old system, no legal or institutional framework for assessment and

examinations existed. There was no evaluation and assessment function at
Ministry level; all was devolved to schools. These used to send their results to
the Pedagogical Institutes, which in turn would prepare an overview for the
municipal education authorities. All these records, however, were based on oral
assessment of individual students, with little differentiation between levels of
achievement. The education component of a recent project financed from a
World Bank credit includes the establishment of a Standards and Assessment
Agency (SAA) staffed by trained specialists to measure and monitor the quality
of education outcomes. The SAA will conduct sample based BiH-wide
assessments of educational performance in some key domains. Another
component of this project is the establishment of an Educational Management
Information System.
Every faculty of the university organises its own entrance exams. These
usually test rather basic and factual knowledge, and do not attempt to assess the
aptitude of students to follow an academic programme.
136
Issues and barriers related to curriculum, standards and assessment
x The emphasis is on teaching at the expense of learning. In other

words, the curriculum describes what teachers must and should do in
classrooms, rather than illustrating and articulating what pupils should
know and be able to do after teaching and learning have taken place.
The criterion for ‘success’ in schools seems to be the degree to which
the externally determined curriculum has been covered and completed.
This has also led to more general misconception of quality of
education – a ‘good school’ is mostly judged by quantitative
measures. The more it teaches, the better the school.
x The view of ‘curriculum’ is technical and narrow. In most cases,

teachers and experts believe that curriculum equals study
programmes, subject lists and time allocations per grade and school
type. Traditionally, they also believe that curriculum should be
mandated by higher authorities, and that their role is to make sure that
everything will be covered. Indeed the word ‘curriculum’ is often
translated as ‘programma’. This confusion is harmful, because as the
education policy is moving towards greater autonomy and
decentralised educational planning, teachers need to take
responsibility for curriculum, too.
x Quality is understood in terms of quantitative (input) measures rather

than in terms of outcomes. This narrow view of quality is a major
obstacle to change in teaching, learning, and assessment in particular.
The specification of learning outcomes should have equal importance
with any description of what, when and how teachers should teach.
x In BiH, the main function of the curriculum (especially in history and

mother tongue) is political – not the improvement of education
quality. For reasons beyond this analysis, the curriculum is used
mainly to support nationalist issues and consolidate the balance of
power. The curriculum should more clearly support the urgent need to
build tolerance, equality, promote human rights and peace across the
ethnic diversity of the population.
x Curriculum development is centralised and thus not able to respond to

changing social needs. This fixed, regulatory view of curriculum
makes the whole school system rigid and top-down. The ‘30%’ local
component of the curriculum should now be actively used by teachers
and principals to make learning more meaningful for pupils.
137
x Congestion and overload. The curricula show many separate subjects:
14 at the end of primary education and 16 at secondary. The content of
these subjects is fact-ridden. Both have a negative effect on teaching
methods, the depth of knowledge and understanding, and preparation
for work or further education.
x Didactic pedagogy. Considerable focus is needed on how the

curriculum at each year level should be taught. The outcome and the
actual processes to achieve this should be clear to all teachers, moving
them away from simple delivery of factual knowledge.
x The curriculum neglects real life needs. These are particularly relevant
for students in BiH, but consistently have been avoided by recent
curriculum work. Students still are not helped to acquire:
critical and creative thinking skills,
employability and functional skills,
learning and basic study skills, the ability to continue to learn new
skills throughout life;
values and social skills that will enable them to participate fully in
a society whose composition, structure, values, beliefs and needs
are constantly changing.
x A curriculum for all and everyone.67 The present educational systems

in SEE countries – BiH included – often place excessive curricular
emphasis on selectivity and the performance of the best students (e.g.
the ‘obsession’ with Olympiads) and may not always provide
adequate attention to the learning needs of the disadvantaged pupils
(by social strata, gender, ethnicity, or location). The result is that
education, despite its substantial accomplishments in promoting
learning achievement among the best students, can fail to fulfil its
roles as a source of equity among social groups and for the
development of civil society.
67
These two paragraphs were taken from The OECD Thematic Review of
Education Policy in South Eastern Europe: A Proposed Outline for Authors of
Country Chapters (Douglas M. Windham).
138
x Relevance to the majority of students. There is still a tendency to
define upper-secondary curricula in terms of the expectations of
higher education. In reality, however, these expectations are relevant
only to a small proportion of students. Shifting the emphasis from
content-based to competence-based teaching and learning is essential
at this level.
x The pursuit of ‘European standards’. It is widely said in BiH that the

ultimate goal (in curriculum, teacher training, institutional
development etc.) should be to implement or apply ‘European
standards’. Very rarely, however, was there some understanding of
what these standards might represent.
x The need to introduce psycho-social programmes in the curriculum.

The curriculum needs to respond to the severe trauma suffered by
most of the population (many of them children) during the war. The
aim would be to acknowledge and heal the wounds of the past, to
overcome ethnic barriers insofar as possible, and to build a basis for
preventing future clashes.
x Lack of procedures and data for monitoring and comparing the

outcomes of education; lack of impact of assessment data on
educational policy. At the moment there is no system of monitoring
outcomes on a BiH-wide level, nor are there clear standards to serve
as the basis for comparisons, nor is it clear on all levels why such
comparisons would be useful. Individual observations from
internationals indicate that the achieved level of education is rather
low.
x Inefficiency of the assessment and examination procedures. Teachers

have to set their own tests, using mostly oral testing. There is no
professional support, and no standardisation to enable them to
compare their outcomes with those of other teachers. The university
entrance exams do not add anything useful to information that can
also be obtained from professional school leaving exams; ‘double
exams’ of this kind are inefficient, wasteful and a burden on students.
139
Education Personnel
Teachers
Teachers in BiH work in difficult conditions. After the four-year war the
education system had not totally collapsed, but had suffered severe damage both
materially and spiritually. The war reduced the number of teaching staff and
demolished many schools; however, the education system remained in function
during the war, despite fear and lack of security. It is largely due to this
commitment and dedication that most students continued to have a place to
study and meet each other. In this respect, teachers were windows of hope for
many pupils and their parents during the crisis.
The number of full-time teaching staff increased after 1995 in the BiH
Federation, but not in RS. This may be partly due to the return of refugees to the
BiH after the Dayton agreement, and to the re-opening of damaged schools.
Table 4 illustrates the development of numbers of teachers in different levels of
education system in the Federation and in RS after the war.
Table 4. No. of full-time equivalent teachers between 1995 – 1999
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Fed RS Fed RS Fed RS Fed RS Fed RS
Preschool 323 NA 443 NA 527 430 660 462 584 772
Primary 6985 NA 10 198 6 442 10 841 6 842 14 100 6 956 13 461 7 059
Secondary 4302 3084 5 909 2 870 6 122 2 980 6 904 3 120 8 377 3 400
Higher 1741 1066 2 041 1 423 2 171 1 571 2 244 1 712 3 248 1 250
The legacy of former socialist tradition and philosophy of education

narrows teachers’ perspective on pedagogy in general, and on teaching and
learning in particular. Most teachers today in BiH have themselves experienced
learning as ‘listening’ and teaching as ‘talking by teachers’. As a consequence,
the dominant conception of knowledge among teachers is static and
mechanistic; the core process is absorbing information. During the past decade,
there have rarely been opportunities for teachers to learn about new ideas of
teaching, and it is understandable that the majority still hold on to traditional
notions of schooling and behave accordingly in their classrooms.
140
International donors and co-operating partners have invested large sums to
reconstruct schools and equip classrooms for better quality teaching and
learning. There have also been considerable efforts to install new learner-
centred practices in schools through international agencies such as the Soros
Foundation and UNICEF. Unfortunately, these have not been enough to change
the situation; moreover, teachers who have not taken part in these initiatives
may feel guilt, envy or frustration because the same support is not within their
reach. Thus, well-meant initiatives may occasionally turn out to be confusing
and counter-productive.
The lack of clarity and coherence in the state level education development
is one of the main barriers in aligning the educational practices in BiH with
respective features of international education community. The working climate
and professional environment of teachers remains unstable due to the
dominance of political interests. Many teachers seem tired of political
arguments about all possible questions in education, instead of more
professional discussions. For example, some teachers would like to see a more
positive move toward a common core of education between the Federation of
BiH and the RS, especially at the level of curriculum, but this remains
politically difficult.
Costs of war are normally financed by reducing expenditures in civil

sectors, most commonly education and social security. That has been true in
BiH, too, especially with regard to public sector salaries. The salary issue is at
the top of the agenda of any post-conflict state, and of developing countries as
well. Table 5 shows the trend of teachers’ salary development since the break-
up of SFRY.
Table 5. Average pay rates of teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina

(in Deutsche Mark)
Status 1990 1994 1996 1997 2000

1 750 120 630 600 – 730 750 (?)
Full professor (university)
1 300 100 450 580 – 690 ?
Lecturer (university)
1 000 90 280 - 400 350 – 370 400 - 550
Secondary school teacher
750 76 220 - 340 280 – 315 380 - 500
Primary school teacher
Source: Dizdar, S. 1998. A development and perspectives of teacher education in Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
141
The average salary of teachers in the Federation is higher than in the RS
(500 DM/month vs. 400DM/month). In the Federation, salaries are paid from
the cantonal budgets, while in RS they come directly from the RS Ministry of
Finance. During the time of the visit of the OECD team there were strikes in RS
over a delayed raise of teachers’ salaries. Teachers signed an agreement in late
1999 that promised an increase of 60 to 80 DM per month, but this did not
materialise.
The working conditions of teachers vary considerably. There is, first of all,
disparity between urban and rural schools and teachers. Reconstruction of the
education system has been concentrated on Sarajevo. Differentials in pay
between experienced and new teachers are small. In the RS, for example,
teachers receive an annual increase of a few DM regardless of their performance
in school. On the other hand, there is no mechanism to compensate teacher in-
service development through salary incentives. Thus teachers who have
qualifications or competencies in foreign languages such as English or French,
or in information technology, easily find jobs that pay several times what they
could earn in schools. Young and educated people who were potential teachers
in secondary schools and universities have left the country, hoping for a better
future elsewhere. Therefore the teaching force is ageing, and few qualified
teachers are available to replace those who retire.
Rural schools are still in very poor condition and without basic equipment
for teaching and learning. Similarly, most teachers seek to work in schools in
towns and cities where other services are also within their reach, and
possibilities for career promotion are better. Secondly, it is easy to find so-
called experimental schools in both entities where teachers have better resources
to renew their teaching than in regular schools.
One clear observation from visiting schools in BiH is that teachers have
little influence on classroom life. They receive curriculum as from ‘above’
(cantonal or Federal ministry of education, or the Pedagogical Institute). The
content of teaching is determined by the curriculum and available teaching
materials. The orientation to teaching is therefore based on delivery of
information as effectively as possible. From the perspective of teachers,
education is driven by control and sanctions, rather than by a desire to give
teachers the freedom to improve quality in education.
Inspection, evaluation and support for teachers
Teachers in both Entities are inspected by the Pedagogical Institutes. In

principle, all teachers in all schools should be under continuous supervision, but
given the large number of teachers and the small inspectorates this is not
142
possible. In practice, teachers are required to spend two hours each week filling
in their teaching plan for the following week. They also must have a written and
structured plan for each lesson they teach. When possible, inspectors visit
schools and inspect these plans and observe the lessons. This procedure is a
burden for teachers, and is unlikely to improve the quality of teaching; indeed, it
may discourage teachers from trying anything new.
The morale of teachers is low, both in the Federation and in the RS, not
only because of low salaries but also, in many cases, those salaries are reduced
or not paid at all. Five years after the war, during which most teachers taught in
very difficult circumstances, they need support and positive incentives both to
help them work more effectively and to keep them in the profession. But they
also need to be evaluated properly to ensure the quality of their teaching.
In the RS, each teacher in the primary schools and gymnasia is evaluated
by the principal, who visits the teacher’s class on a pre-announced day. This
visit, and visits by the Pedagogical Institute, determine a teacher’s professional
status; the written evaluations are not discussed with the teacher.
In 1999 a new law mandated that teachers should receive monetary

rewards for excellence. First, the teacher may receive the title of Mentor with a
5% pay increase; there are two additional levels, each with an increase in pay.
Mentors are nominated by principals who consult with other staff before
making the nomination to the Minister of Education for approval. Though the
new law is not yet in effect in all gymnasia, some teachers have been nominated
for the current year.
In the Federation, evaluation of teachers is complicated by the layers of

governance. The emphasis has been on proper teacher certification, but not on
creating incentives, either monetary or non-monetary, to reward good teaching.
Throughout BiH, teachers receive few incentives in the form of in-service

training. Partly due to post-war inertia, and partly through lack of funds, there is
no coherent, reform-based strategy for improving teacher performance through
evaluation linked with needs analysis and targeted in-service training.
Finally, throughout BiH, the horrors of war still live in the memories of
young and old. Teachers – like other people – have to live with these
experiences and cope with them as best they can. Children and youngsters also
bring their traumas to school. Teachers now find they are not only teaching, but
also counselling traumatised children and families. Little has been done so far to
help teachers cope with this dual role. Although some teachers seem to deny the
143
problem, many see it as an alarming challenge. Psychological and practical
support are urgently needed.
Pre-service teacher training
There is high demand for places on pre-service teacher training courses;

applications exceed capacity by about 50%. This is mostly because more than
50% of graduate teachers find employment, which compares well with other
areas of study. At the same time, however, many unqualified teachers are still
working in the system; in some areas, up to 25% of teachers are not trained for
the grades they teach.68
Prior to 1992, the BiH Ministry of Education had produced a series of

recommendations to modernise the education system, including the teaching
force. According to the MoE’s publication, “A development of perspectives of
teacher education in Bosnia Herzegovina” (1998), gradual reforms were to be
introduced. Many pilot teacher training programmes supported by donors have
helped to bring in new ideas and techniques. However, by 2001, the renewal of
teacher training in BiH still has not been addressed with sufficient force. There
is expertise available to facilitate change, but progress is slow.
Initial teacher training takes place in many institutions; in FBiH, for

example, there are 8 colleges, 5 pedagogical academies, and 56 different
departments across 5 universities that provide teacher training. The system is
not harmonised in terms of curriculum and objectives of training. There are
secondary teacher training schools in Sarajevo, Mostar East, Tuzla, Zenica and
Travnik that prepare teachers for grades 1-4 of primary school (2-year
programmes). Secondary art and music schools also provide their graduates of
the 4-year programmes with licences to teach. Some educators argue that this
non-academic part of teacher education should be transferred to the universities
in order to put more pedagogical emphasis on the professional development of
teachers.
Pedagogical academies train teachers on 2-year courses and four-year

programmes. Depending on the programme teachers are qualified to teach in
primary school (grades 1-4), and in pre-school. If they successfully complete
specific subject courses they are also entitled to teach grades 5-8.
University-level pre-service training of teachers is subject-oriented and

covers the disciplines taught in secondary schools. According to our
68
‘Labour Market-Vocational Education and Training Assessment: Bosnia and
Herzegovina,’ ETF, October 2000, p. 21.
144
observations teacher training curricula are still dominated by theoretical subject
knowledge, and pedagogical aspects have a weaker role. Furthermore, teaching
practice in real classrooms is rare and not integrated into training programmes.
Initial steps are being taken to change the system. Recently, in order to
upgrade training, the two-year qualification has been abolished, and the
minimum is now four years. Interaction between schools and training
institutions has improved, with limited practicum period in kindergartens.
Questions remain, in particular with regard to the role of professional high
school graduates on two-year courses, now left largely without a role. Pre-
school teachers should be highly qualified, but there is also room for a variety
of professionals to interact with young children and improved qualifications and
incentives for nursery nurses (trained by Ministry of Health), and teachers’
aides are needed.
Most importantly, a misleading distinction is still being made between

teaching pre-school and primary levels when, at the same time, transitional
classes are being put in place which require teachers to address the needs of
those in the primary level as well as younger children. With the incorporation of
children of six into regular primary schools, the need for training in early
childhood concepts and a broader role for elementary teachers is even more
urgent.
Although there is much discussion of ‘child-centred learning’, this concept

is not practised throughout the system. There is no standardisation of pre-
service training requirements across Entities or even within Entities, and no
clear consensus on what should be taught.
In-service teacher training
In-service training of teachers is not considered part of the overall

professional development of the teaching profession. Pedagogical Institutes
arrange seminars and workshops for teachers, but international agencies like
UNICEF and numerous NGOs are still the most common providers of in-
service training in BiH. These seminars are to a large extent organised without
an analysis of the needs of schools and teachers. Training methods are based on
telling and lecturing, not on active participation and experiential learning.
School-based development and training of teachers is practically non-existent.
Some local education authorities, such as those of Banja Luka, reported that
they have reserved up to 15 days per annum for teachers to attend in-service
training seminars. In practice, however, few teachers are able to leave their
school for longer than one day at a time.
145
Issues and barriers – teachers
x Unclear vision and missing strategies of teacher education and

training. In complex realities it is difficult to set definite goals, but
strategic thinking and planning are indispensable tools for systemic
reform. Without clear vision of, and strategy for, reform-related
teacher training in BiH, reforms will be seriously impeded.
x Teachers only implement the plans and regulations that are set ‘top-
down’ by authorities outside their school. Although decentralisation is
proceeding, a teacher’s role remains one of passive implementation
without ownership or initiative. Regulation of the curriculum is still
extensive.
x Teacher in-service training is mostly delivered in seminars and

school-based staff development is minimal around the country. Data
collected by the review team show that in-service training means
‘sitting in seminars and meetings’ that are only remotely connected to
classroom pedagogy or school management.
x The education system still relies heavily on the moral commitment of

its teachers. Despite difficult socio-economic circumstances, teachers
have kept coming to school to do their job. It is, however, unrealistic
to expect them to continue indefinitely without adequate reward or
better career prospects.
x The psycho-social consequences of the war and its aftermath are not
sufficiently recognised in schools in order to help cope with stress,
trauma and grief. Few people in BiH are unaffected by the conflicts of
the 1990s. Students bring with them their experiences, fears and hopes
just as their teachers do; and this will continue to affect teaching and
learning unless teachers are helped to deal with these problems. Most,
if not all, teachers lack the proper tools and conceptual knowledge of
helping children feel safe, handle their memories and emotions, and
work through traumatic experiences. Moreover, there is a shortage of
special education teachers who can identify other special needs, and
find ways to deal with them as part of mainstream teaching and
learning.
146
Early Childhood Education
Description of the system and stages of education reform
Pre-conflict
In SFRY, health services provided pre-and postnatal care for mothers and
infants resulting in a low infant and maternal mortality rate. However,
kindergarten and crèche care were limited, and parental knowledge about child
development was weak. About 8% of the 3-6 year old population attended
kindergarten in Sarajevo, and the percentage of children in the country as a
whole amounted to only 4%.69 These services were funded by the Ministry of
Social Welfare and were not seen as part of the education service, but rather as
child care facilities for working parents.
Health monitoring in the kindergartens was provided by the Ministry of

Health. Training for kindergarten staff was provided by a two-year degree
offered by the Pedagogical Institutes, and the Medical High Schools. These
institutes were also responsible for curriculum development, in-service training,
and monitoring and inspection of pre-school facilities. Teachers for the early
grades of school are trained in Pedagogical Academies which are part of
university faculties. Prior to the war, curriculum was set at the central level.
Children with disabilities were screened and sent to institutions for the disabled.
There was no concept of mainstreaming for the severely disabled and conditions
were in general extremely poor.
The War Years
During the war, kindergartens were closed and facilities used for other
purposes (some are still used as barracks, or to house refugee families).
Kindergartens were operated in houses, like other school classes. Teachers were
not paid. The NGO Save the Children was instrumental in organising 3-hour
playgroup programmes from 1993, and by August 1996 had opened 626
community-based programmes. This was a low-cost community-based model
using standardised packages for infrastructure support. It achieved rapid
coverage, with support, including a stipend for the teacher, for nine months.
69
Judith L. Evans, Early Childhood Programmes in Bosnia & Herzegovina
Education and Training Assessment: Bosnia and Herzegovina,’ ETF, October
2000, p. 21.
69
Judith L. Evans, Early Childhood Programmes in Bosnia & Herzegovina
Education pg. 5., Report prepared for UNICEF Bosnia, October 1996.
147
Data on the provision of early childhood services both pre- and post-war are
unreliable, but it is certain that access and quality of services were poor.
Educational reforms introduced in 1989 supported a child-centred

approach, encouraging intellectual, social and emotional aspects of child
development. Early childhood education was to run from year 1 through the
first year of primary school. Unfortunately, these reforms were never
implemented. In addition, in 1990, a law was drafted to allow organisations and
private individuals to open private day care centres. In 1994 a new law was
drafted to broaden the concept of ECD programmes. Kindergartens were to be
viewed as an integral part of the education cycle; programming should be
integrated and holistic; learning was to be more child-centred and less teacher-
directed. This law was to be implemented in 1996.
Post-war
With all good intentions, institutions for the disabled were re-invented, and
the planned 9 years of basic education remained only a suggestion. Service
coverage became extremely patchy. The number of children enrolled in early
childhood programmes dropped to 6% of the age cohort in 1998, less than in the
pre-war period.70 The steepest decrease was in the cantons of Tuzla, Zenica,
Sarajevo and Middle Bosnia. Responsibility for the institutions and for the pre-
schools now rests with the FMoE, including the crèche system, and financial
control is at the cantonal level.
Between 1995 and 1998 the number of pre-primary teachers in the

Federation grew from 323 to 660. However, there are disparities in numbers
between BiH and the RS. No figures are available for public budget allocations
for pre-primary schools. At pre-primary level, in 1998, the Federation average
was 1 689 KM per student, far higher than that of primary school, reflecting the
higher staffing ratios needed for small children and perhaps inefficiencies
within the system. The pre-primary Federation average in 1998 was 13:1, down
from 21:1 in 1996, perhaps reflecting not only overstaffing but the decline in
the birth rate.
In the immediate post-war period, the provision of pre-school services was

gradually re-introduced with the help of NGOs – e.g. Emilio Regio, Save the
Children, and the Soros Foundation. At present, the Step-by-Step programme
funded by the Soros Foundation seems to have been adopted in the majority of
70
In Albania, for example, 37% of children attend pre-schools, and in Macedonia
about 20%; whereas in Kosovo only 2.8% of children do.
148
state-supported kindergartens, and has not only provided help with physical
refurbishing, but also with training and institutional management. The FMoE
provides salaries for teachers and staff, but local cantons provide the remainder
of the running costs, together with subsidies from the Soros Foundation. When
these subsidies are removed, it is uncertain whether the FMoE can sustain the
service.
Kindergartens are usually in separate facilities, not attached to a specific

primary school catchment area. They contain a small crèche facility for children
under the age of three. There are also specialised kindergartens, for example one
in the school for the deaf in Banja Luka, where parents bring children from a
long way for morning classes. There are both residential and day programmes.
Coverage varies from area to area and from canton to canton. Attempts are
made by donors to integrate children with disabilities into classrooms and
schools and to allow all children to play together and families to meet, but
public awareness and sensitivity on this issue remain low.
Availability of early childhood education services varies between entities

and between cantons. For example, in the RS, the central government pays half
the fees for some kindergartens, with pro-rata support for children who have
priority in admission if they come from families of disabled war veterans. (The
fees are reduced according to the category of parental disability.) In the canton
of Sarajevo, pilot efforts are being made to add a 9th year to the education
system, but this will happen in only a few schools. This first year of school
would concentrate largely on developing social skills, with a syllabus
concentrating on learning through play, socialisation, and preparation for formal
learning.
At present there are few crèches, with infants and babies largely in the care
of relatives. Kindergarten attendance is irregular, with parents using the system
for free meals for their children and keeping them at home when convenient. In
the former Yugoslavia, the existence of a wide range of state provided social
welfare services led to a habit of utilising these services at the convenience of
parents. Although the idea of fluctuating and appropriate involvement of social
welfare and education agencies in family life is clearly useful, utilisation rates
should be monitored to ensure that the services being provided are needed and
appropriate for the children.
Clearly the nutritional supplement through kindergarten meals, and the

health screenings received at early childhood establishments, are important
factors in child attendance. Further analysis is needed of both the outcomes of
these health screenings, which diagnose a very high rate of orthopaedic
difficulties, and the availability and success of follow up medical services.
149
Issues and barriers in early childhood development
x Kindergartens and crèches charge for services, with the amounts

being charged relative to social and financial criteria. The exact
criteria for payments can vary, but a basic monthly fee of 60 DM is
charged in RS, and similar fees in BiH. In general, the children of
veterans are subsidised according to the extent of parental disability
and need, including single mothers. There is a waiting list for most
kindergartens. Access to early childhood services is concentrated in
large municipalities. There are few kindergartens or crèches in rural
areas, and little is known about the need. Mobile kindergartens, and
kindergartens in private facilities, might be a solution for children in
isolated areas.
x Kindergarten coverage remains minimal although improved methods

are being introduced into those facilities which are open. Parents’
financial difficulties seem largely responsible for the decline in
kindergarten attendance, together with reduced birth rates since 1993.
x As noted above, the new Federal and cantonal curricula being

developed in FBiH include an initial year at age 6 to bring the years
of obligatory schooling to 9 instead of 8. This ‘zero’ year would build
on play and active learning techniques to prepare children for school.
In RS, the same extension is planned, to bring basic education into
line with ‘European norms’. But it is not clear whether the ‘zero’ year
would cancel out Federal or cantonal interest in sponsoring other
formal pre-school activities, or whether the classes would be held in
primary schools forming a transition year from kindergarten to
primary school. Nor are the services being targeted – in Sarajevo,
schools designated to undertake the first year of this new service are
being chosen on the grounds of the suitability of facilities.
x Lack of knowledge and parental understanding of parenting and child

development. With many families facing break-up as a result of war
trauma, children are often in need of strong social support. Although
there is clearly a demand for early childhood pre-school programmes,
the extent of this demand is not clear and will change.
x Given the severe budgetary constraints, government cannot provide

comprehensive kindergarten services for all children. To maximise
access, a combination of targeted government finance together with
parental contributions should be put in place. In many countries, pre-
150
school “play groups” are run by parent associations. In BiH, the legal
status of private schools should be clarified, and clear norms
established for services to pre-primary children.
Experience in other transition economies suggests that growth is stimulated

through improving resource allocation and maximising capacity. This ‘recipe’
appears simplistic in BiH, where productive capacity has been destroyed or is
obsolete, the supply networks have broken down, markets have been lost, skills
are inadequate, and institutional capacity is weak.71 In BiH, the most urgent
need is to define a long-term, integrated and systematic strategy for VET and
labour market reform.
The labour market does not function in BiH. Labour demand is restricted
to specific fields, and unemployment levels are several times higher than in EU
countries, especially among young people and the poorly qualified. The country
has no long term development plan that could help define policy and reforms.
Labour market institutions are fragmented across the Entities, and there is no
co-ordination between the needs of the country and VET.
Public Employment Services (PES) estimates that the total labour force
supply exceeds official demand by 300 times. The supply of school graduates
per annum is 7-10 times higher than the number of new job vacancies; the
problem, therefore, is growing year by year, and many young people have never
been able to find work after leaving school. The privatisation process will force
some 300 large companies to restructure, putting at risk another 150 000 jobs.
At the same time, skills shortages exist in sectors like public administration,
telecommunications, IT, civil engineering (especially construction), and trade.
An unemployment tax is levied on incomes, amounting to 2% in the RS

and 3% in FBiH, but these do not generate enough to support the large numbers
of unemployed; only about 2% of registered unemployed benefit from active
labour market policies including training. Roma are at particularly severe risk of
unemployment.
Education attainment is the critical factor in employability: unqualified

workers make up 40% of unemployed; craft school graduates 25%; and 4-year
VET graduates just under 30%. The high drop-out levels (20% in compulsory
school, 25% at post-compulsory secondary) are therefore particularly damaging.
71
‘Labour Market-Vocational Education and Training Assessment’, op. cit., pp. 2
et seq.
151
Moreover, more than 60% of unemployed are young people 15-29 years old,
who should be contributing actively to the country’s recovery. Ethnic minorities
(especially Roma) are also at severe risk.
Administration
Due to Dayton’s restrictions, it is difficult to develop a State-level,

common approach or framework for VET across the country. The international
community, for example through the Office of the High Representative (OHR),
has set up a working body with political representation from the three Entities to
work towards implementation of the May 2000 common agreement relating to
history, language, alphabet use in the curriculum etc. A World Bank-financed
Standards and Assessment Agency (SAA) – also with a tri-partite Board – is
expected to improve the setting of BiH-wide standards in education.
The legal framework, as has been mentioned above, is fragmented – there

are at least 10 separate but similar laws governing secondary education
(including VET) in FBiH, plus one in RS. There are no specific laws pertaining
to VET, and no co-ordination across administrative units.
Secondary VET
A large percentage of basic school graduates (some 90%) continue into

secondary, 80% into some form of vocational schooling and 20% into general
secondary. About 60% of those who enter vocational secondary go to 4-year
technical schools that give access to higher education subject to passing the
Matura examination; the other 40% enter 3-year craft schools (school-leaving
certificate but no Matura exam). According to BiH's National Observatory,
there are currently 37 types of technical and related schools where students can
be trained in 120 technical or craft professions in The Federation; in the RS,
there are programmes in 15 fields of work areas with more than 100 educational
profiles.72 Assessment and certification are the responsibility of the cantonal
authorities in the Federation, and of the Entity administration in RS.
Material conditions
Financing of VET is devolved to cantons in the Federation and to Entity

level in RS (see Financial Issues, above). Schools are poorly equipped and
many workshops and tools were destroyed or looted during the war. Capital
investments and expenditures on materials are very low or non-existent. Fewer
72
Ibid., p. 13.
152
than half of VET schools have been refurbished since the end of the war.
Alternative sources of revenue (such as from the private sector) are rare, and
there is no effective strategy for mobilising them.
Links between vocational school, the local economy and labour market
structures
These are, at present, very poor and in urgent need of improvement.

Specifically, it is vital – in BiH circumstances – to integrate VET into a lifelong
learning perspective, through new links and pathways among the initial VET
system, post-secondary education, higher education and adult education and re-
training. Of these, the education and re-training of adults should be priorities.
The existing training school facilities and teachers, unused company training
capacity, and incentives for employers to invest in VET and adult education
could be brought into play far more effectively than they are at present.
In improving co-ordination and governance, it is important to build upon

the EC-Phare VET programme and further develop the Green Paper. Examples
of good practice, especially from neighbouring countries (e.g. Slovenia) exist
and should be more actively sought and used.
Adult education
As in other SFRY countries, such pre-war institutions as the Workers

University, the 13 centres operated by the Public Employment Service (PES)
and the in-service training facilities of large companies have not been operating
for a decade. There are now no adult education teachers or curricula, and no
financial capacity to restore the system. Some management education is being
offered through the Chamber of Commerce (transport, banking) and a private
sector (languages, IT) is slowly developing.
A study by ETF (2000) states that it is important to emphasise the specific

need for adult education in BiH: “The recent war and economic collapse have
created a number of well defined vulnerable groups each with its own
difficulties in the labour market (as well as in daily life). These groups comprise
demobilised soldiers, war widows, the disabled, internally displaced persons,
refugees and returnees. Access to adult education is essential if these groups are
to re-integrate themselves into the socio-economic future of BiH.”73 The
infrastructures, legal basis, and financing system for adult education have not
been updated since the war, and are simply insufficient for the need. The
73
Ibid., p. 10.
153
experiences of other ex-Yugoslav countries that have already reformed their
adult education systems could provide a useful starting point for BiH.
Reforms to date
Some revision of VET curricula has taken place, mostly through the EC-
Phare VET programme. But most curricula are still outdated and out of line
with trends in other countries. Some 130 different curricula and qualifications
are offered in BiH, more than double the average in EU Member countries; this
is expensive and inefficient, since many of these courses prepare students for
jobs that no longer exist. Due to the collapse of large parts of the labour market,
the development of social partner contributions to vocational education reforms
is only just beginning.
The establishment (2000) of a joint, BiH-level Standards and Assessment

Agency should help develop an integrated framework for curriculum, standards,
assessment and certification at State level, which would greatly improve the
ability of graduates to move within and outside BiH to find work. A VET
department in SAA could provide a framework for occupational standards.
Teacher training in VET, especially in-service, has received attention in

the EC-Phare VET programme. While in general in the VET system there is an
over-supply of teachers, there are shortages in key disciplines such as IT and
foreign languages. Teacher training models and pilot schools developed under
EC-Phare VET could be used to “cascade” new methods to other teachers and
schools.
Issues and barriers in vocational education
x Unsatisfactory information base on employment and labour markets.

Co-operation between the Public Employment Service (PES), the
Entities, and schools is lacking.
x Lack of a coherent, State-level long-term development plan for initial

VET and adult education. Given the high levels of adult and long-term
unemployment, much more emphasis should be placed on life-long
learning and the development of flexible employment skills, and much
less on narrow preparation for a specific occupation for life. The key
issue is to have a strategy for life-long learning.
x Irrational provision of VET in occupations where jobs no longer exist,

while training in newer occupations and skills is not provided to
young people. Streamlining the institutional framework and linking it
154
with BiH’s new circumstances are essential. Re-training of vocational
teachers, and staff development, are incoherent or lacking altogether,
as is vocational guidance and counselling for VET students.
x Weak social partner contribution to vocational education reform.
x Inefficiencies in the VET system: too much specialisation: too many

teachers; not enough development.
x No resources for adult education despite catastrophic levels of

unemployment.
Higher Education
As in other levels of education, it is difficult to have a comprehensive view

of higher education. On the one hand, Republika Srpska, through its central
Ministry, manages a single university for the Republic component. On the other
hand, the ten cantons that form the Federation do not have a Ministry of
sufficient authority to co-ordinate Federation HE as a single entity. Although
each canton has the power to open higher education institutions (HEIs), not all
exercise this right. The fact that Mostar, a university town of less than 250 000
people, in effect contains two universities, one Croatian and the other Bosniak
on opposite sides of the river – shows clearly the divisions which remain. As it
is from the universities that the leaders will come to establish BiH as one
country, they need to be given the tools to exercise leadership now, if the
country is ever to achieve equal standing and status along with other countries
in Europe.
There are now seven universities (compared with five prior to the war),
resulting from splitting the Universities of Sarajevo and Mostar. They include:
the University of Sarajevo (Federation), the University of Mostar (East) and the
University of Bihac; the University of Mostar (West); the University of Serb
Sarajevo (Srpsko Sarajevo); the University of Tuzla; and the University of the
Republic of Srpska in Banja Luka. Universities could be roughly categorised
along ethnic lines, but while it is generally true that the students of each
university tend in large majority to belong to a particular ethnic group, the
teaching staff is generally mixed. The University of Tuzla is in the Federation,
and could not be considered Serb or Bosniak or anything ‘ethnic’: indeed it
seeks to avoid any such labels. The University of Sarajevo is similar in this
regard: the local politics have until recently been more radical, but currently the
administrative leadership is mixed, and moderate in its views. Mostar West is
predominantly Croatian, but has a Serb vice-rector. The University of Srpsko
155
Sarajevo is spread out in a number of small towns in the eastern and southern
parts of RS.
An estimate of the number of students in higher education in the

Federation is 43 839 (30 947 full-time and 12 892 part-time) with 3 248
teachers (see Table 1). In the Republic there are about 13 900 full and part-time
students with 1 250 teachers. This gives a total university population of just
over 57 700 which by international standards is small to support this many
universities.
There are two different sources of advice in BiH relating to curriculum:

Most universities in BiH tend to look to Croatia for curriculum and teaching
materials, since the offer available there is better than anywhere else in the
Serbo-Croat language group area. Croatian-based universities (for example
Mostar West) consider Croatian curricula and materials a natural choice, while
the Republic Srpska looks to the Serbian Republic for curriculum, textbooks,
and on occasion, staff. Only the Bosniak universities see themselves as
indigenous to BiH, but even they use some Croatian models.
Buildings, particularly in the Federation, were severely damaged during

the war. In Sarajevo, several faculties which were on or near the front line were
completely destroyed. The splitting of the University of Mostar into two has
given the original buildings to the ‘Croatian’ part (Mostar West). These were
the buildings in the best condition. By contrast, the (‘Bosniak’) university
buildings in Mostar East were former army barracks and are in poor condition.
Not only buildings, but the whole university infrastructure requires significant
support: laboratories, computers, technology for teaching and research all need
significant attention. For example, students in science classes reported that they
had no individual practical experience and demonstrations were rare.
The World Bank as part of a USD 10.5 million education programme over
the next four years, has provided USD 2.5 million for higher education. A pre-
condition for the loan was a political consensus for the use of the money to be
mediated by the EU through a Co-ordination Board. The goals for the loan
were:
x To define standards and norms for higher education based on

European levels;
x To monitor the quality of university education;
x To establish a body to develop distance education; and
156
x To establish a fund to support the development of higher education in
BiH.
The Co-ordinating Board, consisting of equal numbers of Bosnian,

Croatian and Serbian members, has the aim of focusing higher education as a
state-wide responsibility. And, although the Rectors of the universities
endeavour to meet, this group has not yet achieved the mutual understanding
required to make it a force for change.
The Co-ordinating Board for higher education is expected not only to deal
with World Bank requirements, but other issues as well. Meetings are held on a
rotating basis at each university. Its role is to look at consolidation, recognition
of diplomas, unification of curricula and the development of the whole system.
At the time of the OECD visit, only two meetings had been held and it was too
early to assess progress. Only the Mostar West and Sarajevo university rectors
are members of the Association of European Universities.
Many staff within universities have experienced higher education in other

countries. There is a tendency to wait for an appropriate level of resources (as
seen in other countries) before being willing to undertake change. This,
probably false, expectation must be turned around so that staff work out ways to
achieve the highest quality of teaching and research with available resources.
There is a belief that if they wait, resources will come from outside. While this
is happening to some extent, by far the majority of resources for higher
education must be generated within the country. However, the international
community, except for those parts with similar ethnic backgrounds, is unlikely
to provide support for three separate systems in such a small country developed
along ethnic lines.
Universities in OECD countries are not about maintaining ethnic

differences, they are about searching for the truth, passing on and extending
knowledge, and developing understanding irrespective of the racial background
of students. This must be the goal of the universities in BiH, else they can never
become fully part of the international university learning community. An agreed
language for instruction, particularly for science, medicine, information
technology, architecture, engineering, business, agriculture, could assist in
breaking down ethnic boundaries. It could be a ‘non Balkan’ language; for
example, English or German. This would leave history, literature, culture, law,
to be taught in one or other of the three ethnic languages. This is a monumental
‘ask’ yet the quality of education will continue to suffer as long as there are
three systems. Alternatively, a more Swiss-style solution – whereby the
professor teaches in her or his own language, and the students work and write
exams in the language they choose – might work well. All the local languages
157
are sufficiently close for this to be feasible. ‘World’ languages could then be
reserved for post-graduate studies where they are in any case necessary for
serious research.
Higher education is crucial if BiH’s economy is to recover and develop in

a way consistent with other countries in Europe. This will require moving away
from traditional courses towards those which will help develop the economy in
fields such as business studies, information technology, entrepreneurship.
Higher education has a significant role in enhancing the country’s

understanding of democracy and the demonstration that decision making in
European countries is democratic. The system of higher education needs to be
seen as developing anew, rather than being some extension of what existed prior
to the war. The country now has new needs and new directions must be found.
An innovative, relevant system of higher education is central to achieving these
changes.
Processes are required that will open up the higher education system both
nationally and internationally. As one academic put it, ‘too much energy still
goes into the closed circle of reflections from previous decades’.
Issues and barriers in higher education
x Higher education lacks curriculum orientation. University courses in

various faculties are very traditional. Packed lecture halls and dense
lists of course content are evidence of this. University students say
that in most faculties the majority of professors and lecturers do not
plan the pedagogical aspects of their teaching but are mainly
concerned with covering the content of their courses. There are moves
to push the international dimension of a university’s role in the
knowledge that students will be looking for when seeking jobs on the
European Labour Market. This will require the universities to focus on
those employment fields such as information technology or business
studies or engineering which are of cross-state need; yet they are also
fields requiring up-to-date teaching and technology.
x Lack of systematic renewal of higher education courses. The effects of

a prolonged period of war has meant that a renewal of the curriculum
has only just begun with the help of foreign universities. The EC-
TEMPUS program should be more profoundly implemented over the
next few years and the renewal of the curriculum should strive to:
1. Establish the same basic standards in the different parts of BiH;
158
2. Orient students who have completed their degrees towards
employability;
3. Introduce a credit system for courses;
4. Increase awareness of the need to attract and, thereby, increase

the number of post secondary students entering higher
education.
x Fragmentation of higher education. Partly due to the greater

autonomy of departments during decades under SFRY, fragmentation
of higher education is a tradition in BiH and the Washington
Agreement encouraged ethnically based fragmentation even further.
Each of the ten cantons in the Federation have full autonomy in
education, including higher education, so that each could establish
their own higher education presence. Mostar East and Mostar West as
well as Banja Luka University and other smaller universities (e.g.
Bihac and Zenica) and higher education institutions all lack the
capacity and resources to reach the necessary academic standards. The
smaller universities are the most affected. This fragmentation of
institutions and the lack of a mechanism for the measurement of
standards will be damaging to the long term development of higher
education. Although the Agreement provides for the possibility of
making higher education a Federal responsibility, and is increasingly
seen as the most realistic approach, cantonal pressures to retain
complete autonomy remain strong.
x Governance, comparability and financing. Even though there are

seven universities, they are each rather loose associations of
autonomous faculties which operate more or less separately with little
control over standards, and no system to test compatibility across
faculties or universities. Similarly, each faculty manages its own
finances with no mechanisms to ensure that the limited finance
available is equitably distributed, nor is there a process to decide
where funds should be applied to support growth and development in
areas consistent with the economic needs of the country.74 The current
payments approach in the Federation should be discontinued, with the
74
An exception is the University of Tuzla. In the Tuzla-Podrinje canton, legislation
was passed in 2000 which removes the legal status from faculties and reinforces
the central role of the university. Centralised planning and financing are now
being introduced in a more strategic way.
159
Federal ministry being given authority to manage the whole system in
terms of planning, co-ordination, and future development. The Co-
ordination Board is too weak a structure: co-ordination cannot work if
what is to be co-ordinated are the individual decisions of as many as
ten ministries and seven universities.
x Universities share many common problems: in general, they are not

long established, need to have the legislative strength to manage
finances, appoint staff, purchase equipment and to ‘make good’
damaged and under-maintained facilities. Many professors are
returning refugees, without housing and little support to begin
teaching again. Free accommodation in lieu of salary is one possibility
mentioned. There needs to be support for faculty exchanges with other
countries. There is a dearth of textbooks that need to be written to
encompass both new philosophical directions and in areas of growing
demand such as economics. Affordable translations of textbooks that
exist in other countries could be encouraged, even though their price
could still be high by BiH standards. There is considerable need for
new blood in higher education, and particularly young people with a
more modern perspective to take their students outside the narrow
confines of thinking that have long been part of the ethos of the
country.
x From words to action. Although the majority of staff expressed a

willingness to work with other ethnic groups, there is a world of
difference between saying they will do so, and actually doing so.
Current structures, and past practice all act against it. Much outside
support from academics from other countries (in particular, systematic
collaboration with other European academic communities) is needed
to make it clear just what a modern university should be. The
fragmented structures that currently exist are no basis on which to
build a modern university.
x The existence of the two entities – the Republic and the Federation –
makes it difficult to achieve an overall vision for higher education for
the whole country. A single body, e.g. the present Higher Education
Council for BiH (HECB) in an expanded role as recommended below)
should review the needs of the whole country, not just of the
Federation, or of the Republic. In the current context this is probably
not achievable and hence two such Boards, one for the Federation (see
above) and one for the Republic, is perhaps the best that can be
achieved. If so, the whole country will be the poorer, and it will take
160
even longer for the two entities to achieve what each is striving for:
European standards and compatibility.
Recommendations
Recommendations: Policy and management
x Enhance dialogue of educational change. Changes in education in

Bosnia and Herzegovina have been slower than in other countries in
the region, hence the education system remains basically unchanged
from what it was before the war. It is particularly important to
strengthen cross-canton collaboration in identification of priority areas
of education reforms.
x Map the needs for upgrading leadership skills. In general, policy

leadership capacity, i.e. policy development, legislative work,
performance monitoring and evaluation, and information management
is lagging behind development elsewhere. In conjunction with this
mapping exercise, investments should be targeted to respective
training programmes.
x Improve accurate management information. As in several other areas

of educational reconstruction, a comprehensive education
management system is urgently needed.
x Plan decentralisation with care. Demands for rapid and fundamental

decentralisation of education systems are commonly presented in the
reform programmes of transition countries. In Bosnia and
Herzegovina, however, decentralisation should be considered with
caution. There is evidence from other countries that decentralisation
per se does not necessarily promote efficiency and equity of
government activities. Therefore, predictable impacts and scenarios of
decentralisation should be carefully analysed.
Recommendations: Teacher training
x Re-examine and re-define the entire concept of teacher training in

BiH, setting clear aims and key principles for pre-service and in-
service training for teachers and heads of schools.
x Carry out an objective analysis of the capacity of teacher training

suppliers, including universities, to ensure they respond to the real
needs of trainee and serving teachers.
161
x Reform the curriculum and delivery of teacher training for all pre-
university teachers, based on the requirements of the new curricula
and thereby ensuring that teachers are competent to help students
achieve.
x Require that trainee teachers have more exposure to practice in

classrooms, and base training on principles of active and competence-
based learning.
x Increase emphasis on special-needs education in all teacher training.

The psychological and social consequences of the war have been
traumatic for most of the population, children included. Teachers need
to know how to cope with these new demands, and also with the needs
of disabled or disadvantaged children in regular classrooms.
x Formulate a national plan for the use of communication technologies

in curriculum dissemination, teacher training, distance education and
independent learning, to help ensure that these investments improve
learning and equity in achievement.
x Network innovative teachers and schools to exchange ideas and

models they have developed. One way would be to establish several
thematic networks which teachers and schools could join according to
their own interests.
x In the longer term, work towards a minimum standard of entry into

the profession for all new teachers. With the increasing emphasis on
early childhood development and mainstreaming of special-needs
children, the trend world-wide is to expect teachers at all levels to
have a university degree, with specialisations as required.
Recommendations: Standards, curriculum, assessment
x Make full use of the newly established, all-BiH Standards and

Assessment Agency (SAA) to develop and agree common outcome
standards for all students in the country by level and type of
education. These standards play a strong role in ensuring that every
BiH student receives the kind of high-quality, accessible, and
equitable education to which he or she is legally and morally entitled.
x Establish a clear institutional structure for curriculum reform. This

could be a special agency or expert consultative body, including
162
representatives of the Entities and cantons selected according to
professional (not political) qualifications. This agency or body would
develop a common-core curriculum for the State of BiH to implement
the ‘70%’ mandatory common curriculum as agreed in May 2000.
x Implement the 70% common core curriculum, and develop standards-

based assessments and examinations to ensure that the agreed
standards are reached throughout BiH. Reform Matura and university
entrance examinations to bring them in line with European practice.
x Place stronger emphasis on the development of local curricula for the

remaining 30%. Provide support to teachers to introduce standards-
and competence-based assessment in their own classrooms.
x Reduce curriculum content, especially in the early primary grades,

focusing on skills and competence rather than factual knowledge.
x Integrate special-needs programmes into the mainstream curricula,

and ensure that all new curricula are suitable and accessible for
children across the entire ability range, so that school success is
achievable for all.
x Agree on a clear set of principles: (1) ownership of the change

process, with public consultation; (2) flexibility: curriculum change is
a non-linear, dynamic, cyclical process rather than a set of rigid
norms; (3) replication of successful models to capitalise on the
expertise and skill developed during the reform process.
Recommendations: Pre-primary (early childhood)
x Target services to deprived and special-needs groups, particularly

once children start entering primary school at age 6. Expand, build on
and target existing pilot projects to benefit these groups.
x Train aides/nursery nurses, and give them certified status and a clear
professional role. Standardise entry and exit requirements across
Entities and institutions, and develop job descriptions for teacher aides
and nursery nurses to improve the quality of care during the vital 9
months to 3 years age range.
x Make knowledge of early childhood development a core part of all

teacher training programmes, regardless of subject specialisation.
163
x Co-ordinate services across the ministries of health, social welfare
and education, and encourage involvement of parents, particularly
fathers, in pre-school programmes.
x Increase efforts to integrate children with special needs into early

childhood programmes to gradually remove stigmatisation and
facilitate their transition to regular school.
Recommendations: Vocational education
x Define a long-term, integrated and systematic strategy for VET and

adult education across BiH.
x Improve links between VET and the labour market through improved
co-ordination by the relevant authorities and a better information base.
x Improve training of vocational education teachers to reflect more

realistically the demands of BiH’s post-war economy.
x Widen the perspective; shift VET’s orientation towards practice;

involve social partners. The training of vocational education teachers
should be closely associated with the world of work. A major
constraint in BiH is that enterprises now are unable to support
vocational teacher training practicums. Pilot projects could provide
opportunities for schools and enterprises to learn together, and the
results should be disseminated amongst other schools and their
economic environments.
x Make optimum use of new expertise in BiH. A great deal of work on

teacher training and curriculum reform has been done in the last two
and a half years supported by the European Union’s EC-Phare VET
programme. Also, to stimulate debate and understanding of current
developments, the policy and experience of neighbouring countries
(e.g. Slovenia, which has the same historical links to FRY, including
institutional arrangements for education and training) could be tapped.
In Slovenia, reform of vocational teacher training and curriculum
modernisation was school-based, included social partners, and could
be a model for school-based reforms in BiH.
164
Recommendations: Higher education
x Make use of the considerable support available (particularly from the

European higher education community and programmes such as EC-
TEMPUS) to assist redevelopment of the higher education system; but
ensure that it is focused and consistent with (part of) a strategic plan
for its development, including ‘Europeanisation’. In particular, the
BiH higher education system must be fully aligned with the ‘Bologna
process’ which is currently re-defining how European higher
education conducts its work.
x Convert the Higher Education Council (HECB) into a strong, state-

wide higher education council with representatives not only of
universities, but also government and employers. This body should be
responsible for a national approach to funding, standards, courses,
rationalisation and quality improvement. Thus far, however, efforts
made in this direction have not been fruitful, and at present this
recommendation may still not be feasible.
x As a half-way measure, establish a Federation Board of Higher

Education to advise the Minister of Education in the Federation on
strategic directions, resourcing, accreditation, and overall management
of the system. This Board should have representatives from the three
ethnic groups, as well as business, industry, and government
nominees. They should be appointed for their skill and understanding
of contemporary higher education issues, not for political balance or
ethnic background.
x Develop university courses that are more employment-related and

aimed at building the BiH economy. Information technology, business
studies and entrepreneurship should all be routine parts of any
university study.
x Adopt a common credit system for all courses in all universities as

soon as possible, to facilitate student transfers both within and outside
BiH and help ensure quality standards.
x Develop a national strategy on higher education with funding to

universities dependent on their achieving the benchmarks for change
set down in the strategy.
165
x Give the Ministry of Education in the Federation fiscal responsibility
for all the universities in the Federation which should be funded from
one central fund to meet Federal targets. This is not intended to deny
individual cantons, business, or grants from NGOs making
contributions direct to specific universities for special purposes. Such
additional funding should be encouraged.
x Encourage the universities in the higher education system to become

more active members of the European university community. This will
require a moving away from ethnic division as a basis for establishing
a university towards an unbiased objective search for knowledge as
part of a national system.
x Strengthen the role of universities in creating those people who will

establish the country as a nation in economic terms, in cultural terms
and in social terms. This goal must be central to the universities’
planning, teaching, and approach to curriculum.
x Tighten the relationship between the higher education system and the
employers they serve. In particular, there should be regular meetings
between representatives of universities, the Federation Ministry of
Education, the Srpska Ministry of Education and other canton
ministries, and particularly the Ministries of Employment to ensure
that practical needs are met.
166
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REFERENCES
AINSCOW, M. and HAILE-GIORGIS, M. (1999)

“The Education of Children with Special Needs in Central and Eastern
Europe: Barriers and Opportunities.” Innocenti Occasional Papers.
Florence: UNICEF International Child Development Centre.
COUNCIL OF EUROPE (1999)

Directorate-General IV, Education, Culture, Youth and Sport,
Environment. Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Governance,
Finance and Administration. Prepared for the World Bank. Strasbourg.
EUROPEAN TRAINING FOUNDATION (October 2000)

“Labour market-vocational education and training assessment: Bosnia
and Herzegovina.” Unpublished draft. Torino.
GLIGOROV, V. et al. (October 1999)

Balkan Reconstruction and EU Integration.
HELSINKI COMMITTEE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS (1998)

Comparative Analysis of Some Aspects of Education. Educational Plans
and Curricula in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bijeljina.
KLUGMAN, J. (1997)
“Decentralisation: A Survey from a Child Welfare Perspective”,
Innocenti Occasional Paper No. 61. Florence: UNICEF/ICDC.
LENHART, V., KESIDOU, A. and STOCKMANN, S. (1999)

The Curricula of the ‘National Subjects’ in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A
Report to UNESCO, Heidelberg.
POULTON, H. (1993)
The Balkans: Minorities and States in Conflict. London: Minority Rights
Group.
SILBER, L. and LITTLE, A. (1995)

The Death of Yugoslavia. London: Penguin Books.
168
BULGARIA
The Thematic Review of Education Policy of Bulgaria describes the

current status of the education system and reform efforts underway. The
country is introduced by general and demographic data; language, the
geographic and historical context; the political, economic and the labour
market situation; it also describes the structure and the legal framework.
The whole education system is covered, from general education to
vocational education, from higher education to lifelong learning, but
focusing on early childhood and care, teachers and teacher training,
curriculum and governance and administration. Equity in access,
attainment and achievement are central issues, and special consideration is
given to ethnic and minority questions and education for children with
special needs. Attention is paid to decentralisation and financing of
education; to quality, assessment and evaluation in education; to pre-
service and in-service teacher training; working conditions and teacher
salaries, the role of school inspectors; textbook provision and material and
resources in general. The report describes issues and barriers at all levels of
the education system and gives recommendations for policy makers,
practitioners and donors.
BULGARIA
General Data
Area: 110 910 sq. km. (slightly larger than Tennessee)

Number of 7 973 614 (March 2001 census)75
inhabitants:
Population density: 71.9 per sq. km
Population growth: Negative (-1.16% average; -9% in rural areas).
Bulgaria has one of the ‘oldest’ age structures in
Europe with those over working age (54 for
women, 59 for men) accounting for 24.7% of the
population. Only 19.1% are under 19. Birth rates
have dropped steeply; primary school population
will drop by 31% by 2006/7.
Urban/rural 69% urban/31% rural (2000 estimate).
distribution: Considerable urban drift; only 45 of the
262 municipalities are considered rural (i.e. with
less than 50% urban population).
Ethnic composition: Bulgarian 83%; Turkish 8.5%; Macedonian
2.5%,76 Roma 2.6%77
75
The previous census (1992) stated 8 948 649; the decline is mostly due to
emigration. The 1992 figures have been contested on methodological and
political grounds and are considered unreliable.
76
In the March 2001 census, only 2 720 people considered themselves
Macedonian; this is about 0.3%. However, ‘the Macedonian Question’ has
historically been one of the most contentious issues in the Balkans, and
successive censuses have given conflicting figures.
77
Here the official and un-official figures vary widely, from less than 3% to
9%. Officially, there are 288 000 Roma in Bulgaria; the actual number
appears to be at least 550 000 or even between 700 000 and 800 000, which
would be around 8 to 9%.
171
Religion: Bulgarian Orthodox 83.5%; Muslim 13%; other
or none 3.5%
Languages: Bulgarian (secondary languages along ethnic
lines)
Literacy: 99% (2000 estimate)
Labour force: 2.8 million (1999), 26.4% in industry including
mining, manufacturing and construction;
agriculture 25.7%; services 47.9%
GDP per capita: USD 5 600 Per capita.78 This compares with USD
13 207 for Slovenia, USD 6 595 for Romania,
and USD 4 169 for Macedonia. The European
Union average is USD 19 638 and the average for
OECD countries is USD 19 859.
Per cent of State 17.3% in 2002 (up from 12.5% in 1999). Most
budget on education: schools are funded through their municipalities
but some receive direct funding from the MoES
(specialised schools and technikums).
Inflation: After hyper-inflation (242% for the month of
February 1997), inflation was 6.2% in 1999,
4.8% in 2001 and currency is stable. GDP growth
in Bulgaria for 2001 was 5%, slightly down from
2000 (5.8%) which was the highest since 1989.
Unemployment: 17%; 13.8% registered (November 1999). 55%
remain unemployed for more than 1 year. Youth
unemployment (16-30 years old): 37% of all
unemployed.
The First Bulgarian Kingdom existed from 681 until 1018, and as such is
the oldest state in Europe still existing under the same name. During this period,
Bulgaria was converted to Christianity (865), and the first translations of the
scriptures from Greek into Slavonic were made in Old-Bulgarian, which
became the language not only of the church but of literature and civic
administration of a number of Slavic and non-Slavic countries in the region.
The Old-Bulgarian alphabet, known as the Cyrillic script, remains in wide use,
78
At Purchasing Power Parity, Source: WIIW Database incorporating national
and international statistics.
172
not only in Bulgaria itself but in Belarus, Ukraine, Serbia, Russia and other
countries. The Second Bulgarian Kingdom (1185-1396) resulted from a
successful uprising of Bulgarian aristocrats; Turnovo became the capital until
the Ottoman invasion in 1396. Bulgaria remained an Ottoman province for the
next 500 years, but Bulgarians remained a relatively free people, able to travel,
conduct business, and enjoy freedom of religion. Nevertheless, when an
uprising in April 1877 was brutally put down by the Turkish authorities, world
public op6inion (led by Russia in the Russian-Turkish War 1877-78) forced
Turkey to give Bulgaria its independence. The European powers, fearing
Russia’s and Bulgaria’s dominance in the Balkans, intervened at the Congress
of Berlin (1878), and limited Bulgaria’s territory. The Treaty of Berlin (1878)
created the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Romelia, later (1885) united
into a single entity. In 1908 Bulgaria declared its independence as a
constitutional monarchy.
Having fought on the losing side in both World Wars, Bulgaria fell within
the Soviet sphere of influence, and became a People’s Republic in 1946.
Communist domination ended in November 1989 when Todor Zhivkov’s
government resigned. The first free elections were held in 1990. A democratic
Constitution was adopted in 1991. Today, reforms and democratisation are
aimed at eventual integration into the EU and NATO. The government is a
parliamentary democracy with 9 administrative divisions (provinces). The
legislative branch consists of an uni-cameral National Assembly with 240 seats;
members serve 4-year terms. The highest court is the Supreme Court, with a
chairman appointed by the President for 7 years.
Bulgaria’s transitional recession was deeper and longer than that of most
other former communist economies. Despite an initial bold reform programme,
subsequent political instability and erratic macro-economic and fiscal policies
led to high inflation and dramatic exchange rate depreciations. Output fell for
5 consecutive years following the collapse of the communist regime; GDP
declined by 30% over the 1990-94 period, and was accompanied by a sharp rise
in unemployment.
In 1994-95, the economy registered some growth, but the then-government

was unable to contain fiscal deficits and tackle structural problems in enterprise
and banking, and another downward spiral reached its lowest point in early
1997. By January of that year, the economic crisis turned into a political one
which further aggravated the economic situation. The lev depreciated to 3 000
per USD; inflation reached 242% for the month of February alone. The impact
on Bulgarian households was disastrous. Even with a doubling of nominal
wages in February and another 60% raise in March, the average wage fell to
USD 20/month – not enough to buy the most basic food for a family of three.
173
Pensioners and others on fixed State incomes saw their benefits drop to
USD 10/month. Popular and political protests brought down the government,
and a more reform-oriented government was elected in April 1997.
Its foremost achievement has been the rapid restoration of macro-economic

stability, e.g. by appointing a national currency board, pegging the leva to the
Deutschmark and bringing down the rate of inflation. The challenge now is to
maintain stability and resist inflationary pressures without further eroding social
protection or health and education spending.
Poverty and inequality are major social issues. A working group of the
Ministry of Labour and Social Policy (MoLSP) estimated that more than 23% of
the population lived below the poverty line in 1997, compared with only 5% in
1992.79 Nearly half of Bulgaria’s poor live in rural areas, even though about
one-third of the population lives there. Poverty and unemployment
disproportionately affect families with children, and ethnic minorities
(especially Roma and Turks). A very high percentage (as high as 85% in 1997)
of households receive some sort of income benefit, regardless of household
income, often from multiple sources. Efforts are now being made to target
available resources more sharply, benefiting those most in need, rather than
spreading them thinly to so many. A new Act on Unemployment Security
serves as the first social framework policy document for Bulgaria; it supports
active labour market programmes for young people (with nearly 40%
unemployment), ethnic minorities, and long-term unemployed.
The Government of Bulgaria has laid out its development strategy for the
next 6 years in the National Economic Development Plan (NEDP), with
accession to the EU as its main objective.
Features of the education system are as follows:
x Age at which compulsory education starts: 6-7.
x Age at which compulsory education ends: 16.
x Levels of educational governance: In theory, four: National (MoES),

regional, municipal, and school level. In reality, the regional level (28
79
IBRD figures, 1998.
174
Educational Inspectorates) are branches of the national MoES, so that
the levels are only three.
x Structure of the education system: Pre-school: ages 3-6 with some

crèche provision for under-3s. Junior grades 1-4; Middle [or ‘pre-
secondary’] grades 5-8. Grades 1-8 (called Primary80) cover the
compulsory part of education, and are mostly provided in the same
school. Secondary schools are of 4 main types: gymnasium grades 9-
12; specialist high schools with profiles in particular curriculum areas
– e.g. sciences, humanities – they often select students at end of grade
7; vocational/technical schools and art schools, 3 or 4 years;
vocational training schools, 2 or 3 years. Religious schools are
recognised as equal to secular schools as long as they meet State
requirements.
x Examination/transition points: Children who complete junior (grades

1-4) education receive a leaving certificate from their school; at the
end of full primary (grade 8) they receive a certificate (again based on
internal assessment by teachers) that entitles them to continue into
grade 9. There are State matriculation exams at the end of grade 12; a
new, external form of Matura is due to be introduced in 2003.
x Special features: Steep declines in birth rates mean that by school year
2006/7, there will be 31% fewer children in grades 1-4 and 23% fewer
in grades 5-8. These changes are of major concern in the MoES, and
underpin the MoES’s school optimisation policy.
x Fragmented and complex secondary school system.
x Steep rise in the number of students in higher education, from 120 000
in 1990 to 258 000 in 2000.
6
The English translation of Art. 26 of the Public Education Act of 1991 (as
amended through January 1999) uses these terms: Junior grades 1-4; Middle
5-8; Primary 1-8; Secondary 9-12; Specialised secondary 8-12;
Comprehensive 1-12; Vocational and technical schools 8/9-12/13; Vocational
training schools 7/8 for a 3-year course, or 9-12 for a 4-year course, or
vocational colleges 2 years if entered after completing Secondary; Sports
schools; Art schools, Special schools. This report will try to use these terms
as much as possible, although many Ministry documents use different
terminology.
175
Financial issues
According to their primary source of funding, schools are classified as

‘state’ or ‘municipal’ schools. State schools, which include special needs and
vocational schools, are funded directly from the MoES or other relevant line
ministries. Municipal schools are funded from three sources: (1) a block grant to
the municipality from the Ministry of Finance for social services, including
education; (2) a share of the municipal tax revenues; (3) extra-budgetary funds
raised by the schools themselves.
Schools – except for those that take part in a ‘delegated budget’ pilot
programme involving 104 schools – do not manage funds themselves. Services
are provided and paid for by the municipality; salaries are paid centrally by the
municipality; maintenance of buildings is done and paid for by the municipality.
The ‘delegated budget’ approach may now be extended to all schools.81
Very little money is being spent on teaching and learning materials. While
70% of the budget goes to pay salaries and 12% to pay for utilities (mostly
heating), only 1% is spent on school libraries and teaching materials.
Salary differentials from one step on the teacher scale to the next is only 8
leva (approx. USD 4) per month, so that the difference between a beginning
teacher (level I) and one with the highest qualifications (level V) is only 40 leva
or USD 20 per month. There is no incentive for teachers to develop
professionally, especially since in-service teacher training courses can be
expensive. A reduction in the teaching force combined with a better career
structure for remaining teachers would save money and improve teachers’
professional and financial status.
Other issues
Decentralisation and control. Lines of communication, authority and

accountability between the MoES and its 28 satellites, the 9 regional districts
(oblasti), the 262 municipalities (obshtini)82 and the schools are fragmented and
compartmentalised. ‘Who does what’ in education?
81
World Bank information, 2000.
82
Municipalities in turn are composed of ‘human settlements’ (naseleni mesta),
of which there are about 5 300 in total including 238 towns, 4 440 villages,
and 560 smaller units like hamlets, railway stations, monasteries. Larger
municipalities, like Sofia, are subdivided into rayoni (boroughs). Below
municipalities, there is sometimes another sub-level of local government, the
176
Selection rather than education for all. The system favours the high-
achieving students, but seems less concerned about retaining and motivating
average and slow learners. ‘Who is being served’ in education?
Low participation rates after grade 8 (only 67% of age cohort), and high
drop-out rates especially among minorities. Overall, drop-out is estimated
officially at 6/7% during the compulsory phase of education; real figures are
likely to be higher, but even at 6% it means there are 45 000 children not in
school who should be. Officials at the MoES and the local inspectorates do not
seem very concerned, and frequently state that drop-outs are ‘mostly Roma’.
But the law on compulsory education applies to all children in Bulgaria, of any
ethnic origin; moreover, statistics and the team’s own data indicate that the
problem is not confined to Roma children. The issue needs to be taken much
more seriously, analysing the school environment, the content and process of
instruction as well as the social context, and any unnecessary barriers should be
identified and removed insofar as possible, certainly through grade 8.
mayoralty or kmetstvo, but they usually have no budget and limited

representation on municipal councils.
177
Statistical data
Table 1. Participation rates by level of education, 1999/2000
% of
No. of Girls Pupil:Teacher Total no. Of which:
School level age
students (% of total) Ratio of schools Private
group
Pre-school 211 943 66.4 11:1 3 536 18
(ages 3-6)
Primary
school, grades
759 931 951 48 12:1 1 997 25
1-8
(ages 7-15)
Secondary
school, grades 340 271 67 49 11:1 1 154 56
9-12 29 12:1 577 21
(ages 15-19) 38 11:1 577 35
General
VET
Tertiary
education 258 230 35 57 10:1 92
Total 412 4
University 51 n.a.
Non-
university
Totals 1 570 375 6 779 159
1. Gross enrolment for grades 1-4 is 102%, but only 87% for grades 5-8, an unacceptably large
decrease.
2. According to the MoES, there are 41 universities; 29 of them public, 4 private, 8 military. There
are pedagogical faculties in 10 universities to offer pre-service teacher training. They do not co-
ordinate their curricula or requirements, however. Interview, 23/10/2000.
Legal and Policy Framework
Apart from the Constitution (1991), the Local Development and Local
Administration Act of 1991, the Municipal Budget Act of 1997, the Regional
Development Act of 1999, and major policy documents such as the National
Economic Development Plan (NEDP), the main laws forming the legal
framework for education are:
x The Public Education Act adopted 1991 and amended and

supplemented several times thereafter; in force in its present form
178
since January 1999,83 but with some changes due to subsequent
adoption of the HE and VET Laws.
x The Higher Education Act adopted 1991 and amended and

supplemented several times; in force in its present form since July
1999 with one amendment thereafter (also July 1999).
x The Law on the Level of Schooling, the General and Educational

Minimum and the Syllabus within the public education system.
Adopted July 1999 affecting some clauses of the Public Education
Act.
x The Vocational Education and Training Act adopted 15 July 1999,

also affecting some clauses of the Public Education Act.
x There are also a number of important policy papers, e.g. the Higher
Education Strategy, the new Code on Implementation of the Public
Education Act, and project-related papers on Finance (delegated
budgets) and Vocational Education and Training (EC-Phare).
Administration, Governance and Finance
The Council of Ministers is responsible for setting state policy in

education. The Ministry of Education and Science is, according to the Law, a
specialised body of the Council of Ministers responsible for the management of
the education system. This arrangement places the MoES in the role of
managing, rather than setting, education policy although the Ministry does have
the power to issue regulatory decrees, and to exercise control over the activities
of all types of kindergartens, schools, servicing units, and the levels of
schooling. Under a new Law on Standards (General Education Minimum, July
1999), the MoES is also in charge of setting the school timetable in order to
meet state standards, and of overseeing the implementation of the (core)
curriculum in all schools and kindergartens.
For Vocational Education and Training (VET), the new Law on VET
places responsibility on the National Agency for Vocational Education and
Training (NAVET), with a Managing Board with MoES representation but with
a chairperson appointed directly by the Prime Minister. Other Ministries, such
83
By law, the Minister of Education and Science was required to issue a new
Code of Implementation of the Public Education Act within a year of its
coming into force, i.e., by January 2000. This Code is another important
framework document.
179
as the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy and the Ministry of Health, and
social partners including employers’ organisations and trade unions, are also
represented on the Managing Board of the NAVET.
Education Inspectorates are, again by law, ‘local subdivisions of the

MoES’; they are legal entities, but the MoES specifies their structure, functions
and territory, and issues contracts with inspectors.
Municipalities provide – compulsory school education of children up to 16

years of age:
x Health care and safety care to schools and kindergartens, and the
children in them.
x Funding for maintaining, constructing, furnishing and repair of

schools and buildings under their jurisdiction.
x Funding for meeting state standards referred to in the Law, as well as

support for all curricula of municipal kindergartens, schools and
servicing units.
x Transportation, meals etc. for children, and conditions in canteens,

boarding houses, recreation and sports facilities.
x Grants and special support for children in the schools under their
jurisdiction.
Clearly, municipalities fulfil an essential role in the day-to-day provision

of education to children up to the end of compulsory schooling.
Local self-government
This form of government in Bulgaria has historic roots going back at least
100 years, although between 1945 and 1989 it was disregarded until the
Constitution of 1991 reinstated it. The Sixth National Human Development
Report (NHDR) for Bulgaria84 states as its basic premise that ‘good governance,
greater social cohesion and co-operation among all development actors in
Bulgaria is now essential not only to achieve EU membership, but to
consolidate stability and growth’. Strengthening regional institutions and
84
See References. The first of these reports was published in 1995 with UNDP
support. They are considered an important reference point for national policy,
including education policy.
180
empowering municipalities are important: ‘Human development is the end, and
(decentralisation) policies are the means to advance more peace, stability, equity
and sustainable growth’.
While this is essentially true, for this review it is useful to reflect that
decentralisation tends to be a political rather than an educational agenda, and
that it is by no means certain that decisions made locally are educationally
better, more rational, or more fair – for example to local minorities and their
equal access to educational opportunities and resources. A balance needs to be
struck between the protection of legal and educational rights and standards for
all children regardless of who or where in Bulgaria they happen to be, and local
priorities or traditions.
Bulgaria’s administrative structure is multi-layered and complex, but in

decentralisation it is the municipal level that will be the most important.
According to the NHDR, Bulgarian municipalities today show five common
characteristics: growing social disparities; weak management capacity; top-
down decision-making patterns; lack of appropriate tools e.g. technology,
investment, strategic planning, infrastructure such as roads and
communications; and lack of resources.85 While resources are of the most
urgent interest, there is a desperate need for new skills and methods at regional
and local levels to produce development plans in a strategic and participatory
way. The lack of these skills was one of the reasons why the first attempt (1999)
at strategic planning at local level was not successful. Only 18% of
municipalities submitted plans that could at least be used as a development tool
even if they were not backed by funding or implementation plans; most other
municipalities either did not respond (60%) or submitted simple wish lists of
capital investment projects (22%).86
In addition to lack of experience in local planning, many municipalities

have large debts and liabilities (106 municipalities had combined liabilities
amounting to 143 million leva, and in October 2000 Pleven district alone
reported a deficit of 5 million leva). These have now been paid, but new debts
are being created which points not only to resource and financial management
problems but also to inadequate municipal budgeting. Therefore, simply
devolving further financial responsibilities to municipal level, without
additional resources or incentives for efficiency measures or local initiatives, is
likely to make problems worse: ‘Municipalities get what is possible but not
what is necessary’ to meet the obligations delegated to them.
85
Ibid., Chapter 3.
86
Ibid., Chapter 3.
181
The issue of central-regional-local relationships is now being addressed
through the creation of 6 Social and Economic Cohesion Commissions whose
main task is to combine local and central strategies. Ministry, regional and local
representatives are joined by civil society organisations such as trade unions,
NGOs, chambers of commerce etc.
The Pedagogical Council is, according to the Law, ‘a specialised

management body’ which discusses and settles major issues related to
pedagogy. It is therefore a professional, rather than an administrative, entity.
At the level of the school, School Boards are ‘public bodies’ set up to
provide assistance to a school or kindergarten. They are subject to a code of
practice and guidelines issued by the MoES.
Head teachers or school directors are required to have academic degrees,

and for state schools and kindergartens their contracts are with the MoES; for
municipal schools, their contracts are with the relevant municipality, while for
municipal kindergartens, the Mayor of the municipality contracts with the heads
or directors. Decisions by heads of state schools and kindergartens may be
overturned by the MoES; decisions made by heads of municipal schools by the
head of the relevant education inspectorate; and decisions made by heads of
municipal kindergartens by the Mayor of the municipality.
182
Types of schools
According to the Law of Public Education (Article No. 26), instruction is

provided in these types of schools:
1. Junior – grades 1-4

2. Middle – grades 5-8
3. Primary – grades 1-8
4. Secondary – grades 9-12
5. Specialised secondary – grades 8-12
6. Comprehensive – grades 1-12
7. Vocational training schools – from grade 8 or 9 through 12
8. Vocational schools – from grade 6 or 7 offering a 3-year course; or,
from grade 9 offering courses of up to 4 years; or, after secondary
education acquisition, a 2-year course
9. Sport schools
10. Art schools
11. Special schools for children with special educational needs (SEN).
Schools of different types and levels are often housed in the same
building and under the leadership of the same school principal. The
following sets of grades and levels are in existence:
Table 2. Combinations of grades and levels in the school system
I-II I-IX I-XII
I-IV IV-VIII VII-XII
I-VIII IV-XII VIII-XII
Source: School Finance in Bulgaria in an Era of Educational Reform by Douglas L. Adkins.
Issues and Barriers in administration, governance and finance
Issues related to school types
x Possible barriers to school attendance after grade 4 or 8. Rural areas

have mostly the type of schools shown in the first column of Table 2.
The most popular type of village school is junior (1-4) plus middle
(grades 5-8). The MoES wants to retain junior schools in most of the
villages, and to transport children to middle schools. But in reality,
183
how accessible is middle and secondary education for rural children?
Could the decline of enrolment at middle and secondary level be
related to limited access (for example lack of transport)?
x Uncertainty about the future of comprehensive or ‘neighbourhood’

schools. Secondary education can be obtained at comprehensive
secondary schools (grades1-12), secondary classes, or specialised
secondary schools (gymnasia). The future of comprehensive
secondary schools is problematic, and is related to the growing
emphasis on early selection into specialised and selective (even elitist)
education.87 Parents do not believe that their children will be
adequately prepared to enter university if they study in a
comprehensive school. Gymnasia or selective specialised schools
provide better chances, in the opinion of parents. But students who are
average or slow learners, or who are still undecided about their future
studies, are left behind the barrier, and comprehensive schools become
in effect schools for ‘left-over’ youngsters. This is demoralising for
students and teachers alike, and could be one reason why drop-out
levels rise after grade 7 or 8.
x Selection rather than education. A national education system has an

equal duty towards every child’s education. Too often, and quite
commonly in post-socialist countries, schools appear to be more
interested in selecting the few than in educating all. In Bulgaria,
gymnasia or specialised subject schools select students by
competition, often as early as grade 7; one gymnasium visited by the
team appeared proud of the fact that it selected 78 students from
among 1 000 applicants for grade 8. There was no interest in what had
happened to the 922 students who had been rejected. It is of course far
easier (and more pleasant) to select and teach ‘the best’ than it is to
educate all, but that is exactly the challenge a public education system
must face if it is to serve the whole nation.
87
One comprehensive (1-12) school visited by the team had not had a grade 9
or 11 for several years, but did have some students in grades 10 and 12:
‘nearly all students leave for profiled schools after grade 7 or
8…Comprehensive schools become ‘sink’ schools, where only those students
who did not manage to get into a profiled school remain. “… We have to
work hard to attract and retain any students, although we live in a catchment
area of 17 000 people”. Interview, October 31 2000.
184
Issues related to finance
x The allocation of school budgets is controlled centrally, either through

the MoES or through the municipalities. The MoES directly funds and
manages special schools and vocational schools; others are the
responsibility of municipalities. In all cases, financial management is
exercised through strictly controlled budget headings and allocations
set by the funding authority. School directors have little or no
financial autonomy. Delegated budgets were identified in 1992 as a
possible means to increase financial efficiency and school-level
quality; although plans existed to start a pilot project in 1995, the
financial crisis delayed the introduction of necessary legislation.
However, a EC-Phare funded project was started in March 1998 with
the objective of moving Bulgaria closer to European ‘best practice’ in
education finance.
x This ‘Financial Management of School Education’ (FMSE) project

involved 104 schools and centres in four pilot areas (Blagoevgrad,
Kjustendil, Nesebar, and Silistra), involving both MoES-funded and
municipality-funded schools. Pilot schools were given delegated
budgets from March 1998, along with computer equipment, a
management information system, and an incentive fund to develop the
innovative capacity of schools. Different types of funding formulas
were tried in the participating regions, and indications are that school
directors as well as municipalities have reacted positively. Under the
new Government of Bulgaria/World Bank project, the delegated
budgets scheme will be expanded to other regions and eventually
nationally. In 2001, 20 more schools joined the scheme, and another
15 followed in 2002.
x However, some school administrators are sceptical about the reality

of ‘autonomous accounts’ for schools. Budgets received from the
municipalities are perceived as “arbitrary …sometimes we get
10 000 leva, sometimes 4 000 leva (USD 2000) the funding formula is
not transparent, and the regulatory framework is inadequate”. Some
municipalities do not permit schools to keep moneys they raise
themselves, e.g. from room rentals, on grounds that the school
building does not ‘belong to’ the school; nor can extra-budgetary
funds be used to raise teachers’ salaries. One positive aspect of
devolved budgets is that schools know how much money will be
available; moreover, they receive it at the start of the school year, and
can plan accordingly.
185
Equity in access, attainment and achievement
One of the strengths of Bulgarian education is that the school system is

capable of providing schooling for the vast majority of children up to the age of
16. The school network created in socialist times has been maintained, and there
is no lack of schools or teachers. However, true equality of educational
opportunity is not simply a matter of provision; it has four main components –
equality in access to, survival in, treatment during, and life chances as a result
of, education – and not all children are ‘equal’ in all four.
Nevertheless, Bulgaria has managed to maintain pre-1989 levels of pre-

school enrolment (62% of the 2-8 age group), and statistics show that access to
grades 1-4 is virtually universal (gross enrolment rate stands at 102%).
However, gross enrolments at middle (grades 5-8) and secondary levels (9-12)
decrease to 87% and 68% respectively. This is particularly worrying for grades
5-8, which are still part of compulsory education.
Equity and Ethnicity
More than 30 minority groups live in Bulgaria,88 of which the most

numerous are the ethnic Turks, estimated to number at least 900 000 before the
mass exodus in 1989, and the Roma, estimated at about 550 00089 to 800 000
although official numbers are lower. Other large minorities are the ethnic
Macedonians living mostly around Blagoevgrad and the Pirin regions, and
Bulgarian Muslims, a religious rather than ethnic minority, mostly living in the
Rhodope mountains and in the Pirin region. Although most ethnic minorities
have lived in Bulgaria for centuries – the ethnic Turks since the end of the
14th century – and despite many campaigns of (often forced)90 assimilation,
88
Olena Marushiakova and Vesselin Popov, ‘Study of the Education Situation
of Ethnic Minorities in Bulgaria’, 1999. In addition to Turks, Roma and
“Pomaks” (Bulgarian Muslims), estimated to number 1.5 million in all, there
are around 30 other groups – Armenians, Jews, Russians, Tartars –
numbering approx. 10 000 all together.
89
Local authorities gave a figure of 550 926 at the end of 1990, but this is likely
to be low because of the continuing social disadvantage attached to being a
Roma.
90
There are well documented accounts of forced name-changing and other
assimilation campaigns against Turks, Pomaks and Roma, especially between
1984 and 1989. Protests and demonstrations were often brutally put down,
especially in villages, and eventually most people did ‘voluntarily’ accept
new names and identity cards because otherwise they would not be able to
receive pensions or other state benefits, and in worst cases they would face
186
most Bulgarian minorities have retained their identity and culture, and live in
identifiable ethnic communities rather than dispersed throughout the population.
This would facilitate targeted efforts to improve minority education and
employment opportunities.
Table 3. Structure of population according to their age

and ethnic group
(per cent)
1
Age Bulgaria Bulgarian Turks Roma
(national)
0-9 12 10.9 16.8 25.4
10-19 14.5 13.7 18.1 23.2
20-29 13.3 12.7 16.5 17.4
30-39 13.7 13.4 14.9 13.9
40-49 14 14.4 12.2 9.2
50-59 12.1 12.7 9.9 5.8
Above 60 20.4 22.2 11.6 5.1
1.
Because of their higher birth rates and lower life expectancy, the Roma
community is significantly younger than other population groups.
Source: Rezultati ot prebroyavaneto na naselenieto. Tom I – Demografski

charakteristiki (The Results from People Census, Vol. 1 Demographic
Characteristics), Sofia: Natsionalen Statisticheski Institut, 1994.91
Bulgaria has made positive efforts to improve the living standards and
educational opportunities for minorities. Parliament ratified the ‘Framework
Convention for Protection of National Minorities’ in February 1999, and many
NGOs and other agencies are active, especially UNICEF, Open Society, the
International Centre for Minority Studies, and the Balkan Foundation for Cross-
Cultural Education.
arrest, internal banishment, or imprisonment in detention camps. In January

1990, Todor Zhivkov was arrested and charged with ‘inciting ethnic hostility
and hatred’ through the assimilation campaigns. A law was passed in 1990 to
restore Muslim (Pomak and Turkish) names but the law did not specifically
include Muslim Roma. See Hugh Poulton, op.cit., pp. 105-171. However, it
is still difficult to give accurate estimates of the size of ethnic minorities
because of at least one whole generation of forced assimilation and name-
changing.
91
Olena Marushiakova Vesselin Popov, op.cit., 1999.
187
There is, however, no explicit national strategy for education of minority
groups, and conditions, especially for Roma,92 are still far from equal. Small-
scale discrimination against Roma continues in daily life. The literacy rate
among Roma is considerably lower than in the general population, and in 1990
both the Bulgarian and international media reported that 80% of prisoners were
Roma.93 In general, fewer Roma children attend kindergarten, and many Roma
children start their primary schooling late, e.g. at age 8 or 9. There have also
been reports of declining school attendance among all Bulgarian children (see
under Drop-out, below) but particularly among Roma. Between 1995 and 1997,
the share of Roma children age 7-14 attending school fell by 60%, and for
Bulgarian children of the same age group by 20%. As for secondary school,
only 6% of Roma completed secondary education compared with 40% of the
total population.94 These 1997 figures probably reflect the crisis of 1997, but
once children have dropped out of compulsory education, they will not find it
easy to drop back in.
Equity and Language of Instruction
In line with Marxist-Leninist theory, the first Constitution of the People’s

Republic of Bulgaria (1947, Art. 71) stated that although the study of Bulgarian
was obligatory in schools, national minorities had the right to study in their
vernacular. A Turkish language department was set up in Sofia University.
However, in 1956 Turkish schools were merged with Bulgarian ones; by 1971
the teaching of Turkish in Bulgarian schools had ceased; in 1974 the Turkish
department at the University was shut down; and by the mid-1980s the speaking
of Turkish was banned in all public places on penalty of a significant fine (one
month’s salary on a second offence).
The ethnic Turkish minority, along with Roma, suffered most from
linguistic repression during the Zhivkov period. However, at present, ‘school
children whose mother tongue is other than Bulgarian may, besides the
92
It is important to state here the great diversity among ‘Roma’ in Bulgaria.
There are reportedly as many as 60 different ethnic sub-groups, and in
addition there are rural/urban, assimilated/non-assimilated, Rom-
speaking/Bulgarian-speaking, and religious distinctions. Therefore,
generalisations are almost certain to be contentious.
93
Bulgarian Telegraph Association and BBC, October 1990.
94
Ringold, Dena (2000). ‘Education and the Roma in Central and Eastern
Europe: Trends and Challenges’. Unpublished paper presented at the
European Regional Education for All Conference, Warsaw, Poland, February
7.
188
compulsory study of the Bulgarian language, study their mother tongue in
municipal schools under the protection and control of the state’ (Art. 8(2) of the
Public Education Act of 1999). There are an estimated 37 000 ethnic Turkish
students in the system with about 700 teachers. Some schools with 100%
Turkish-speaking students and 100% Turkish-speaking teachers exist, but the
language of instruction is still (by law) Bulgarian, although mother tongue can
be taught as first and second foreign language in the core curriculum. From
grade 8 (or 9 depending on the type of school) onwards, Turkish is taught 4
hours per week but as an elective subject additional to the core national
curriculum.95 Textbooks come from Turkey, but many are outdated, and
materials are lacking.
There is one expert for the Turkish minority in the MoES, and 5 in the
inspectorate for the whole country. There is also one MoES expert for the
Jewish minority (600-650 children aged 6-14, with 25 Hebrew-speaking
teachers), but none for the Roma minority, which is much larger and at much
greater risk of social exclusion and early drop-out. Although in Bulgaria half96
the Roma population speak Roma language (Romanes or Rom) at home, it is
not being taught in schools on the basis that there is no standard orthography for
the language and few teachers speak it. Through the efforts of NGOs and
individuals, teaching materials have been prepared and a group of part-time
teachers of Rom has been trained, but these initiatives can only work if there is
commitment at all levels.
Two further issues were raised: first, that not all minority-language
children have the opportunity to study their mother tongue. Regulations specify
there must be a group of at least 13 students before minority language teaching
must be provided, although some municipalities allow smaller groups (7-8).
Secondly, many children arrive in school with little or no knowledge of
Bulgarian and preparatory classes for Turkish or Roma children are needed to
help their transition to Bulgarian-language primary schools. In one kindergarten
visited by the team, teachers spent most of their time trying to teach 3-6 year
olds (mostly Roma) to speak Bulgarian, but they complained they ‘had to start
all over again every week’. None of these teachers spoke Rom; communication
with the children and their families was therefore difficult. There is no clear
strategy for integrating Bulgarian and mother-tongue teaching or for bi-lingual
95
There is one Turkish private school where Turkish is the second language
after grade 7.
96
This varies widely among sub-groups, from 85% in some communities to
14% in others; 50% is an average. Of the remaining 50%, only about 14% of
Roma speak Bulgarian, and about 36% Turkish.
189
work with very young children, which creates unequal conditions for ethnic
minority children when they enter grade 1.
Equity and Resources
Provision and Attainment
Overall, there are enough school places for all children, and school
attendance at least at primary (7-14) level is high at an estimated 90-92%,
although there are increasing worries about drop-outs even during the
compulsory cycle. Attendance post-primary is less satisfactory (67% of the age
group), in particular in some types of vocational education. Provision of school
places therefore seems less of a problem than attendance. Not surprisingly,
children from the poorest families have lower attendance rates (78%, 1997
figures) than those from affluent ones (95%).97
Drop out
Official figures about drop-out are around 6-7% of the total school
population grades 1-10, or about 45 000 children per year. However, there is the
phenomenon of ‘hidden’ drop-out – approximately one-third of Bulgarian
students have as many as 100 unexcused absences per year. These children are
often not counted as ‘drop-outs’ but in reality they miss nearly one-half of their
school time. Inevitably, their attainment is seriously affected.98 In addition, the
way drop-out numbers are measured is based on children who are enrolled in
schools but have more than a specified number (now set at ‘more than 60’,
according to the new MoES Regulations Code to the Law of Education) of
absences; it does not count children who are not enrolled in school at all or
children who attend irregularly. Finally, children with too many unjustified
absences are often punished by expulsion from school99 – which appears an
unnecessary response, since these children have already de facto excluded
themselves. It would be better to find the reason for the frequent absences, and
try to help the child stay in school. Punishing the child for poverty or family
difficulties (two major reasons for non-attendance) is unhelpful as well as
unfair.
97
Bulgaria Integrated Household Survey, 1997, comparing the bottom quintile
of family expenditure with the top quintile.
98
Bulgarian National Observatory, 2000. Unpublished study, p. 10.
99
Ibid., page 19.
190
Clearly, children who are still in school but struggling for a variety of
reasons are more numerous, and easier to reach, than those who have already
dropped out. Yet there appear to be few concerted efforts at drop-out
prevention, although some excellent outreach programmes exist that try help
drop-outs to return to school. Unfortunately these programmes are often NGO-
funded and their long-term sustainability is uncertain. One EC-Phare-funded
programme (‘A School for Everyone – Bulgaria’) visited by the team focuses on
open access and second-chance education for drop-outs through 13 pilot centres
for vocational education, secondary education, and primary education, teacher
resource centres and ‘school dialogue centres’. They offer evening classes,
remedial and guidance sessions, and in-service training for teachers to help out-
of-school youngsters ‘drop back in’. The drop-out prevention work involves
about 5 000 at-risk children, and the programme has thus far succeeded in
bringing back some 800 drop-outs. However, children often drop out for social
and economic reasons that cannot be resolved by the school system alone;
moreover, ‘drop-ins’ frequently face the same problems (rigid curricula and
exams, hostility from teachers and class-mates) that caused them to drop out in
the first place, and not all of them stay. With its EC-Phare funding running out,
the programme can no longer function properly, and there is thus far little
evidence that the MoES will take over its work.
Gender
Information on educational attainment by gender shows that in the ethnic

Bulgarian population gender balance appears to be even with slightly more
males than females attending through secondary school. The percentage of
female students in higher education is 57%. (See Table 1).
The same is not true of some ethnic minorities, however. A survey of

831 households in 8 major Roma settlements100 showed that 29% of women had
never gone to school or had dropped out before finishing grade 4, compared
with 11% of men. Moreover, early marriage and child-bearing among Roma
girls affect their staying-on rate in school. A survey conducted in Bulgaria in
1998 (confirmed in 2000) showed that 40% of Roma girls marry before the age
of 16 and 80% before the age of 18.101
Resources
100
Sofia (Christo Botev neighbourhood), Doganovo, Sliven (2 urban
communities), Gorno Alexandrovo, Topolchane, Sotirya, and Kardzhali.
Tomova, 2000.
101
Tomova. 1998 and 2000.
191
In common with many other countries in the region, a very high percentage
of the budget for education is spent on current expenditures such as salaries (at
least 70% nationally) and utilities such as heating (at least 12%), but capital
expenditures and investments have been low or non-existent. For example, only
1% is spent on teaching and learning materials, which seriously hinders the
introduction of new curricula, subjects and teaching methods into Bulgarian
classrooms. Moreover, since municipalities vary in their capacity to raise tax
revenues, the provision of resources to schools is also uneven. In communities
with large numbers of poor and unemployed families, schools often have only
the most basic furniture and facilities. Although only one-third of the Bulgarian
population lives in rural areas, more than 50% of families with incomes below
the poverty line live there. Rural poverty and ethnic divisions therefore place
children at serious disadvantage, not only in terms of poor education but poor
housing, health, and nutritional status, all of which have educational
consequences.
Roma
With regard to Roma, a policy of forced settlement of nomadic and semi-

nomadic Roma in the 1950s was accompanied by attempts of the Communist
Party to increase Roma education. A number of new schools were built in Roma
settlements.
At first, the impact of these efforts was considered positive, but by the
mid-1960s the schools had fallen into disrepair. A number of them adopted a
low-level vocational focus, replacing other subjects like Bulgarian language,
mathematics etc., with the perspective that these students would not continue in
education. The legacy of these schools still exists; in 1991 the MoES registered
31 such vocational schools plus another 77 schools which under the previous
Communist government were labelled ‘for children with a lower lifestyle and
culture’. Although in 1992 the curricula for these schools were replaced by the
regular Bulgarian curriculum, it is generally agreed that ‘the educational
environment remained unchanged, and determines the lower quality of
education in these schools today’.102 ‘Gypsy children are still not allowed to
enrol in half-empty Bulgarian schools and are being sent to overcrowded Gypsy
schools, even if a Bulgarian and a Gypsy school are next to each other. When
demographic factors … require the transfer of students from a Gypsy to a
Bulgarian school, (there are) protests by Bulgarian parents or Gypsy children
102
Save the Children, UK. ‘Denied a Future? The Right to Education of Roma,
Gypsy, Traveller Children in Europe’. Draft, March 2000, page 61. Quoted in
Jennifer Tanaka, page 5.
192
are segregated in different classes’.103 In addition, the separate schooling of
Roma in separate Roma neighbourhoods continues to serve as an invisible wall
between Roma and their ethnic Bulgarian neighbours, and in practice few Roma
leave their areas more than a few times per year. Therefore, although
educational provision may be available to most of the Roma community in
terms of quantity, it is seriously lacking in quality and remains an important
factor in the marginalisation of Roma communities.
The role of NGOs in the improvement of education for ethnic minorities is

in itself becoming problematic. On the one hand, the considerable external
(material and human) resources flowing into the system make it possible for the
MoES to ‘contract out’ of this sector and postpone or avoid strategic policy
decision-making for the longer term. On the other hand, some minority
organisations, especially Roma, resent the paternalistic attitude of some NGOs;
they perceive the NGO sector as ‘a parasite feeding on (Roma) problems
without trying to solve them’.104 These conflicts were obvious during the
discussions of the Framework Programme for Equal Integration: on the Roma
side, the main objective was full desegregation and integration, whereas some
of the NGOs base their work on special projects aimed at Roma, which
maintains and sometimes aggravates their segregation from the surrounding
community. In the absence of clear policy and management leadership from the
MoES, such conflicts are bound to flourish.
Equity in the VET system
As was shown in Table 1, 67% of students in the age group 15-19 continue
their post-compulsory education, 38% in vocational or technical schooling and
29% in gymnasia or specialised academic schooling. These relatively low
participation rates are further affected by drop-out (about 3 to 4% per year) and
will, in future, show the effects of demographic factors such as the negative
birth rate and emigration. The National Statistical Institute calculates that
between 1999 and 2010, the age group 15-25 will decrease by 273 000 (from
14.5% of the population to 12%). Gender balance: VET schools have more male
103
Olena Marushiakova and Vesselin Popov, ‘Study of the Education Situation
of Ethnic Minorities in Bulgaria’, op.cit., 1999, p. 8. The MoES disputes this,
but the team’s observations bear out the Marushiakova study. See also Ina
Zoon, On the Margins: Roma and Public Services in Romania, Bulgaria and
Macedonia, 2001.
104
Ibid., p. 23.
193
than female students, e.g. 115 682 males and 68 800 females 14-19 years of age
in 1999/2000.105
The overall pupil:teacher ratio in VET is 11:1 and likely to decrease. The
school system is therefore faced with a quantitative over-supply problem, rather
than with a problem of access.
Generally, access and equity are not a severe problem given the wide
network of schools; rather, there are ‘too many schools that do not provide
appropriate skills and have financial problems’.106 The geographical distribution
of vocational schools in Bulgaria meets regional (rather than national) needs;
more than half the vocational schools are situated in the biggest towns in each
district.
Issues of quality are not as easy to assess. Because of its need for adequate
workshop and laboratory space and equipment, VET is particularly vulnerable
to the effects of chronic under-investment and under-resourcing. Moreover, as
in other socialist countries, many VET schools had close links with enterprises
that now no longer exist or can no longer afford to support these schools,
receive and train apprentices, or employ graduates. Unemployment among 15-
24 year olds in Bulgaria is 39.2% (March 2000). Unemployment rates by
educational attainment are, predictably, highest among those who have only 4-
or 8-year compulsory schooling (31.7%); but the next highest rate is among
those with secondary vocational education (17.5%), followed by those with
general secondary (16.4%). Long-term unemployment (more than 1 year)
among 15-24 year olds is nearly 20%. These figures indicate not only the
difficult state of the Bulgarian economy, but also a mis-match between students’
preparation and the needs of the labour market.
Finally, between the mid-1960s and 1992 basic vocational schooling was
associated with ‘gypsy schools’ which were generally of low educational
quality and certainly of low social status. This perception still remains, although
as part of the general ‘optimisation’ policy of the MoES efforts are being made
to end such de facto segregation on the basis of ethnic origin, for example
through mergers of neighbouring schools and closure of non-viable units.
Nevertheless, provision for Roma in VET remains an issue.
105
MoES figures, received March 2001.
106
Interview, Oct. 2000.
194
Equity and Special Needs
As elsewhere in the region, provision for children with special educational

needs (SEN) still shows the powerful influence of the Soviet science of
‘defectology’, whose main legacy is in the use of a medical model of special
needs, the use of medical language in their assessment, and the tendency to
diagnose and categorise SEN at a very early age, labelling children and often
segregating them in separate schools with differently-trained (often medical
rather than educational) staff. Since 1989, there has been greater openness and a
more humane view of SEN, but at the same time the growing emphasis on
academic competition and selection works against a policy of inclusion across
the ability range.
Moreover, the definition of SEN is still quite narrow; the Law mentions
only ‘chronic diseases’ but leaves ‘special educational needs’ unspecified.
Medical conditions appear to be covered by the Law, but not the more
widespread, often mild but educationally disastrous conditions such as dyslexia,
behavioural and attention-deficit problems, and mild learning disabilities that
often go un-diagnosed and un-supported in regular classrooms where teachers
are not prepared to cope with them.
The Public Education Act (Art. 27(2) lays the basis for a policy of
inclusion by stating that ‘schools shall provide conditions affording children
suffering from chronic diseases and with special educational needs the
opportunity to be transferred to (any category of regular school recognised by
the Act)’. However, the next article (Art. 28) states that ‘special schools for
children suffering from chronic diseases and with special educational needs
shall be boarding schools’, and that children will be placed there according to ‘a
procedure set by the MoES together with the competent state authorities and
municipal councils’. The two Articles show the ambivalence in Bulgaria’s SEN
law and policy.
The number of children in special basic schools fell by 20% between 1989
and 1996 (from 13 000 to 10 000), but this reflects the declining birth rate and
the general drop in enrolments rather than greater integration of SEN children,
whose percentage of the total school population changed little over that period
(1.2%). As of mid-1997, all children diagnosed as having SEN were being
educated in separate schools107and this still appears to be the case. Because such
schools are often far away from the child’s home, many SEN children are
107
Education for All? UNICEF/ICDC MONEE Regional Monitoring Report No.
5, 1998, pp. 53-54.
195
separated from their families at an early age. Also, ethnic minority children are
sometimes channelled into ‘special schools’ for the mentally or physically
handicapped or into remedial classes segregated from ordinary classes, for
example because of language difficulties or late entry. No specific figures were
found for Bulgaria, but in other countries in the region Roma children are up to
15 times more likely to be in ‘special schools’ than their non-Roma
contemporaries.108
Resource and access problems are formidable, even in relatively well

provided schools such as the Varna School for the Blind. It is one of only two
such schools in Bulgaria, and has 135 blind and visually impaired children
between the ages of 6 and 18, mostly from the eastern part of the country. The
school has a maximum capacity of 180 but has difficulty in filling the 45 empty
places: ‘Health authorities do not communicate with the school; local doctors
are not obliged to inform the authorities of children with SEN as in the old days;
the Law does not function; and municipal authorities do not care’.109
This school caters for children of normal intelligence (who follow the
national curriculum) as well as mildly and seriously learning impaired children
and about 25 with multiple handicaps. However, the boarding part of the school
cannot accommodate wheelchairs, and therefore only 3 or 4 children from
Varna itself can attend on a day-school basis, with transport via a special bus.
On the other hand, the school has been successful in placing as many as 100 of
its normal-intelligence students in local schools for at least some of their
lessons. According to the principal, obstacles to integration are raised by the
children’s families as well as by local schools: ‘Class sizes in regular schools
are often too large, and SEN children feel isolated there – some mainstreaming
programmes exist but they have not reached Varna’.
Clearly many SEN children are slipping through the net, and better
communication among authorities as well as new regulations are urgently
needed.
Equity in Early Childhood Development and Care
Pre-primary enrolment has not been badly affected by the transition. Even
though only about 62% of children 2-8 were in pre-school education in 1999,
108
European Roma Rights Centre, Country Reports Series, 1999.
109
Interview, 28.10.2000.
196
this is essentially the same percentage as in 1989 when it was 63.9%.110
However, much lower attendance rates prevail among some ethnic minorities,
e.g. Roma where in 1995 only 12% of children were enrolled compared with a
national average of about 65%.111
Parents are required to pay a fee, set by each municipality on the basis of
the Law on Local Taxes and Fees. On average the daily fee is EUR 0.51, and
the monthly fee EUR 10.53 (minimum income is EUR 38.35/month). While in
general these fees cover only a small part of the actual cost – the state or
municipality pays the rest – and are based on a percentage of the minimum
wage, they could clearly be prohibitive for unemployed parents or families with
several children. In reality, this means ethnic minorities, where unemployment
is high and family size larger than among the Bulgarian population. For
example, social assistance in the town of Lom – which has a sizeable Roma
population – is about EUR 15.34/month plus EUR 5.11 per child. The
kindergarten ‘tax’ is EUR 6.65 per child.112
Children in poor families are also most at risk of nutritional or other health
problems, where early detection and intervention are often vital.
As mentioned above, the Law (Art. 27) stipulates that ‘special

kindergartens’ shall be established for children suffering from chronic diseases
or with special educational needs. In practice, this means only obvious medical
conditions (blind or deaf children, children with physical handicaps) are catered
for, and such ‘special kindergartens’ do not always exist near the child’s home,
so that children either stay at home or are boarded away from their families.
Secondly, segregating very young SEN children in ‘special kindergartens’ often
means they then remain permanently in the segregated special-education
system, with ever-decreasing chances of being re-integrated into regular
schools.
Issues and Barriers in equity in access, attainment and achievement
x Lack of accurate data. There is no national, municipal or school-level

student register that would permit monitoring of enrolment, attendance
110
Education for All? op.cit., and ‘School Finance in Bulgaria in an Era of
Educational Reform’, Douglas L. Adkins for the World Bank, 1999. Bulgaria
is one of the few post-socialist countries that managed to maintain enrolment
levels in pre-school after 1989.
111
Education for All? op. cit., p. 57.
112
Jennifer Tanaka, ‘Roma in the Educational System of Bulgaria’, page 7.
197
and drop-out patterns, especially during compulsory education (grades
1-8).
x Inadequate definition and measurement of ‘drop-out’. Measurement

now is based on school attendance figures, and when a student has
more than an administratively defined number of unexcused absences
(recently reduced from 100 to 60 per school year) he or she is declared
to have dropped out. However, this does not take account of (1)
children who were never enrolled in school in the first place, and (2)
students who attend irregularly. The ‘hidden’ drop-out problem – it is
estimated that one-third of students in Bulgaria have more than
100 absences per school year – is also not reflected.
x Emphasis on ‘punishment’ of non-attendance rather than on

prevention and motivation to stay in or return to school.
x Lack of a national strategy for improving access and school success

for minorities, including a strategy for bilingual education for pre-
school and grade-1 children to facilitate their adjustment to the use of
Bulgarian as a language of instruction. Rom-speaking children are
particularly disadvantaged in this way.
x Lack of teaching and learning materials to support the introduction of

new curricula and teaching methods.
x Lack of strategy and clear policy regarding the role of NGOs in

education renewal. Short-term or pilot projects, however useful or
successful, come to nothing if they fail to become part of the MoES’s
sustained educational policies and budget.
x Need for improving the employability of youngsters completing

vocational and general secondary education. Given the high
unemployment rates among 15-24 year olds, secondary school
curricula are not well aligned with the needs of the labour market,
despite the quantitative over-supply of schools and teachers, especially
in VET.
x Unclear and mainly ‘medical’ definition of special educational needs,

and inconsistent policies with regard to identifying, categorising,
mainstreaming and segregating children with special needs. At the
moment, there is a contradiction between the Law’s intention to
include SEN children in regular schooling wherever possible (Art. 27)
198
and the requirement that all special schools ‘shall be’ boarding schools
(Art. 28), which removes SEN children from the community.
Curriculum: intended, delivered and achieved
The Public Education Law assigns to the central government (through the
Ministry of Education and Science) the duty to specify curriculum subjects and
numbers of hours per week; approve textbooks, and set the requirements for
examinations. There are regional inspectorates that supervise curricula and
provide support to teachers in their implementation.
The intended curriculum: standards, objectives and design
In all education systems, there are opposing pressures for national

standards and a required core curriculum on the one hand, and localised,
tailored, and adaptive curricula on the other. These are not easily reconciled:
centralisation emphasises simplicity, standardisation and social efficiency;
localisation emphasises complexity, adaptability, and individual needs. The
Bulgarian curriculum, on balance, is more central than local in its development
and character.
Bulgaria’s formal (intended) curriculum is highly demanding in terms of

volume and level of knowledge. While excellence and high expectations are to
be celebrated and preserved, it must be said that the curriculum is overloaded,
slanted towards high academic achievers, with too little attention to a practical
element in learning and to preparing students for a fluid (rather than static)
world of work. The team observed that common responses to overload are to
add more time to the time-table, to debate adding an extra year to secondary
education, or to add a new subject to the curriculum, rather than slim down
existing subject curricula.
Until recently, curricula were developed by academic expert teams for

each subject with relatively little co-ordination across subjects and little
attention to overall educational goals. The working groups, at least in general
education, were – and some still are – strongly influenced by university
representatives, which may ensure the academic rigour of the content but may
not be the best way to arrive at a well balanced curriculum suitable for the
whole ability range and for Bulgaria’s changed economic and social conditions.
The process of developing curriculum standards for general education

started in 1993, and for some subjects even earlier. That work was not well co-
ordinated, and very limited guidance was given by the MoES; several proposed
variants were lost in political changes between 1993 and 1997, but after the
199
1997 crisis the work took on a new urgency. From 1998, the MoES developed
more coherent State Educational Standards (‘Requirements’) setting target
standards for all students, and Programmes of Study specifying the contents and
topics to be studied for each subject and grade level. To complete this structure,
a National Assessment Framework – based on standards and curricula – was
then developed, setting out key features of assessment and recording/reporting
of results, key features of assessment for vocational studies,113 and key features
of a new Matura examination (see below) based on national standards but also
capable of serving a selection function for higher education.
Current status of curriculum design and implementation in Bulgaria
This new standards-based approach to curriculum and assessment has

brought about a major change. A new Law on Standards114 sets out levels of
schooling, requirements for moving from one level to another, the nature and
content of a ‘general educational minimum’ for Bulgarian students, and a
curricular structure of compulsory, elective and optional subjects.
The MoES leadership aims to create: (a) a framework, rather than a set of
detailed requirements; (b) a minimum of ‘prescription’, only what is needed to
ensure equal quality of provision and opportunities for all children; (c) a
curriculum that is less ‘heavy’ on knowledge but with emphasis on basic skills
such as quantitative reasoning, literacy, communication, critical thinking,
problem solving and self-learning; (d) a clear and consistent basis for assessing
student outcomes; (e) alignment – insofar as possible and appropriate for
Bulgaria – with European trends and conventions, to enhance mobility and
recognition of Bulgarian qualifications.
Curriculum changes have been introduced in schools since September

1999, as the first stage of implementation of the Law on Standards. They
include changes in the learning plan (time-table, subject balance). In September
1999 work began on the development of standards; a framework was accepted
in May 2000, and work started immediately on detailed ‘Programmes of Study’
for each subject and grade. The first – for grades 9 and 10 – were approved and
in the schools by September 2000, to be followed by those for grades 1 and 5.
The design of the curriculum for upper secondary (grades 9-12) allows for a
113
In vocational education, the work was helped by the EC-Phare Project. There
was involvement of employers, and care was taken to align Bulgarian
requirements with EU occupational standards.
114
Law on the Level of Schooling, the General Educational Minimum, and the
Syllabus, adopted July 14 1999.
200
balance between compulsory and school-developed curricula, the latter in line
with each school’s ‘profile’. Programmes of Study contain detailed content to
be covered, domains to be addressed, and expected learning outcomes for each
year.
Under a World Bank-financed project, revised standards-based curricula

set out in such ‘Programmes of Study’ and new teaching approaches (‘Guidance
for Teachers’) will be introduced, over four years, beginning with grades 1, 5
and 10 in school year 2001/2002 and grades 2, 6 and 11 in 2002/2003. Learning
plans by grade and subject already exist or are being constructed; for grades 11
and 12 with MoES resources (2001) and for grades 2-4 and 6-8 under the loan,
also during 2001.
Table 4. Structure of the new curriculum
Expected Context
results The main (suggested Links with
Content
(or learning concepts methods or other subjects
objectives) teaching strategies)
The Core Curriculum
By law, the core curriculum covers the ‘general educational minimum’ and
is compulsory for all schools. It covers Bulgarian grammar and literature;
foreign languages; mathematics, computing and information technology; social
sciences and civil education; natural sciences and ecology; arts; culture and
technology; physical education and sports.
The Law on Standards encourages cross-curricular connections between

subjects, and allows schools to offer choices according to their educational
profile; however, the apportionment of hours on the timetable must not be less
than what is stipulated by the MoES for the ‘general educational minimum’ by
grade, stage level and subject. Curiously, ‘minimum’ is defined in the Law as
‘compulsory knowledge and skills needed for the successful performance of
schoolchildren in the next level of schooling’ – the emphasis is therefore on
acquiring what is needed for future performance, rather than on achievement of
minimum standards in the present level of education’.
201
Table 5. Distribution of instruction time for compulsory subjects
(percent)
Subject: Grades I-IV Grades V-VIII Grades IX-XII Total

Bulgarian 32.93 18.69 17.25 22.96
language and
literature
Foreign languages
(I and II) 9.41 14.95 12.87 12.41
Mathematics and
information
technologies 15.30 14.95 16.09 15.45
Social studies 4.70 11.21 23.68 11.63
Science 4.74 14.02 14.48 11.08
Arts 17.63 13.08 3.22 11.31
Crafts and 4.70 4.67 - 4.69
technology
Physical education 10.59 8.41 12.42 10.47
Total 100 100 100 100
Source: MoES, 2000.
Quality of the curriculum
Despite continuing problems of overload, narrow focus on separate

subjects, and over-emphasis on factual knowledge, curriculum renewal appears
well underway in Bulgaria. The new, explicit links among standards,
curriculum, teaching approaches and materials, and school inspection are
encouraging but need to be reinforced so that schools receive clear and coherent
messages about, and resources for, school-level reform.
The quality of the curriculum is overseen by a newly created Curriculum

Council (CC), legally in place since May 2000 but not yet fully functioning at
the time of the team’s visit in November 2000. The role of the CC is to serve as
the main national advisory body for curriculum, reporting to the Minister. It has
12 members, including 6 from the Ministry (including two Deputy Ministers)
and 6 external members including teachers and employers.
The CC oversees the development and implementation of standards and

curriculum; its assessment in terms of learning outcomes; its implementation in
schools, through a newly defined role for the inspectorate; and its delivery by
teachers, through a series of in-service teacher training seminars. A first ‘wave’
of training of approximately 9 000 school principals, deputy principals and local
202
authorities is planned for summer 2001; teacher in-service will follow from
2002, with a first group of 27 000 teachers. Further groups are to be trained in
successive ‘waves’ over the next 7 years until curriculum renewal is complete.
The debate about standards has served as a catalyst for formulating goals,
objectives and desired outcomes of education rather than on resources and
processes. Nevertheless, ‘standards’ should refer to the overall quality of
children’s educational experiences, and not merely – as may happen – on
students’ test performance in core subjects. The CC in Bulgaria, by combining
curriculum, assessment, inspectorate and teacher training within its remit, seems
to take this wider view.
The delivered curriculum: teaching, textbooks and inspection
Teaching
Historically, pedagogy is the ultimate prize for any government wishing to

secure control over the educational process – insofar as ‘the stubbornness of the
human spirit and the wayward chemistry of the classroom’ will allow.115 On the
whole this stubbornness and ‘wayward chemistry’ are healthy barriers against
the wilder winds of educational change, but they also slow down the progress of
reform.
Teachers anywhere use, consciously or not, the strategies that best convey
certain cultural messages about what learning is. Classroom observations in
Bulgaria show nearly all teachers using traditional, teacher-led methods. In the
worst cases, this produces a culture of passivity in learners. Yet in the best
cases, whole-class teaching can be alive and successful in developing the kind
of skills still most valued in Bulgarian educational culture: a firm grasp of facts,
quick, fluent and articulate oral responses, confident blackboard performance in
front of class-mates, and, above all, discipline. OECD observers rightly question
whether this fosters the creativity, independence and problem solving skills that
are prized in OECD cultures and are increasingly needed in Bulgaria’s changed
conditions; possibly not. But the point here is that teaching and learning styles
are not culture-free, and classroom-level reforms must avoid the trap of
introducing fashionable orthodoxy rather than thoughtful reforms that build on
local values.
115
Robin Alexander, Culture and Pedagogy, Blackwell, 2000, p. 142.
203
Textbooks
Textbooks are a key tool for introducing and reinforcing national core
curricula and unified national standards and assessment. In Bulgaria, they are an
important part of curriculum renewal policy. Textbooks in Bulgaria are, from
1998, available on the open market, with the exception of books for grade 1,
which continue to be paid for by the MoES.116 Before 1998, all books for grades
1-8 were paid for by the MoES, but this became too expensive, especially since
in practice few books ‘survived’ for their intended three-year life-span.
The Law on Public Education requires state standards for textbook

provision; these are being drafted by a working group, along with revised
procedures for textbook evaluation and approval. The process is complex and
takes a long time – 18 months or more from the time the MoES announces
content standards for a new textbook to the time it appears on a student’s desk.
Briefly, the sequence is as follows: the Minister approves a list of books that
will be needed. Content standards along with curricula and timetables are
published in the Ministry Gazette; publishers and authors must use these State
requirements in the preparation of manuscripts. Publishers submit manuscripts
to a preliminary Approval Committee by a specified deadline. Competitive
bidding is anonymous; bids are opened first by a technical committee to check
that they meet technical requirements such as curriculum coverage, illustrations,
quality of paper and binding, price, and other characteristics, and the publisher’s
statement of solvency. The Minister then appoints a second Expert Commission
(4-6 members) for every subject and grade; this Commission judges the
manuscript on content, methodology etc. The Commission signs a protocol
giving a final rating, and ‘winners’ (up to three per subject per grade) are
announced. A pilot printing is sent to every inspectorate; each inspectorate
either organises a travelling exhibition or arranges meetings of teachers with
authors. Teachers have a chance to see the books and make their choice, and
schools order them from the distributors (not the Ministry) for sale to students.
Books are also available from bookshops.
The team heard that competition among publishers is helping to improve

the quality of textbooks. Parents in general are willing to make sacrifices in
order to buy good-quality books, and since they are expensive, they tend to be
looked after more carefully. Books can cost 50 leva (USD 24) per year for a
student in grade 6; however there is an active second-hand market in textbooks,
and some schools have used books available. (There is no formal provision for
schools to buy books for needy children.)
116
Books are also free for children in institutions, irrespective of grade level.
204
Inspection.
In addition to a national inspectorate at the MoES, Bulgaria has 28 regional

inspectorates, with a total of about 700 inspectors carrying out some
20 000 school inspections per year. Inspectorates function as local branches of
the MoES. They oversee the implementation of state educational requirements
and norms in all types of schools in their territory, including private schools,
kindergartens and servicing units. Each inspectorate is a legal entity, and
consists of a chief inspector, about 12 subject specialists, as well as general
inspectors for finance, organisation and management. Not all inspectorates have
a complete coverage of all subjects. There are no inspectors attached to
municipalities, but there are municipal administrative officers with
responsibility for schools. There appears to be little direct contact between
regional inspectorates and these administrative officers in the municipalities.
School inspections are summarised in reports made available to the school

itself as well as to the MoES. Inspectors play a key role in the appointment of
school directors of municipal schools (since 1999). They also review and
approve school-developed curricula, school staffing structures, and financial
management of schools to ensure compliance with state regulations.
Inspectors have the right of entry to schools to carry out their duties.
However, they must be able to demonstrate their credibility to the schools, and
gain the confidence and co-operation of teachers through their qualifications
and experience, the quality of their evidence, and through their professionalism.
The team became aware, however, that inspectors lack authority and credibility
in schools, because they are paid less than teachers and are seen as ‘mere
administrators’ or ‘failed teachers’ by those they are expected to inspect and
assist. Understandably, low salaries do not attract professionals of high calibre,
and morale among inspectors tends to be low.
In recent years, efforts have been made to change the role of the
inspectorate from one of ‘control’ to one of professional support, in particular
with regard to in-service training of teachers related to curriculum and standards
reforms, and a new ‘Framework for Inspection’ has been developed. However,
until inspectors are given the salary and professional status they need to gain the
respect and trust of school staff, they cannot be effective in an advisory or
training capacity in schools.
The achieved curriculum: learning outcomes, assessment and examinations
Certification and Examinations
205
The Law on Standards117 specifies the ‘general educational minimum’ for
all students; it comprises ‘compulsory knowledge and skills needed for
successful performance…in the next level of schooling’. The MoES is
responsible for detailed regulations, but the structure of the syllabus is set by
law: it has compulsory, elective and optional components. Students receive a
certificate upon completion of basic (grades 1-4) and primary (grades 5-8)
education, and are required to pass a compulsory state matriculation
examination (Matura) at the end of grade 12. The law specifies the number (3)
and the subjects (Bulgarian language, civics, and one further subject chosen by
the candidate) of the Matura examination. At present, the Matura examination is
set externally (by the MoES), but is administered by schools, and exam papers
are marked by the students’ own teachers.
The Ministry does not use explicit indicators to assess the outcomes of the
education system, although the newly developed standards will provide a basis
for doing so in future. Until now, the results of the (old-style) Matura have been
used as a rough indication of learning achieved, even though only half the grade
12 population takes part (see below). However, since these exams are still
locally administered and marked, the results are not reliable across schools and
over time, and records of results are kept at the school level rather than
nationally so that trends are not easily assessed. The examination at the end of
grade 7 (used to select students into profiled (specialised) secondary school, see
below) is also used to judge learning outcomes, although only about 30% of 7th
graders take part in this exam.
117
Law on the Level of Schooling, the General Educational Minimum and the
Syllabus, July 1999.
206
Table 6. Total number of students from general and vocational secondary schools
who took the ‘Matura’ examination 1999/2000
(three sessions – January, July, September)
No Subject Exempt Total No. Total No. of Total No. of

from taking taking the successful unsuccessful
the Matura examination candidates candidates
examination
1 Bulgarian
Language And
Literature 31 210 38 165 31 273 6 892
2 1st Foreign
Language 9 033 3 046 2 846 200
3 2nd Foreign
Language 885 252 237 15
4 Maths 9 648 17 676 15 121 2 555
5 Informatics 4
946 2 35 7
6 History 3 404 1 262 1 065 197
7 Geography 2 296 1 197 1 040 157
8 Philosophy 1 037 226 202 24
9 Chemistry 966 183 173 10
10 Physics 4
379 4 39 5
11 Biology 3 446 1 159 1 015 144
12 Music 644 80 77 3
13 Fine Arts 591 155 154 1
TOTAL 74 485 63 487 53 277 10 210
Source: Ministry of Education, Sofia, January 2001.
Table 6 shows that there were more ‘exempt’ students than candidates
taking Matura. Under the present system, exemptions are awarded to students
with an overall grade of 5 or above on a grading scale of 1-6 (6 = highest). In
some subjects (e.g., foreign languages) nearly three out of four students were
exempt from taking the exam. Three conclusions can be drawn: (1) school
marks still dominate, because teachers decide who is and is not exempt; (2) the
Matura is taken by fewer than half of the students, and is thus not a truly
national basis for ensuring that standards are met; and (3) those who take the
examinations are inevitably the weaker (non-exempt) students, and therefore
results will not give a true picture of overall student achievement. Nevertheless,
83.9% of those sitting the examination were successful; 16.1% were
unsuccessful. In some subjects – e.g., fine arts, nearly all candidates passed.118
118
Exemption rate 3 out of 4; failure rate on the exam 0.645%: this means that 1
student out of a possible 900 fails the Fine Arts examination. This begs the
question whether there is any point in ‘examining’ the subject?
207
Reforms
The new Matura will not permit exemptions: the Law on Standards
requires that every student must sit at least three subject examinations. A nine-
year plan for reform of Bulgaria’s examination and assessment system is
underway. As a first step, content, timetable and assessment standards for core
subjects were designed, with foreign technical assistance. Standards now exist
for all levels of pre-university education, including technical and vocational
programmes. Secondly, as part of a World Bank-financed project, a semi-
independent National Assessment Unit has been established which will provide
professional and technical expertise and be responsible for the administration of
national exams and assessments. The Unit is under the policy control of the
Ministry, but has its own director, budget, and professional staff. An external
Matura examination will be introduced from 2003; the following years will see
the introduction of systematic national assessments at the end of grades 4 and 8,
and during the final three years the National Assessment Unit is expected to
become self-sufficient.
The introduction of a new-style, external Matura examination based

on national curriculum and assessment standards will provide a much clearer
and more reliable picture of learner achievement at the end of secondary
schooling. A dialogue has started with universities to determine how these more
reliable results might be used in the process of selection for higher education
entrance.
National and international assessments
In addition to formal examinations, periodic (sample-based) assessments

are carried out, e.g. to assess to what extent students reach ‘educational minima’
in Bulgarian language and mathematics at the end of grades 4 and 8, and in
1999 a sample-based assessment was made among grade 7 students as part of a
two-year Ministry programme to change the entrance examination for ‘profile’
(specialised) schools. Able students also take part in ‘Olympiads’ in some
subjects, at primary, general secondary, and vocational/technical secondary
levels.
Bulgaria takes part in international comparative studies of student

achievement, e.g. in the Third International Mathematics and Science Study
(TIMSS) and the International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), and now in
OECD/PISA+.119 Bulgarian students tend to do well in international
119 The international overheads of joining PISA (Programme for International

Student Assessment) have been covered by a grant from Finland within the
208
comparative studies of this kind. In the most recent repeat of TIMSS, for
example, Bulgarian 8th graders (average age 14.8 years) ranked 17th in
Mathematics, and also 17th in Science, among 39 participating countries.
However, in TIMSS-1995, Bulgarian 8th graders ranked 11th in

mathematics and 5th in science among 41 countries. Recent analyses120 show
that the 1999 cohort scored 16 points less in mathematics, and 27 points less in
science, than their predecessors did in 1995.
In mathematics, Bulgarian 8th graders scored significantly121 above the

international average (with 505 points out of a scale of 800 points, with an
average of 487 points from 38 participating countries) which was 487 points in
mathematics. Bulgaria’s mathematics results compared to 13 other countries
including Belgium (Flemish), Slovak Republic, Hungary, Russian Federation,
Czech Republic, the United States of America and England. In the 1999 study
there was a drop of 16 points, which was one of the largest differences between
the 1995 and 1999 scores of the 26 countries that participated in both studies.
In science, in 1995, Bulgarian 8th graders achieved scores for science

significantly above (518 points) the international average (488 points). Only
five countries achieved scores higher than Bulgaria: Chinese Taipei, Singapore,
Hungary, Japan and Republic of Korea. Although there was no statistically
significant difference between the scores of boys and girls in Bulgaria, there
was a larger difference in score points in science than there was in mathematics.
Bulgaria performed well in traditional subjects like chemistry where the
students did particularly well (achieving the 6th highest score), life science and
earth science, all of which were significantly above the international average for
these content areas. They did not perform as well in physics where they
achieved a score comparable to the international average. However, in the areas
of in environmental and resource issues, and scientific inquiry and the nature of
science they achieved scores below the international average although not
significantly below.
What is of concern is the significant drop in the results of 1999 compared

to 1995 for science. Bulgarian scores decreased by 27 points, and was the only
framework of the Task Force for Education of the Pact for Peace and
Stability in South Eastern Europe.
120
Sarah Howie, Mathematics and Science Performance in Grade 8, TIMSS-R.
Executive Summary. Human Sciences Research Council, Pretoria, January
2001, pp.47-50.
121 Statistically significant
209
country out of 26 countries where this happened. Bulgaria’s TIMSS-R scores
represent the largest drop in science, and the second-largest drop in
mathematics, among all countries participating in both studies: a worrying trend
that will need to be analysed carefully.
Role of inspectors and local authorities.
Alongside the development of national, standards-based, and externally set

and marked examinations at key points in students’ education, there is a role for
inspectors and local authorities in monitoring learning achievement. The new
framework for inspection foresees a strong supporting role for inspectors in
improving the quality of teaching and learning in schools. Moreover, local
authorities are expected to carry out assessments concerning topics specific to
their region or locality, as well comparing local performance with national
results and using this information for local policy-making and resource
allocation.
Issues and Barriers in curriculum, standards, quality and assessment
x Unresolved problems of overloading, over-emphasis on factual

knowledge, lack of integration and cross-curricular work, and limited
school-based curriculum development.
x High academic expectations – often through university representatives

on subject working groups; a tendency therefore to ‘select the best’
rather than ensure that students of all abilities will develop the skills
they need to cope with Bulgaria’s economic and social realities.
x A legal definition of ‘general educational minimum’ that appears to be

more concerned with preparing students for the next level of
schooling, rather than ensuring that all reach an acceptable level with
regard to national standards and the demands of the labour market.
x Complex reforms in standards, curriculum, textbooks and assessment

that place considerable strain on teachers, especially if reform
messages arrive from varying sources, out of sequence, and without
in-service training for teachers.
x ‘Quality of education’ is more important than students’ performance

in tests, Olympiads, or international comparison studies. All students,
including low achievers and special needs children, are entitled to high
quality educational experiences that allow them to develop to their full
potential.
210
x While alignment with international trends and innovations is desirable
for Bulgaria as it finds its place in Europe, teaching and learning styles
must remain grounded in Bulgaria’s own cultural values.
x Lengthy, complex, and opaque procedures for the approval and

production of textbooks are barriers to the introduction of curriculum
reform in classrooms.
x Lack of provision for schools to buy textbooks for needy children.
x Low status and salaries of school inspectors and lack of credibility

and authority vis-à-vis the teachers they are expected to advise and
supervise.
x As new Matura exams become compulsory for all secondary school

leavers without exemptions, the target level of the examination, will
need to be adjusted to cover the whole ability range.
x Universities will remain reluctant to abandon university entrance

examinations until the new Matura is firmly established as a reliable
tool for selection.
x The steep decline in Bulgaria’s performance in international

mathematics and science studies may signal underlying problems in
teaching and learning higher-level thinking skills in these subjects.
Education Personnel
Teachers
Teachers as key mediators and formative agents of the young generation

have a central role to play in the transformation of Bulgarian society. Art.15 of
the Public Education Act and Articles 8 and 9 of the Law on the Level of
Schooling, the General Educational Minimum and the Syllabus set out the
principles and aims that underpin the education system: teachers are expected to
promote the knowledge, attitudes and skills which will enable youngsters to live
productively within their changed society. The former regime laid great stress
on subject-mastery, ideological orthodoxy, implementation of centrally
prescribed material, and patterned methodological processes for teacher
performance. Now the emphasis is on teacher adaptability and innovation
regarding curricula and pedagogy. New subject content is being introduced, and
a more integrative teaching style is sought which encourages learners to
211
question, surmise and take risks. Teachers are expected to work together, and be
open to more productive relationships with parents and the local communities.
These changes pose great challenges to the capacity and motivation of

teachers; to meet them, teachers need enlightened support and respect from the
government and general public. However, the review team formed the opinion
that policy on teachers was not a high public priority. A host of circumstances
affecting their status and conditions of work are unsatisfactory, and there is a
lack of a coherent policy or strategy which would help to re-structure the
profession and support it in achieving the goals sought. There is no panacea or
“quick fix” to redress the difficulties, but the foundations need to be laid now,
so that, over time, a sensible sequence of policy measures will create a more
satisfactory professional framework for teachers.
Teacher career structure and salaries
At present, the teaching career is structured on a five-grade promotional

path (level 5 = lowest). The position of school director (principal) is likewise
sub-divided into four grades. Despite this hierarchical framework, the
differential in salary is very little, amounting to only 29 leva at the maximum of
the scales for a grade 5 and a grade 1 teacher. The differential at the maximum
of the scale between the director at grade 1 and grade 4 is also very small, at 31
leva (roughly USD 15).122
Such small differentials are also symptomatic of the very low salaries
available to Bulgarian teachers. The maximum for a grade 1 teacher after
25 years is 259 leva per month (about USD 130).123 Teachers cannot always be
sure that even such a salary will arrive on time. The review team learned that
some teachers experienced serious delays in salary payments in the last year,
although the Ministry of Finance informed the team that this position was being
rectified and salaries would be paid on time in the future. The very low salaries
make it necessary for many teachers to supplement their income through other
work, which can have the effect of reducing their time for non-classroom
teaching activities such as class preparation, correction of homework,
availability for school planning meetings and in-service education.
A certain social status still attaches to teachers’ occupation, but there is a

grave danger of major erosion of its status. Apart from salary issues, teachers
122
Salary figures supplied by the Ministry of Education and Science (MoES).
123 Since the OECD visit, it appears that teacher salaries are to be increased by
15%. This is a positive first step towards competitive salaries for teachers.
212
need to feel that their work is valued and respected and that their voice is heard
in the policy arena if their morale is to be sustained. While new national policies
imply high expectations of teachers, it was not at all clear to the review team
that this was matched by appropriate public policies, attitudes and support.
To move towards a more satisfactory policy approach on the teaching

career it would be necessary to establish a suitable data bank, readily accessible,
on a range of elements such as age and gender profiles, turnover and exit
patterns, ranges of subject competence, training experiences, promotion
patterns, deployment patterns, redundancy and retirement trends, demographic
patterns, school infrastructure, pupil/teacher ratios, patterns of work
engagement. Such data should feed into a coherent strategic policy on teaching
within the reconstructed education system. The policy needs to take a
comprehensive approach, and not just focus on one or two features of an
interlinked set of features, which tends to be the present approach. A policy for
the future needs to deal with recruitment, initial and in-service education, salary
issues, retention, conditions of service, mobility, career paths, secondments,
redeployment, evaluation and consultation processes with the teaching body.
Such an approach should provide a framework for the long-term development
of the teaching career and give it the status and sense of purpose which it will
need to be an attractive purposive and productive career, shaping a better
society for Bulgaria in the future.
The following sections deal with pre-service and in-service education for
primary and general secondary teachers. Teacher education for vocational
teachers is dealt with in the section on vocational education.
Pre-service Teacher Education (Preset)
The MoES has very little direct influence on teacher education. The review
team was unable to uncover Ministry documentation on pre-service teacher
education and, from discussions held with Ministry personnel, formed the view
that the Ministry was very much at a distance from preset programmes and
process. A laissez faire view seemed to prevail, and the Ministry did not seem
to consider that the issue was of much importance. This would also seem to be
reflected in the fact that preset does not feature in the Education Modernisation
Plan, in association with the World Bank.
Preset takes place in 10 institutions operating within a university

framework. The typical model is a form of concurrent education, whereby
students pursue their academic subjects – e.g. mathematics, history – in the
relevant faculty of the university, and those who decide to become teachers,
take additional courses in the Faculty of Education. There are four elements in
213
the professional education course: General Education, Educational Psychology,
Didactics/Methodology of particular subjects, and Teaching Practice. The
course amounts to about 1 year in duration and runs parallel with the other
subject studies. A good deal of the Pedagogy/Methodology is given by lecturers
in the subject area in the university. Within the framework of the four-year
course, about 60 hours are devoted to General Education, 60 to Psychology, and
120 to Didactics/Methodology. Students are expected to do about 120 hours’
teaching practice in schools.
The model is close to the traditional one in some other former Soviet bloc
countries. The emphasis is on the mastery of subject content, intended to be
delivered in a predominantly expository teaching style. A major problem with
this tradition is that even university teachers who may display an admirable
interest in the pedagogic dimensions of their academic subjects are likely to be
far removed from the new approaches to schooling, both in terms of practical
experience and of conceptual understanding.
Many students now take teacher preparation courses as a fall-back

position, but with little intention of making teaching their life career. This trend
has two serious disadvantages. It tends to overcrowd university classes, cutting
across the small-group and tutorial work which can be so important in pre-
service education. It is also wasteful of staff effort and time when many do not
enter, or do not stay in, teaching.
Although preset occurs at university level, the review team formed the
impression that Education Studies do not enjoy high academic regard, support,
or resource share within the institutions. There is also dissatisfaction about the
time devoted to teaching practice, and about the quality of the guidance
available to students. Supervision is given by “selected” teachers in the schools
and by staff from the training institutions. Even when students are successful in
teaching practice, due to the inadequate salaries and other unattractive aspects
of the teaching career at present, many choose careers other than teaching; the
loss of able young graduates deprives the profession of the “new blood” which
is so vital at present.
A structural problem in pre-service teacher education institutions is their

compartmentalisation. Their engagement with in-service education is only
occasional and incidental, rather than an integrated one. Some courses are
provided for the upgrading of teacher qualifications, but the involvement with
serving teachers or with in-service institutes seems small. Some teacher
education staff have been involved with curriculum changes being promoted by
the MoES; however, from discussion with MoES officials and with teacher
214
educators, the review team concluded that relationships are not always
harmonious.
Clearly, the existing pre-service arrangements are in need of serious

review. Without a satisfactory initial formation, it is pointless to expect the
teaching force to be of high quality. The MoES needs to give more priority to
this area.
In-service Teacher Education (Inset)
Structural and capacity issues
In-service education for teachers has been receiving more official attention
than preset. Inset is included in the Education Modernisation Project of the
Ministry, and an investment of about USD 3.5 million is being allocated.
However, there is no annual budget line for inset. Teachers’ pre-service and in-
service education are part of the higher education system, and are regulated by
the Higher Education Act (1995). Funding for in-service training is distributed
through the universities. The MoES does not have any special funds for
teachers’ professional development, and thus has few mechanisms to influence
its content and quality.
Teachers’ professional development is not obligatory in Bulgaria. At the

moment, it is provided mainly by the three in-service training institutes which
are located in Sofia, Varna and Stara Zagora. The institutes are respectively
associated with Sofia University “St. K1. Ohridski”, Shoumen University “K.
Preslavski” and Trakian University – Stara Zagora, but they have juridical
autonomy. The institutes are financed from the universities with which they are
associated. Universities decide about the terms of financing, and the
arrangements vary between the institutions. While there are advantages in being
associated with the universities, there is also a sense of the institutes being
marginalised and subordinate to the universities’ activities. The nature of the
work of the institutes is different, regarding clientèle, content and process, but
they are often expected to comply with the rules of the university, which may
not be appropriate. It was represented to the review team that if the institutes
could have more autonomy their work could be organised in a much more
efficient way.
Teachers attend institute courses for two main reasons: (a) to achieve
attestation and accreditation to advance their careers, and (b) to upgrade their
skills and keep abreast of new curricular developments. It was reported to the
review team that the proportions were about 50:50 for each purpose. The
achievement of the different grades of the teaching career are operated by a
215
commission assigned by an order of the Director of an institute and headed by a
professor or associated professor in the corresponding area.124 The mission of
teachers’ professional development is “to prepare and support educators to help
all students achieve at high standards of learning and development”.125 The
experience of other countries, such as Lithuania, shows that when the system of
teachers’ professional development is associated with the system of their
professional qualification and career, the in-service training provided tends to
become “supply driven” and monopolised by the providers.
Professional development programmes are also provided by other

organisations such as teachers’ associations, trade unions, NGOs, training
centres established by international programmes, such as Phare, Tempus, British
Council, etc. University faculties are providing courses in certain areas,
depending on teachers’ personal needs and interests. These courses are
voluntary; the obtained certificates are not recognised and cannot be used to
promote teachers’ careers. At the moment, there is no system of programme
evaluation and accreditation for such courses.
The institutes provide free and paid courses. Programmes developed at the
request of the MoES or approved by the MoES are free of charge. Paid courses
are usually related to teachers’ personal retraining. The institutes can raise
money by renting offices; e.g. the institute in Varna is renting offices to a
business school which is paying for the heating of the whole building. The
institutes receive little money for equipment. Most of the equipment (computer
laboratories, copying machines, etc.) is received through international projects
(Tempus, Frankophonia, etc.), and the institutes have serious financial
difficulties in maintaining and upgrading it.
Due to financial difficulties, the number of teachers taking in-service

courses has dropped by almost 50%. The majority of the courses are free and
the institutes are offering cheap accommodation, but teachers have to pay for
their travel and meals. Teachers cannot easily get paid leave (or find substitutes)
so that they can participate. Moreover, teachers are not motivated to attend
courses because there is no system of incentives: salary differentials between
‘levels’ are very low, teachers have to pay themselves for expenses, and the
quality of the courses is not always satisfactory. Very few teachers from the
124
Gurova, V. & Nejkov, D. “Survey of Teacher/Trainer Training in Vocational
Education.” Brochure 6. Bulgarian National Observatory.
125
DuFour, R. and Eaker, R. Professional Learning Communities at Work: Best
Practices for Enhancing Student Achievement, National Education Service,
1998.
216
schools the review team visited had taken part in in-service courses in recent
years.
The rigid structures of the institutes, lack of flexibility, large numbers of

regular staff, and their “monopolistic” status are all barriers to achieving higher
efficiency of their services. Nevertheless, these institutes have accumulated a lot
of experience and resources, they have professional staff, they have developed
systems of communication with the local inspectorates and schools, and thus
they should be more actively involved in the reform of education. There needs
to be a more coherent national policy on inset, more co-ordination of effort, and
better funding.
Content
In-service training programmes of the institutes are planned in relation to

priorities expressed by the Ministry, requests from the inspectorate, requests
from schools and reaction from course participants in the previous year. Course
proposals are vetted by the local education authorities through the inspectorate.
Brochures are then prepared and distributed to schools. On receipt of
candidates’ applications the programmes are finalised. It is usually necessary to
have a minimum of 6-8 applicants to mount a course, and the preferred
maximum is 25 participants. The institutes offer two types of courses (unpaid):
courses in curricular subjects and courses in pedagogy, psychology and
management. The descriptions of the programmes reflect the theoretical
character of most of the courses. Programmes for foreign language teachers
organised in co-operation with international organisations (British Council,
Francophonia, etc.) differ by their practical approach.
Process
The institutes do not have regular links with the schools. Earlier, the
institutes used to co-operated with “model” schools on a regular basis, but now
these relations have broken down and their co-operation is occasional. Recently,
the institutes have tried to change the mode of course delivery, and interactive
methods are being experimented with. Information technologies are making
some courses more attractive: teachers can observe video lessons, use
computers, but, generally, the lack of equipment and materials presents large
problems for such initiatives.
Teachers’ in-service training is focussed more on the needs of individual

teachers than on the school staff as a team. The concepts of school-based
teachers’ professional development, as well as collaborative school
development planning are not yet introduced into school practice. Nevertheless,
217
the demand for them will be growing in relation with the curriculum reform and
other educational aims.
Role of regional inspectorate in in-service teacher training
One of the main responsibilities of the regional inspectorate is to support

teachers’ professional growth. They analyse teachers’ needs of in-service
training. Ideally, they could liaise among teachers’ professional associations,
methodological units, labour market centres, NGOs, universities, in-service
training centres and schools. In practice, local inspectorates do not have funding
for in-service; their role is restricted to assisting in course organisation. It is still
the case that all in-service courses (including those offered by NGOs, such as
the Open Society Foundation) must be approved by inspectorates; teachers
cannot gain credits for courses offered by NGOs, even if they have formal
approval.
However, more recently some inspectorates (e.g., Varna) have made

efforts to link in-service offerings directly to changes and reforms, and to
support principals in developing project management skills.
Reform efforts in teacher training
A significant initiative to implement reforms in in-service is the Education

Modernisation Project, supported by a World Bank loan. The project aims to
reform teacher in-service training by the establishment of a demand-driven
system that meets the needs of the schools. A ‘market’ of independent training
providers will offer high quality in-service programmes. The Ministry of
Education and Science will create a regulatory structure for programme
accreditation and licensing of these providers. Local inspectorates are to be the
main in-service training providers in relation to the new curriculum.
The initiative is to be welcomed, but the review team would wish to see it
emerging from a more in-depth examination of the issues involved and a more
comprehensive policy on teacher education. It is not at all clear that the
inspectorate, as at present positioned, will be able to provide the meaningful
forms of in-service required. There is a danger that reliance will be placed on a
model of top-down delivery courses for large numbers of teachers focussed
mainly on dissemination of information on the content and skills required by the
new curricula. If this becomes the predominant pattern, then experience
elsewhere would indicate that it would be of limited use.
218
Issues and Barriers in education personnel
x Lack of incentives – both in terms of salary differentials and career

progression – for young teachers to enter the profession and continue
their professional development. For example, teachers of children with
special needs receive only EUR 3.07/month more than regular
teachers, and each ‘step’ on the career ladder brings only an extra 5
leva/month so that the difference between a beginning teacher and the
most senior teacher is only 20 leva/month (about USD 10). Teachers
who become teacher trainers lose up to 15% of their salary – a clear
dis-incentive.
x Lack of strategic leadership at the level of the MoES; there is an

urgent need to review policies and institutional structures that
determine how teachers are trained, supported, monitored, developed,
and motivated at all levels.
x Provision of in-service courses by NGOs is often of high quality but

according to MoES regulations NGOs cannot give qualification
credits even if the course is inspectorate-approved.
x Low status and salaries for inspectors, which dangerously damage

their credibility and authority in their all-important work in
representing MoES in introducing reforms in schools.
x Lack of attention to the in-service needs of school directors and other

administrators, in particular with regard to decentralisation, staff and
financial management, and whole-school in-service development, for
example for collaborative development of school-based curricula and
cross-curricular work.
Early Childhood Development and Education
Pre-school education for children aged 3-7 comes under the aegis of the
MoES and the inspectorates; below the age of 3, children are the responsibility
of the Ministry of Health. Some groups (crèches) exist for children between the
ages of 1-3 that come under the joint responsibility of both Ministries. Most pre-
schools for 3-7 year olds are connected with a specific primary school. There
are about 104 private kindergartens in the country. Every pre-school is entitled
to develop its own programme, or follow a specific approach such as ‘Step-by-
Step’ according to parents’ preferences, but all must comply with MoES
requirements.
219
The Law (Art. 18-21) states that the cost per child in state or municipal
kindergartens will be met from the state or municipal budget respectively. An
amendment passed in 1998 requires parents to pay a fee set by each
municipality’s council. Fee levels differ slightly by region; on average, it costs
between 20-30 leva per child per month, based on a percentage of the minimum
wage (20%). The fee includes meals and materials. Parents are also required by
law to pay for any activities other than those stipulated by the state educational
requirements. However, parents’ fees cover only one-sixth of the real cost,
which is estimated at about 120 leva/month per child. The difference is paid by
the state or by the responsible municipality.
Approximately 66.4% of the age 2-8 cohort was in pre-school in 1999.

Class sizes are between 12 and 22; the school day is 8 hours, but many pre-
schools start at 7:30 a.m. and close at 7:00 p.m. to accommodate working
parents.
Teachers for pre-schools are prepared either in university faculties

(Bachelor’s degree) or in teacher training colleges (3 year course leading to a
specialist diploma). Pre-school directors are required to hold a Bachelor’s
degree. In-service training is done by the Pedagogical Institute, university
faculties and NGOs, for example the Open Society Foundation for the ‘Step-by-
Step’ programme. In addition, pre-schools have other types of professional
staff, including educational psychologists, pedagogues, nurses, logopaedists etc.
Pedagogues receive special training in working with young children.
There is an MoES-developed curriculum, as well as guidelines that stress

intellectual and affective development of the child, school-readiness, and
understanding of the environment as well as greater emphasis on active
learning. The curriculum (not obligatory but recommended, and according to
the MoES most pre-schools follow this) covers 6 areas:
x Bulgarian language, oral and written;
x numbers;
x introduction to science, especially environmental topics;
x art and music;
x social and physical development;
x foreign language (in most kindergartens; this may be mother tongue,

or even English for young learners).
220
New standards for pre-school were published in September 2000; these are
obligatory for all kindergartens. There are ‘registers’ (checklists) for children’s
achievement of these standards; assessment is done both internally and
externally, with the help of inspectorates and the Pedagogical Institute. The
assessment is said to be ‘child-centred’ and based on a set of expectations and
criteria (e.g., ‘a five-year-old should be able to tell or finish a story’ etc.) but
teachers find it difficult to have time to evaluate each child. Schools are
inspected by the inspectorate.
Children who are not in pre-school education are increasingly offered

school-readiness programmes in preparatory classes. These are of two kinds:
one for children about to enter primary school, and one for children who are
already of school age but not considered ‘ready’, for example because of
language difficulties (see above). Since 1998, the Law (Art. 20(2)) requires that
non-Bulgarian speaking children must be given preparatory education, mostly in
classes connected with primary schools.
Issues and Barriers in early childhood development and education
x Lack of support for early childhood teachers and staff in the

implementation of the new curricula and new standards, which
encourage more active teaching and learning methods.
x Inadequate knowledge and procedures for early identification of

learning difficulties or other special needs. Only the most obvious
medical problems – vision, hearing, physical handicaps – now receive
attention; the approach is very ‘medical’, and learning difficulties such
as emotional or behavioural problems, social maladjustment problems,
hyper-activity, dyslexia etc. are largely ignored. Stronger regulations
and professional resources are needed; ‘the Law is very weak’.
x Limited participation in pre-school education. Only about two-thirds

of children of pre-school age receive any kind of pre-school education.
Provision is inadequate in rural or high-unemployment areas, where
poverty levels are greatest and early contact with children in difficult
circumstances is particularly crucial.
Vocational Education and Training (VET)
Bulgaria faces two main challenges with regard to VET: (1) the
implementation of the VET Law adopted in July 1999, which complements the
Public Education Act; and (2) ‘harmonisation’ of its VET system and its
national needs with those of the European Union. The key issues are:
221
x decentralisation of the VET system;
x optimisation of the VET school network;
x co-operation between VET and labour market;
x efficiency and quality of VET;
x sustaining VET reform.
Priorities are to update VET standards, and to further develop assessment

and certification. With regard to employment and social affairs, the objectives
set by the Bulgarian government for human resource development and labour
market policy correspond well with the priorities identified by the European
Commission.
Socio-economic context relevant to VET/labour market assessment
Generally, Bulgaria’s economy is characterised by fluctuating economic

growth with increase in GDP, low inflation rate, decrease in manufacturing
output, negative foreign trade balance, and increasing amount in foreign
investment. The investment in human capital over the 1990-1999 period ranged
from 36.8% to 51% of the consolidated state budget. According to the data
supplied by the National Statistical Institute, the GDP for 1999 was
USD 12.393 million and the GDP increase was 1.27% compared to 1998. The
GDP per capita in 1999 amounted to USD 1 510, which is an increase of 1.8%
compared to 1998.126
The development of the labour market is characterised by restructuring of

branches and manufactures, privatisation, liquidation of companies and new
business start ups. The most recent expansion of the private sector indicates a
promising dynamic, but does not compensate for the increase of unemployed in
the public sector. While in 1999 the percentage of those employed in the private
sector reached 63.30%, employment in the public sector dropped by 12.9%
between 1997 and 1999. Small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs) have a
substantial employment share – 41% – but are not yet sufficiently efficient in
the current economic conditions. While the service, construction, tourism and
information technology sectors are emerging, chemical industry, timber
processing, textile production are in decline.
126
The source for all statistics in this section is the National Statistics Institute,
General and Vocational Education in school year 1999/2000.
222
Demographic changes increasingly affect the labour market and the VET
system. Between 1999 and 2010, the number of 5-14 year olds will decrease by
336 000 and the number of 15-25 year olds by 273 000 (National Statistical
Institute). The economy will have to recruit from the adult population, requiring
VET institutions to train adults; this is in fact listed as a priority in the National
Development Plan (2000-2006).
There is also the problem of school drop-out. According to the information

received during the OECD team’s visit,127 drop-out rates were 3.8% for VET
(1998/1999 school year figures). There are no data for early school leavers who
leave the education system with no or very low qualifications, or for those who
complete general secondary education with qualifications that are inappropriate
for the needs of the labour market. Both groups are vulnerable to
unemployment.
The unemployment rate was 18.5% in March 2000, compared to an EU

average of 9%. Figures for unemployment by age group were as follows: 39.2%
of the unemployed were aged between 15-24, 18.4% between 25-34, 14.9%
between 35-44, 15.7% between 45-54 and 14.2% over 55.
Unemployment rates by educational attainment indicate the highest rate

amongst those who only have basic and lower education or no qualifications
(31.7%, March 2000). The next largest group are those with secondary
vocational education (17.5%) and those who have acquired general secondary
education (16.4%). Most of the unemployed have no specific qualifications:
60.3% of the total registered unemployed (National Employment Service).
A characteristic of unemployment in Bulgaria is the high level of long-

term unemployment, particularly amongst minority groups, young people and
women. Figures for March 2000 show that the number of unemployed for less
than six months (as a percentage of the total unemployed) was 25.4%. For those
unemployed for more than a year this figure rises to 54.1%. Long-term
unemployed with basic and lower education are 42.8% of the total. Long-term
unemployed women are 54.2% of the total number of unemployed women; for
men, the percentage is 54.1%.
Current status of VET
The distribution of vocational schools in Bulgaria meets predominantly

regional needs. Some of the schools offer the same vocational areas as those
127
“School Drop-outs: Problems and Reasons”, Bulgarian National Observatory,
1999.
223
needed in enterprises. More than half of vocational schools are situated in the
biggest towns.
There are at present 47 tertiary colleges (14 pedagogical, 15 technical,

4 economic, 2 agricultural, 12 medical) in Bulgaria. Some are part of
universities. The number of colleges is considered far too high for the declining
number of students; moreover, they may not meet the needs of the labour
market. The MoES intends to restructure the college HE system, and align it
with developments in the European Union.
Decentralisation of the VET system
The MoES has overall responsibility for policy development,

implementation and control of initial (school-based) and post-secondary
vocational education (up to higher education). It is operating the following
schools: vocational schools, vocational high schools and vocational colleges.
In July 1999, the VETA (Vocational Education and Training Act) was
adopted, making provision for the decentralisation of the VET system from state
(MoES) to municipal, and from municipal to school levels which should allow a
more focussed response to the needs of the local labour market. At the time of
the review team’s visit to Bulgaria, decentralisation procedures were with the
Council of Ministers for approval. The planning and implementation of the
decentralisation process have major administrative and financial management
implications for municipalities and schools.
Optimisation of the VET school network
The MoES is empowered to open, transform and close down schools

according to procedures set out in the Public Education Act. At the time of the
visit, the vocational school network consisted of 626 schools. During the last
two years, a total of 40 VET schools have been merged, transformed, opened or
closed.
There are 30 593 teachers in the VET system. Sixty per cent are teachers of
general educational subjects and 40% are practical trainers and craftsmen.
Twenty-nine per cent of all teachers teach general school subjects, while 61%
teach the theoretical and practical aspects of special vocational subjects.
Seventy-six per cent of teachers have a higher education degree, while 22%
have a post-secondary qualification and 2% a secondary education.128
128
National VET Report, 1999. Bulgarian National Observatory.
224
The ratio of students to teachers in vocational schools is 11:1; and in
general secondary schools, 12:1. For the system of secondary education overall,
the ratio is 11:1.
Table 7. Distribution of enrolled students, by school type
Types of schools Number of Number of Number of Women Men

and levels schools classes pupils
Art schools, level
three 19 231 3 539 2 096 1 443
Vocational
secondary
schools, level
three 350 5 585 128 701 52 267 76 434
Vocational colleges,
level four 23 307 6 798 3 821 2 977
Vocational schools,
level three 150 2 343 50 727 14 062 36 665
Vocational schools
after grades 6 and
7, level one 2 112 2 376 674 1 702
Vocational schools
after grade 8,
level two 1 29 409
Total 545 8 607 192 550 72 920 119 221
Source: National Statistical Institute, General and Vocational education in school year 1999/2000.
225
Table 8. Structure of school system by type of schools
Lower Schools Schools Schools Schools Schools

Schools Total Primary Basic Secondary Combined
secondary V-XIII VII-XIII VIII-XII VIII-XI VI-VII
1.General Schools 3 098 444 1 997 25 175 402 47

Day schools: 2 996 438 1 974 23 148 398 42
Without profiles 2 871 438 1 974 23 23 398 42
Foreign language 62 62
Sports 14 14
Humanities 15 15
Natural Sciences
and Mathematics 34 34
Evening schools: 15 10
2.Specialised 146 3 128 1 7 7
3.Vocational and
art schools 592 404 185 2 1
226
Table 9. Students 14-19 years old in secondary vocational education and training
Basic vocational Vocational education with Vocational education Vocation education after Total vocational education
education, level one matriculation examination, level with acquisition of completed secondary and training
three qualification only, level education
two
Age Males Females Total Males Females Total Males Females Total Males Females Total Males Females Total
14 390 193 583 9 256 7 135 16 391 12 9 21 9 658 7 337 16 995

15 435 185 620 30 311 17 813 48 124 70 42 112 3 4 7 30 819 18 044 48 863
16 307 89 396 31 950 18 433 50 383 83 61 144 11 6 17 32 351 18 589 50 940
17 126 27 153 27 706 15 883 43 589 48 45 93 40 88 128 27 920 16 043 43 963
18 56 14 70 12 736 7 547 20 283 21 10 31 219 199 418 13 032 7 770 20 802
19 35 2 37 1 415 645 2 060 3 3 6 314 367 681 1 802 1 017 2 819
Total 1 34 510 1 85 113 374 67 456 180 830 237 170 407 587 664 1 251 115 582 68 800 184 382
9 9
227
Table 10. Students in general and vocational education, 1999/2000 (ISCED 3)
Males Females Total
General education 51 512 93 475 144 987
General vocational education 114 781 68 595 183 376

Vocational education with
matriculation examination 114 542 68 425 182 967
Vocational education and
training with acquisition of
qualification only 239 170 409
Total vocational and general
education (ISCED 3) 166 293 162 070 328 363
The number of students decreases every year. However, in recent years

(except for 97/98), the number of teachers has increased. This is a result of the
new facilities for studying introduced in recent years and the increasing number
of selective and optional subjects taught.
To optimise the school network, a committee has been established which

consists of inspectors, directors of schools, representatives of the VET and
General Education Departments of the MoES. The committee defines
optimisation criteria and implementation plans, which Bulgarian interlocutors
during the OECD review visit have considered vague. Furthermore, criteria do
not take into account links with the education and training system as a whole.
The main objectives and criteria for optimisation are:
x to ensure competitive schools, efficient and acknowledged in the

European Union;
x to answer to demographic developments (e.g. drastic decline of birth

rate in Bulgaria);
x to take into account economic parameters of regions and respond to

the needs of the labour market.
Based on these criteria, the municipalities together with the inspectors

assess the schools under their responsibility. They make recommendations on
the future of these schools to the MoES, which decides. At the time of the
228
review team’s visit, about 20 new proposals for optimisation had been
submitted to the MoES.
Although maintaining the extensive school network is a major financial

problem for the state, key-stakeholders are reluctant to close schools. There is
fear that closure would cause mass unemployment for teachers, who may have
no employment or re-training opportunities. In addition, closing might
contribute to school-drop-out, if travel costs for students become unaffordable;
and the important social role schools play in small communities may also be
lost.
Co-operation between VET and the labour market
The Unemployment Security and Employment Incentives Act (UEIPA,

adopted in 1997), and the Vocational Education and Training Act (VETA,
adopted in 1999), and the Labour Code constitute the main regulative
framework for joint activities of VET and labour market. This framework
includes initial and continuing training, as well as retraining for the labour
market. At the time of the OECD review team’s visit, the UEIPA was under
revision.
The MoES, through its VET system, provides training and retraining for
adults in vocational schools and vocational high schools, which have to be
financed by the trainees. Besides the VET schools there is a large number of
training providers is from public, private and NGO sectors.
The Ministry of Labour and Social Policies (MoLSP), through its National
Employment Agency and its local labour offices, addresses training for
unemployed persons who have a firm job offer. They also provide training for
workers expected to be made redundant due to industrial restructuring.
Although youth unemployment is a major problem in Bulgaria, there are no
special training programmes for young unemployed.
The MoLSP also provides regional programmes for employment, 18 at the

time of the OECD review team’s visit. These include training measures related
to regional employment needs (e.g. infrastructure build-up, promotion of self-
employment, micro-projects for professional qualifications, etc. A joint human
resource development strategy has been developed between the MES and
MOLSP and included in the Bulgarian National Development Plan (NDP) to
respond to the skills needs of Bulgaria’s market economy. The NDP is currently
under revision and will be re-submitted to the European Commission.
229
The development of a joint national strategy for continuing vocational
training (CVT) has started under the European Training Foundation-funded
1999 CVT project for Bulgaria. A Bulgarian inter-ministerial national CVT
strategy working group has been established and a first study prepared, which
now needs follow-up.
Some special training programmes exist for young unemployed; e.g., a

joint Austrian-Bulgarian project, financed by the Austrian Government and
carried out by the National Employment Agency and a consortium of training
companies. Another special project is aimed at youngsters from orphanages
(2001).
Social partners and VET
Quality in vocational education depends fundamentally on close links with

the labour market on different levels, including social partners. The VET law
provides the basis for major involvement of social partners in vocational
education and training.
Although social partners in Bulgaria have been involved in the preparation

of the VET law, actual co-operation between MoES, municipalities, schools and
social partners is marginal. To date, there is no definition of roles and
responsibilities of social partners for implementing the VET law.
Efficiency and quality of VET
The National Agency for Vocational Education and Training (NAVET)

was established in February 2000. It is independent of the NIE, but located in
the same building. Computers were financed by the European Training
Foundation, with training by the Bulgarian National Observatory.
According to the Vocational Education and Training Act (VETA) the

NAVET has the following main responsibilities:
x accredit VET institutions upon request of the institution(s) or the

Minister of Education and Science, or upon decision of its Governing
Board.
x develop and approve criteria for accreditation in compliance with the

VETA and with state education requirements.
x develop and approve accreditation procedures and related

documentation.
230
x issue and withdraw licenses for provision of vocational training and/or
career guidance.
x draft and propose to the Minister of Education and Science:
the list of vocations for VET; b) the state education requirements

for acquiring qualification in vocations; c) the state education
requirements for documents in the public education system, d) the
state education requirements for the assessment system of
vocational education and training; e) the national assignments and
the standardized criteria for the national examinations for
acquiring vocational qualification;
express opinion and propose to the Minister of Education and

Science amendments to the VET school register;
assign research projects and respective implementation in the area

of vocational education, training and in career guidance;
co-ordinate the development of strategies for vocational education

and training promotion and upgrading;
contribute to the international recognition of vocational education

and training certificates;
generate and maintain a register of the vocational training centres

and the vocational information and career guidance centres.
There are seven people working in NAVET (staff detached from the
National Employment Office, National Institute of Education, MoES). The
intention is to recruit a total of 26 employees.
While the NAVET is considered of utmost importance for the

implementation of the VET law, the actual tasks to be implemented by NAVET,
and related financial issues, need further definition and agreement by all
stakeholders involved, to ensure successful operation.
Inspectorates and their involvement in VET
The 28 inspectorates for secondary education are also responsible for VET.
Inspectorates consist of experts monitoring subject didactics; they concentrate
on supervising how state requirements are implemented, but do not review
performance of individual teachers. They also provide training for teachers in
231
subject didactics in general education, but there is no provision for VET-
specific monitoring and training.
Inspectors co-operate with MoES and the local labour office on VET
curriculum development on an informal and ad-hoc basis. They also co-operate
with municipalities, especially in the framework of VET school optimisation.
Roles and responsibilities of inspectors regarding the implementation of

the VET law are vague and unclear for all key-stake-holders involved.
Especially their dual role of support and control is not clear for teachers, and
indeed for many inspectors themselves.
VET teacher training and training of administrative staff in VET schools
Under the Phare VETERST programme (Vocational Education and

Training, Education, Research, Science and Technology) three centres for VET
teacher training were established as part of VET schools. This included
provision of equipment and training of teachers on new methodologies
(interactivity, group work, modular curricula introduction, PC skills, languages,
etc.). In addition, some administrative staff of selected pilot schools was trained
on financial and school management.
After the end of the Phare VETERST programme, no financial means have
been allocated to further teacher/administrative staff training by the MoES.
Occasionally, teachers from VET schools trained in new methodologies under
the VETERST programme provide training to colleagues from other schools.
Besides the three VET teacher training centres, there are three national
teacher training institutes, where VET teacher training plays only a marginal
role. These centres are part of universities (Sofia, Varna) and provide training in
the education process as well as in didactic issues in the humanities, natural
sciences and pedagogy. The most popular courses are in new technologies and
languages, and are also available for VET teachers.
Although many VET teachers have little pedagogical knowledge and skills
(as they often come from industry), no tailor-made training is provided for them
in the teacher training institutes of the universities.
Curriculum development, standards and assessment
Curriculum
232
Vocational schools, vocational high schools and vocational colleges
deliver a national curriculum from initial training up to high school. Curricula
are developed for 289 professions or specialities. Representatives of the MoES,
teachers, inspectors and (on an ad hoc basis) social partners and industry, are
involved in their development.
The curricula contain a compulsory general component guaranteeing that

students acquire the general educational minimum defined by law. The main
emphasis is on vocational training, including especially vocational training
common for all occupational areas, and sector-oriented vocational training.
While general subject areas are taught mainly at the start of vocational studies,
vocational training hours prevail during the final years. This means that students
from VET schools have serious difficulties in passing higher education entrance
exams, and many are excluded from higher education studies.
Although the Phare Upgrading of Vocational Education and Training

Project (UVET) has introduced task-based, modular curricula in pilot schools,
curricula remain primarily school-based, without enterprise practice. In the
absence of an operating apprenticeship or work placement scheme, practical
training takes place in schools, which are often insufficiently and/or
inappropriately equipped. In addition, most curricula still in use in the schools
are outdated when compared to ‘state of the art’ in western European countries;
Bulgarian VET curricula are highly job-specific and still prepare students for
jobs which no longer exist. With their emphasis on information rather than on
skills and competence, they do not prepare students for the European labour
market. At present, most graduates from VET schools need further training
before they can enter the labour market, or they cannot find employment at all.
With regard to new technologies and electronic learning, ‘e-learning’ so far

has not been applied in VET. Negotiations are expected between the National
Contact Point for Distance Learning and the MoES, on the introduction of Open
and Distance Learning (ODL) components into VET curricula. Experience from
the Phare Multi-Country programme for Distance Learning should be tapped.
Standards
National standards for 18 occupations of 11 occupational families have

been developed under the Phare VETERST programme, as follows:
construction technician, economist-organiser, geodesist, car mechanic,
technician in wood-processing, tailor-designer, computer technician, baker,
hotel and catering, telecommunications technician. These vocations are
considered priorities in the country’s economic development. The standards
were piloted in 30 vocational schools.
233
Assessment
Students have to pass the following five state examinations: matriculation

examinations – Bulgarian language and literature, two other general education
subjects, theoretical examination in the vocation, practical examination in the
vocation. The award of a leaving qualification certificate is based on final
theoretical and practical examinations, which are held at the end of training
courses, and on the continuous assessment of student skills. A credit system was
introduced, on a pilot basis, as part of Phare VETERST. Such a system is
consistent with both continuous or periodic assessment and final examinations.
Under Phare VETERST, a system for evaluation, using a modular approach,
was developed for all occupations covered. A national standard for evaluation is
also under preparation.
While NAVET will play a role in updating and inter-linking curriculum

development; standards and assessments systems, no systemic approach has
been developed so far, and roles and responsibilities of key-stakeholders are not
clear.
The current process of gathering and analysis of standard information as a

basis for policy decisions is inadequate, and lacks transparency and
accountability.
Financing of VET
The three main sources of finance for VET in Bulgaria at national, regional
and local levels are the budgets of the state and the local authorities, the
Professional Qualifications and Unemployment Fund, and external financing.
VET schools are financed from the state budget, to be devolved in the
future to the municipalities and further delegated to the schools. According to
the 1999 MoES report, expenditure on vocational schools amounted to
67 100 000 leva. This indicates that the average expenditure per VET student in
1999 was 333.23 leva.
The percentage of funding for VET from the total MoES budget is 50.5%.
This represents over 6% of the consolidated Government budget, and about
1.25% of GDP. The budget for education as a percentage of GDP was
respectively 3.63% for 1999. This is low in comparison with the average in
most EU candidate countries.
The state and municipal budgets cover of initial VET and staff on a unit
cost basis (number of students, classes, etc.). The provision of money follows a
234
specific formula, which is non-transparent and changes every year. Additional
funds are raised by the individual institutions, mainly through the provision of
training courses for labour offices. VET schools also provide paid afternoon and
evening classes for adults, and produce goods for selling. These additional
incomes are insignificant, and in any case must be returned to the state;
naturally, there are no incentives for schools to become self-financing or to
make savings on their expenditures.
Overall, VET schools are in poor financial shape: their equipment is

outdated, salary payments for staff are irregular, and utility costs are high
(especially for heating).
The training offered by the National Employment Service and local labour
offices is funded through the Professional Qualification and Unemployment
Fund (PQUF). In 1999, payments to the Fund amounted to 4% of wages; 0.5%
were paid by the employees and 3.5% by employers. The tax regulations for
2000 envisage a continuation of this tax, but the burden will be distributed
differently: 0.8% will be paid by employees and 3.2% by employers. In 1999
active employment measures took up 25.9% of which only 2.4% financed
training activities. The available statistical data on the training/retraining of the
unemployed are incomplete. In 1999, a total of 1 592 400 leva (0.78% of the
205 445 215 leva available in the Professional Qualifications and
Unemployment Fund) were used for active training.
With regard to external funding129, according to recent data, projects with

budgets totalling USD 42 963 000 have been launched in the last four years.
This is equal to 0.46% of total expenditure on educational projects. In 1998, a
total of USD 5 089 000 were utilised, while in 1999 the figure was USD
5 600 000. These funds represent approximately 70% of all funding from
external sources, and are earmarked for VET; this indicates that vocational
education and training are the main priority for external funding.
Sustaining VET reform
Given the present economic situation in Bulgaria, it will be difficult to

keep up the momentum of VET and labour market reform. It is therefore
important that human resources development continues to be supported within
the framework of the National Development Plan, especially the Phare
programme. It is also important that MoES and MoLSP, and other relevant
129
Donors include the European Union, the World Bank and bilateral and
international contributors.
235
authorities, set coherent priorities for support for human resources development
and that these be translated into a clear strategy for implementation of the
reform and that respective resources are allocated.
It must be underlined that implementation of reform is not only a question

of financing: it requires skilled staff in MoES, MoLSP, and related institutions
to take the reform forward. Institutional capacity to implement the reform must
be strengthened, with the support of programmes such as Phare or the World
Bank loan.
Issues and Barriers in VET and adult education
x Sharp decline in numbers of young people entering the job market.

The (re-)training of adults will need to become a priority for VET
institutions. Special training programmes for young unemployed are
also lacking.
x Students dropping out of VET schools or leaving with very low

qualifications. Both groups are highly vulnerable to long-term
unemployment; more needs to be done to prevent drop-out and ensure
that students leave school with employable skills.
x Low efficiency in the VET system. While student numbers have

declined, the number of VET teachers has increased; moreover, there
is room for consolidating and optimising the VET network. Criteria
for VET optimisation are still vague, and insufficiently linked with
parallel efforts in the general education system. Decentralisation and
optimisation processes are not interlinked; better interfaces would
support a coherent reform process.
x Uneven quality of VET provision. The newly established National

Agency (NAVET) is expected to ensure quality in a number of ways;
however, NAVET is still under-staffed and its tasks are highly
demanding.
x Lack of VET specialists at the inspectorates. This means that

inspectorates are unable to offer VET-specific monitoring and training
to schools. This problem is compounded by the fact that many VET
teachers come from industry, and have not received training in
didactics and pedagogy; they are therefore even more in need of
expert support than teachers in general education.
236
x Lack of balance in VET curricula. General education requirements are
usually taught at the beginning of VET study programmes, leaving the
remaining years predominantly for vocational studies. Students from
VET schools thus arrive at their higher education entrance exams
much less well prepared, and failure rates are high. Skills provided by
VET schools rarely meet the needs of the labour market; there need to
be much better linkages, and responsibilities should be shared.
x Need for wider use of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in VET.
ODL would be particularly useful for (re-)training of adults and
unemployed youth.
Higher Education
Context
For almost half a century, prior to 1990, Bulgaria’s higher education

system had been moulded in the Soviet model. It was strongly state controlled
in terms of ideology, curricula, organisational and administrative framework. Of
the 30 higher education institutions (HEIs) by 1989, only three – the
Universities of Sofia, Plovdiv and Veliko-Tarnovo – were multi-disciplinary
institutions. The others followed the specialised professional training institute
model favoured by the Soviet approach, e.g. pedagogical, technological,
agricultural, and medical institutes. While high levels of scholarship were often
promoted, the communist party greatly influenced the ethos of HEIs. The
predominant course model was the Master’s Degree, usually following a five-
year course structure. Further graduate studies were highly selective, with the
government determining the number of students going forward for the degree of
a “science candidate”, equivalent to doctoral studies. The numbers of entrants to
all courses were centrally determined and the curricula laid down in detailed
format. Student teacher ratios were low, at about 7.5:1, student lecture loads
were heavy, at about 30 hours per week, and the style of lecturing tended to be
of a formal expository type. Student enrolment in higher education was
traditionally small, numbering 101 000 in 1980. However, a spurt in student
numbers took place in the 1980s, so that by 1988/89 almost 127 000 students
were enrolled.
With regard to research, while the law from the 1960s had strict
requirements regarding the research output of academic staff in the universities,
seriously affecting their tenure and promotion prospects, it was the Bulgarian
Academy of Sciences (BAS) and its institutes which were most favoured with
state funding for research. The Academy of Agriculture and the Academy of
Medicine were funded for research and were also engaged in professional
237
education. For instance, the latter trained doctors, dentists and pharmacists, and
is today known as the Medical University. Research groups in the higher
education institutions did much creditable research work, without benefiting
from the scale of resourcing and the prestige of the academies. The general
research agenda was influenced by political considerations and was totally
reliant on state funding. Some publicly funded enterprises also had research
institutes.
The political changes of 1989 created a greatly changed the context for
Bulgarian higher education. The adoption of a democratic political regime
oriented towards a market economy and greater international integration, creates
a framework for higher education in strong contrast to that which went before.
However, there is an organic character in the formation of education systems
through which the elements which shaped them continue to influence them and
cast shadows over them when they seek to develop in new directions.
Traditional ways of thinking and habitual modes of procedure do not change
overnight. New challenges and aspirations call forth new energies but it is also
to be expected that tensions and apprehensions will exist as the old order yields
place to the new. The recent history of higher education in Bulgaria provides a
fascinating case study of a higher education system in transition. It needed to
discard many of the inhibiting features of the older era and to devise a host of
new policies and procedures in keeping with democratic principles and a greatly
changed socio-economic order.
As early as 1990 the Academic Autonomy Act was passed which provided
a much more open, flexible and liberal development framework for higher
education. Institutions were granted full autonomy, private institutions were
authorised, courses could be developed without having to comply with
designated standards, fees for teaching were permitted, new branches of existing
institutions could be established, and so on. The heady excitement of the new
de-regulation policy soon gave rise to concern that higher education was
evolving in a rather chaotic way which could imperil its quality. Over 100 new
faculties were established, programmes increased from 150 to 490, five private
universities were established, a multitude of outreach branches of higher
education institutions mushroomed. Student numbers expanded enormously
within a short time, and now included students who were able to pay tuition
fees, and who often were admitted on the basis of lower qualifications than the
state-supported students. The total number of students in higher education
increased from the 127 000 of 1988/89 to reach 248 570 in 1995/96, an increase
of about 95%.
By the mid-1990s the government had become concerned about its lack of
control over developments in higher education. Thus, in 1995, the Academic
238
Autonomy Act was replaced by the Higher Education Act. This was a much
more regulatory measure which sought to establish a balance between the
authority and responsibility of the state relating to higher education and what
the state regarded as the appropriate degrees of autonomy and freedom of the
institutions in the conduct of their affairs. This included the right of staff in the
higher education institutions to elect their own rectors and governing bodies
independently of the state, and the freedom to teach accordingto the institutions’
academic standards. A clear intention of the legislation, however, was to rein-in
what the government judged to be over-liberal legislation which deprived it of a
steering role for higher education in the building of the new Bulgaria.
Current status
In 2001 there were 91 higher education institutions (Higher Schools) in

Bulgaria. There are 47 universities and equivalent institutions, including 33
public universities and higher institutes, 6 military institutions, and 8 private
universities. In addition, there are 47 colleges of which most are attached to
universities, and 6 of these are private. The Higher Schools are located in
26 towns throughout the country and cater for a total of 234 604 students.130
Thus Bulgaria now has a very large higher education infrastructure to

maintain. The institutions vary greatly in quality, prestige, range of subjects and
student enrolment. The higher education system would benefit from greater co-
ordination and rationalisation. However, the closure of institutions is not
politically easy to achieve in current circumstances. In the context of a declining
population, new accreditation procedures and new competitive funding
initiatives circumstances are likely to encourage rationalisation. Some
institutions may close, but others could be encouraged to merge, form networks
or establish partnerships which could facilitate a diversity of tertiary education
provision of good quality, and geographically accessible to the general
population.
Distance education is not well developed in Bulgaria. Working in

conjunction with the Phare Multi-Country Programme for Distance Education
(1995-99), the National Centre of Distance Education, involving an association
of 20 Bulgarian universities, was set up within the University of Sofia. While
interesting, innovative work has been conducted there, with the ending of the
Phare project the finances for the Centre and for the operation of a distance
education system are no longer sufficient. The review team formed the view
130
Ministry of Education and Science (MoES). Higher Education 2001, Volume
II, Sofia 2001.
239
that, for the present at least, distance education is not high on the priority list of
either academics or Ministry. Nevertheless, many of the part-time students use
forms of distance education by correspondence. In the longer term, and in the
context of a lifelong learning policy approach, the potential of qualitative
distance education should be explored and developed.
A notable feature of higher education in Bulgaria over recent years is the

extent to which it has opened up to international linkages. The availability of
much needed expertise and resources through partnerships with external
agencies has been a major motivating factor. There is also the desire that
Bulgarian standards be in line with western European and international trends.
Bulgaria ratified the Lisbon Convention on the recognition of qualifications in
July 2000. Support from the European Union has been valuable. Involvement in
Tempus projects has helped to cultivate awareness of best international practice
and contributed to staff development at senior levels within the higher education
institutions. Participation in Phare projects such as “The European Dimension
of Institutional Quality Management” and “Quality Assurance in Higher
Education” has helped to prepare the way for significant policy initiatives by the
Ministry in such areas. Now a budget line has been established to facilitate co-
financing of EU initiated projects such as Socrates, Erasmus, Leonardo da
Vinci. The Socrates section of the Ministry was established in December 1998
and Bulgaria became a participating country on 1 April 1999.
Bilateral aid programmes with countries such as Austria, Germany,

Denmark, the United States and international assistance by the World Bank
have also been drawn upon by Bulgaria for system analysis and policy projects
in education, including higher education as part of the “Education
Modernisation Project”. The Ministry of Education and Science’s “Strategy for
the Development of Higher Education in Bulgaria” (1999) has been
significantly influenced by the views of World Bank experts. The emphasis is
on the strategic development of managerial and administrative capacity and on
quality improvement in teaching and learning within the higher education
sector. These aims are being assisted by the Open Society which is also
supporting efforts for the improvement of information on the education market.
The Open Society has begun the operation of its “Inter-University Fund for
Development”, in 2000, aimed at the institutional reform of Bulgarian higher
education institutions. Prompted by a concern about a possible lack of
coherence and strategy of the many aid programmes during the nineties, the
Open Society has initiated a project to create an integrated knowledge source on
international involvement in the development of Bulgarian education
institutions.
240
While the higher education system was expanding, the resources for
sustaining it were contracting. Expenditure per higher education student
declined significantly during the 1990s. In real terms the ratio of unit cost per
capita GNP dropped from around 42% in 1991 to around 22% in 1998.131 It has
been a very difficult period for those seeking to sustain what is worthwhile in
Bulgarian higher education while, at the same time, seeking to improve its
quality and to modernise processes in line with best international practice.
Despite the difficulties much is being achieved, and an admirable commitment
is observable among many politicians and academics in seeking to promote the
reform process.
The Legislative Framework
The Higher Education Act, as amended in 1999, regulates the

establishment, functions, management and financing of higher education. In
contrast to the former regime, Article 3 states “Higher secular education shall be
free of ideological bias, religious, and political doctrines. It will comply with
universal human values and national traditions”, and Article 4 rules out all
forms of discrimination. The Higher Education Act is a very comprehensive and
detailed measure, incorporating 11 Chapters and 96 Articles. It reflects a
tendency, also noticeable in other central and eastern European countries, of a
great reliance on getting things framed in legislation, even if the implementation
of the law can sometimes lag significantly behind. The Act serves as a major
reference point for all aspects of higher education.
The state’s authority in relation to higher education is exercised through

several structural tiers – the National Assembly, the Council of Ministers, the
Ministry of Education and Science (MoES) and the National Evaluation and
Accreditation Agency. The legislation reflects the very detailed regulatory
framework through which the state seeks to control higher education. The
Council of Ministers is responsible for the “Regulations of Unified State
Requirements” for each of the 194 registered programmes. These state
requirements specify such elements as length of studies and minimum study
hours; distribution of core curriculum time; mandatory minimum lecture hours;
minimum hours that part-time students must attend; proportions of lecture hours
to be conducted by high-ranking staff; provision of state examinations. The
state sets out students’ admission procedures and determines the number
entering each higher education institution every year, and the number of
131
José J. Brunner, “Bulgaria: Higher Education – Policy Design and System
Management” (1999) Mimeo, p.9. MoES, “Strategy for the Development of
Higher Education in Bulgaria,” 1999, Mimeo, p.9.
241
students for each speciality. It also determines the amount of the application
fees and the tuition fees to be charged for state higher schools. The
establishment of new teaching programmes or new academic units such as a
department or faculty need to be approved by the Council of Ministers. The
National Assembly reserves the right to establish, transform or close higher
schools. The National Evaluation and Accreditation Agency evaluates and
provides accreditation for institutions and programmes, and is designed to
promote quality assurance in higher education.
The balance of authority in relation to higher education policy decisions is

strongly in the state’s favour. While some academics with whom the review
team discussed this issue were comfortable with the situation, others considered
that the state’s role was now too intrusive and restrictive. The re-assertion of
state control in response to the earlier very liberal Autonomy Act is
understandable, but it may have gone too far in seeking to codify so many
features of the work of the institutions. The capacity of the Ministry to guide
and oversee the whole of higher education is also in question. Article 10
requires the Ministry “to exercise control over the higher schools as to the
observance of this Act and the state requirements”. The bureaucratic dimension
involved in this surveillance is a time consuming process, particularly in the
absence of efficient and qualitative data and information processing. More
importantly, this policing role is likely to marginalise areas of responsibility
which should be the central concern of the Ministry, e.g. strategic planning and
the promotion and co-ordination of modernising and quality improvement
initiatives.
Quality Assurance and Accreditation
The National Evaluation and Accreditation Agency (NEAA) is a state-

subsidised legal entity and “specialised governmental authority” for the quality
assurance and accreditation of the activities of the higher schools. The Decree
establishing the Agency was issued in August 1996 and the Agency became
fully operational in December 1997. The legislation affecting the Agency was
amended in 1999 and the reconstituted NEAA has begun operating under
Chapter Ten of the Higher Education Act. The Agency has the responsibility for
institutional and programme accreditation.
Under the amended legislation institutional accreditation has to precede

programme evaluation. Accreditation is conducted along a four-grade scale:
Very Good, Good, Satisfactory, Unsatisfactory. The accreditation is valid for
five years when the grade is Very Good or Good, and for three years when the
grade is Satisfactory. Accreditation is not granted when the grade is
242
Unsatisfactory. Accreditation is necessary for state recognition and financial
subsidy.
The workload of the NEAA is daunting. Under the former Council

21 Higher Schools have achieved accreditation; the others were required to
apply for institutional accreditation by January 2001. There are plans for
500 programme evaluations. This will require a massive amount of organisation
and processing. The time scales set out in the legislation for the processing of
applications are very tight and appear unfeasible. The reconstituted Council has
set about its work in drawing up regulations and organising its committee
frameworks in an impressive way, but it is being given very little time to “bed
down”, to establish itself and to lay the foundations for its satisfactory and
efficient working. It may well be that it is being asked to do too much too fast.
There is also a danger of over-drawing on the goodwill of experts who agree to
work on panels for very small honoraria.
Questions also arise regarding the outcomes of the elaborate accreditation

procedures. If a decision is negative, the institution can continue to operate until
a second evaluation takes place which can be delayed 18 months, or longer, at
the discretion of the Council. If the second evaluation is negative, the Minister
can propose to the National Assembly to close the institution, or at least
withdraw recognition. However, this can be a complex process and be subject to
political interests. It is too early yet to evaluate the true import of negative
decisions by the Council. On the other hand, it could happen that the Council
might be used as the agency which could lead to a greater rationalisation of the
fragmented higher education sector.
A Strategy for Higher Education
Drawing on the experience of the Tempus and Phare projects and on the
analyses of World Bank experts, the government has prepared “A Strategy for
the Development of Higher Education in Bulgaria” (1999).132 While the Higher
Education Act and the NEAA form key planks of the state’s regulatory
apparatus for higher education, the ‘Strategy’ is devised as a policy document. It
provides an overview of how the Ministry views higher education at this time. It
attempts to contextualise higher education, to identify its problems, to set out a
strategic vision for the future and to designate means for achieving the
Strategy’s objectives. As a major, recent policy statement the document
deserves close attention.
132
MoES “A Strategy for the Development of Higher Education in Bulgaria,”
1999, Mimeograph.
243
Section III of the Strategy sets out a range of policy objectives. The
admirable main objective is “To improve the quality and relevance of Higher
Education while retaining accessibility and increasing equity” (p.7). Important
strategies include:
x Reduction of the participation rate from the present 60% of school

graduates’ enrolment to about 40%.
x Rationalisation of the number of institutions.
x Increases in staff/student ratios.
x Financing based on demand-driven priorities of the market economy

and social changes.
x A change in the distribution of student places from 194 specialities to

19 or 20 “scientific spheres or areas”.
x Involvement of employers and social partners in educational

standards, programmes and ancillary equipment.
x A view of lifelong learning as “the only way to satisfy the needs for
new knowledge and skills”.
x An intention to introduce tuition fees for everybody, with a scheme for

student loans and stipends. The 1999 amendments to the Higher
Education Act allowed for the introduction of overall tuition fees
“which shall not exceed 30% of the actual costs”.133
x Introduction of unified entrance examinations to higher schools.
x Replacement of state requirements for the specialities with standards,

“which will create conditions for the design of wider-profiled,
flexible, modern curriculum”.
133
A student loan scheme is to be developed, with the help of a World Bank
loan and the state budget.
244
x An emphasis on the necessity for students to learn how to study, thus
preparing them for constant training throughout their lifetime.134
Resources to achieve the Strategy objectives appear unrealistically limited.

The review team understands that the funding for the higher education section
of the reform initiative is about USD 6 million for the first period of three years,
largely from World Bank loan sources. Institutions will be glad of any financial
assistance, but there seems to be a mismatch between the range and depth of the
policy expectations and the capacity and resources being provided to deliver
them.
Students and Teachers
While students and teachers are affected by all aspects of the higher
education environment, there are a number of issues which impinge on them
very directly and because of their importance are dealt with specifically in this
section.
Patterns of student participation
A striking phenomenon over the 1990s was the steady increase in the rate
of student participation in higher education, as shown by the following table:
Table 11. Total student numbers in higher education, 1990-91 – 1999-0
1990-1 183 453

1991-2 181 269
1992-3 192 270
1993-4 203 601
1994-5 221 207
1995-6 248 571
1996-7 260 682
1997-8 257 929
1998-9 259 169
1999-0 258 230
Source: Statistics supplied by the Human Resource Development Centre, 2000.
This represented an increase of slightly over 40% in the decade. However,

it is noteworthy that the main surge occurred from 1990/1 to 1996/7, after
which the numbers have remained constant. Only a small proportion of students
are enrolled in private institutions – about 10%. The proportion of part-time
students to total enrolment increased from about 25% to 36% over the decade.
60
While listing this range of rather radical policy objectives, Section III does
not indicate how most of them might be realised in practice.
245
Part of the major expansion in student numbers was caused by the new
found freedom of institutions to recruit fee paying students, even though they
had not reached the entry standard required of students whose fees were paid by
the state. This was a valuable source of income, but created problems for
maintaining standards, as well as problems of equity. This pattern of student
recruitment has now been forbidden. Legislation now states that students can be
required to pay up to 30% of the real cost of their education. The state pays the
rest for students, all of whom have to pass entrance examinations. In reality, due
to the difficult economic circumstances, most students pay much less than 30%
of fees at present.
Females have consistently formed more than 50% of the student body
throughout the 1990s. Statistics are not available for the participation rates of
ethnic minorities or for different socio-economic categories. However, it is
accepted that the proportion of ethnic minority students in higher education is
minuscule. Overall, it is established that students enrolled in higher education in
1999/00 amounted to 35% of the 19-24 cohort.135 This is a strong performance
by Bulgaria and is ahead of countries with a similar GDP per capita.136 The
proportion of school leavers going on to tertiary education is 60%.
In the Strategy Document the Ministry has indicated its intention of

reducing this to 40% of school leavers. This does not seem to be a wise strategic
approach. One of the key problems in the school system is the actual high
dropout rates involving ethnic minority children, but by no means those alone.
The aim should be to increase the proportion of children who complete
secondary education in the first instance, and then take an informed view of the
percentage of those who should go on for tertiary education. There is a danger
of the 60% transfer being interpreted as 60% of the age cohort. In the context of
human resource development as well as social equity, there may be merit in
seeking to support a 35% or more of the age cohort going on to tertiary
education.
The increase in enrolment has occurred against a background of population

decline. This decline is expected to continue and it has been projected that
graduates from secondary schools who numbered about 93 000 in 1995/96 will
be reduced to about 78 000 in 2005/06 and to about 43 000 in 2015/16137
Demographic forecasting is an inexact science, but if such a massive decline
61
Statistics supplied by the Human Resource Development Centre, 2000
62
José J. Brunner, “Bulgaria Higher Education: Policy Design and System
Management,” Report for the World Bank, 1999, p.5.
63
José J. Brunner, op.cit., p.6.
246
took place it would have very serious repercussions for higher education. In any
case, the demographic trend should ease the pressure for places, and a sharp
reduction in the student numbers authorised by government would seem to be
misplaced. According to statistical data supplied by the HRDC, the student
annual drop-out rate is relatively small at 5%, but more detailed research is
desirable on drop-out and success rates.
During the early surge of student expansion there was a massive influx into
the Educational Sciences and Economics. This pattern has now changed, except
in the case of Economics and Management. Figure 1 shows the pattern of
enrolment in some key professional areas in recent years.
Figure 1.
Total Number of Students/Per Sciences
90000
1995/96
80000
1996/97
70000
60000 1997/98
50000 1998/99
40000 1999-00
30000
20000
10000
0
Education Economics and Engineering and Medical and Law
Management Technology Health Sciences
source: OECD Review Team.
The intention of giving students a role in the affairs of the institutions is

admirable, but the reality is much less impressive. The review team was
informed that Student Councils have not been established in many institutions,
their input to course design and evaluation does not occur, there is no unified
national body representing student interests.
Fees for all students have been introduced, albeit at a low level. The
government has announced its intention of introducing a student loan scheme
and has had discussions with various agencies on the most appropriate format.
The public is apprehensive about the operation of such a scheme and students
247
are concerned about it. However, if a satisfactory scheme can be devised for
Bulgarian circumstances, it would be of long-term benefit to the system.
The government is also in the process of reforming the student stipend

system. Hitherto, these have been mainly been awarded on the basis of social
criteria and on academic excellence. In current circumstances, the review team
sees little justification for the academic excellence criterion, and agrees with the
government’s attempt to combine these elements, giving the main emphasis to
social need. Plans have not been finalised, but it is expected that the number of
stipends will be less but the amount paid more significant and better targeted.
The student representatives whom members of the review team met were
very concerned about deteriorating conditions in student hostels. The ceiling on
the rent of a room for students is reasonable at between 20 and 30 leva per
month, but it may be that this is at the expense of very unsatisfactory living
conditions. Overcrowding, poor heating, poor sanitary arrangements, and non-
functioning elevators do not make for congenial living or study arrangements.
Courses and study patterns
The Bulgarian government has introduced the multi-degree level

framework in place of the older system seeing it as more in harmony with the
needs of contemporary Bulgarian society and international trends. Thus,
Article 42 of the Higher Education Act sets out the following framework:
x First Degree: a minimum of 4 years of training – ending with a

Bachelor’s degree;
x Second Degree: at least 5 years of training or at least one year after the
Bachelor’s degree – ending with a Master’s degree;
x Third Degree: a minimum of 4 years of training after the Bachelor’s

degree or 3 years after a Master’s degree – ending with a Doctor’s
degree.
While the new framework is gaining acceptance, the review team found
evidence of continuing allegiance to the previous scheme, uncertainty about the
value of the Bachelor’s degree, and unease that one could gain a Master’s
degree with less research input than formerly. The review team considers that
the government approach is the correct one and, following a transition period, is
likely to become the norm. However, students have a need for greater career
guidance and counselling during what can be a confusing transition period.
248
The review team also supports the attempt to reduce the over-specialisation
which was traditional in higher education. Any moves towards greater
flexibility for student course choice, while maintaining standards, would be
beneficial for the system.
The review team was concerned about the high numbers of course contact
hours required of students. The average attendance requirement is 30 hours per
week. This tends to foster a very teacher-dependent ethos. In particular, it cuts
down the time available for study, reflection and research by the students
themselves. In modern society self-reliant learning by students and the skills
and motivation of a “learning to learn” approach are crucial for the era of
lifelong learning. As the Strategy document states the curriculum and timetable
design are “often designed to suit tutors’ interests, not the students’” (p. 9). It is
also the case that while there is a formal requirement of extended attendance, it
is increasingly being honoured more in the breach than in the observance, and
so can be self-defeating. The absences, however, are not usually for study
purposes, but more frequently to earn some money through part-time work.
The quality of education available to the large percentage of part-time

students gives cause for serious concern. The number of lectures and workshops
available to them amounts only to three weeks in a semester, compared to
15 weeks for a regular student. They have very limited access to lecturers.
Access to library facilities and good textbooks is very difficult for the majority
of them. Unlike regular students, too much is expected of part-timers’ own
efforts, working from a non-academic environment. Statistics are not available
for the success rates of such students, but the obstacles in their path are
formidable. More than one in three enrolled students now engage on a part-time
basis, although current MoES policy is to reduce the number of part-time places
because of low quality. In the period 1998-2000 the percentage decreased from
34% to 31%. Nevertheless, the issues involved for part-time students need
urgent attention, policies are needed to strengthen the quality of their higher
education. More attention must also be paid to post-graduate students, who now
form a declining proportion of students. It is important to ensure that a good
proportion of the brightest graduates are encouraged into post-graduate studies,
some of whom might form the “new blood” so urgently required within
academic staff.
Teachers
The academic staff of HEIs in Bulgaria have faced great difficulties over
recent years. Many are highly qualified academics and researchers who, despite
greatly reduced conditions of work, have shown admirable dedication and
professional commitment. Others have left the institutions for other
249
employment at home or abroad. There is a dearth of “new blood” entry to
academic life. A range of problems now affects academic life which must be
addressed urgently. Legislative reforms and new accreditation and evaluation
structures will not achieve a great deal unless the system has a teaching and
research force of high calibre, with a good sense of morale, who enjoy
reasonable salaries and conditions of work. The quality of higher education
depends upon the quality of teaching and research staff. Profile of the teaching
force.
The staff/student ratio in Bulgaria, as has been the tradition in Central and
East European (CEE) countries, is very favourable by OECD standards. Recent
statistics show that the average ratio is 1:10. (The real ratio may be somewhat
lower than this when adjustments are made for part-time students.) Of course,
ratios vary between disciplines; it can be as high as 1:50 in Economics, and as
low as 1:2.5 in Medicine. Nevertheless, the general pattern is a generous
provision by the standards of more developed countries.
Linked to staff/student ratio are the regulations regarding teaching hours of

staff. The necessary annual minimum number of academic hours per teacher is
360. The curriculum is organised to ensure this number of hours for each
lecturer. Apart from the economic weaknesses of such a system, it leads to an
overload of teaching hours for both teachers and students and is linked to the
previous tradition of narrow specialisms. If the lectures are also of the old-
fashioned teacher-centred expository model, it can be even more unproductive
for both parties.
The age pattern of academic staff is a cause of major concern, reflecting a

great imbalance in its structure. 69% of professors in Bulgaria are between the
ages of 60 and 69. On the other hand, only 9% are in the age group under 54
years of age.138 While many fine scholars are to be found among these elderly
professors it is also the case that the great majority have been formed in an
earlier era and became used to the procedures of academic life during the
previous regime. Many of the new policy approaches are not congenial to them;
yet they are reluctant to retire at pension age due to the low pensions. The age
imbalance in the teaching force has many disadvantages; but with good
personnel planning there is also an opportunity to restructure staffing policy,
including staff/student ratios.
64
MoES, “Strategy on Higher Education,” p.5.
250
Table 12. Ageing staff in higher education, 1998/99
Total Up to 54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70+

No % No % No % No % No %
Professors 1 122 104 9.27 238 21.21 453 40.37 326 29.06 1 0.09
Assoc. Prof. 3 369 1 983 58.86 921 27.34 446 13.24 18 0.53 1 0.03
Chief Assist. 5 512 4 884 88.61 511 9.27 117 2.12
Senior Asst. 1 613 1 597 99.01 14 0.87 2 0.12
Assistants 1 362 1 360 99.85 2 0.15
Total 12 978
Source: MoES, 2000.
Higher education has suffered from an internal brain-drain to other

occupations and an external brain-drain to foreign countries. In particular, very
bright young academics are attracted to institutions where salary and research
conditions are far better than in Bulgaria.
The Higher Education Act (Article 57) requires each institution to assess
the contribution of each member of the academic staff to the teaching, research,
artistic, administrative and other activities of the institution. For non-habilitated
staff the performance assessment should take place once every 3 years and for
the habilitated staff once every 5 years. The criteria are demanding and
appropriate for normal circumstances, but show little cognisance or
understanding of the day-to-day circumstances in which many Bulgarian
academics have to work. There needs to be a much greater concordance
between the supply side in terms of resources and staff development provision
and the appraisal side as set out in the legislation. However, it does not appear
that much progress has been made in the implementation of Article 57, as yet.
Quality promotion and quality assurance with regard to academic staff need to
involve support as well as pressure and need to be conducted sensitively if they
are to promote improvement.
Research in Higher Education
During the 1950s and 1960s, the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (BAS)
evolved as a large system of research institutes. By 1989 BAS had more than
100 institutes, centres and other units with a staff of over 15 000, half of whom
were researchers. The mission of BAS was focussed on advances in basic
research in almost all fields of knowledge. The Academy of Agricultural
Sciences (AAS) had also been created and comprised over 70 research institutes
251
and units around the country (This is now known as the National Centre for
Agricultural Sciences [NCAS]).
The creation of two parallel networks for basic research – the universities
and the institutes of BAS – has been quite costly for a country of the size and
resources of Bulgaria. It should also be underlined that during the communist
period a much greater proportion of the funding for research was provided to
the institutes of the Academy of Sciences. Under these conditions, the funding
for the research infrastructure and programmes in the HEIs has remained a
lower priority. University researchers were forced to seek alternative ways of
funding. Many HEIs, especially the technical universities, established strong
links with particular industries. These mechanisms of co-operation were
successful though they could not compensate fully for the neglect in funding by
the central authorities.
The third large part of the Research and Development (R&D) sector has
been the network of applied research institutes and development units belonging
to branch ministries or bigger enterprises. Some of these institutes attracted the
best researchers in particular technical fields. A good example in this respect
was the famous Central Institute for Computer Technology (CICT) with a staff
of over 2000. Over the years CICT developed some of the most sophisticated
computer systems exported throughout Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.
Bulgaria was probably the biggest producer of computers in the region. After
1990 CICT was dissolved and the majority of its highly qualified staff is no
longer engaged in research activities. Some have emigrated to the United States.
The R&D system, which Bulgaria inherited from the communist past, was
quite large in size, though rather ineffective. The funding per researcher
compared to the OECD countries was low. The dispersion of resources between
the universities and the Academy of Sciences did not contribute to either high
level of research output or high quality of education. There was a lack of co-
ordinated research policy in line with modern requirements.
252
Research during the period of transition
The research sector during the past 10 years reflects many of the
difficulties of Bulgaria’s transition to a free market economy and a civil society.
The transition has been marked by political and economic upheavals, including
the financial collapse that marked the end of the socialist government early in
1997. The current government (United Democratic Forces), in power since
1997, had the difficult task to restoring the normal functioning of the state
institutions and the economy. The stabilisation programme has been quite
successful, but it did not focus on the development of R&D. At present only
0.34% of the gross domestic product (GDP) is invested in the publicly funded
research sector. For comparison, data for other countries are presented in
Figure 2. The overall number of researchers in the country has been reduced by
about 20% over the past 10 years (Table 12). The reduction was inevitable since
many institutes had been over-staffed.
Figure 2. Percentage of G.D.P. allocated to research activities in some countries in

1995
3,5
2,5
% of GDP
1,5
0,5
0
Estonia
UK
Norway
France
India
EU
Portugal
Ukraine
Russia
Latvia
China
USA
Japan
Spain
Lithuan ia
Sweden
Bulgaria
253
The network of R&D institutes and units belonging to ministries and
bigger enterprises was most negatively affected during the past decade. Many of
these institutes and industrial R&D laboratories have been closed and a
considerable part of the research staff has gone on to the labour market.
Currently only the biggest enterprises in the country possess R&D units, though
with reduced size and activities.
Table 13. Number of researchers in Bulgaria
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
31 704 29 060 26 598 26 284 25 616 25 557 25 853 25 871 25 192
Source: K. Simeonova (Editor), Analysis of the State and Development of Scientific Research in the
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and the Country 1988-1998, Center for Science Studies and
Science History, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, 1999.
Legislative framework for research activities
x Several legislative acts regulate the R&D activities in the country
Higher Education Act (1995, as amended in 1999);
Law for the Bulgarian Academy of Science (1991);
Law for Scientific Titles and Degrees (1973);
Patent Law (1991),
The Higher Education Act (Art. 62) clearly sets out research as a key
responsibility of the HEIs: “Higher schools shall encourage research work and
projects in high priority areas”. Article 63 states: “The pursuance of research
activities shall be an integral part of the academic staffs’ activities”. The Act
further states that payment of the research activities of the HEIs should not be
less than 10% of the cost of the teaching and learning process. Such provisions
are indicative of a governmental concern that research should form an integral
part of the work of HEIs, albeit the implementation of such a policy still leaves
a good deal to be desired. As noted above, the Law for the Bulgarian Academy
of Sciences defines the principal mission of the Academy and regulates its
activities. It provides for autonomy of BAS from state institutions.
254
The new proposed Law for Promotion of Research Activities defines
different mechanisms that would facilitate R&D activities in high technology,
the commercialisation of research products, the establishment of technoparks,
and other measures. It also provides for state funding in priority research fields.
The existing legislation does not stipulate clear mechanisms for the
establishment of a national strategy and priorities in the R&D sector. For a
country with the economic capacity of Bulgaria it is necessary to develop
procedures for the adoption of coherent and well designed R&D policies so that
the limited resources are focussed in areas closely linked to the economic and
social development of the country. It is noteworthy how little attention is given
to research policy in the MoES’s Strategy for the Development of Higher
Education in Bulgaria (1999). Research is not listed as one of the “problems”.
Funding of research
Basic research has been funded mostly through competitive project grants
awarded by the National Council for Scientific Research (NCSR), established in
1990, at the MoES. The procedures for funding through open competition are
well established. During the past several years, however, and especially as a
result of the financial collapse in the country at the end of 1996, the level of
funding decreased about five-fold. Currently, NCSR, through its 10 subject
panels, distributes the equivalent of approximately USD 500 000 per year for all
subject fields. The policy is to finance only a limited number of projects at the
level of about USD 10 000 per project. Currently, about 50 research projects are
being supported. Some sub-commissions, however, award more grants but with
only nominal funding. The competition is open to both Academy of Science
personnel as well as to staff in the HEIs. In recent years there has been a decline
in interest by researchers in the competition, probably due to the limited
resourcing available.
Basic research in the HEIs
The academic staff of the HEIs now represents 61% of the human capital
in the R&D sector in Bulgaria. The higher education institutions in the country
traditionally focus their research activities on basic studies. Under a very limited
budget, researchers have great difficulty in keeping up with the latest
developments in their fields. The supply of scientific journals and books for
university libraries has been highly restricted: the budget does not contain
specific provisions in this respect. HEIs are forced to seek alternative ways for
funding subscriptions, for only a fraction of what is needed. The possibilities for
investments are limited, since the earned incomes of the state HEIs have
255
plummeted after the abolition of paid education by recent amendments in the
Higher Education Act (1999).139
The infrastructure for research in HEIs has not been renewed in most
fields, except in laboratories that took part in international research and
educational projects. The problem is particularly serious for the technical HEIs,
as well as for the natural sciences departments in classical universities. An
exception in this respect is the gradual development of a national ICT academic
network. These developments have been facilitated through a number of
international and national initiatives, co-ordinated by the MoES.
Applied research in the HEIs
The Bulgarian HEIs have been quite successful in research directed

towards development of new products and technologies. Until recently much of
the research of the numerous technical universities had been focussed on the
development of projects financed by enterprises or technology funds in
universities. The decline of Bulgarian manufacturing industry during the past
decade resulted in substantial reduction of these activities. Most of the new
private enterprises are still not in the position to seriously finance technological
developments. On the other hand, foreign investors entering the local economy
rely, in most cases, on products and technologies developed in the parent
companies abroad. Nevertheless, the traditional links of technical HEIs and the
respective industries are still continued. Some institutions have established their
own manufacturing or consulting SMEs. The Technical University in Sofia has
effectively established a big technopark of SMEs that use the developed
infrastructure for applied research.
Another development in the applied research field is the establishment of

co-operative links of university researchers with big international companies. In
the absence of funding from the national economic structures, the co-operation
with foreign companies emerges as an important resource for keeping alive the
research activities in many laboratories. In the chemistry departments of HEIs
much of the current synthetic work is funded through contracts with foreign
chemical or pharmaceutical companies.
The Patent Law of 1991 has stimulated the commercialisation of research

products. Under the new legislation the interests of the different stakeholders –
65
According to the MoES, the fact that all students now pay (some) fees
compensates for this loss of income, but evidence from the HEIs themselves
shows that this is not the case and that losses are considerable.
256
HEIs, individual researchers and external companies – can be well represented
and balanced.
Issues and Barriers in higher education
x Problematic relationship between the MoES and higher education

institutions, and lack of a strategic, systematic approach to policy
formulation and the development of clear lines of accountability.
x Quality assurance mechanisms need support and time in order to

function properly.
x National policy on student numbers needs review, in consultation with

stakeholders. Conditions for students (financial as well as material)
place great stress on students and their families, and are an important
factor in drop-out and long completion times for degrees.
x The Strategy for the Development of Higher Education needs further

refinement and supporting policy.
x Serious under-resourcing, especially of learning support services such

as libraries and ICT facilities for students.
x Inefficiency in the system, due to a lack of co-ordination and

collaboration among HEIs.
x Lack of a coherent national policy for the R&D sector, and lack of
budget provisions for the funding of research in line with requirements
of recent legislation; insufficient funding of the two research councils
of the MoES.
x Need to take advantage of OECD and EU experience in technology

transfer, management and commercialisation of research, and
intellectual property rights.
Recommendations by Section
Equity in access, attainment and achievement.
Child well-being and the development of their and Bulgaria’s future are
closely linked. Families with children, rural and minority families are most at
risk of being poor, have less access to health services, housing, safe water and
sanitation, and are disproportionately subject to social exclusion. Children who
257
are disabled, live in institutions, or are in conflict with the law are among the
most vulnerable. A comprehensive child welfare strategy is needed, developed
by ministries responsible for family and child welfare (Health, Labour and
Social Protection) as well as the MoES and relevant NGOs. This strategy could
have the following educational aspects:
x Set up a national database consisting of municipal and school-level

data on at-risk, drop-out, and drop-in patterns and trends. Once a
relatively simple data collection system is set up, municipalities could
require schools to report on their at-risk, drop-out (and drop-in)
numbers, trends, and reasons, which could then be summarised and
reported to the Statistical Information Centre or to the MoES.
Databases already created by the EC-Phare ‘School for Everyone’
Project could be used and expanded.
x Reformulate and refine the way enrolment, attendance and absence are
measured and recorded.
x Emphasise drop-out prevention rather than punishment for non-

attendance. Community outreach and child-friendly ‘drop-in’
programmes are more likely to persuade students to stay in school
than punitive measures like fines and exclusion, especially since the
most common reasons for non-attendance are related to circumstances
beyond the student’s control such as poverty, social problems, or an
inhospitable atmosphere in the school. For prevention and ‘drop-in’
programmes to succeed, this vicious cycle must be broken.
x Promote bilingual education for minorities especially at pre-school

and grade 1 levels, and especially for Roma children and others in
non-Bulgarian-speaking families. Such programmes already exist in
some regions (e.g. Kardzhali, Targoviste) and should be built upon. A
Roma specialist has now been appointed in the MoES (2002) but more
are needed in those regions with a significant Roma population such
as Sliven where the drop-out rate is 19%. Given the size and problems
of the Roma population, it is unacceptable that their educational
interests are not given the same MoES attention as those of Turkish or
Jewish minorities. The reality still is that out of 100 Roma students in
first grade, only five (three girls and two boys) have a slim chance to
complete secondary schooling, and that many physically and mentally
258
healthy Roma children are channelled into so-called “relief schools”
for mentally and physically handicapped children.140
x Clarify the role of NGOs in medium- and long-term education renewal

policy. Many education reform efforts are currently funded and run as
pilot projects by NGOs, with little thought to their long-term
expansion, sustainability, or links with MoES policy.
x Improve the relevance of curricula to employment opportunities,

especially in general and vocational secondary schooling where
unemployment among graduates is high.
x Widen the definition of ‘special educational needs’ to reflect a less

medical and more educational view of SEN; review and clarify the
Law as it relates to SEN; and ensure educational opportunities for
every child in the least restrictive, and most flexible, environment
appropriate to his or her needs.
Curriculum, standards and assessment
x Continue efforts to slim down curricula and increase curriculum

integration and local, teacher involvement in curriculum development.
x Ensure that curricula for compulsory, core subjects cater for the whole
ability range, and that standards are set at a level achievable by most.
x Re-formulate the legal definition of ‘general educational minimum’ to

reflect the reality that the majority of school leavers need to be
prepared for the world of work rather than for “the next level of
schooling”.
x Ensure that reforms reach the classroom in a coherent manner and

that teachers and school directors receive the necessary in-service
training to cope with change.
x Review and simplify textbook approval and provision procedures and

work with schools to develop a way to subsidise textbooks for needy
children or provide them free.
66
Dimitar Denkov et al., Roma Schools Bulgaria 2001, Open Society
Foundation Sofia, 2001, p. 10.
259
x Improve the salaries and status of inspectors. Unless inspectors are
respected and adequately paid, they cannot fulfil the key role they
must play in reforming Bulgaria’s education system.
x Work with universities towards a single-examination system at the

interface between secondary and tertiary education. Once the new
Matura has established itself as a reliable and respected measure of
learner achievement, separate university entrance examinations should
be phased out.
x Investigate the decline in student performance in mathematics and

science at grade 8 level. While the recent TIMSS-R results may just
be a temporary set-back, they may also be symptomatic of a more
serious problem in teaching and learning in primary schools.
Education Personnel
x Develop a comprehensive strategic policy on teaching that addresses

the range of inter-connected elements which affect the teaching career
in a modern society.
x Reform pre- and in-service policies and structures. The MoES should
take a pro-active role in developing new policies, together with the
teacher training institutions and with inspectorates and schools.
x Give high priority to developing a needs-driven (rather than the

present supply-driven) provision of professional development courses.
Co-ordination of all agencies involved, working to an agreed national
programme, is needed. There is an impressive number of personnel
(about 850 within the inspectorate and the institutes alone) whose
potential could be used much more effectively than at present. Their
training, salary and status need to be improved. Secondment of
experienced teachers on a part-time basis to lead in-service work
could also be useful.
x Allow teachers to receive qualification credits for courses other than

those formally provided – e.g., in-service offered by NGOs.
x Improve the resourcing and equipment of both pre-service and in-

service providers, including the new decentralised locations.
260
x Provide in-service training for school directors, e.g. on whole-school
planning, school-based professional development, curriculum
development, pupil assessment and inter-active methodologies.
x Reconsider the integration of in-service training institutions in the

universities. This may not be the most effective or efficient
arrangement for both parties, although close liaison between pre- and
in-service providers remains essential.
Early Childhood Development and Education
x Widen access to early childhood and pre-school education, especially

in poor and rural areas where early contact of a child with trained staff
is vital in the early detection of health or social difficulties that are
likely to affect that child’s development and learning. While more
children are now attending a preparatory year before entering grade 1,
this may come too late for some children where early intervention
might have made a significant difference.
x Ensure that the poorest and most vulnerable families are not excluded
from sending their children to pre-school by the necessity to pay fees
(see section on equity, above). Fees are not high in themselves, and
local authorities meet most of the cost, but if there are several children
in a family with unemployed parents, such fees can be prohibitive.
These children are also the most likely to have nutritional and health
problems that should be detected as early as possible. Collaboration
with the Ministry of Health is essential for ensuring a smooth
transition of 3-4 year olds into MoES care.
x Investigate reasons for VET drop-out, and help VET schools to

introduce drop-out prevention programmes and ensure that all students
leave school with employable skills.
x Improve efficiency in the VET system by a carefully worked out

programme of optimisation. Because this inevitably means a reduction
in the teaching force and closure of non-viable schools, it is important
to ensure that stakeholders and social partners are consulted in
drawing up optimisation criteria, and that these criteria are made
known to the general public. Strengthen and train the staff of the
National Agency (NAVET) so that it can play a key role in improving
261
efficiency and quality in VET in Bulgaria. Its tasks are highly
demanding.
x Ensure that every inspectorate has at least one specialist VET

inspector capable of providing VET teachers with appropriate support.
x Review VET curricula and timetables to ensure that students keep a

balance between general and VET-specific studies throughout their
studies, so that they are not disadvantaged when they take university
entrance examinations.
x Introduce and expand the use of computer-based and other forms of

open and distance learning, especially for adults and for long-term
unemployed youth.
Higher Education and Research
x Restructure MoES’s role regarding HE, reducing its bureaucratic and

regulatory role but strengthening its strategic capacity and its powers
to hold HEIs accountable for the quality of the education they provide.
In particular, a vastly improved data information system is needed, as
well as more sophisticated skills in policy formulation and
implementation.
x Support the accreditation and quality assurance mechanisms by a

better understanding of the dynamics of these processes and more
realistic time-scales and conditions.
x New competitive funding schemes should be beneficial for the quality

of teaching and learning. However, too much may be expected from
the limited resources available, and from the ability of HEIs to make
the schemes work.
x Revisit the Strategy for the Development of Higher Education and,

with the help of stakeholders, create a comprehensive policy
document that has a built-in monitoring process to make sure it is
regularly reviewed and updated.
x Create a more coherent policy for student participation in higher

education: student numbers, student support and financing, learning
and study patterns, issues affecting part-time students, and the
promotion of post-graduate study.
262
x Address the issues of the unbalanced age structure, the prescriptive
and unproductive regulations on teaching hours, and improvement of
staff salaries in line with more affordable staff/student ratios and the
injection of ‘new blood’ into the system.
x Take a pro-active approach towards greater co-ordination and

rationalisation of the HE system, through mergers and networking,
and – where necessary – closure of inefficient institutions.
x Establish a coherent national policy for the R&D sector, which

identifies priorities and maximises the potential for research in
Bulgaria. This would involve special budget provisions for the
funding of research to reach the levels envisaged by legislation,
development of national criteria for the evaluation of research
activities, and a substantial increase of the funding for the research
councils of the MoES
263
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Examinations in Bulgaria: A Strategy for the Future’. Unpublished report
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Brunner, José Joaquín (1999). Bulgarian Higher Education: Policy Design and
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http://bno.hrdc.bg
Bulgarian National Observatory and Labour Market (BNO). (1999). “Study of

School Drop-Outs: Problems and Reasons”. Unpublished paper. Website
http://bno.hrdc.bg
Crighton, Johanna (1998). ‘Quality, Standards and Assessment Work in

Bulgarian Education’. Unpublished report. Sofia: Open Society
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Denkov, Dimitar; Elitza Stanoeva; and Vassil Vidinsky (2001). Roma Schools
Bulgaria 2001. Sofia: Open Society Foundation.
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the education systems in Europe. National education policies. Key data
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Hammarberg, Thomas (1997). ‘A School for Children with Rights’. UNICEF,

Innocenti Lecture Series,
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Howie, Sarah (2001). Mathematics and Science Performance in Grade 8,
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commissioned for the Bulgaria Social Assessment study. Washington:
The World Bank.
‘Fiscal Decentralisation: Ethnicity Module’ (2000). Unpublished draft. Sofia.
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United Nations Development Programme (2000). ‘Sixth National Human
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ten years of transition. Florence: International Child Development
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Factbook. Washington: CIA Publications.
Váry, Peter (Ed.) (1997). Are We Similar in Math and Science? A Study of
Grade 8 in Nine Central and Eastern European Countries. Budapest:
IEANCEE.
The World Bank (1999). ‘Bulgaria: Poverty during the Transition’. Report No.
18411. Washington.
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and Macedonia (2001). Edited by Mark Norman Templeton. New York:
Open Society Institute.
266
CROATIA
The Thematic Review of Education Policy of Croatia describes the current

CROATIA
General Data
Area: 56 538 sq. km (2/3 of size of Austria).
Number of inhabitants: 4 554 000 (1999 estimate); births in 1999

(9.9 live births per 1 000); age distribution:
26.6% (0-19); there are still 50 000
internally displaced persons (IDPs) and 30
000 refugee Croats from Bosnia and
Herzegovina; a decline in birth rate (-1.2 in
1998).
Ethnic composition: Last census (1991): Croat (78.1%), Serb

(12.2%), Bosniak141 (0.9%), Slovenian
(0.5%), Hungarian (0.5%), Italian (0.4%),
other ethnic groups (7.7%).
Languages: Croatian 96%, other (incl. Serbian, Italian,

Hungarian, Czech, German); more than 50
schools at primary level offer tuition
language of minorities of which: Serbian
(32), Italian (11), Czech (7), Hungarian (6),
Slovak (1).
GDP: Estimated at 5 100 USD per capita. GDP

growth still flat over the past years.
Inflation rate 4.4% (1999 estimate), remained in check

(consumer prices): over the past years.
Official unemployment: The unemployment rate was estimated at

12.6% (1999, ILO Labour Force Survey)
141
‘Bosniak’ has replaced Muslim as an ethnic term, to avoid confusion with the religious
term Muslim (= adherent of Islam).
269
20% (December 1999), women 45%. Work
force participation: 67.9% overall (1999
estimate). Youth unemployment: 23% of
registered unemployed were under 24 years
old.
Croatia was one of the most prosperous regions of the former Yugoslavia,
with a per capita output of about one-third above the average of the country. In
June of 1991 Croatia declared its independence and formed a parliamentary
democracy. Two thirds of that first elected Parliament were from the Croatian
Democratic Community (Hrvatska Demokratska Zajednica) headed by Franjo
Tudjman who was named President. Unfortunately, after attaining
independence, the Republic of Croatia was forced to defend its new
independence in a war with Serbia (1992-95). The war damage in the country
produced differing patterns of economic development since 1995; for example,
the tourist industry in Dalmatia has yet to fully recover. Eastern areas of
Slavonia are depopulated and economically depressed. The heavy war debt has
led to cuts in spending on health, education and social welfare. In 1999 the
unemployment rate was 20%, and almost a fifth of the population were below
the poverty level. The average monthly salary is now 400 USD, higher than in
some other countries in the region, but buying only a minimum food basket for
a family with two children.
After the death of President Tudjman, other parties successfully formed a

government. Although the country faces many problems, common to the region,
the Government has been successful in managing macro-stabilisation policies
(which began under President Tudjman in 1993), although privatisation of large
state enterprises and the bank system reform is far from complete. The new
Government appointed in 1999 is committed to economic reform but has to deal
with severe economic decline.
270
Age at which compulsory 7 years

education starts:
Age at which compulsory 15 years

education ends:
Levels of education Central: Ministry of Education and Sports

governance: and the Ministry of Science and
Technology.
Regional: 21 counties (åXSDQLMH). There are
5 regional units focused on quality control
(inspection) and evaluation.
Local: Schools. The decline in the birth rate,
and abandonment of particular areas by the
local population due to the war, were the
main reasons why some schools closed
down.
Structure of the education Pre-school education: ages 2-7 years;

system: participation rate 34.9%.
Compulsory basic education: ages 7-15
years; the current structure is 4+4;
participation rate 98%.
Secondary education: ages 15-19, 3 and 4
years (short programmes 2 years);
participation rate 63%.
Tertiary education includes non-university
education (2 to 4 years) and university
education (4 to 6 years); participation rate
31.3%, of which 22.9% in university
education.
Examinations/transition No formal exams at the end of the grade 4,

points: 94% of the students continue into grade 5,
cohort size 56 231(1998/99). At the end of
grade 8, there is an internal school-leaving
test leading to a certificate of completion,
cohort size 52 285 (1998/99). At the end of
gymnasium (grade 12) there is a maturity
271
exam (Matura), cohort size 11 871
(1998/99). The technical and vocational
schools both end with a final exam,
internally prepared and assessed, 90.8% of
students pass it, cohort size 11 871
(1998/99). The receiving institution or
faculty sets entrance exams for tertiary
education.
Description of the system
The education system in Croatia is highly centralised with many elements

inherited from the Yugoslav approach in which education was considered a
“science”, led by the government. During the war many school units suffered
serious damage and even now do not have sufficient funds to cover maintenance
costs. Educational workers’ salaries are low, as is their status; are unmotivated
because they have limited possibilities to participate in defining curriculum and
the conduct of classes. Tight administrative control measures by the
Government through records and reports limit schools’ flexibility in defining
policy based on final results and performance criteria.
In Croatia governance of the tertiary level is the responsibility of the

Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST), while the Ministry of Education
and Sport (MoES) is ultimately responsible for the pre-tertiary level. The MoES
is responsible for drafting legislation, defining the curriculum for all schools,
approving textbooks, appointing head teachers, approving the number of pupils
and school budgets, and settling all payments, salaries, materials costs, and
capital expenditures except those met by local authorities.
Contacts between the different departments of Government are limited;

this is particularly evident between the MoES and the MoST. Although a
working group has been set up, there is little or no contact on strategy or policy.
The problem is that there is no mechanism for putting together the pieces so that
an overall view of the system, its development and reform can be achieved. Yet
a properly functioning education system must have coherence between the
primary and secondary schools and higher education. In addition such issues as
informal education, continuing education, post-secondary education outside
formal higher education, and lifelong learning have not been seriously
addressed so far.
For example, vocational education and training (VET) needs to be assessed

not only by the Ministries but also by their social partners. The Chamber of
272
Crafts now participates in programmes for apprenticeship and professional
skills, but neither it, nor the Chamber of Commerce, nor the trade unions work
with the Government toward the development of the Croatian economy or
social policy more generally.
What is needed is a shared vision to which all parts of government

subscribe, a strategy based on that vision, and a plan of action to implement it.
This vision would enable the continued modernisation of the economy and the
provision of adequate educational opportunities for all the population. Progress
towards entrance to the European Union requires a well-articulated plan both of
strategy and action.
Stages and status of education reform
In early 1995 some changes in the education system were made. A number
of specific changes were already in hand, including a law on the education of
minorities and a proposal to increase the length of primary education. More
important from the point of view of governance was the publication of a
document, “The Basis of the Education System in the Republic of Croatia”, as
the basis for discussion. This was an attempt on the part of the government to
raise the profile of education in the minds of the public.
There is a genuine will by the current Government to reform the education

system, and some useful work has already begun. Some substantial issues yet to
be addressed include: the need for a more consistent and coherent policy
approach within Government; a constant drive towards a more flexible system,
with clarity of responsibilities; the creation of effective and competent
partnerships with capacity to help reform; and the importance of good
information as a contribution to assessing the effectiveness of the system and
the reforms being put in place.
Statistical data
Data on education was made available through: the Central Bureau of

Statistics, the MoES, the regional offices for education and the Croatian
Employment Service. The present situation indicates that some important
information does not exist; while other information is not shared and/or used.
Efforts have been made to use the most recent and reliable data available but the
actual data should be treated with caution and used as indicative. More reliable
data will be available after the next census in 2001.
273
Table 1. Schools by type and population (2000)
No. of schools
No. of Pupil:
SCHOOL TYPE (excluding No. of teachers
students Staff Ratio (P:SR)
branch schools)
ALL TYPES 3 107 790 815 75 985 10.4:1
Pre-primary 454 130 150 6 372 20.4:1
Primary 1-8 2 143 413 468 41 399* 10:1
A. Secondary 150 49 624
general 275 146 399
B. Secondary A+B 20 651 A+B 9.5:1
VET
University 66 70 703 5 871 12:1
Non-university 19 26 095 1 692 15.4:1
Note: Total staff counts (teachers + administrative and supporting staff.
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Zagreb, Croatia.
Legal framework and policy objectives
The Government of Croatia views education as a crucial element in the

transition to a democratic society. Its policy on education is based on several
strategic principles: special attention to minorities and the respect for human
rights; decentralisation of the financing and management of schools; and a need
to involve both public and private resources in education. Efforts are being
made to reform the system, and the commitment of the Government is an
important asset. The process of the reform in Croatia involves policy
development and decentralisation as well as curriculum change, teacher training
and financial restructuring. Long-term development strategies are being worked
upon; however, there may be considerable slippage between the Government’s
development strategy in the education sector and the available resources within
the same time-frame.
The Constitution provides that attendance is compulsory for 8 years, up to

completion of primary education. A new law was passed (Education Act on
Primary Education, 1990, amended in 1996), while others are being prepared.
Teaching plans and programmes were published in 1999, following a pilot
period of 3 years (1995-1999). Several other laws were enacted during the last
few years, i.e. Secondary Education Act (1992), Pre-school Education Act
(1997), Law on Inspection in Education, Law on Equivalence of Foreign School
Documents, Education in Languages and Scripts of National Minorities (all in
2000).
The MoES retains overall responsibility for the educational system, being
the main policymaking body with budget responsibility and control; the tertiary
274
level is under the auspices of the MoST. The official position is to decentralise
and deregulate; however, it is clear that the path is not clearly marked and
attitudes are sometimes ambivalent. The MoES has set up committees of
experts to deal with a number of crucial issues in regard to educational reform
and launched a campaign for popular participation in defining the reform of the
school system. With the Ministry drafting legislation, as well as defining
curricula, textbooks, school budgets, criteria for the selection of school
managers, settling all payments, etc. to date, the system has been (and largely
remains) centralised. As long as each school has to interact directly with the
Ministry for all financial or management issues, real decentralisation cannot
occur, particularly if the main role of (school) administration in education is to
ensure that detailed decisions of the Government are carried out. The
modification of the Primary Education and Secondary Education Acts, which
will expressly stipulate the decentralisation of financing and management, is
now underway.
The Ministry of Labour is responsible for employment issues which relate

to education; but these responsibilities are in essence assumed – and policy
initiatives are carried out in most instances – by the Croatian Employment
Service. Beginning in 2000, the Ministry of Crafts and Small and Medium-sized
Enterprises has been responsible for practical training within the dual system
for vocational education. The independent Employment Service (funded by
employer/employee contributions) pays benefits to designs and implements
training for the unemployed.
The lack of focus for the whole system means that the roles of various
authorities at both the national and regional levels have not yet been fully
defined; this creates substantial problems in decision making both for priorities
for public funding and the operational consequences of that spending. The
decision by national educational authorities to shift more responsibility to
regional and local authorities is considered difficult to implement, because
“they are not equipped to carry out the tasks”.
x There are many barriers to effective decentralisation of schools in

terms of financial autonomy, staff appointment and quality control.
Consequently authority is overly centralised in some aspects (e.g.
curriculum, textbooks), while in others it is highly decentralised (e.g.
assessment). There is no common view on the pace and level of
decentralisation, or on the roles that each party should play in the
process.
275
x The parties are not using detailed analyses for policy design and
decision-making. Education policies should be supported by feedback
from the system as well as by timely and accurate data.
x There is an inadequate delineation of roles and responsibilities

between the levels of government. At present the parties are not
prepared and trained to take over the responsibility of autonomous
school management. Municipalities are not connected in any way with
the needs of schools and there are significant differences among the
regions in terms of resource allocation.
Equity in Access, Attainment and Achievement
As in many countries in the region, the former communist regime in

Croatia was successful in ensuring high levels of access to education, especially
at secondary level, but with a curriculum that is now both outdated and
overloaded. At present, education is more and more based on individual
decision, and the Government has begun to introduce competition,
individualism, and choice of ‘profile’ or specialisation in schools. In the present
system, all education beyond secondary education, including second-chance and
continuing education schemes, is largely left to the initiative of the individual.
Table 2. Participation in education (1999-2000)
Level of Number of students % Girls %

education
Primary 413 468 58.5 200 928 48.6
Secondary 196 023 27.8 98 501 50.2
Tertiary 96 798 13.7 51 021 52.7
TOTAL 706 289 100 350 450 49.6
Source: CEPS, Ljubljana, December 2000.
The motivation of secondary school students is closely linked with their

choice of study. For example, a poorly performing student might well find
his/her preferred choice of educational path blocked. While the education
system significantly contributes to learning achievement, it remains rigid in
terms of the realisation of individual ambitions as well as rational use of public
resources, given that many programmes and methods are no longer in line with
new economic and social requirements, nor with the expectations of the young.
A major reason for dropping-out is said to be students’ unwillingness to
“perform” according to prescribed norms. However, the problem of early
276
school-leaving is much more complex, but no systematic research has yet been
undertaken.
Therefore, along with care for gifted students, new education policies
should also address the drop-out issue, and provide for second-chance
opportunities for those who have not managed to complete a grade or who have
left education. In addition, upgrading of skills for adults and retraining of young
adults needs to be carefully prepared. Schools and teachers should be better
equipped in terms of facilities and programmes to serve the needs of both young
and adult learners.
Observance of human rights and care for minorities are very important
issues, especially in the light of Croatia’s recent history. The country has made
important progress in this area; minorities are encouraged to study in their own
language, and a new law was passed in 2000 (Education in Languages and
Scripts of National Minorities Act.) At present there are more than 50 school
units for minorities.
Table 3. Schools by ethnic stream and population (2000)
Minority School Units Number of Students

Primary Secondary
Serbian 32 3 952 1 922

Italian 11 2 195 818
Czech 7 412 -
Hungarian 6 298 52
Slovak 1 15 -
Source: CEPS, Ljubljana, December 2000.
Issues and barriers in access, attainment and achievement
x The balance between supply, needs and quality. A basic premise of

educational policy is to ensure constant adaptation of educational
supply to the educational needs of individuals, as well as to ensure
high-quality basic education for all and realistic possibilities of
mobility within the system – both horizontally and vertically.
x Enrolment patterns should provide for equal access to the various

programmes at secondary and tertiary level. The network of general
secondary education programmes (gymnasia) needs to be enlarged to
reduce the present need for stringent selection. A more promising
future for technical and vocational education lies in abandoning
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“outmoded” programmes, de-specialising and modernising content,
developing new programmes in economically viable fields with
support of social partners, and integrating learning and work.
x The present system provides for early streaming into two main
education paths, with limited transfer possibilities at a later stage. The
system needs to be restructured to make it more ‘porous’ by allowing
transfer of students from one stream to another at any stage. This
could be achieved through special ‘bridging programmes’ during
secondary schooling for young people, or for adults with or without
work experience who wish to return to the system. International
experience suggests that vocational specialisation is best delayed until
after secondary education.
x There are also some regional differences in access, especially at the

tertiary level, due to migration to industrialised areas. Considerably
fewer choices exist outside the bigger industrial centres, which
essentially limits employment prospects of graduates. This is also
linked with the issue of decentralisation of the vocational system,
which is not by students and parents adjusted to the needs of the
business environment and is often seen as a second choice.
x Private provision of education. The 1992 Law on Secondary

Education, with its amendments in 1993 and 1995, allows for the
establishment of private schools. However, the number of private
primary and secondary schools in Croatia is minimal, and so is their
influence within the Ministry of Education and Sports.
Financing
The main characteristics of Croatia’s financial system for education are:

chronic under-funding; lack of equity and transparency in budgetary allocation;
unbalanced structure of the education budget, both in terms of categories of
expenditure and sources of funds; and lack of synergy (legislative, professional
and institutional) for system change. Many issues are neither addressed by, nor
reflected within, present legislation. The allocation mechanisms are rigid and
based on incremental budgets relying on the allocations of previous years,
without medium-term planning and strategic investment targets. Control is
usually exercised at the central level and is based on inputs. There are no
mechanisms in place to reallocate money from one budget line to another.
Without a consistent approach across all these issues, rational financial
decision-making is seriously affected, and school units will not be able produce
desired outcomes.
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The MoES receives almost all moneys allocated to education from public
funds. The share of education of GDP went down over the last few years, but is
now increasing to about 3.4% (1999 estimate) although it remains well under
the European average. The share of education expenses from the state budget is
below 12% and private contributions are insufficient. There is a great need to
mobilise additional financial resources, as the current level is insufficient to
support the reform process.
The division of financial responsibilities does not reflect a clear policy

perspective for either side. In Croatia, the MoES presently covers 100% of
expenses (except for pre-school, and some categories of capital investment,
such as maintenance of buildings). By focusing on recurrent expenses at the
central level, the government may not be able to introduce incentives for
efficient service delivery. Another problem seems to be the pre-schools which
are financed locally; funding is not assured in all regions, resulting in unequal
access. The split of capital investments between local and central offices
fragments the already constrained opportunities to focus on central or local
priorities, or implement development projects on either level. At the central
level, no adequate management information system exists to assist in
developing an appropriate investment strategy.
Some schools lack space, and others make inefficient use of the space they
have. The conditions differ very widely from one school to another, but
education facilities are often inadequate. Many schools need urgent repairs, but
in the absence of systematic information (i.e. school-mapping) about regional
differences it is difficult to initiate a national programme to address this
problem. Beginning with a thorough analysis of the current status of buildings
and facilities, and conducting an inventory, a list of sensible priorities could be
drawn up. In the absence of a clear definition of responsibilities at each level,
and without additional support from the private sector, many school units will
find it difficult to survive.
Issues and barriers in financing
x The overall financial resources are insufficient. At present there are no

incentives for private and other non-state sources of financing. There
is a great need to increase and diversify the available resources. In this
context, the provision of (fiscal, tax, etc.) incentives to employers to
encourage broader participation in both the dual training system and
the training of employed people, could unlock untapped resources.
x The imbalance and rigidity of the budget. About 80% of money goes
for salaries, and spending is focused on recurrent expenses. Capital
279
expenditures represent a sensitive area because they are covered from
both central and local budgets. The budgetary allocation mechanisms
through which the resources are assigned are rigid and outdated. No
alternative or incentive based mechanisms have been attempted.
x The infrastructure. School infrastructure needs to be improved as the

maintenance of school buildings was neglected during previous times,
and many schools suffered serious damage during the war. Additional
financial support in this area is needed. New ways of working in
partnership with private enterprise and NGOs should be explored as a
possible solution.
Curriculum
Curriculum remains a sensitive issue in Croatia. Developing and revising

the national curricula is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education and
Sports. Until now the priority was to replace the pre-1991 content, emphasising
national traditions. It is now time to take a much more thorough approach, with
the accent on issues like flexibility and local (school-based) curriculum
development. No reform can be complete unless this is done.
In Croatia, the organisation of the curriculum around subjects and teacher-

dominated learning methods is not conducive to developing the high-level
technical, technological and social competencies called for in a competitive
market economy. The compulsory content is extensive and overloaded (in
gymnasium 15-17 subjects) while optional subjects are very weak (1 to 3 hours
per week). Curriculum in technical schools consists of common core
programmes, common vocational programmes and an optional part closely
linked with the choice of profession. The secondary school time schedule
(general teaching) oscillates between 30 and 35 hours per week. The syllabi
define learning goals, the number of subjects and lessons per week, teaching
media, and tests. Links with the economic environment are, with the exception
of the dual training programmes for craft trades, weak; work-based training is
not an integral part of all vocational curricula; and entrepreneurship is not
promoted as a mainstream concept. (See Tables 4a and 4b).
Extracurricular activities are a constituent part of regular school system,

and they are organised for all children throughout the school year, even during
holidays. Their purpose is to stimulate pupils and students to engage in creative
activities, and acquisition of knowledge and skills according to their individual
interests and abilities. The review team supports the maintenance of the
activities recognising the financial constraints faced by the Government.
280
Optional teaching becomes compulsory for all pupils who have opted for a
content area which will be offered only if a group of at least 15 pupils “opt” for
it. Optional teaching provides pupils with a certain freedom in the choice of
educational inputs for their particular interests and abilities.
Optional programmes for all content areas have been published, together
with teaching programmes for primary school. The schools are, in theory, free
to develop programmes to suit their pupils’ interests and school resources, but
they have to submit these for approval by the Institute for Educational
Development. There are no quantitative indicators for the number of optional
programmes in primary schools. (According to some “off-the-record”
information to the team, they are diminishing.)
Supplemental teaching must be arranged within each school for students

who need additional help. It is organised for a limited period to make sure
students receive the help they need and can be organised for all content areas. A
special type of additional teaching is intended for the children of Croatian origin
(citizens) resident abroad who plan to continue schooling in their homeland. It
helps to fill in the gaps between two education systems or to speed up learning
the mother tongue. Additional teaching for gifted children provides incentives
and extra input according to their interests, abilities and preferences. Recently
there has been additional teaching only for those pupils preparing for
competitions (e.g. “Olympiads”), rather than for all gifted children – or indeed
for children of a wide range of abilities. This creates an equity problem within
the system, especially where resources are scarce.
At present in Croatia the curriculum is strongly subject-oriented, with an

accent on the cognitive capacity of students. The central authority (Ministry in
co-operation with national expert bodies) is responsible for: the process of
curriculum design on different administrative levels; the collection and
dissemination of curriculum-related information; understanding the needs of
societal development, and reflecting these in the education system; defining
basic and new skills (particularly language learning, computer-use,
communication skills, problem solving capacity, teamwork, project orientation
etc.).
The process of curriculum design takes no account of either the issue of

decentralisation or the relationship between central and local decision making.
The legislative, regulatory and financial framework does not leave room for
qualified local actors being involved in the design or flexible adaptation of
curricula to new social needs and labour market requirements. The university
and teacher training institutions, the teachers associations, NGOs, the social
partners – including the very active Chambers of Craft and Commerce – are
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now seen as outsiders rather than legitimate stakeholders in the system who
should play a role in curriculum design and articulation.
The new curriculum will need to emphasise interdisciplinary and new

basic skills needed for an open society and market economy. A national model
could include the following principles: for example, interdisciplinary or cross-
curricular courses of study. It should be competence-oriented, rather than based
on the learning of facts and figures, and it should address the fundamental
ethical and moral values with regard to democracy and human rights. It should
pay attention to other issues such as: the definition of subjects/disciplines or
occupational areas to be taught at the national level; national standards for the
relative space needed for different subjects/disciplines or specialisations;
national standards for knowledge in a basic repertoire of subjects/disciplines or
for skills/competences in broadly-profiled [clusters of] occupations. Once a
general framework has been adopted, an optimal level for decentralisation and
more detailed structure of the curriculum can follow.
The OECD team recognises that changes in the curriculum are not easy to
make. A balance between the traditional approaches and innovations is
desirable but hard to achieve. There are some regional programmes that could
serve as examples, for instance, in Romania a National Curriculum Framework
has recently been put in place. It meets the criteria of decentralisation as well as
of flexibility, and is school-oriented. This example and others should be
considered as natural steps to be made toward systemic reform.
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Table 4a. Primary school time schedule
SUBJECTS # OF HOURS/ WEEK ( YEAR MINIMUM) PER GRADES
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Compulsory teaching
Croatian 6 (210) 6 (210) 6(210) 6(210) 5 (175) 5 (175) 4(140) 4(140)

language
Visual Arts 2(70) 2(70) 2(70) 4(140) 3-4 3-4 3-4 3-4
(105- (105- (105- (105-
140) 140) 140) 140)
Music 1(35) 1(35) 1(35) 1(35) 1(35) 1 (35) 1 (35) 1(35)
Foreign - - - 2(70) 3(105) 3 (105) 3(105) 3(105)

language
Mathematics 5(175) 5(175) 5(175) 5(175) 4(140) 4 (140) 4(140) 4(140)
Nature1) - - - - 1.5(53) 2 (70) - -
Biology - - - - - - 2 (70) 2 (70)
Chemistry - - - - - - 2 (70) 2 (70)
Physics - - - - - - 2 (70) 2 (70)
Nature and 2(70) 2(70) 3(105) 3(105) - - - -

society
History - - - - 2(70) 2 (70) 2 (70) 2 (70)
Geography1) - - - - 1.5(53) 2 (70) 2 (70) 2 (70)
Technical - - - - 1(35) 1 (35) 1 (35) 1 (35)

education
Physical training 3(105) 3(105) 3(105) 2(70) 2(70) 2(70) 2 (70) 2 (70)
and health
education
Total: Regular 18(630) 18(630) 19(665) 20(700) 22(770) 23(805) 26(910) 26(910)
teaching
1) Teaching of nature and geography in grade 5 is interchangeable: one/two hours a week.

Source: Ministry of Education and Sports, Institute for Educational Development, Croatian
Education System, Interim Report, Zagreb, June 2000.
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Table 4b. Optional subjects and special programmes
# OF HOURS/ WEEK ( YEAR MINIMUM) PER GRADES

SUBJECTS
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Religion 2 (70) 2 (70) 2 (70) 2 (70) 2 (70) 2 (70) 2 (70) 2 (70)
Other optional 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2
- - - 2 (70)
subjects 1) (35-70) (35-70) (35-70) (35-70)
Total: optional 3-4 3-4 3-4 3-4

2 (70) 2 (70) 2 (70) 4 (140) (105- (105- (105- (105-
subjects
140) 140) 140) 140)
Early learning
of foreign 2 (70) 2 (70) 2 (70) - - - - -
languages2)
Latin3) - - - - 3 (105) 3 (105) 3 (105) 3 (105)
Greek3) - - - - - - 3 (105) 3 (105)
Total: Special
2 (70) 2 (70) 2 (70) - 3 (105) 3 (105) 3 (105) 3 (105)
programmes
Additional
1+1 1+1 1+1 1+1 1+1 1+1 1+1 1+1
teaching and
(35+35) (35+35) (35+35) (35+35) (35+35) (35+35) (35+35) (35+35)
extra classes
Extracurricular
1 (35) 1 (35) 1 (35) 1 (35) 1 (35) 1 (35) 1 (35) 1 (35)
activities
Classroom
1 (35) 1 (35) 1 (35) 1 (35) 1 (35) 1 (35) 1 (35) 1 (35)
teacher hours
Notes: 1) In grade 4 there is a possibility of choice between religion and second foreign language.
2) Early learning of foreign language is carried out by schools, which are properly staffed.
Local government units provide financing.
3) Latin and Greek syllabi are introduced by schools properly staffed and upon pupils’ choice.
Source: Ministry of Education and Sports, Institute for Educational Development,
Croatian Education System, Interim Report, Zagreb, June 2000.
Issues and barriers in curriculum
x Lack of flexibility and local capability for curriculum development. In

the absence of authorised structures other than those of the Ministry
(e.g. professional associations), as well as adequate labour market
information mechanisms, adjustments of lesson plans to local
conditions tend to reflect the human and material resources available
(or not available) at each school.
x Weak links among curriculum development, textbooks and

assessment. Little or no relationship exists between the development
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of curriculum and that of textbooks and assessment. Many exams
continue to assess fact-based learning rather than competences/skills
or, in the case of vocational education, abilities to act in certain work
situations.
x Subject-bound orientation of the curriculum, with focus on factual

knowledge and passive learning rather than the development of
competences through individual learning. There is also (too) early and
(too) narrow specialisation in vocational education. The perception
remains that personality develops only in a learning environment
removed from utilitarian considerations, and that only the school is a
recognised place of learning.
Textbooks
At present this issue is on the Government agenda. A new Bill has been
approved at its first parliamentary reading. The MoES is now in the process of
adapting it to the comments made by the Sabor (Parliament).
However, a textbook function must be made operational within the

Ministry, and cannot be isolated from curriculum development. Again, Croatia
may want to learn from the experience of other countries in the region. Reform
in this field should be co-ordinated with the overall reform. As publishing a
textbook requires financial resources, the Ministry will need to allocate
additional resources; and decisions imply a strong social component. The
sustainability of a programme in this area is an issue not to be ignored.
Until 1995 the only provider of textbooks was the state owned publishing
company and it is still by far the largest in Croatia (Školska Knjiga). It also
supplies dictionaries and many titles in different languages, especially for
Bosnia-Herzegovina. New textbooks are developed according to the curriculum
approved by the MoES. The publishing house selects the author and provides a
concept for Ministry approval. The finished product is then submitted for 3
expert opinions before being released. The publishing house visited by the
OECD team is making efforts to find young authors with teaching experience
and tests portions of new books in selected schools for teacher and student
feedback. In addition it provides teacher manuals in some subjects, but admits
that these and student manuals need to be enlarged to cover all subject areas.
Some print runs are very small (as low as 200 for some subjects and minority
languages) and are, therefore, not profitable for smaller companies. Školska
Knjiga works closely with the Institute for Globalisation and Intercultural
Learning, a research organisation with foreign expertise that is creating
programmes for the region in line with European curriculum development.
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The average price range of textbooks is from 20 to 40 HRK, but can be as
expensive as 100 HRK. The average cost for parents for school books can vary
from 200 to 600 HRK (24 to 48 USD) per student per year which is a large
amount for some families to pay.
Important steps are being taken in the field of school libraries and
advanced education technologies. In the short term, economies of scale could be
an incentive for publishers to print extra textbooks and to place the surplus in
school libraries, lowering the costs of textbook replacement, usually a very
expensive process. The Ministry will have to decide if it can afford to provide
free textbooks to all students. It will also have to pay attention to changes in the
system (i.e. extending the length of compulsory education) and mobilise
additional resources to support this process.
Teacher Policy
As is the case in other countries of the region, neither teacher salaries nor
their status is to be envied. Motivation for change tends to be low; but teaching
staff represent the principal asset of any education system, and the main route
by which reforms are brought into each school. The low social prestige of the
profession, manifested by the low salaries, is compounded by the low status
accorded to their training. The teacher training colleges visited by the OECD
team were even more poorly equipped than the average secondary school, with
under-resourced libraries and computer facilities. Teacher education is seen
more as a vocational qualification than a higher education specialisation.
Therefore, younger people are less interested in entering the profession and
there is a risk that Croatia will soon face the problem of an ageing teaching
staff.
For the moment, the system of education of Croatia has an adequate supply
of teachers and there are no shortages of teaching staff. Most teachers have
sufficient qualifications, and the unqualified staff does not exceed 4-5%;
however, a shortage of qualified staff in primary schools exists, however in
teaching of German (22.11%) and English (16.39%), music (12.20%) and visual
arts (10.74%). In secondary schools there is a similar shortage of teachers of
German and English as well as teachers of classical languages, Latin and Greek.
The staff: teacher ratios range from 10:1 in VET to 15:1 in primary education.
The teachers’ qualification structure in vocational schools is illustrated in Table
5.
In Croatia, pre-service training is carried out in pedagogical institutes or

universities, and students are trained to become teachers of one or two subjects.
The pre-service training of teachers is the responsibility of the MoST and higher
286
education institutions. Teachers of primary schools are trained at teachers’
colleges, teacher training colleges and teachers’ high schools. Teachers of
secondary schools are mostly graduates of universities where they receive no
special training for the teaching profession; they acquire basic skills through the
system of additional training, which is delivered in pedagogical faculties,
teacher-training schools and higher teacher-training schools. The MoST sets
enrolment quotas and conditions for the teaching profession, yet their dialogue
with the main employer – the MoES, which also has a responsibility to set
training standards – seems very limited and as a consequence the needs of the
labour market are not fully taken into account.
The in-service training of teachers in general subjects is carried out at

higher education institutions for specific subjects, and parallel with that, the
educational competence is gained. Training is also gained during the probation
period that lasts one year and is the school’s responsibility (classroom
experience under supervision). By the State (Tenure) Examination, within the
responsibility of the Bureau for Advancement of Education, the knowledge of
teaching methods is tested.
Vocational teachers are classified into three levels – teachers for

theoretical subjects (university grade), teachers for practical classes (two-year
college or secondary education), and assistants in practical teaching /assistant
teachers (secondary education).
Achieving of competence in educational work and teaching methods is

carried out through supplemental training (pedagogy, didactics and teaching
methods) at pedagogic faculties or teacher training schools.
In-service training is carried out at faculties, higher education institutions

and secondary vocational schools, is compulsory by law for all members of
educational staff and is provided either at the educational institution level or at
the MoES level. In the latter case this is a responsibility of the Institute for
Educational Development of the Ministry and is generally delivered through
short and one-off professional meetings. Mainly, the Institute develops
programmes for Educational Development. In 1999 more than 35 000 teachers
were trained in about 38 subjects, including: entrepreneurial education,
informatics (information science) and foreign languages. Attempts by NGOs
and donor agencies to provide a more consistent and prolonged in-service
training programme for particular categories of teachers are seen as individual
training efforts and their results are not recognised as formal qualifications. In
addition some specialists, such as head teachers, have only limited opportunities
for training courses – they do not receive any other specialised training.
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Table 5. Teachers in Vocational Education, first half-term 2000/01
No OF TEACHERS BY QUALIFICATIONS Working hours
Secondary
secondary
vocational
vocational
University
Total number
education
education
university
degree
3-year
study
Post-
Non-
of working Full Short
TOTAL %
years time time
0-5 1 581 23.43 1 062 192 8 317 2 747 834

6-10 986 14.61 741 118 4 121 2 796 190
11-15 1 245 18.45 889 212 28 104 12 705 540
16-20 818 12.12 607 105 32 61 13 734 84
21-25 848 12.56 550 147 51 73 27 781 67
26-30 663 9.82 334 170 69 58 32 616 47
31-35 391 5.79 196 94 55 38 8 368 23
36-40 179 2.65 93 44 18 17 7 172 7
41 and over 38 0.56 11 18 6 3 0 38 0
TOTAL 6 749 100.00 4 483 1 100 271 792 103 4 957 1 792
% 100.00 66.42 16.30 4.02 11.74 1.53 73.45 26.55
INCLUDING
Vocational education teachers with university degree
0-5 1 012 22.43 1 011 1 475 537
6-10 739 16.38 730 9 603 136
11-15 895 19.84 882 13 533 362
16-20 616 13.65 607 9 553 63
21-25 563 12.48 544 19 510 53
26-30 359 7.96 333 25 1 328 31
31-35 212 4.70 194 18 196 16
36-40 102 2.26 93 8 1 100 2
41 and over 14 0.31 11 3 14 0
TOTAL 4 512 100.00 4 405 104 1 2 0 3 312 1 200
% 100.00 97.63 2.30 0.02 0.04 0.00 73.40 26.60
Vocational education teachers with non-university degree
0-5 538 29.10 51 192 7 286 2 251 287
6-10 195 10.55 10 109 3 72 1 143 52
11-15 307 16.60 7 197 25 75 3 132 175
16-20 156 8.44 96 20 38 2 135 21
21-25 211 11.41 6 128 37 37 3 201 10
26-30 233 12.60 1 141 52 31 8 218 15
31-35 134 7.25 2 74 40 17 1 129 5
36-40 55 2.97 35 11 8 1 52 3
41 and over 20 1.08 14 5 1 20 0
TOTAL 1 849 100.00 77 986 200 565 21 1 281 568
% 100.00 4.16 53.33 10.82 30.56 1.14 69.28 30.72
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Table 5. Teachers in Vocational Education, first half-term 2000/01 (cont.)
No OF
BY QUALIFICATIONS Working hours
TEACHERS
Total number
Secondary
secondary
vocational
vocational
University
education
education
university
TOTAL
of working
degree
3-year
study
Post-
Non-
Full Short
years %
time time
Teacher assistants for vocational practical teaching

0-5 31 7.99 1 30 21 10
6-10 52 13.40 1 1 49 1 50 2
11-15 43 11.08 2 3 29 9 40 3
16-20 46 11.86 12 23 11 46 0
21-25 74 19.07 14 36 24 70 4
26-30 71 18.30 4 17 26 24 70 1
31-35 45 11.60 2 15 21 7 43 2
36-40 22 5.67 1 6 9 6 20 2
41 and over 4 1.03 1 1 2 4 0
TOTAL 388 100.00 1 10 70 225 82 364 24
% 100.00 0.26 2.58 18.04. 57.99 21.13 93.81 6.19
Source: Directorate for finance, MoES.
Promotion of teachers and educational staff policy has been studied

recently by the Croatian authorities. The level of teacher salaries is not a purely
economic issue; it has to do with issues like system efficiency, the nature of the
work in education and with social and cultural patterns. A special legislative
Act set appraisal criteria, taking into account good results of working with
students, extracurricular work and professional training. Yet financial incentives
for promotion are very small or non-existent; there are only two levels of
promotion, and assessment criteria are vaguely defined. The compensation of
the teaching profession needs to be merit-based. Present appraisal criteria do not
require any formal qualifications or specialised training, though promoted
teachers are expected to play new roles in the community, such as mentorship,
professional training and pedagogical monitoring.
Issues and barriers in teacher policy
x Lack of possibilities for the practical conduct of vocational classes. At

present there is little opportunity for a future or practising teacher to
learn new methods of teaching or experience interactive learning.
Unless college professors themselves possess interactive teaching
289
skills and practice up-to-date teaching methodology, the training of
future teachers will not be successful.
x Un-reformed and outdated pre-service training. New teaching skills

must become available to all future teachers as part of their academic
curriculum, but most importantly through much increased, better
managed and thoroughly monitored school practice. At present, no
attempt is made to compensate for the deficiencies of pre-service
training or to significantly improve it.
x Lack of a holistic vocational pedagogy system at university level.

Teachers and trainers are not exposed to in-company practices and lack
the necessary understanding of work processes and new technologies
in a quickly changing environment; this results in ‘over-
academisation’ of vocational education, removed from the much-
changed world of work in Croatia.
x Low teacher prestige and remuneration. The average salary is about

USD 500 per month but, as the cost of living in Croatia is quite high,
this amount represents limited purchasing power.
x No clearly defined career path for teachers, and a promotion system

that is not linked to any particular training or qualification system
facilitating promotion. Performance incentives are absent. As
promotion means extra responsibility, it should also imply financial
incentives. In the absence of those, teachers will not seek promotion
or the upgrading of their skills.
Standards and Quality Assurance
The nature of “an educational standard” and the institution entitled to set
standards remains a subject of debate in Croatia. This area will receive special
attention from Parliament (the Sabor) in the near future. Standards will ensure
equal rights in education, and the same level of resources allocated to each
student enrolled at a certain level. Thus, “standards” refer mainly to inputs
(equipment, textbooks, facilities etc.) but not (yet) to educational processes and
learning outcomes.
Evaluation of educational quality, as a system function, exists in Croatia at

both central and regional levels. There are 7 Directorates within The MoES and
5 other regional departments located LQ 2VLMHN 5LMHND 6SOLW 9DUDåGLQ DQG
Zadar. As in other centralised administrations, the accent is put on quality
control through inspection. A well-ordered system sets up its control function at
290
the central level and achieves it through an independent body. It also ensures a
balance between control and advice, encouraging personal initiatives rather than
imposing sanctions.
Examinations are based on teaching (curriculum and teaching procedures)

and are set and conducted within the school units. Except for the dual training
system, all assessment is school-based; there is no national examination even at
the end of primary education. Pupils of the first four grades can pass to the
higher grade even with one failing grade. At the end of academic year 1998/99
almost 96% of them achieved passing grades (43% excellent and 33% very
good); 3.3% succeeded at make-up exams while 0.6% failed. According to
official data, about 98% (by other sources 94%142) of elementary school leavers
are continuing on to secondary level. Distribution of students over general or
vocational streams at the end of the 8-year primary school curriculum is based
on student performance, with its assessment left to the largely arbitrary
requirements of receiving schools. Access to gymnasium is regulated through a
numerus clausus. Candidates who fail in the selection procedure have to choose
among the less popular (vocational) programmes.
Success of students in gymnasium and 4-year technical schools is far better

(28% excellent and 42% very good) than in other vocational schools.
Gymnasium ends with internally prepared and assessed maturity exams
(Matura); 4-year technical schools as well as 3-year vocational schools end with
an internally prepared and assessed final exam. As for pass rates, 96.1% of
students enrolled in gymnasia or 4-year programmes passed the Matura or final
exam in the academic year 1998/99, while in 3-year programmes 90.8% of
students passed the final exam. The final exam after the 4-year programme can
lead to employment in a particular profession with further opportunities of
specialisation and professional training, or to continuation in tertiary education,
primarily in the same profession. Final exams after the 3-year programme
(apprenticeship exam in dual system programmes) is primarily directed at
getting employment with opportunities of further professional upgrading and
specialisation. It is estimated that only 75% of vocational school students
complete secondary education. In addition, of the cohort graduating from
gymnasium, about one-third do not continue on to university due to the highly
competitive entrance procedures.
There are no national standards or external evaluations or exams, and the

results are not used to provide feedback or to adjust curricula or other
educational policies. There are few qualified experts to develop tests and to
142
National Observatory Croatia – Education and Training Country Report (Draft), p. 5.
291
monitor the assessment process. The assessment function is exercised at the
local level as an internal responsibility of school units, and not at the central
level as it is in many other countries. The assessment function does not
adequately reflect all relevant educational inputs (curriculum, textbooks, teacher
training, etc.).
Issues and barriers in quality assurance
x Absence of a coherent quality control function at the central level. Not

only is there no MoES directorate specifically dedicated to the
monitoring of quality based on agreed standards, but explicit,
standards-based links between the MoES and local inspectorates, and
between inspectorates and local authorities and schools, are missing.
The learning assessment system is under-developed, and does not
allow the MoES to make valid comparisons between performances of
students from one class to another, or among schools or regions, or
over time.
x No semi-independent, national body to oversee quality. There is no

technically competent, professional body to assume responsibility for
valid and reliable assessment of learning outcomes across Croatia;
evaluation of the quality of student learning is now left to schools,
without any attempt to link their performance to national standards or
draw conclusions about trends over time.
x Lack of trained professional specialists in quality monitoring and

assessment. There is an urgent need to set coherent policy objectives
and day-to-day operational regulations that form a framework for
quality evaluation at all levels of education – central, school, teacher,
and student.
x Weak links between vocational education and practical, real-life work

competences and skills. Assessment in VET does not – with the
exception of the dual system – focus on testing students’ ability to act
in real-life work situations (competence). There are no designated
bodies (independent of the training provider) that have the authority to
set the relevant examinations in VET.
Early Childhood Education and Care
In Croatia, out-of-family pre-school education is part of the education

system. It provides health protection, nutrition and social care and welfare for
292
children from six months of age until the start of school. However, participation
is low at less than 30% of the total pre-school population.
The first institution to accommodate pre-school children was set up in

1872. During the former communist regime there were some initiatives that
tried to involve as many actors as possible but the efforts were strictly related to
propaganda. One of the first toy-lending services in the region (1976) was
.QMLåQLFD 0HGYHãþDN opened in Zagreb. Although in recent years there has
been an increase in the number of pre-school institutions through public and
private initiatives (including religious), along with a decrease in the number of
children younger than three years old participating in full-day pre-school
programmes and an increase in the number of children participating in half-day
programmes, the principle of including all pre-school children in suitable
programmes has not been fully addressed. Every child should be entitled to
organised out-of-family pre-school care and education.
The legal framework for pre-school education was created in 1997 by the
Law on Pre-school Upbringing and Education (Zakon o predškolskom odgoju i
naobrazbi). An early start was made in 1991 by the adoption of the following
documents: “Guidelines for Pre-school Children Upbringing and Education
Programmes” and “The Proposal for the Concept of Pre-school Education
Development”. In Croatia, education and care of children covers several social
sectors: education, health and nutrition, and social care and welfare. Several
institutions are especially organised and equipped to perform this task. Among
them are elementary schools, nursery schools, religious communities, and
cultural institutions or trade associations. By law, pre-school education is
provided for children from six months of age until the beginning of primary
school.
The costs of a child’s kindergarten attendance are partly covered by local

authorities (founders) and partly by parents, depending on family income.
However, local government funding is not assured in all regions, which means
that in many cases educational services are unequally allocated. The cost of
nursery schools has grown while many pre-school programmes that have been
free for a long time ceased to be such, and thus have become inaccessible to
children from low-income families. Short programmes conducted in different
institutions are very often free of charge, which makes them accessible to all
children. One of the problems is that large urban areas offer a much wider
variety of pre-school programmes than small towns and villages. In big cities
there are long waiting lists due to lack of space, while in the smaller
communities, along with a lack of understanding about the care of children,
economic difficulties do not allow any extension of the kindergarten network.
293
There are different kinds of pre-school programmes currently operating in
Croatia: fundamental primary programmes, alternative programmes, pre-school
preparation for primary school, and part-time programmes. The conditions for
poorer parents to have their children participate in out-of-family education still
do not exist in practice; this is of particular concern to the team, because it is
exactly those children who are also most at risk of poor nutrition, poor health
care, and poor housing.
The fundamental pre-school programmes are conducted in nursery schools

especially designed for working parents so that children from as young as 6
months until school age are included. These are Monday to Friday programmes,
usually a full day with two basic organisational formats – infant nursery (for
children from 6 months to age 3) and nursery school (from 3 years to school
starting age). The goals and tasks are directed to the stimulation and
development of the child’s whole actual and potential capacities; it is a
comprehensive approach.
The alternative pre-school programmes differ from the fundamental or

traditional Croatian programmes in that they were developed in other countries
and were introduced into the Croatian system as complex and closed models.
The most prevalent of these are the Waldorf Kindergartens and the Montessori
Nursery Schools. The importance of these programmes is mainly that they are
examples of private initiatives, and provide choice of conceptually different
programmes and meet some of the special needs of pre-school children and their
families.
Pre-school preparation for the school programme (the year before primary
school entrance) has been in place since the 1970s (when it was called “little
school”). Such programmes provide 150 hours of tuition per year and have
clearly defined goals, tasks, content and organisational conditions for work.
However, this programme has not achieved its main goal – to include all
children in the year before they start school in an organised, out-of-family
programme. In the Law on Pre-school Upbringing the Education this
programme (i.e. the out-of-family programme) was renamed “Pre-school” and
raised to the level of public need, which in turn requires that the government
provide the conditions for its implementation. Pursuant to the proposal for
discussion “The Basis for Education System Organisation in the Republic of
Croatia” prepared by the MoES – Council of Education (June 2000) – by the
year 2010, “one year of pre-school upbringing would be compulsory for all
children aged 5 to 6 years”.
Part-time programmes are those designed for pre-school children that are
carried out continually every day or a few times a week for an hour or two (i.e.
294
lasting shorter daily than full day pre-school programme or conducted a few
times a week). Such part-time programmes have different goals and content.
They are implemented in nursery schools but beyond the full-day or half day
nursery school programme. In nursery schools these programmes are in the
afternoon and are available to children who are not the users of the primary
programme. In other institutions such as libraries, community centres, and sport
centres, these programmes are open to all children whether or not they are
enrolled in the primary programme. In recent years, private initiative has started
programmes in foreign languages, dancing, etc. There are also a number of part-
time programmes (such as play-workshops) for refugee children.
In recent years a number of educational programmes have been

supplemented with sport, music, foreign languages, art, etc. These programmes
have a great impact on developing each child’s individuality and supporting
family needs. One of the strong points of the system is that the programmes are
part of the Government strategy in this area. They are made accountable and
permanently evaluated by programme managers through annual reports. The
policy documents have enabled qualitative changes with respect to
democratisation and pluralism. Programmes like: Montessori Method, Head
Start Programme, Reggio Emila Programme etc. were introduced in different
regions as pilot programmes and are now extended. There are mainly two
approaches: one related to an extension of a specific subject area (i.e. sport,
music, foreign language), the other one through structured activities
(workshops) for groups of children.
Ethnic communities and national minorities have specially organised

kindergartens or groups. The most numerous are those of the Italian national
minority (28 groups) in Istria County (connected to the Italian primary schools),
the Czech minority in Bjelovar-Bilogora County (6 groups) in Daruvar and
.RQþDQLFD7KH+XQJDULDQPLQRULW\KDVRQHNLQGHUJDUWHQJURXSLQ=DJUHERQH
in Bilje and one in Osijek. The German national minority has a kindergarten in
Osijek. There areWZRJURXSVRUJDQLVHGLQýDNRYHFIRUWKHFKLOGUHQRIWKH5RPD
ethnic community, while the Roma Union in Zagreb serves groups of children
from the ages of 2 to 15. The humanitarian association “Djeca prva” organises
play groups for 100 children of the Roma ethnic group of pre-school and early
school age, integrated with the children of other nationalities and with mothers
participating in the programme. Furthermore, after the reintegration of the
Croatian part of the Danube region, six kindergarten groups were organised for
children of the Serb minority in Vukovar, Borovo Naselje, Trpinja and Beli
Manastir.
The current legal climate, along with the long tradition of pre-school
education, a great number of academically educated experts involved in the
295
creation and implementation of pre-school programmes provide solid grounds
for raising the quality and scope of early childhood development and care in
Croatia. Pre-school professionals are highly motivated, and cases of good
practice are shared through exchange of expertise during seminars; these have
served to fill the gaps in the resources of the Institute for Educational
Development to provide more in-service training and include more participants
in the field. The abandonment of the traditional didactic and school oriented
pre-school education and introduction of a child-centred approach are positive
developments.
Several kindergartens manage multiple facilities which can substantially

lower costs. One such establishment visited by the team consisted of 3 schools
under the same director. These schools each had their own teaching and support
staff, but shared a pedagogical specialist, psychologist and special needs
specialist. In addition, the main school’s kitchen provided all the meals. This
system appears to be efficient and is one that would merit further study as an
option for other countries of the region.
Issues and barriers in early childhood education and care
x Lack of standards and textbooks; shortage of material resources and

insufficient support from the Ministry or local authorities. Many
programmes continue to work only as a result of the commitment of
programme managers.
x Insufficient access. The cost of nursery schools has risen; many pre-
school programmes which used to be free of charge are no longer so,
and thus many children from low-income families cannot participate.
x A need for greater public awareness. Programmes which would

increase society’s awareness of the importance of early childhood
development do not exist in Croatia. Actions for strengthening that
awareness might, via the media or various events, mobilise the groups
whose primary personal or professional interest is not in early
development but who could contribute to the quality of early
childhood care (students, politicians, journalists, lawyers, artists, tax
payers and others).
Vocational education is organised in 3- and 4-year educational

programmes. There are also special programmes for under-qualified workers or
for students with special needs. A characteristic of the vocational education and
296
training system in Croatia is the existence of a “dual system” of schooling with
work placement. The main structure is as follows:
4-year qualification (A programmes); 3-year secondary qualification

can be for professions in industry and trade (B programmes), and in
crafts (C or VOB programmes); 1 to 2 year-qualification (D
programmes). In addition, there are programmes for children with
special needs, handicapped and disabled children (TES programmes).
All programmes consist of a common general core, a common
vocational core (for related specialisations or qualifications), and an
optional part closely linked with the choice of specialisation. In some
educational areas students can choose optional programmes even
within a specific profession.
Four-year vocational programmes provide the opportunity for students to

continue education at 2-year and 4-year colleges, while others have to attend an
additional year before they can continue their education. Four-year technical
programmes are the most popular, and more than 41% of secondary school
pupils enrol in these. Industrial and craftsmanship schools are attended by
32.7% of the pupils.
The “dual system” – a 3-year educational programme – was introduced on

an experimental basis in 1996 and now exists for 55 trades within the crafts
sector. Within the dual system, crafts businesses provide the practical parts of
training, while the schools are in charge of general education and vocational
theory subjects. The attractiveness of this education path amongst students did
not, however, live up to expectations. Employers currently offer more places
than there are students willing to fill them.
Vocational schools serve (almost all of the listed) 438 specialisations in 31

vocational areas, from agriculture to services. The curriculum was first
published between 1991-1994 and revised 1996-1998; however, a large part of
the published programmes is based on programmes written earlier (between
1991 and 1994). It consists of core programmes, common vocational core
programmes and an optional part. In the meantime, together with the
development of technology, some significant changes in the structure of trade in
the Republic of Croatia have taken place. Therefore, there is no longer a need
for the majority of the listed specialisations. As in the entire vocational system,
the concept of “core competences” is still presented in a subject-by-subject
approach, without steering curriculum design towards the development of less
subject-specific skills, competences and attitudes. In the absence of appropriate
information from the labour market, there is a need to re-think the length and
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breadth of occupational preparation and the opportunities for students to move
from one stream to another or to combine specialisations.
Knowledge and skills acquired in vocational education programmes need a

broad theoretical and practical foundation which provides a flexible, adaptable
education so that young people can qualify for jobs offered by today’s labour
market. Youth unemployment (15-25 years of age) is already high (45.5% of
those registered unemployed in 1999 fell into the 15-29 age bracket). This rate
is expected to rise further if VET is not changed and job prospects deteriorate
further. More promising in terms of higher employability of graduates are the
broader-based ‘technician’ occupations provided through the 4-year technical
education programmes, as well as the dual training programme where
vocational theory and practice form part of an integrated curriculum.
Due to its poor image, it has been difficult, over many years, to recruit
teachers and trainers into the VET system; this has resulted in poor selection of
teachers. Currently, however, the situation is extremely good due to the surplus
of personnel in the economy and the pressure for their employment in schools.
There are four different types of teachers in vocational schools; and the
differences are significant. Teachers of general educational subjects are
educated in the universities and highly specialised (as a rule, 4 years of study in
one or two subjects). There are more women than men, and they usually teach
only one subject. They have, parallel to their subject, read pedagogy at the
university. Vocational subject theory teachers compose a middle group: they
have a technical education. e.g. as graduate engineers (B. Eng.), and have, as a
rule, in the first year after their recruitment at a school, taken additional in-
service training courses in pedagogy, psychology, didactics and teaching
methods from the university. Practical subject teachers are engineers, while
assistant teachers in practical teaching have completed secondary vocational
education and are obliged to pass the examination in psychology, pedagogy,
didactics and teaching methods in vocational classes for supplementary
education. A large group of instructors/ supervisors in companies have no
pedagogical qualifications at all. However, training for practice trainers within
the dual training system, especially in connection with the newly introduced
curricula, is provided to the fullest extent possible by the Chamber of Crafts.
The rapid restructuring of the Croatian economy, with the decline of large
state enterprises following privatisation and the after-effects of the war, have
had substantial adverse effects on links between industry and vocational
schools. Vocational schools have not adjusted quickly enough to the changes
and to the needs of small and medium sized businesses. There must now be a
determined attempt to restructure the vocational schools, concentrating on
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quality (and possibly reducing the number), with a decentralised and far less
specialised approach to curriculum, and securing full involvement of industry
and commerce in localities.
Issues and barriers in VET
x Poor relationships at the interface between VET and the economy.

Social partners have little influence on educational policy making; yet
vocational schools – more than general schools – must relate closely
with their local environment if young school leavers are to find
employment.
x Lack of structure in teacher training. For teachers and trainers in both

the initial and continuing VET systems, both pre- and in-service
training are un-coordinated and inconsistent. Trainee teachers are not
exposed to in-company practices and lack the necessary understanding
of work processes and new technologies. The poor qualifications of
both teachers and practical training instructors in school workshops and
companies (with the exception of some trainers in the dual system) are a
serious barrier to the development of a revitalised Croatian VET
system.
x Social partnerships deserve more attention. The absence of (local)

stakeholders from both the development and delivery of vocational
education and training must be overcome. Today, links to local
enterprises or institutions are, except for the dual system programmes,
based on rather informal arrangements. In addition, poor economic
conditions, as well as the lack of financial or development support
from the MoES, have put constraints on the further expansion of the
dual training system. Lack of social esteem for the value of VET
education. Attendance at and completion of vocational education can
be perceived as resulting in second-rate and lower qualifications.
Students are channelled early into this type of education, but many
parents and students see it as a “second choice” for those who “fail” to
enter general secondary education. Nor is the system well matched
with the demands of Croatia’s new labour market: youth
unemployment is very high, and many youngsters are unable to find
work in their (often out-dated) specialised field.
299
Table 6. Vocational educational fields and number of programmes at the beginning
of the academic year 1998/99
Number of programmes
Educational field
A B C VOB D TES Total
Mechanical engineering 11 15 16 16 1 10 69
Shipbuilding engineering 1 4 - 3 8 - 16
Metallurgy 1 4 3 3 2 - 13
Electrotechnics & Electrical 10 4 4 4 2 1 25
engineering
Geology, mining, oil 4 4 - - 4 - 12
Economy and trade 4 1 - 1 - 5 11
Catering and tourism 2 4 - 2 4 4 16
Agriculture 3 6 - - 1 5 15
Food processing 1 7 4 4 - 4 20
Veterinary 1 - - - - - 1
Forestry 1 - - - - - 1
Wood processing 1 - 8 3 1 7 14
Civil engineering, surveying,
construction materials 6 14 5 4 7 3 39
Road transport 1 2 - - - - 3
Domestic transport 1 1 - - 1 - 2
Marine, river and port 5 2 - - 3 - 10
T
Postal t
communications 1 1 - - - 1 3
Air transport 1 - - - - - 1
Rail transport 7 7 - - - - 14
Chemical technology 2 4 3 - 2 - 11
Graphics 6 5 12 - - 7 30
Textile 5 7 3 5 1 7 28
Leather processing 2 - 3 1 2 9 17
Health 7 - - - 1 - 8
Personal services - - 3 4 - - 7
Other services - - 7 6 3 5 21
Optics and glass processing 1 - 2 2 1 - 6
Internal affairs and protection 3 1 - - 4 - 8
Total 88 93 73 58 48 68 428
Source: “Where, how, why secondary vocational school?” Ministry of Education and Sports, Zagreb,
1998.
Higher Education
This sector of the system is the responsibility of the MoST. At the national
level, important policy matters are also discussed at the National Council for
Higher Education (NCHE) that comprises representatives of the Higher
Education Institutions (HEIs), the MoST and other state institutions. There
300
appears to be little or no contact on strategy between the two ministries. At the
institutional level, a working group already functions but the effects on the
system have yet to be seen. HEIs are nominally autonomous since the control
function belongs to the MoST. Staff is appointed by the MoST, and the
financial resources for each university faculty come directly from the MoST.
Therefore, true institutional autonomy is a questionable issue, and modern
management practices are lacking. As a result, a university encounters many
constraints in pursuing its own policy. (In Croatia, the Higher Education system
suffers from centralised management, although in some other countries HE was
the pioneer in decentralisation).
It is generally accepted that the Higher Education Act of 1994 did not
provide a balanced framework for reforms in the system. Many aspects are
hardly mentioned in the policy documents (e.g. continuing education, post-
secondary education, lifelong learning). New legislation proposed by the MoST
is currently under consideration. The new document envisions serious changes
in a number of important areas, such as the autonomy of HEIs, the introduction
of an improved quality assurance system, more effective internal management,
new procedures for the development of academic programmes and curricula,
introduction of financing linked to performance criteria, and other features. The
draft Law provides for a much-reduced role of the state in the management of
HEIs as well as in academic matters. The legislation underlines also a strong
role of market forces in the funding of HEIs and their overall operation. The
management of the HEIs, as well as academia in general, are opposed to a
number of the provisions in the proposed legislation.
The funding mechanisms in the higher education system are quite

centralised and ineffective. The faculties of universities are financed directly
from the MoST. The central university management does not possess the
financial leverage to influence the activities of faculties. Moreover, the funding
mechanisms tend to be bureaucratic because the budget is not provided as a
lump sum, and separate applications to the Ministry are made for financing
individual activities. In the proposed new legislation, the funding mechanisms
are much simplified and involve transfers of lump sums to the central university
management.
The higher education system of Croatia comprises 4 universities and 16

polytechnics (colleges). The University of Zagreb is the biggest in the country
with 32 faculties and over 60 000 students. However, the concept of ‘higher
professional schools’ (visoke strucne škole), introduced as a parallel system to
the universities in 1998, is not clearly understood by parents and students and
should be analysed more carefully in the forthcoming years as an alternative
tertiary education option. There is a considerable degree of “federalism” in
301
Croatian universities with far reaching independence in financing and academic
matters of the faculties, which are independent legal subjects. The Higher
Education Act of 1994 introduced also the Master’s degree in university studies.
The establishment of non-university higher education studies in 1998, and

three levels of degrees into university studies, have been very positive
developments. The flexibility of the system to respond to the needs of people
and also to market demands has been much improved. At present, there are no
private universities in Croatia though the current legislation provides for the
establishment of non-state universities and colleges. In recent years the National
Council for Higher Education turned down several proposals, but four private
colleges have been founded. Under the proposed new legislation, a more liberal
procedure for establishing private HEIs is envisaged.
The number of academic staff in Croatian HEIs is 7 563 (5 871 in

universities and 1 692 in other HEIs). The student/teacher ratio in universities is
12:1 and in state colleges 16:1. The respective ratio in private colleges is 7.2:1.
Under legislative provisions, academic staff are appointed on 5-year contracts.
Following an evaluation procedure and re-election in faculties, the contracts can
be renewed. The renewal of contracts is based on assessment of teaching and
research activities. In spite of these provisions, no lecturer has to date been
relieved of his position on the basis of the evaluation results. Because of the
economic pressures in recent years, many academics have accepted additional
lecturing work, mostly in other HEIs. With so many lecturing duties, the time
left for concentrated research activities is quite limited and funding of research
activities of academic staff in HEIs is also very limited. The MoST awards
grants on a competitive basis, but in financial term these grants are so small that
the researchers are not very interested in applying. Therefore it is inevitable that
the quality of both teaching and research has suffered.
The educational content of academic programmes in Croatian HEIs has

been thoroughly updated during the past decade. The changes have been most
comprehensive in the social sciences and humanities. Diversification of higher
education is an important feature of the reforms in the sector, and college-level
education has been introduced as well as the three-degree levels in universities.
New curricula have been developed for the non-university higher education
sector, as well as for most university studies. Some universities have also
introduced college-level studies. With these developments, the issues of quality
assurance for the different levels of education have become a priority.
During the 1990s the proportion of secondary school leavers who

continued on to tertiary education increased by more than 35%. Still, about one-
third of general secondary school leavers do not continue on to higher
302
education. Candidates have to fulfil general requirements and to pass an
entrance examination, organised by the higher education institutions or faculties
themselves. The procedure is highly selective, but even so almost one-third
(31.3%) of the relevant age cohort enrolled in university or non-university
programmes in the academic year 1999/2000. The majority of these (73%)
study at one of the four state universities. Admission to HEIs is based on the
results of entrance examinations plus, with less weight, the secondary school
diploma. The introduction of a national Matura examination to replace the
entrance examinations is currently being discussed. However, a coherent policy
on the issue has not yet been adopted and HEIs are, in general, opposed to
admission based solely on the results of national examinations. This is partly
because they fear their autonomy in selection will be curtailed – but also partly
because there is now a flourishing (and lucrative) private tutoring system
preparing secondary school students for university entrance examinations.
There are two categories of students in Croatian HEIs: students whose

expenses are covered by the state, and students who pay tuition fees. The typical
fees range from USD 250 to USD 1 000 per academic year for different fields
of studies. Currently about 40% of students pay for their studies. The income
from tuition fees forms a substantial part of the budgets of HEIs.
(Approximately 50% of the annual budget of the University of Zagreb comes
from this source.)
Issues and barriers in higher education
x The co-ordination between MoES and MoST, formally separated

several years ago, is not always at an adequate level. A number of
outstanding issues would benefit from coherent policies at the national
level, for example joint development of new curricula, pre-service and
in-service teacher training, admission to higher education, and other
issues.
x The internal management structure of HEIs, with highly independent

faculties, is a serious barrier to the development of clear positions of
the whole sector with regard to important developments of the system:
new legislation, changes in the funding mechanisms, etc.
x The issue of centralisation is important in two other areas. One is

higher education where, although the institutions are nominally
autonomous, control lies very much with the MoST. It appoints staff
and provides finance to individual faculties rather than to the
university itself. It is, therefore, difficult for the university (as a whole,
rather than as a conglomeration of independent faculties) to pursue
303
coherent institutional policies. The proposed legislation may alleviate
these problems, especially the funding issue, as well as providing for
an improved quality assurance system.
x Under the current centralised system of financing, university

management does not have powers to implement coherent institutional
policies. In effect, the central university management – the Rector and
the Academic Senate – has little influence on the overall development
of the university as a healthy and thriving institution. There are many
examples of overlap of departments in different faculties. The current
organisational structure also imposes barriers to interdisciplinary
studies.
x There is an over-emphasis on the introduction of “market”

mechanisms in the higher education system. Market needs and
demands should, certainly, influence the number of students in
different fields, the level of education obtained, and the skills and
competences acquired. However, the overall funding of HEIs should
depend on criteria such as quality of education, achievements in
research, diversity of educational services offered, and other factors,
rather than trying to respond to an ever-fluctuating “market” of
popular or less popular disciplines at any given time.
Recommendations
The Government should define a strategic vision of education, based on a

consistent approach to the reform which can allow the definition of further
policy objectives. Opportunity costs of alternative policies and actions are
needed.
x At the central level, the players (ministries) should prioritise their

reform actions. The most urgent needs are: to set up a national
assessment institution at the pre-tertiary level; to restructure
(secondary) vocational education; and to clearly define the
institutional autonomy at the tertiary level. Overall, there is an urgent
need to strengthen the central government’s role in setting policies and
priorities, while reducing its involvement in “managing” detailed
processes and regulations at lower levels.
x The issue of decentralisation should be addressed as an instrument

used to achieve certain goals. Some functions of the system should
304
remain or set up at the central level (i.e. quality control and setting of
standards of knowledge or competencies) while many others need to
be steadily transferred to the local level (e.g. school management and
curriculum development). There is a need to increase the authority of
local government and school directors in management of service
delivery.
x Both the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Science and

Technology should use detailed data analyses to design its policy and
for operational decisions. Policy and decision-making that are not
based on real data and feedback from the system may be detrimental.
Information systems need to be put in place within the education
system and beyond, which will allow effective planning and delivery
of desired objectives.
x The country will need to call for external assistance, as there are many
areas in which local resources are insufficient or missing. There
should be stronger coherence between the various projects and
programmes already developed, and those that will receive external
assistance in the future.
x There should be a consistent approach across all government

departments to reform in the education system, covering not only
schools but also higher education, post-secondary education,
continuing education and lifelong learning.
x The Government should produce a document building on work

already in hand setting out the vision of the future of education in
Croatia and how it relates to the future of the economy and society,
and, following that, an “action list” of next steps in the short and
medium term. This document should follow extensive consultation
and public discussion of the kind that took place about reform of the
school system.
x There should be a clear definition in legislation of the respective

responsibilities of the Government and localities in the context of
decentralisation, and of the social partners and other stakeholders at
the different levels. There must be clear agreement about this
allocation of responsibilities at all levels. It could be useful to conduct
a review of the roles and responsibilities of central, regional and local
authorities for policy development, provision and financing of
education.
305
x The proposed legislation on higher education should strengthen the
autonomy of both the institutions and the universities, as distinct from
the faculties, through amendment of the financing and control
mechanisms. It should put in place effective monitoring and quality
control systems and measures to guarantee accountability.
x The capacity-building requirements of the various partners should be

identified, and ways found to improve the ability of those at the centre
and in the regions to undertake their responsibilities. This is an area
where international expertise and donor funding could be effectively
deployed.
Recommendations: Curriculum, standards and assessment
x The principles behind centralised curriculum design should be the

production of a framework and subsidiaries. The centre should be
responsible for the process of curriculum design on different
administrative levels; for the collection and dissemination of
curriculum-related information; for understanding the needs of
societal development, and translating those that are retained into
educational policies. At present, the most important basic and new
skills could include: languages, computer-use, communication skills,
problem solving capacity, teamwork and project orientation.
x An Advisory Group should be established to set the framework for the

core curriculum, and new examinations linked to curriculum
standards. This Group should also agree upon the objectives for a core
curriculum that promotes skills and facilitates active learning.
Textbooks and instructional materials should be revised and adapted
to reflect the requirements and standards of the core curriculum.
Teacher training policies and practices should also be adjusted, to
reflect the core curriculum and assessment standards, and school units
should have more authority to adapt the core curriculum and teaching
programmes to local needs.
x Assessment standards (in terms of standards-linked learning

outcomes) are urgently needed. The quality control function should be
transferred where it belongs: i.e. at the central level. A national
Quality Monitoring and Assessment Board should be established to be
responsible for evaluation of student, teacher, school and regional
performances. Its aim would be to define policy in the field of
evaluation, to set standards and to organise regular monitoring and
306
assessment activities. It would also develop the general framework for
the introduction of standard examinations at the end of compulsory
and secondary education, in collaboration with the universities.
Recommendations: Financing
x New proposals for a per-capita funding formula should be developed.

A new budgetary allocation mechanism based on number of students
(weighted as necessary for special characteristics of a school or
institution) and allocated through block grants should be piloted at the
regional level.
x A new framework for diversifying financing sources should be set up,

including incentives for private participation in funding education.
This could include user fees in tertiary education and training, with
scholarships schemes for poorer students.
x The current geographical allocation of public education spending

should be addressed through formulae that will compensate for
inequities. The new allocation models will have to increase available
resources and allocate public funds more efficiently as well as more
equitably.
Recommendations: Teachers
x An institutional framework is needed for teacher training. The MoES

will need to set up regional centres for professional development. The
process should be decentralised, and enlarged by participation of
semi-independent or non-governmental training providers. One of the
options could be to organise distance in-service training for teachers.
Other areas should be addressed through training programmes, some
of them very important for school principals (e.g. education
management, school administration, financing).
x The existing pre-service teacher training system should be restructured

to avoid differences in the status of class and subject teachers, and to
enhance the acquisition of modern teaching skills. Teaching skills
training should be made available to all future teachers, irrespective of
the educational institution from which they graduate. Most
importantly, there should be adequate facilities for school and
classroom practice: sufficient time, well trained mentors, and proper
guidance and feedback. The reform architects may wish to look at
307
neighbouring countries that have recently restructured their teacher
training systems.
x A consistent in-service teacher training system should be put in place.

It should be based on a thorough needs analysis, and, in addition to
resources available under the previous system, extra funding should be
allocated. We recommend that funding go to the schools themselves;
that schools be encouraged to arrange for whole-school, school-based
training rather than sending staff to seminars; and that – instead of one
single provider – schools should be able to choose from a number of
providers, if necessary based on a list of high quality “approved”
providers compiled by the MoES. The state should set goals and
targets for training, and define objectives for key cohorts of trainees.
These goals can be defined in a dialogue between the policy-making
state organisations, relevant NGOs, and the broader professional
community. Providers can then compete to develop courses relevant to
the goals and objectives set.
x Training head teachers is exceedingly important for the success of the

reform. The scope of competencies they require is changing
dramatically as the system decentralises. Once relevant in-service
training becomes available, merit-based selection of new head
teachers would become a reality. In order to achieve site-based
changes, school managers should be trained together with their teams,
and school-based project implementation should be seen as an integral
part and an ultimate success indicator of the training scheme.
x Professionalism and prestige of the teaching profession must be

improved in order to attract a new generation of qualified teachers. A
differentiated scale of salaries with clearly defined grades should be
introduced, to provide career incentives and accountability in the
system. Appraisal criteria should be defined in a dialogue between
teachers and their employers, and should be performance-based, fair,
easy to interpret, and aimed at the improvement of student learning
(not merely the improvement of teaching techniques). The
qualifications required to move up the scale should become available
through the new in-service training system, which will become
competence-based, rather than knowledge-based.
Recommendations: Early childhood education
x Greater attention must be paid to early childhood development,

because the number of families with both parents working and the
308
number of single-parent families is rising. Kindergarten capacity
should be increased urgently, so that more children can not only
participate in some type of pre-school programme, but also have more
choice in the kind of programme (i.e. duration, time, place and
purpose) that suits them and their families best. In this respect,
incentives (e.g. tax benefits) need to be found to stimulate private
investment in both public and private pre-school education.
x The success of any early development programme depends on the

active involvement of parents. It is, therefore, important to ensure the
development of partnerships between kindergartens, families and the
local community. The competence and confidence of parents need to
be strengthened, in order to raise the quality of early childhood
development through joint programmes for children and parents.
These programmes should aim to strengthen the parents’ sensitivity to
the characteristics of early childhood and increase their active
participation in their child’s development.
x As pre-school education is not compulsory, and children will therefore

attend for differing periods of time (from one to four years), it is
impossible for them to achieve the same results. Pre-school
programmes should therefore be individualised as much as possible.
In order to create a network of pre-school programmes attempting to
satisfy the developmental needs of children, the co-operation of state
and social institutions, government and non-governmental
organisations, public and private institutions, and the family, is
necessary.
x Family centres can serve to meet this need. These should not be
“market-based”, but should depend on social and community needs
and priorities. Trained volunteers could help. Family centres could
play a major role in integrating the numerous programmes designed
for children and their parents, as well as detect, recognise and satisfy
local needs for childcare and stimulate early childhood development.
x Local communities need to be mobilised to promote the quality of

early childhood education. Social awareness of the importance of
early childhood development needs to be strengthened, along with
knowledge about the decisive role adults play in the child’s
development. Such awareness could be accomplished through the co-
operation of the media and the publication of leaflets and posters.
309
x Procedures need to be developed to monitor individual abilities (such
as the verbal, cognitive and emotional status) of children against their
chronological age, especially during the proposed compulsory (by the
year 2010) year of pre-school for all 5-6 year olds. Careful monitoring
of “school-readiness” should help children adapt more smoothly to the
first grade of primary school. It will also help identify, as early as
possible, learning difficulties or social or behavioural problems that
could hamper a child’s school success.
x The creation of effective and competent partnerships at all levels will

be particularly important to help vocational education and training
reform. Structured labour market information will contribute to
assessing the effectiveness of the current system, and help vocational
education planners to respond.
x Modern production concepts and types of work organisation require

broadly skilled and highly competent people who are able to take
initiative, act in a self-guided way and continuously upgrade their
knowledge and skills. The modern approach to vocational education
and training implies a broad and comprehensive occupational
preparation, where – besides technical and technological skills –
emphasis is put on the development of key social and methodological
competences.
x Three perspectives may guide the overhaul of the national system of

vocational qualifications, curricula, assessment and certification in
Croatia, which include lifelong learning, integration of work and
learning, and entrepreneurship.
x Curriculum reform needs a number of adequately resourced central

support institutions in Croatia. These include structures for organising
social dialogue, analysing skill requirements of the labour market,
reviewing and registering qualification standards, approving curricula,
setting and administering examinations, and providing various kinds
of training.
x With a view to both capitalising on existing experience and increasing

ownership, teachers need to be systematically involved in the design
of reforms and related action plans. Large-scale awareness-raising and
guided learning processes (mentoring) of local actors will be needed
310
to develop sustainable national solutions and implement them
effectively.
x An overhaul of the pre-service teachers’ and trainers’ training systems

based on the creation of a holistic vocational pedagogy system at
university level. Likewise, the necessary in-service training
infrastructure (facilities, programmes and staff) in VET has to be built
up and cascading training efforts be undertaken to trigger off and
underpin the reform process.
x Special emphasis in the training of teachers and trainers in VET has to

be laid on, among others, work process knowledge and
technical/technological skills, practical techniques of curriculum
development in response to labour market change, state-of-the-art
presentation skills, techniques of supporting the learner, the design
and use of new learning aids and equipment, as well as
coaching/mentoring during daily teaching practice (for teacher
mentors).
x School managers need technical training in financial planning and

management, democratic leadership, concepts to promote pedagogical
innovation and monitor quality at school, regional networking, as well
as project design, selection, contracting, monitoring and evaluation.
Recommendations: Higher education
The autonomy of HEIs needs to be strengthened through changes in

legislation. The state, however, should preserve its capacity to oversee the
efficiency of public spending in the system, the quality of education and
research, and to hold the HEIs publicly accountable for the quality of services
they provide.
The envisaged changes in funding mechanisms for HEIs should be

supported. International experience shows that the transfer of lump sums to the
central university management, rather than to faculties, contributes to more
efficient operations. Balanced internal funding procedures should be developed
to account for the autonomy of individual faculties, and – overall – for efficient
spending.
A national agency for evaluation and accreditation has been adopted in

many countries as an effective way to hold HEIs publicly accountable for their
activities, especially for the quality of teaching and research. Internal quality
311
assessment and assurance systems within HEIs can be stipulated in the new
legislation, and in the statutes of HEIs.
The proposals for broad introduction of ‘market mechanisms’ in the higher

education system may be counter-productive at present. Introducing tuition fees
for all students may have negative effects on important issues, such as equity of
access to higher education; balanced funding of different fields of studies to
reflect longer-term needs of the country, as well as on the overall harmonic
development of the HEIs themselves.
A student loan system, envisaged in the proposed higher education

legislation, should be introduced gradually with intermediate assessment of
results. The student stipends remain essential for socially and economically
disadvantaged families, and might be preserved for some categories of students.
312
Figure 1. Education System in Croatia
Scientific education
Lifelong learning
Ph.D.
6
Master’s
26 8
degree
25 7 Master’s degree
24 6
23 5
Non-university &
University study
Special needs children
Special & master’s exams

4
5 22
21 3
20 2 Non-university study University study
1
Adult lifelong learning
19
Adult education
Labour Market
4
Secondary
4 Gymna- Art
education
18 Technical
(Upper)
3 17 3 sium school & similar Vocational

16 2 vocational school
Sort term voc.
15 1 school courses
14 8
Compulsory basic
teaching
Subject
13 7
2
education
12 6
11 5
4
One teacher
10
education
3
1 9
8 2
7 1
Preschool
6
Pre-primary
0 5
education
Kindergarten
4
3
Nursery
2
1 Family education
Duration in years
Usual age and

ISCED
level of education
Source: Ministry for Education and Sports.
313
REFERENCES
Ministry of Education and Sports/ Council of Education (2000), The Basis for
the Education System in the Republic of Croatia. (Proposal for
discussion) Zagreb.
Ministry of Education and Sports/ Institute for Educational Development

(2000), The Croatian Education System. Interim Report. Zagreb.
National Observatory Croatia (2001), Education and Training Country Report,

(Draft) Zagreb.
UNICEF Progress Report (2000), Zagreb.
UNICEF Early Childhood Care and Development (2000), Zagreb.
Young, M.E. (1999), Early Childhood Development: Investing in the Future.

The World Bank. Washington D.C.
White, E. (2000), A Policy Agenda for Reform and Growth. The World Bank.
Washington D.C.
0LODQRYLü06WULþHYLü,0DOHã'6HNXOLü-Majurek, A. (2000), Early

Childhood Care and Development in the Republic of Croatia. Zagreb.
314
KOSOVO
The Thematic Review of Education Policy of Kosovo describes the current

KOSOVO
General Data
Area: 10 887 sq. km. (One-third the size of Belgium).
Number of 2.1 million (1998 estimate). Population growth is

inhabitants: about 20 000 per year. Average household size
estimated at 6-7 persons. The population is the
youngest in Europe, with an average age of 25 and
approximately 50% under 20 years old. Highest
birth rate in Europe (23.1 per 1 000) but also
highest infant mortality rate (27.8 per 1 000 live
births).
Population density: 193 per sq. km. Urban/rural distribution (pre-war):

30% urban, 70% rural.143
Ethnic composition: The most recent (1991) census estimated144 a total

population of 1.975 million, 82.2% Kosovo
Albanian, 9.9% Kosovo Serb, 1% Montenegrin,
2.9% Muslims, 2.2% Roma, 0.5% Turks,
0.4% Croats, and 0.7% others. Prior to the 1998
and 1999 conflicts, the total population was
estimated between 1.8 and 2.1 million, of which
143
Considerable ‘urban drift’, especially to Prishtina, has taken place in the
aftermath of the war for reasons of security, employment, and basic services;
the present urban/rural distribution is therefore uncertain. The many returnees
and IDPs along with an important urban drift make it difficult to estimate.
Primary schools (January 2000) have approximately 280 000 pupils,
compared with 266 000 in 1999 and 305 000 in 1991.
144
The total population of Kosovo is difficult to assess, as the Kosovo Albanians
boycotted the most recent census in 1991. According to the previous census
(1981) of a total of 1 585 000 inhabitants, 1 227 000 (78%) were Kosovo
Albanians and 210 000 (13%) Kosovo Serbs.
317
around 90% were Kosovo Albanian, 7% Kosovo
Serb, and the remaining 3% Montenegrin,
Bosniak, Turkish, and Roma. (Because during the
recent conflict many people became refugees or
internally displaced persons (IDPs), and more than
100 000 Kosovo Serbs left Kosovo after the end of
the conflict, these percentages are not reliable as of
January 2001).
GDP (2001): Estimated at EUR 950 per capita.10% real growth

rate145
Unemployment: 57.8% (registered in March 2002)
Levels of education Notionally, four: central Department of Education

governance: and Science (DES); five regional administrations
(Prishtina, Mitrovica, Gjilan, Peja and Prizren146),
30 municipalities with 1 500 villages and schools.
(NOTE: Municipal elections were held
successfully on October 28, 2000. Kosovo-wide
elections are expected in November 2001. A
recently established (2000) Department of
Education and Science within the United Nations
Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) serves as de facto
ministry, with a joint UNMIK/Kosovar
arrangement with two ‘co-heads’, one international
and one Kosovar. After elections in 2001, it is
expected that a formal Kosovo Ministry of
Education will be created out of the current
UNMIK/Kosovar joint authority).
The purpose of this report is a narrow one, restricted to a survey of

education systems in SEE countries and their present status and needs. Also, the
145
UNMIK, Fact Sheet Kosovo, June 2002.
146
Education officers stationed in these five regions represent the UNMIK/DES.
They meet with municipal directors of education to ensure implementation of
UNMIK education policies.
318
background literature on the Kosovo conflict is prolific, and therefore no
detailed discussion on the origins of or political issues around the conflict is
necessary except as they affected, and still affect, Kosovo’s education system. A
brief overview of the historical background will therefore suffice.
Before World War II, there were only 252 schools in Kosovo, all with
Serbian as the language of instruction. When the Socialist Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia (SFRY) was created in 1945, there were 392 schools; all had
Serbian classes, but 292 of them also had Albanian-language classes, taught by
some 300 Albanian teachers, 50 of them imported from Albania. A 1948 survey
showed that 74% of Kosovo’s Albanian adult population was illiterate. Through
subsequent provision of Albanian-language (and some Turkish-language)
schooling on a large scale, enrolments rose steadily until by the late 1970s when
72% of the Albanian-speaking school-age group was enrolled. By the end of the
1980s, illiteracy is said to have dropped to as low as 10%,147 although it is now
rising with returnees who encounter difficulties reintegrating.
By the time it was dissolved in 1991, the Socialist Federal Republic of

Yugoslavia (SFRY) consisted of six republics (Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia,
Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina) and two autonomous provinces
(Kosovo and Vojvodina). The SFRY Constitution of 1974 granted the two
provinces similar148 rights to those of the six republics; they had their own
parliamentary assemblies and seats in the Federal Parliament, although
technically they were part of the Republic of Serbia. When the SFRY broke up
in 1991, however, the international community recognised only the statehood
claims of the republics; Kosovo and Vojvodina remained within Serbia and
formed – with Montenegro – a ‘rump’ Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).
Conditions for Kosovo Albanians then deteriorated rapidly. Already in

1989, the government of Serbia had begun to take steps to remove Kosovo’s
autonomy and reinstate direct control from Belgrade. The largely Kosovo
Albanian population responded with protests and demonstrations, which were
met with a declaration of a ‘state of emergency’ and repression by Serbian
police. Over the following months and years, all power passed into the hands of
Kosovo Serbs and others from Serbia itself; Kosovo Albanian managers,
professionals, teachers, doctors and academics were removed from their posts or
left the province. One of the main features of Albanian reaction to deterioration
of their position in the nineties, was peaceful and mainly non-violent resistance.
147
Noel Malcolm, Kosovo: A Short History. London: Macmillan, 1998, p. 326.
148
But not identical. There were differences in official language and self-
determination rights.
319
The recent ‘Kosovo conflict’ itself had two distinct phases: February-
October 1998, and March-June 1999. By 1997, the attitudes of much of the
Kosovo Albanian population had hardened. A group calling itself the Kosovo
Liberation Army (KLA) launched a series of attacks on Serb police stations and
other targets; the police responded harshly. A significant flash point came in
late February 1998 when Serb security forces mounted an operation in the
Drenica region, which resulted in the deaths of many civilians including women
and children. This further radicalised the majority population and swelled the
ranks of the KLA.149 Despite international condemnation and the imposition of
an arms embargo on the FRY by the UN Security Council, operations and
attacks continued between March and October 1998. At this time the Serbian
authorities announced that all ‘anti-terrorist activities’ in Kosovo had been
completed, after the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1199 calling for an
immediate cease-fire and the presence of international monitors in Kosovo. At
that time, the UN High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that
more than 294 000 Kosovo Albanians had been displaced from their homes,
although most remained within the province.
The presence of the OSCE monitors did not prevent the Serb authorities
from further troop movements and clashes with the KLA. Despite political and
diplomatic initiatives in early 1999, the OSCE monitors had to be hurriedly
withdrawn on 20 March, and NATO issued an ultimatum demanding Serbia’s
adherence to the cease-fire agreement. On 24 March 1999 NATO forces began
its aerial bombardment of FRY targets as Serbia declared a state of war. Within
Kosovo, fighting between the KLA and Serb forces (although on far lower
level) continued throughout the period of NATO air strikes, with attacks on
civilian populations reaching a new level of intensity; civilians were expelled
from their homes in a swift wave across the province. By 9 June 1999,
approximately 862 000 Kosovo Albanians from towns and villages had left the
province for neighbouring countries (Albania and Macedonia). Thousands more
remained internally displaced. Images from the border points and from the
refugee camps in these countries were shown daily in the international media.
Finally, on 10 June 1999, an agreement was signed; the UN Security Council
passed Resolution 1244 authorising an international security presence in
Kosovo as well as the appointment of a Special Representative to establish a
parallel international civil presence (UNMIK) to serve as Kosovo’s de facto
interim government. NATO air strikes were suspended, and two days later
NATO forces (Kosovo Protection Force or KFOR) took up positions in
149
International Crisis Group, Reality Demands: Documenting Violations of
International Humanitarian Law in Kosovo 1999. Brussels, 2000, p.49.
320
Prishtina to oversee the complete withdrawal of FRY/Serbian forces from the
province.
The return of refugees from Macedonia and Albania was swift. Within
three weeks, half a million had returned to Kosovo; by November 1999,
UNHCR estimated a figure of more than 800 000. At the same time, more than
180 000 people – mostly Serbs but also Roma – had been driven out or had fled,
and several hundred died. An autumn 1999 KFOR survey estimated that fewer
than 100 000 Serbs (5% of the population) remained in Kosovo, often in
KFOR-protected enclaves and in divided towns such as Mitrovica where Serbs
live to the north of the River Ibar and Albanians to the south. (Because it
adjoins Serbia, the Serb part of Mitrovica has, in effect, become an adjunct of
Serbia proper.) Clashes here are frequent, and KFOR troops patrol the bridge
that connects the two communities.
x Age at which compulsory education starts: 6 (from September 2000;

UNMIK regulation 2000/51).
x Age at which compulsory education ends: 15
x Structure of general educational system: Primary 5 years (from

09/2001) + Lower Secondary 4 years (for a total of 9 years basic
compulsory education) + Upper Secondary 4 years. 150
x Structure of vocational education system: 3 or 4 years after basic

school; definitiva exam after 3 years; ‘Maturate’ or final exams after 4
years of technical or vocational education.
x Examinations/transition points: No formal exams at end of grade 5;

internal school-leaving tests with certificate of completion after grade
9; entrance exams into upper secondary (vocational or general), grade
10; ‘definitive’ exams after 3 years of vocational secondary, or
‘Maturate’ exams (school-based) at end of grade 13; faculty-set
entrance exams into university.
One extraordinary feature of the Kosovo education system was the

existence, between 1992 and 1999, of two separate systems – one (official,
small) for Kosovo Serb children and one (unofficial, large) for Kosovo
150
Until September 2001, the actual structure is still 4+4+4.
321
Albanian children. As of March 1991, the financing of all Albanian-language
schools ceased and companies publishing textbooks in Albanian were closed. In
1992, the Serb authorities sacked 23 000 Kosovo Albanian teachers on the same
day and imposed a unified Serbian curriculum, effectively closing down
Albanian-language education altogether.
Between 1992 and 1998, a self-financed shadow or ‘parallel’ Albanian

system of education existed alongside the Serb system.151 Primary school
children could, in some cases, continue to use their schools but if Serbian
children also attended, the buildings were divided in half or a shift system was
worked out. Most secondary and all university students, however, had their
lessons in private locations. In 1998, there were 266 400 primary, 58 700
secondary and 16 000 university students in the parallel system. Money to pay
teachers came from a 3% ‘income tax’ the shadow tax authorities representing
Provisional Government of the Republic of Kosovo collected as best they could
from families, businesses and the Kosovo Albanian diaspora. (The shadow state
Fund for the Republic of Kosovo raised donations in almost all Western
countries, and accounted for some 30% of the shadow state’s budget.) The
‘parallel’ schools, although openly conducted and to some extent tolerated by
the Serb authorities, were also subject to repression and intimidation. Quality
inevitably suffered and numbers decreased, especially among girls.152 By 1996,
primary school enrolment was down by nearly 12%; secondary school
enrolment by 21%; and university enrolment by nearly half. Books were a
chronic problem, especially in teaching science to older students or medicine at
university level.
Politically, the ‘parallel’ system had (and still has) tremendous symbolic
power. For example, school papers were all stamped as being issued by the
‘Republic of Kosovo’, in open defiance of the Serb authorities. (Certificates of
this kind were not, of course, recognised by the authorities, but were accepted
by a number of other countries.)
151
This was not the first time in Kosovo’s history that schools became an
instrument of resistance. After Serbian troops reoccupied Kosovo in 1918,
Albanian language schools were closed. Then as in 1992, the policy
backfired: schools continued to exist unofficially, and became centres of
underground Albanian nationalism and education. Books were smuggled
from Albania, and teachers were paid from private sources. See Tim Judah,
Kosovo: War and Revenge, 2000, pp. 21-22.
152
Lynn Davies, “Education in Kosova: Report to the British Council”.
University of Birmingham, UK. August 1999 (unpublished paper). While
some students stopped attending, the greatest drop was due to emigration,
especially among university students.
322
Other issues
x Extreme material impoverishment of the education infrastructure, due

not only to destruction during the 1998/99 crises but also to the 7-8
years of under-resourcing while the parallel system struggled to keep
the Kosovo Albanian system going. In addition, of the total number of
school buildings in Kosovo (approximately 950, used mostly by Serb
students) nearly all had poor facilities; 15% had no toilets of any kind;
only 20% had a water supply inside the building. Therefore it is not
just a question of Albanian students moving into reasonably well
equipped Serb schools: all are seriously deficient.
x Serious disruption of education for many children and young people,

in some municipalities as early as April 1998. An estimated 95 000
children were excluded from education either because schools were
closed or destroyed, or because their families were internally
displaced (IDPs). At that stage, at least 100 schools were destroyed or
seriously damaged. During the 1999 refugee crisis, no schooling took
place although efforts were made to provide temporary help in refugee
camps in FYR Macedonia and Albania. After the war, 290 schools
(37%) were completely destroyed or damaged beyond use; 800 had
suffered damage. Most schools had inadequate water and sanitation
facilities (some had none at all). While emergency rehabilitation is
proceeding well, basic equipment and books are still not available in
every school.
x Low teacher salaries, and lack of trained school administrators.

Although in the parallel system teachers were used to working in
difficult conditions for little or no pay, they saw their work at that time
as a ‘patriotic sacrifice’ and as part of nation building. Now, however,
teachers cannot be expected to work towards reform unless they are
paid properly. Although teachers are remarkably patient, they are
justified in wanting better conditions. The new contracts (see section
on Teachers) are a good start but more support and training are
needed.
x Non-attendance and dropout, even during the compulsory cycle. Data

are unreliable but they indicate that only approximately 80% of 7-15
age cohort is in school; while for the 16-18 age group this drops to 37-
38%.153 Moreover, there is a steady erosion of school attendance as a
153
2000 figures, before 6 year olds were included in primary.
323
cohort moves through the system, not only at transitions from one
level to another but in between as well. For example, Libri Shkollor
figures154 for 2000 showed 35 000 students at the end of grade 4,
29 000 at the end of grade 8 dropping immediately to 21 000 at the
start of grade 9, 13-14 000 taking Maturita exams at the end of grade
12, and fewer than 5 000 entering higher education.
Statistical data
Education data for Kosovo are unreliable, because methods of collection

vary and because of population shifts due to returning refugees and, to a lesser
extent, internal movements of people.155 The United Nations Mission in Kosovo
(UNMIK) estimates that each month some 15 000 persons return from abroad;
of the 100 000 refugees returned from Germany in spring 2000, for example, 30
000 were school-age children.
A survey by UNICEF soon after the end of the conflict found that 45% of
the 1 000 schools surveyed had been either severely damaged or destroyed, and
that most schools had poor water, heating and sanitation facilities. The first
priority at the time was to get students back to school, and to concentrate on
reconstruction, repair, and replacement of furniture.
By September 2000, more than 400 schools had been repaired and re-
opened; an estimated 380 000 students were back in the system, most of whom
are Kosovo Albanians with Serb, Turkish and Roma minorities. The DES will
continue its responsibility during the school year 2000/01, gradually handing
over responsibility to the municipalities after the October 2000 municipal
elections (see Education Policy Paper, 7 January, 2001).
154
Textbook company. ‘Accurate figures exist for Albanian-language students,
less precise ones for Turkish and Bosniak students, and none at all for Serb
students.’
155
Some 61% of the population declared to have been forced to move from their
place of residence in the 12 months preceding the May 2000 survey. For the
Serbian community, lack of education was cited by 13% of these migrants.
(Kosovo Demographic, Socio-economic and Reproductive Health Survey
Basic Results. International Organisation for Migration, May 2000.
324
Table 1. Schools by Type and Population (2000)
No. of No. of Pupil: P:TR by ethnic

School Type No. of schools students teachers Teacher ratio stream
(P:TR)
All types 1 022 + 164 prep. 401 899 22 490 17.9:1 Not avail.
classes
21 Kindergartens + 14:7 in KG 18:1 Albanian
Pre-primary 164 prep.classes in 12 240 596 27.8:1 in prep 16:1 Turk.
primary classes 13:1 Serb
17:1 Alb,
Primary 1-8 919 286 940 15 788 17:1 Turk.,Bosn;
7:1 Serb
Secondary
31 318 1 929 16:1 19:1 Alban.
general 2754
49 343 3 094 20:1 8:1 Serb
Secondary VET
1 university
Higher consisting of 14
22 058 1 083 20:1 Not avail.
education faculties + 7 higher
schools
Source: CEPS, Ljubljana, December 2000. Drawn from UNMIK Statistical Book of Kosovo,
1999-2000.
Legal Framework and Policy Objectives
Resolution 1244 envisaged Kosovo as a multi-ethnic society in a safe and

secure environment. In reality, however, very few schools are ‘multi-ethnic’ –
and they operate with separate language streams and shift arrangements, which
provide little or no opportunity for children and teachers from different ethnic
backgrounds to mix. Generally, the inter-ethnic situation remains extremely
tense, especially in the north of Kosovo (e.g., the divided city of Mitrovica).
Nevertheless, the international community remains committed to ensuring a
peaceful multi-ethnic society, with an education system that serves the needs of
Kosovo’s young society and reflects modern European standards.
In the absence of new education laws, many of the old FRY laws still
apply, at least formally. In practice, the system functions according to
regulations issued by DES that has a special “legal officer”. New laws for
general and vocational education and school organisation are underway, and are
seen as ‘a comprehensive, lean guideline under which the autonomy of schools
and municipalities can grow’.156
UNMIK is committed to achieving two main goals in the field of

education. First, ensuring rapid resumption of schooling and continued learning
during the transition to an elected, democratically accountable government.
156
Michael Daxner, Education Policy Paper, January 2001, p.13.
325
Second, supporting the longer-term reconstruction and transformation of the
education system to reflect the needs of a modern European society.
The October 1999 DESK157 draft discussion document outlined a strategy

for achieving these two goals, and for a smooth transition from UNMIK’s
interim administration to local governance in the educational sector. The DESK
model sought to create a framework for co-operation between UNMIK, donors,
UN and international agencies, NGOs and local administrators and specialists,
bringing them together in working groups. However, this approach did not work
well in practice, and has now been replaced by a system of ‘Lead Agencies’
(international agencies taking responsibility for a specific task) working under
the direction of UNMIK’s recently established (March 2000) Department of
Education and Science (DES), responsible for all education and science affairs.
DES also seeks to co-ordinate NGO activities to ensure maximum effectiveness
and prevent overlap.
In terms of education policy, a major principle is ‘inclusive education’: all

children and young people of Kosovo should have the possibility to go to
school. Other issues are (1) narrowing the gap between content-based and
competence- and standards-based teaching and learning, and (2) further
development of education in minority languages.
In September 2000, the DES issued several important directives. A new

contract for teachers was introduced, including a school calendar. The contract
sets out the duties of school administrators, teachers, support staff, and
maintenance staff. The school director has the power to hire staff, and is
responsible for evaluating the quality of teaching and ensuring professional
growth. Other major directives stated that (1) all children who have reached the
age of 6 by the start of the academic year must be in school, and must remain in
school until the age of 15; (2) parents will face a fine if they do not register their
children, although exemptions from attendance can be given in certain cases
(e.g., children receiving home health care); (3) the primary cycle is extended
from 4 to 5 years, followed by 4 years of pre-secondary education for a total of
9 years of compulsory (basic) education; (4) a programme of curriculum reform
is under way, with UNICEF designated to be the Lead Agency in primary and
secondary curriculum reform. Canadian International Development Agency
(CIDA) is launching a huge teacher training project, which is expected to play a
significant role in reforms of the education system in Kosovo.
157
D.E.S.K (“Design of the Education System of Kosovo”). Concept Paper,
UNMIK Education Section 17 October 1999.
326
Administration and Systemic Reform
As noted above, all Kosovo-wide education governance and management

functions are the responsibility of UNMIK/DES, with a central office in
Prishtina, and regional offices in Prishtina, Mitrovica, Gjilan, Peja and Prizren.
All teachers’ contracts, for instance, are signed directly with UNMIK/DES. The
intention is to devolve responsibility (including fiscal responsibility) for
education as much as possible to the 30 municipal authorities. Municipal
elections were held in October 2000 and local education administrations are
being set up.
Governments can help improve the quality of education mainly through

setting standards, supporting inputs known to improve achievement, adopting
flexible strategies for the acquisition and use of inputs, and monitoring
performance. World-wide, the tendency is that national governments take
responsibility for quality of outcomes by setting up and supervising structures
for the organization and the management of the education system, while
delegating responsibility for inputs and processes of learning to local or school
level. Kosovo still has a long way to go before it will find itself among the
countries that are successfully applying this strategy.
Renewal of education in Kosovo is hampered by time constraints, lack of

funds, and insufficient skill of many actors. ‘The solution is to prepare the
system for a long period of emergency status’ during implementation: there will
be no normal labour relations, there will be overcrowded facilities, and there
will be low salaries.158
x Building on the 1992-98 shadow or parallel system. It created a

powerful sense of decentralised, local initiative and energy, despite
the weakness of central legislative or policy direction. ‘Because they
have run their own education and health systems for almost a decade,
they are already the world’s largest NGO’159. Re-establishing a viable
legal and policy framework for the whole of Kosovo without losing
the strengths of local involvement is a serious challenge. There are
158
Michael Daxner, Education Policy Statement 2001, p.8.
159
Quoted in Lynn Davies, Education in Kosova, p. 35.
327
few signs that the current administration is able to/wants to harness
these forces to continue working with the new system.
x Influence of party and ethnic politics. Governance and management

are deeply influenced by party and ethnic politics. To keep a balance,
representatives from rivalling Albanian parties are appointed who do
not always communicate well with each other. Serbian minority policy
is a key issue; in fact there are now no Serbian students or staff
members at the University of Prishtina and many instances of
discrimination against non-Albanian students are reported.
x Shortage of professional managers. There are not enough professional

and experienced managers, nor are there training programmes to
provide them, although UNMIK now has some proposals under
discussion.
x Involvement of stakeholders. UNMIK had the unrewarding task of

taking on a ruined system and establishing an infrastructure to make
schools work again at short notice. Kosovo depends heavily on
international aid: Kosovo itself generates only 40% of the income it
needs. Salaries, for example, are likely to remain low for some years,
with no pension rights and little social security; although UNMIK tries
to involve stakeholders, many legitimate wishes simply cannot be met.
This leads to dissatisfaction and frustration. The Teachers’ Union
(SBASHK) is critical of the new contracts which have no provisions
for retirement or maternity leave, and no job description; parents and
teachers complain that they are not consulted about the curriculum;
community participation ‘does not exist’. The sudden change of the
entrance age to 6 years (announced only two weeks before the school
year began) was met with general criticism. The change has severe
repercussions on classrooms, textbooks, transport, and the system of
early childhood education. Stakeholders resent the many visits by
international teams, and their reports and recommendations that do not
produce any real change.
Equity in access, attainment and achievement
When Kosovo’s relative autonomy was abolished in 1991, a large number

of ‘temporary measures’ were passed to re-impose rule from Belgrade. These
included regulations that led to the dismissal or resignation of most Albanians
in public sector jobs, journalism, medicine and the police. In education, the
Serbian curriculum was imposed on Albanian-language students; when teachers
protested, many were sacked, restrictions were placed on the number of children
328
who could be taught in Albanian, and eventually the police prevented teachers
and students from entering schools. A policy of ‘rationalisation’ followed,
whereby for the 36 000 Albanian children finishing primary school in 1991 only
6 000 places were made available in secondary school (all Serb and
Montenegrin students got a place). More than 860 academic staff of the
University of Prishtina were fired, and it became effectively a Serbian-only
institution.
Therefore, at least during the period 1991-99, there was no equity in

access, attainment and achievement between ethnic groups in Kosovo.
However, it should be said that most of the Serb schools were also in a poor
state, and that ‘quality’ in education was low for most students in Kosovo,
although opportunities were better for some.
The present situation still favours some groups over others. Although
conditions are harsh for all, they are worse for some, and the pattern of non-
attendance and dropout raises serious questions about who is being served (and
who is missing out). Finally, simple quantitative access without quality cannot
be called ‘access to education’. It is understandable that material reconstruction
of the system has taken priority, but the issue of educational quality for all
children and young people must not be neglected. A minority officer has been
appointed to the DES, who will supervise, develop and co-ordinate all issues
pertaining to minorities.
Special education: only a very small percentage of disabled students attend

school. There are three schools and two departments in Kosovo catering for
special-needs children, with a combined total of 450 students. The long-term
aim is to mainstream children as much as possible into regular schools, but for
the moment this is not a realistic option.
Dropout is a significant problem. Approximately 7% of primary school

pupils drop out before completing; at secondary level, only 66% of students
starting secondary school complete it, giving a non-completion rate of 34%.160
Finance issues
Fiscal policy in Kosovo can only be rudimentary, given the present

circumstances. It is a cash-based, Deutschmark economy without domestic
financial instruments, no domestic currency, a weak banking and credit system,
and operating either without clear laws or spasmodically, under FRY laws and
160
CEPS, Ljubljana, December 2000.
329
regulations that are not conducive to attracting foreign investors. Budgets are
not unified; recurrent budgets are met by a mixture of local taxation and donor
support, while capital budgets are entirely donor-funded. The collection of
custom tariffs, excise duties, and taxes is hampered by limited tax
administration capability and widespread avoidance. Recurrent education
budget for year 2000 is approximately 57.9 million EUR (approximately 56.7
million USD), out of which 78.5 % are allocated for wages and salaries. Total
public expenditure on education represents around 14 % of estimated GDP, a
percentage that is over twice the OECD average of 6%. It also represents 27.5
% of total public expenditure in Kosovo, nearly double of the OECD average.
The high share of education in public spending is to be expected as donor
funding is focused on Kosovo’s most basic public services.161
Political opinions disagree about the optimal level of public expenditure

for education. Proposals appear to converge, however, on 5-7% of GNP, which
reflects the practice in many countries. There is less disagreement about two
related points: (1) that public investment in basic education is necessary, (2) that
public spending should give basic education the highest priority (e.g., in relation
to non-compulsory secondary and higher education), especially when
enrolments are low.
Table 2. Government expenditure on education and training
Category Amount Source of Data

Public spending on education
N/A …
As a percentage of GDP
Public spending on education World Bank
28%
As a percentage of all public spending Feb 2000
Education spending per student
99 EUR
(primary education) World Bank
Education spending per student November 1999
135 EUR
(secondary education)
Education spending per level:
Pre-school 5%
WB
Primary education 65%
February 2000
Secondary education 19%
Higher education 11%
Average monthly teachers salary:
Pre-school 148 EUR
Primary education 148 EUR September 2000
Secondary education 163 EUR
Higher education 153-276 EUR
Source: CEPS, December 2000.
161
The World Bank: Kosovo Poverty Assessment, volume 2, Report No. 23390-
KOS, December 2001.
330
The parallel school system in Kosovo did create a habit, among the
Albanian population, of raising resources for the schools: it operated essentially
as a large NGO, outside government funding or control. At present, education is
financed largely by the international community and administered through
UNMIK, as there is as yet no stable tax base either at central or municipal level.
A key fiscal policy relates to fiscal devolution to the 30 municipalities;
however, the municipalities vary widely in size, economic potential, income per
capita, taxable assets such as land, businesses etc., and capacity to administer
their own tax systems.
Devolution in education financing and governance to the municipalities in

the form of block grants based on a per-student formula would improve equity
of funding across Kosovo. This would also provide incentives for municipalities
to manage education resources efficiently, on the condition that any savings be
used to benefit the municipality’s education system.
Private sector development is mostly in small and medium-size enterprises,

and in services. There are at present no private schools or private higher
education institutions in Kosovo, although three institutions (acting, journalism
and communications) did previously exist.
Curriculum: Intended, Delivered and Achieved
Standards and Curriculum162
Before 1990, the educational institutions in Kosovo were co-ordinated

independently from Serbia within the general framework of autonomy, with the
Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of Kosovo as the highest
administrative body. The educational authorities of Kosovo were free to develop
and approve the curricula and to control the whole educational system of
Kosovo.
In Primary and Secondary schools Albanian and Serbian language

functioned as parallel mediums of education. This arrangement was based on
the Yugoslav constitutional framework of 1974. This framework included
regulations for minority protection, which guaranteed the Kosovo-Albanians an
important degree of national equality among the nations of the former SFRY. In
addition, Turkish was recognised as a third official language in Kosovo.
162
See Assessment Practice and Policy Sheet, Kosovo (Johanna Crighton) and
Lynn Davies, “Education in Kosova: Report to the British Council”.
University of Birmingham, UK. August 1999 (unpublished paper).
331
This educational system, curriculum included, was relatively successful in
raising quality standards. For example, after the Second World War, the literacy
rates increased close to the average literacy rates in the region and the
neighbouring countries. Since the establishment of University of Prishtina in
1970, more than 60 000 students had graduated and more than 60% in the
Albanian language by 1996.
In 1989/90 Kosovo’s autonomy was abolished. This had serious effects on

the educational system, curriculum issues included. The Kosovo legislation on
education, science and culture, as well as the decisional autonomy concerning
curriculum were annulled in 1991. Serbian laws and curriculum were
introduced instead and school buildings of primary and secondary education
were closed down by force. By 1991/92 all Albanian-language education had
essentially gone ‘underground’ in the parallel (shadow) system described above.
The curriculum of the ‘parallel’ system was inevitably aimed also at

promoting Albanian nationalism. At elementary and secondary level, the old 14-
subjects curriculum was maintained as far as possible. The shadow state tried to
align curricula to Albanian requirements and began importing textbooks from
there. This legacy has left Kosovo with curricula that are old-fashioned and
fact-laden; they should now be modernised and streamlined along more modern
lines, as has happened in neighbouring countries during the 7-8 years ‘lost’ to
Kosovo due to its isolation from educational reforms elsewhere. Interviews and
reports from international specialists indicate the need of introduction of new
subjects, such as civics, history and geography devoid of nationalist
propaganda, education for tolerance, sex education, AIDS prevention and drugs
education, and introducing art and drama to support unification and help heal
the traumas of the war.
Curriculum: Interim Arrangements 1999/2000 and 2000/2001
Despite all efforts and regulations, there is no ‘unified’ education and

curriculum system in Kosovo. The Albanian and Serbian education systems and
the communities they serve have so far remained separate entities, even if both
are under UNMIK administration. As a consequence, there is, for the Kosovo
Albanians, the former education system and curriculum, which had been
operating during the “parallel model”(1991-1999) and which became part of the
new arrangements after the establishment of UNMIK. For Serb students, there
is a “sub-system” that is still beholden to Belgrade which provides the curricula
and textbooks to the schools attended by the Serbian minority. Then there are
other ethnic groups, such as Roma, Bosniaks and Turks that do not have
separate ‘systems’; starting with 2000, they are mostly included in Albanian
schools (for instance, some of the schools visited by the OECD mission in the
332
Regions of Peja or Pristina). As for the curriculum in Albanian schools – which
serve 90% or more of the total school population in Kosovo – UNMIK and
Kosovar education counterparts have decided (at least until September 2001) to
keep the curriculum that was in use under the parallel system.
New Structure for the Education System
From the 2000/01 school year, an important change was made that will
significantly affect curriculum development. The first cycle of primary school
was extended to five years, starting at the age of 6. Children are taught in self-
contained classrooms. At grade 6, students enter a second cycle of primary
(sometimes called lower secondary) education (four years); different teachers
independently teach all subjects. The curriculum includes mother tongue, a
foreign language (in most cases, English), mathematics, biology and physics
(from grade 6), chemistry (from grade 7), history, geography, civics, arts and
physical education. The four-year general upper secondary school continues
much the same, with some additional subjects – as many as 15 or 16.
Quality of the Curriculum
Because of the difficulties Kosovo went through between 1990-1999,

existing curricula for different subjects are excessively encyclopaedic,
knowledge-, content- and information-centred, whereas in other countries
curriculum approaches aim at developing students’ cognitive capacities; the
curricula offer a narrow variety of learning opportunities and experiences. The
excessively subject-based approach inhibits trans- and inter-disciplinary as well
as cross-curricular work. There is no choice of subjects for students, although
many demand it. There is a real need to update traditional disciplines and
incorporate broader social and cognitive outcomes that should be attainable by
the majority of students. The DES has started to review the ‘content’ of
curricula for general education, but there is a need to first implement new
approaches and procedures in curriculum development and teaching practices.
Approaches to Teaching and Learning
The education system that Kosovo inherited from the past is quite rigid in
its teaching/learning methods; this has negatively influenced the quality of
teaching and the education process as a whole. Due to its isolation in the past
decade, the Kosovo education system could not absorb some major changes in
education (especially in didactics, teaching practices, pedagogy) that have taken
place in OECD or some former communist countries of Central Europe
(Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Romania).
333
Classes are often large and over-crowded; some, e.g., in Skenderaj, still
functioning in temporary huts. Teachers – many of them unqualified – teach 20
or more hours each week; students have five or six subjects each day,
approximately 24-30 hours per week. Students attend school in shifts – some
schools have two, and a few have three shifts. Teacher-pupil relationships and
individual attention suffer from this. The teaching is mainly “authoritarian”,
“frontal” or “directive”; the teacher-centred model is predominant. Rote
learning is common, with little attention to discovery and group-work, debate,
problem solving, project activities, portfolio work. Teachers use the lecture
method, and students memorise the material. Exceptions are mostly the
experimental programmes introduced by various NGOs in a few schools, as
well as a number of local initiatives.
Textbook Provision and Teaching Aids
Textbooks were generally imported from Albania or developed in Kosovo

during the parallel system. The pool of experienced and competent authorship is
therefore small and potential writers have not had a chance to show their skills.
A consortium of several donors has funded the reprinting of existing textbooks,
at least for core primary and secondary subjects, for use during the 1999-2000
and 2000-2001 school years, pending a curriculum and textbook review in the
coming years. Many schools lack basic instructional and laboratory materials,
support materials, athletic equipment, and other teaching aids; therefore
students learn theory rather than application. DES intends to equip science
laboratories with basic laboratory equipment in 2000/01.
Curriculum Reform
In July 2000, UNMIK/DES introduced the concept of ‘lead agencies’.

These are seen as the main (but not the only) technical and co-ordinating bodies
in different sectors. UNICEF was invited to act as Lead Agency in curriculum
design, together with the International Bureau of Education (IBE).163
The selection of a core development group has been widely advertised, and
initial training for the core group as well as an international workshop on
current curriculum trends will be organised. In August 2000, the DES employed
a curriculum development officer to support and co-ordinate the process. The
163
See Minutes of the Meeting on Curriculum Development, Prishtina, DES, 3-5
September 2000.
334
deadline for the new curriculum framework has been set for June 2001;
implementation will begin with the 2001/2002 school year.164
Meanwhile, a number of school-based – ‘bottom-up’ – initiatives have

already began to change the curriculum. More than 100 NGOs are working to
improve learning in the short term, using for example such new curricula as the
‘Step by Step’ programme of the Open Society Foundation, which involves
teachers, directors, students and parents and has already been successful in other
Central and Eastern European countries. In addition, Finnish Support to the
Development of Education in Kosovo (FSDEK) that started in September 2000
aims to improve the quality of education in special-needs institutions. DES co-
ordinates the efforts of NGOs and international projects.
Assessment and Examinations
In the old system, there was no evaluation and assessment function at

Ministry level; all was devolved to schools. These used to send their results to
the Pedagogical Institutes, which in turn would prepare an overview for the
municipal education authorities. All these records, however, were based on oral
assessment of individual students, with little differentiation between levels of
achievement. The education component of the Kosovo Education and Health
Project, to be financed from a World Bank grant, includes the establishment of a
small unit (within UNMIK/DES) staffed by trained specialists to measure and
monitor the quality of education outcomes. This unit would conduct sample
based national assessments of educational performance in some key domains.
Another component of this project is the establishment of an Educational
Management Information System.
DES issues guidelines regarding certificates and diplomas of completion

(DES [I]1/2000, 12/6/00), but practices are still very much as they were in the
old system. Primary schools organise informal school-based exit tests at the end
of grade 9, leading to a certificate of completion (cohort size 29 000165).
Entrance exams into grade 10 (first grade of secondary education) are held by
the receiving school (cohort size 21 000). The former Pedagogical Institute in
Prishtina developed some sample tests that were published in booklet form and
164
This time frame is very tight and probably underestimates the complexities
involved in introducing the additional year for 6-year olds. Effects are bound
to be felt throughout the system.
165
Cohort sizes were taken from “Education in Kosovo: From Crisis to
Recovery and Transformation” by Michael Daxner (paper for Graz Stability
Pact Meeting, March 2000).
335
are used by teachers and students (e.g. in Mathematics) as learning materials.
Secondary (Maturita) exams are both written and oral, and are set and marked
by teachers (cohort size 13-14 000). Question types are mixed; in maths and
science, multiple-choice and short-answer as well as extended answer questions
are used. In humanities subjects, essays are usual.
Every faculty of the university organises its own entrance exams. These
usually test rather basic and factual knowledge, and do not attempt to assess the
aptitude of students to follow an academic programme. (Hence, there is little
sense in continuing these exams in addition to the new-style Maturita exams,
once they are comparable and of sufficient quality.)
A student’s entrance exam results determine 70% of her/his ranking in the

order of admission; 30% is determined by the success in secondary education.
Faculties where the number of applicants is much lower than the number of
places available (e.g. the Faculty of Mining, Mitrovica166) use less strict criteria.
Students who failed may re-sit the exam in autumn. Usually, results on an
entrance exam for one faculty are not recognised by another. Students who did
well in the Olympiads, held annually in some subjects (maths, physics, and
history), have an advantage in gaining university entrance. In March 2000, the
International Administrator of Prishtina University issued instructions for
admission of regular students to the university and higher schools (IA [I]
3/2000), stating that all graduates from Kosovo secondary schools are eligible
for admission, and should take entrance exams when applying for faculties of
medicine, physical education, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering,
civil engineering, architecture and arts, or for a faculty or higher school where
the number of places is lower than the number of applicants.
Issues and Barriers in curriculum, standards and assessment
x The present process of change is the first ‘real curriculum reform’ for
over 25 years: there is a great deal to do. But the time frame is very
tight, as the DES and local educators want to modernise the
curriculum as quickly as possible. Moving from an old-fashioned
content-based approach toward an outcomes-based one will take more
166
After the recent closedown of the nearby lead and zinc mines, the main
employer of graduates from this run-down faculty, enrolments will probably
drop even more. Output records have been dramatically low for a number of
years: only 6% of the first years make it to their graduation, while only a
quarter of these find a job in the mining profession. Nevertheless, there are no
plans for switching activities to adjacent fields that do need highly skilled
staff, such as waste disposal and soil cleaning.
336
time than is available; there is also a danger of repeating past
mistakes.
x The rigidities of the centralised curriculum system, based essentially

on textbook content, stifle curriculum development initiatives
designed to encourage student intellectual inquiry, self-development,
teamwork, and communication.
x Curriculum change in one sector of the system will affect all other
sectors. Universities and teacher training institutions also need to
undergo radical change and rethink their roles. Above all, however,
there needs to be classroom change. The role of the teacher should be
redefined. The teacher needs to be seen as a professional, able to
maximise resources to help students meet educational goals.
x There is a lack of professional capacity in, and strategic vision of,

curriculum reform, even among UNMIK/DES staff. Also, co-
ordination among lead agencies and UNMIK/DES.
x Unification of the curriculum for general education. There are

powerful political reasons against the creation of a unified curriculum.
Nevertheless, an explicit, coherent and valid curriculum framework is
needed, and could be acceptable. For political and general democratic
reasons, however, Kosovo minorities – above all Serbian – must have
the right to be taught in their own language, and curricula that
accommodate minority issues and differences.
x Curriculum coherence and consistency. There is no systemic

consistency within the current curriculum. The aims for primary,
lower and upper secondary education are not defined; neither are
general and specific objectives and outcomes of various subjects.
There is no conceptual and structural consistency across different
subjects, as, generally speaking, the content units of the syllabuses are
viewed in an isolated, subject-based perspective, without any type of
integration across subjects or subject areas.
x The pursuit of ‘European standards’. It is widely said in Kosovo that

the ultimate goal (in curriculum, teacher training, institutional
development etc.) should be to implement or apply ‘European
standards’. Very rarely, however, was there some understanding of
what these standards might represent. Examples named included a
shift from the ‘lecturing’ model to ‘interactive learning’; introducing
337
‘science’ as a single subject to replace the separate subjects chemistry,
biology and physics; or introducing new subjects such as civics. In
other cases, ‘European standards’ referred to the quality of buildings,
equipment, furniture, computers, and even on occasion to teacher
salaries. The truth is that ‘standards’ vary widely across Europe, and
no time should be wasted on trying to imitate, piece-meal, practices
that may or may not suit Kosovo’s reality or be coherent among
themselves. Nonetheless, OECD benchmarks provide goals that could
be helpful guides.
x Congestion and overload. The curricula show many separate subjects:

14 at the end of primary education and 16 at secondary. The content of
these subjects is fact-ridden. Both have a negative effect on teaching
methods, the depth of knowledge and understanding, and preparation
for work or further education.
x Relevance to the majority of students. There is still a tendency to

define upper-secondary curricula in terms of the expectations of
higher education. In reality, however, these expectations are relevant
only to a small proportion of students (only 4 545 were admitted to
university in 2000, for example), while the large majority need to
prepare for the world of work. Shifting the emphasis from content-
based to competence-based teaching and learning is essential at this
level, which in any case would also benefit those who do go on to
higher education.
x Need to involve teachers in the design and development of the

curriculum, and in the improvement of school climate. Current
research shows clearly that curriculum renewal in a school is not
merely a result of top-down introduction of change: the essential unit
for improvement is the whole-school group of teachers and
administrators. They need to learn and change together if the school’s
‘climate’ is to improve permanently.
x Need to introduce psycho-social programmes in the curriculum. The

curriculum needs to respond to the severe trauma suffered by most of
the Kosovo population (many of them children) during the 1998/99
crisis. The aim would be to acknowledge and heal the wounds of the
past, to overcome ethnic barriers insofar as possible, and to build a
basis for preventing future clashes.
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x Lack of procedures and data for monitoring and comparing the
outcomes of education; lack of impact of assessment data on
educational policy. There is now no system of monitoring outcomes
on a Kosovo-wide level, nor are there clear standards to serve as the
basis for comparison; it seems unclear to officials why such
comparisons would be useful in highlighting areas of poor (or good)
performance, and in making informed policy decisions.
x Inefficiency of the assessment and examination procedures. Teachers

set their own tests, using mostly oral testing. There is no professional
support, and no standardisation to enable them to compare their
outcomes with those of other teachers. The university entrance exams
do not add anything useful to information that can also be obtained
from professional school leaving exams; ‘double exams’ of this kind
are inefficient, wasteful and a burden on students.
Education Personnel
Teachers
As has been set out above, many Kosovo Albanian teachers and professors
were dismissed after the imposition of Belgrade control in 1990, and by March
1991 the Serbian government stopped paying salaries to those remaining. This
was the beginning of the parallel (shadow) Albanian education system that has
left its mark on today’s teaching cadre; many present initiatives that aim at
improving the capacity and effectiveness of the teaching staff are connected to
the years of the parallel system.
During those 8 years, Albanian-language teachers were deprived of in-

service training and exposure to new educational developments. Many
unqualified volunteers joined the teaching force, developing their skills on the
job. UNMIK is now signing new contracts with all teachers (September to
December 2000), as part of a systemic reorganisation. There is the plan to grant
the status of ‘Provisional Teacher’ to those teachers who cannot, by way of
certificate or references, prove their qualifications.167 if they agree to register for
an upgrading course. It is clear, however, that a scheme of intensive upgrading
courses is necessary for the whole teaching force, not only for provisional
teachers. A specific problem is with the Serbian teachers, who initially refused
to sign the new contracts. (One reason is that signing will make them lose the
167
In the Prizren region, about 60% of the registered teaching force turned out to
be qualified, while 10% were either double-registered or did not exist.
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payments they are still receiving from Belgrade; another is the severe pressure
from their leadership not to accept UNMIK rule.) However, about 1 000 Serbian
teachers have now signed contracts (February 2001) and opposition seems to be
less.
Teaching cadre in Kosovo
The total number of teachers in the entire education sector in June 2000
was 28 625 (Table 3). Many teachers who joined the parallel system are still
teaching in schools. No precise data exist on the ratio of trained or qualified
teachers to those who lack appropriate training. The DES estimates that the ratio
is about 3:2, meaning that in any region up to 50% of present teaching staff can
be unqualified. The DES is conducting a school census that will provide more
reliable evidence. However, many teachers have lost their original documents
and certificates when their homes were burned or property destroyed during the
1998/99 crises.
In several respects, the characteristics of the Kosovo teaching profession

differ from those in other countries. First, the gender ratio among teachers is
one-third female teachers to two-thirds male. At tertiary level, 88% of teachers
are male, and the gender ratio declines by level of education (44% of pre-
primary teachers are male; DES, 1999). According to the same source, 86% of
school support personnel are men; and the overwhelming majority of school
directors and education managers in the regions and municipalities are men.
Second, practically all teachers work in schools that have more than one
shift. In Prishtina, Mitrovica and some other urban areas, schools may operate
in as many as four shifts and are thus very crowded. The present estimate is that
more than 25% of all schools in Kosovo operate in three or four shifts. This has
a serious effect on teachers’ working conditions and on the quality of teaching.
Classrooms are cramped and there are few or no teaching aids; lack of up-to-
date textbooks is one of the most serious problems. Only in exceptional cases
can schools provide teachers with facilities and space for professional meetings
and joint planning. Of course, the damage and destruction caused by bombing
and shelling during the war are a major cause of poor facilities; schools also
suffered vandalism and looting, and many have not yet been rehabilitated.
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Table 3. Number of teachers per level of education
Facilities/Region Prishtina Prizren Peja Gjilan Mitrovica TOTAL
Pre-primary 137 55 57 96 57 402

Primary 4304 3288 2668 2318 3394 15972
General Secondary 1635 759 885 824 1072 5175
Vocational schools 870 424 453 340 393 2480
Special schools 17 21 17 19 1 75
University of Prishtina 801 801
TOTAL 7764 4547 4080 3597 4917 24905
Source: Statistical Office of Kosovo, Education Statistics 2001.
Third, most teachers have worked for many years with very low salaries or
no salary at all. Teaching in the parallel system was seen as sustaining the
Albanian language and culture under the pressure of the ruling government.
Therefore, even unqualified teachers had a recognised and respected social
status in society, and this still influences the debates and discussions related to
reforming the education system. The UNMIK administration has paid stipends
to teachers, but these payments have been low and equal for all. Trained
language teachers and computer specialists have left the profession for better-
paid jobs. Furthermore, since there was no formal pre-service training for
teachers during the 1990s, few young people joined the teaching profession in
the first place.
Fourth, tens of thousands of Kosovo Albanians are returning. The DES

estimates that in 2000 pupil enrolment in the education system increased by
approximately 10%; this creates enormous challenges, not only for the
education system per se but also for individual teachers who have to cope with
increasing class sizes and students with a variety of backgrounds and
experiences. These returning students can be helpful to teachers, because in
many cases they are able to speak other languages (like German, French and
English), have mastered basic skills in information technologies, and are able to
‘teach’ other students about the countries and cultures in which they have been
living.
Finally, the Union of Education, Science and Culture of Kosovo UESC

(Sindikata e Bashkuar pér Arsim, Shkencé dhe Kulture e Kosovés, SBASHK) has
a specific role in Kosovo’s education reform. The UESC is a trade union of
teachers that works actively with the DES to improve teachers’ working
conditions. DES is also counting on their support for implementing a
decentralisation strategy. It has a net of active international relations that are an
important source of innovation. Therefore, the UESC has a key role in
promoting changes in education that is not common among trade unions in
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other countries. During the 1990s, it provided moral and material support to the
parallel system. A present concern of the UESC is the reduction of the teaching
staff in Kosovo – it is expected that 10% of the present force will be dismissed,
as well as 50% of education support staff.
Salary and payment
The teacher salary issue presents a dilemma. On the one hand, teachers are
used to working in difficult conditions with low compensation; they saw their
work as a ‘patriotic sacrifice’ and as part of nation building. On the other hand,
teachers cannot be expected to work towards reform unless they are paid
properly. Although teachers are remarkably patient, they are justified in wanting
better conditions.
During and after the crisis, teachers went unpaid until UNMIK introduced
teacher stipends in September 1999 (EUR 102 for 1 September-31 December
1999). From January 2000, a teacher salary scale was introduced; the university
rector receives EUR 307/month, full professors EUR 215, secondary school
teachers EUR 163 and primary school teachers EUR 149/month. UNMIK is
generally able to pay on time.
The initial stipend arrangement lured some 2000 ‘ghost teachers’ on to the
payroll. These only exist in name, but do not actually work in schools. The
majority of these ‘ghosts’ have now been eliminated, but until the new contract
procedures are finalised, the DES is aware that some teachers who are on its
payroll actually work in other jobs, and receive payments there as well. A
system as financially fragile as Kosovo’s can of course not sustain such double
burdens.
The new salary system is based on a formal contract with a base salary
with multipliers. Three kinds of contracts can be issued: full-time, part-time and
temporary. The intention is to transfer the payment of salaries to the 30
municipalities. Teachers who have appropriate qualifications are the preferred
‘first category’. A second category is teachers who are not qualified but are
competent to teach (so-called ‘Provisional Teachers’); there is the intention to
give them a contract for one year, but they would have to agree to undergo an
upgrading course at the University of Prishtina. A third category is those who
are neither competent nor qualified, but are working as teachers. Another plan
is, to sign contracts only for the first two categories of teachers, and thus
decrease the number of untrained teachers within the system.
In September 2000, the DES sent out 20 000 contracts, representing a

reduction of 6 000 personnel. The position of school ‘pedagogue’ was
342
abolished. Salaries are paid only on receipt of a signed contract. In the 1980s,
contracts were for a 42-hour working week, with a teaching load of 18 to 20
hours, depending on the level of education; the rest of the time was used to
prepare for classes, meet parents, attend meetings, etc. The same approach is
now being followed by the authorities. For some teachers, accustomed to
around 20 hours of school based work, this was a shock. A performance rating
scale for teachers was introduced to be used in each municipality to assess the
quality of teaching.
Selection criteria fall into three areas: age (up to 39 years, high priority;
beyond 40, lower priority), gender (women have priority over men), and
teaching experience, including evidence of understanding child development.
According to the union, the contracts set only requirements and responsibilities
for teachers, but do not place any responsibility on employers. Contracts were
be effective until the end of 2000 due to UN regulations.
Clearly, the aim is to improve the quality of the teaching staff in Kosovo.
However, moving untrained and incompetent teachers out of the system is
painful. Many teachers worked for years without payment, and afterwards for
very little. Dismissing them now may cause tension, especially between
teachers and administrators. However, with returnees and the demographic
trend, there should be ample opportunities for qualified teachers in the medium
term.
At the same time, efficiency in the education sector does demand some
painful changes. In Kosovo, for example, teachers teach only one subject; if
teachers were able to teach, say, physics, chemistry and biology (science), fewer
teachers would be needed, and their salaries could be correspondingly higher. A
reliable monitoring system is essential to track the critical indicators that justify
educational expenditure at all levels. At the moment, no such system exists in
Kosovo.
Teacher training
Observers say teaching and learning processes in Kosovo are very

traditional. A spokesperson from the University of Prishtina (teacher training)
stated that in elementary school, pedagogical and educational approaches are
sometimes ‘cruel’ and do not encourage children to enjoy learning. As in most
other neighbouring countries, teaching is based on overloaded curricula and
‘factology’ that puts little emphasis on understanding concepts and issues, or
developing thinking skills and habits of mind per se. Due to their past political
and social experiences, many teachers lack training and hence the competence
to create good, productive learning environments for students.
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Teachers are trained in eight separate institutes or faculties. Table 4. shows
the types of training provided. In SFRY, teachers for primary education (grades
1 to 8) graduated either from the ‘pedagogical high schools’ (after two years of
study) or from the universities (after four years). Teachers of secondary schools
were – and are – trained for four years at the university. At the moment, the pre-
service teacher training is ensured and co-ordinated by the University of
Prishtina. The language of instruction is Albanian only; there is no pre-service
training institution that offers studies in Serbian
Training is mainly academic and heavily subject-based; except the special

pedagogy strand offered by the Faculty of Philosophy. The concept of ‘teaching
as a profession’ is missing form the training curriculum. Even some of the
educationally relevant subjects are taught at a highly academic level. Teaching
practice in schools or reflective teaching methods are carried out without any
systemic view or clear objectives and goals. At the moment, the university lacks
a clear vision, a long-term policy as well as short- or medium-term strategic
planning for teacher pre- and in-service training.
It is intended to bring all pre-service teacher training under one

institutional umbrella. The main institution, the University of Prishtina, intends
to have a new Faculty of Education. Different training centres will be the
affiliates of this faculty, and therefore part of the university. One of the major
barriers in this reform is the lack of knowledge and skills of present teacher
trainers; most have been totally disconnected from the international teacher
training community, and their work is therefore mainly based on the educational
traditions of SFRY in the 1970s and 1980s.
In-service training seems to take place mostly at the municipal or regional

level. There is no evidence of any type of needs analysis and short- or medium-
term planning of the training activities. In-service training activities are mostly
carried out by NGOs or the recently appointed ‘lead agencies’, as the university
or regional/municipal directorates have no professional teacher trainers. School-
based training activities of the staff are rare, and the quality of those that do take
place is questionable. In-service training reflects in many cases the
methodology and attitudes of the former pedagogical institute. Teacher in-
service training curriculum is academic in nature, mainly out-of-date, and
teachers are not involved in the planning and implementation of their own
training.
At the moment, in-service training of teachers is to a large extent in the

hands of the international community. For example, the Kosova Foundation for
Open Society (KFOS) has launched the Kosova Forum that conducted a
workshop on Managing Educational Changes that was held in Macedonia with
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some 40 Kosovar participants. The British Council has arranged several English
language in-service training session throughout Kosovo. Similarly, the Bureau
de Liaison de la France has conducted French language training programmes for
teachers. However, an overall strategy for in-service training of all teachers is
still missing. Furthermore, there is little or no training for teachers to cope with
issues and problems related to post-conflict circumstances, and with children
with special needs.
Table 4: Pre-service teacher training institutes, September 2000
Type of institute Place Level

Faculty of Philosophy University of Prishtina 1– 4, 9-12 and
‘pedagogues’
Faculty of Philology University of Prishtina 9 –12
Faculty of Sciences University of Prishtina 9 – 12
Teachers’ Faculty University of Prishtina 1 – 4/5
High School/Teachers College Gjilan Pre-primary, 1-4/5
Prishtina 1 – 4/5 and 5 – 8
Gjakova 1-4/5 and 5 – 8
Prizren 1-4/5 and 5 –8
Source: Department of Education and Science.
Teacher training is a priority for UNMIK and its partners. It is obvious,

from visits to communities and schools, that most Kosovar teachers need urgent
support in upgrading their professional skills to the level of adequate
competence. No coherent strategy or harmonised donor operation yet exists; the
in-service training market is fragmented and overloaded, and unable to tackle
the overall problem of teacher competence in Kosovo. Under the auspices of the
relevant Lead Agency (to be established in framework of a CIDA funded
project), experts will be attached to DES to lead the work in teacher training.
Issues and Barriers in education personnel
x Poor working conditions. Teachers in Kosovo are working in

physically and materially poor conditions. Many school buildings still
have damage caused by bombings and other attacks by different
groups of people. Teaching materials are limited in number, and their
quality is not always supportive of good teaching and learning. Most
schools operate in more than one shift; schools are crowded, and there
is no space for anything beyond regular teaching in classrooms.
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Returning refugees add to the overcrowding, with students sharing
desks and learning materials.
x Teacher salaries have been very low, and remain relatively low under
the new salary scheme. Teachers often need to look for additional
income, which affects their ability to concentrate on their teaching. In
some subjects (foreign languages, maths and sciences) there are
shortages because teachers are able to command much higher salaries
by working for international agencies. In spite of this, teacher morale
remains relatively good, and the population places considerable value
on education and on its teaching force.
x Lack of clear strategies and criteria for quality in education. One

common feature in many transition systems is ‘reform without vision’.
Education in Kosovo is no exception. New thinking is only just
emerging, and it is to a large extent driven by the ideas and
experiences of the international community. Creating a coherent,
‘home-grown’ strategy that could guide reform at the operational level
is an enormous challenge. In terms of quality, there is no common
concept of what ‘good’ education could be. Quality is understood in
terms of quantitative (input) measures rather than in terms of
outcomes. This narrow view of quality is a major obstacle to change
in teaching, learning, and assessment in particular.
x Consequences of conflict and special needs children. Many children

have suffered directly or indirectly from the horrors of war and hate
during the recent conflict. Kosovar Albanian families often have many
children and a strong tradition of ‘extended family’; this means that
the traumatic events that families faced were always witnessed by a
number of members of the same family. It is beyond this report to go
into details of the painful stories that individuals and families have to
tell; it is obvious that they have left deep scars in hearts and souls of
many children, and that the memories may haunt them throughout
their lives. The school system as a whole and teachers in particular are
struggling to cope with this emerging problem as more and more
students return to classrooms. Most, if not all, teachers lack the proper
tools and conceptual knowledge of helping children feel safe, handle
their memories and emotions, and work through traumatic
experiences. Moreover, there is a shortage of special education
teachers who can identify other special needs, and find ways to deal
with them as part of mainstream teaching and learning.
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x Shift from dissemination of information to ‘understanding and being
able to do’. An universal paradigm shift in teaching is a move away
from the dominant presentation-recitation mode towards constructing
one’s own knowledge and understanding through experiences. This
has been a huge challenge even for OECD education systems with
large human and financial resources. A resource-poor system
emerging from a socialist, command-driven past with rigid and
authoritarian traditions will find such a shift even more difficult. This
is an issue because Kosovo does not yet have the infrastructure, know-
how and resources to accomplish change; nor can the international
community and donor funding alone solve the problem. The solution
requires a redefinition of the purpose of schooling in Kosovo; shifting
the focus from producing a manual labour force for domestic and
foreign markets towards educating all individuals in a wider range of
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Early Childhood Education
Before the 1998/99 crises, the state provided reasonable pre- and post-natal
services and immunisations for children aged 0-3. There was however no
tradition of institution-based child care in the region, and services provided
were of a care-taking rather than child-centred or educational nature. There
were no clear aims for pre-school care and no home-based parental support
programmes other than those organised by individual kindergarten centres.
Children with anything beyond a mild disability were sent to specialised
institutions and rarely mainstreamed. Pre-service teacher training for the early
childhood years occurred either in teacher training high schools which offer a
post-secondary two year programme for teaching at the elementary level, or
through a four-year university programme for secondary teachers; neither was
child-centred in approach. There was no in-service training.
Even so, as in Bosnia and Herzegovina, there were attempts to introduce

good pedagogical models. The Soros Foundation initiated a Step by Step
programme in Kosovo in 1997, providing materials and training in two pre-
schools and eight primary schools. This programme provides a package of
teacher training, materials and financial support to put in place fee-paying
services for children aged 9 months to 6 years. The programme aims to
introduce child-centred methods and parental involvement, and has expanded to
become a major change agent (see below). During the war, services were
largely provided by NGOs, with some early childhood care in homes. At the
end of June 1999 an initial survey revealed the extent of the damage to the
physical capital of the school system. Not only infrastructure, but also the
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fragile system of services for early childhood, the good pre-natal and early
infant care of pre-war years had vanished.
Post-war, major donors such as UNICEF returned with the refugees to

rebuild the school system, starting with emergency reconstruction of buildings
and tent schools, achieving substantial success in getting the school system
going again, especially for 7-14 year olds. Improvements in pedagogy continue
through pilot programmes including those focusing on interactive methods for
teaching, teacher training workshops, psycho-social support for teachers and
children demonstrating signs of trauma and grief, and education for children in
minority communities. Most children were back in school of some kind by
August 1999. However, there has been a gradual withdrawal of donor
contributions to early childhood education, which is now returning to normality.
Early Childhood programmes were started again in 1999. UNICEF helped

collect information about pre-schools and provided material and furniture for 24
of the 44 pre-schools in Kosovo. There are also three model pre-school training
centres. Their present activities include support for 102 classrooms for children
from birth to age 6 in 24 pre-schools, in addition to 25 classrooms for 6 year
olds in 25 schools serving 1 200 children (including one Turkish and five Roma
classrooms), training 356 teachers and 40 faculty at university and 60 pre-
school directors. The pre-schools are fee-paying and cost between
15-30 EUR per month. UNICEF has to date set up 56 playrooms in poorer rural
areas, trained 300 facilitators to work with young children, and provided tents,
recreational kits and furniture. The sustainability of these initial efforts will be
of interest.
Kindergartens are segregated by ethnicity, and are run in the Serb enclaves
using the kindergarten pre-school model from Yugoslavia. Thus there are
special classes for 6 year olds to help them make the transition to school. (The
Serb schools have not yet adopted the lowering of school age to 6 as decreed for
September 2000 by UNMIK.)
For the 9 months to 3 years group, data are lacking on social issues
affecting child development. The number of single-parent families is 19 800,
but no breakdown of female-headed households is available, nor of the number
of women in the workforce pre- and post-war. Pre-war, the infant mortality rate
was 21.6%, and in June 2000 WHO estimated that the perinatal mortality rate is
between 30% and 40%. Although health care for mothers and children is free,
declining availability (and perhaps quality) could contribute to high rates of
infant illness and attendant long lasting disabilities (e.g. deafness through lack
of antibiotic treatment) requiring educational support. Nutrition rates are
348
improving.168 But there are early warning signs that the severe malnutrition
present just after the war may return. The number of acutely malnourished
children seems to have declined, but poor infant feeding practices and dietary
hazards to mothers (obesity, multiple pregnancies) could endanger early
childhood development. These indicators point to the need for special attention
to the early childhood years in providing supportive developmental programmes
for children.
Government actions in pre-school education
The DESK process initiated by UNMIK produced a comprehensive set of

recommendations. First of all, it developed a mandate for the provision of pre-
school education (rather than care) for each level. ‘Pre-school education should
foster the development of the ability/capacity of the child by developing his/her
interests, fulfilment of their needs and development of their skills so that the
child is prepared to respond to the needs of the future that life, the family or
society might raise before him/her’. The DESK initiative saw immediate
priorities as ‘greater inclusion and access of children in pre schools, with
obligatory attendance from the age of 5’. Goals were to ensure that 100% of
children from 3-5 should be able to attend, or that attendance should even be
made compulsory; and that better conditions should be created for children from
9 months to 3 years old.
DESK also recommended administrative changes to reflect the importance

of these early years, including a separate section for pre-school education within
the Ministry and in the pedagogical and textbook sections. It also recommended
an early childhood division at municipal level, putting pre-school education on
a par with other levels of education and expanding the parent councils. Of
particular interest is the recommendation to put together an inter-sectoral group
on early childhood programmes.
From September 2000, the school entry age has been set at 6 years. This
has led to some confusion in the development of first-year classes, particularly
in overcrowded schools using multiple shifts.
Issues and Barriers in early childhood education
x Access to pre-school care and education in Kosovo is very poor.

Significant behavioural changes need to be made in the provision of
168
Conduah Birt, Jacqueline, and Phelps;Laura (January 2000), Action Against
Hunger – UK.
349
care by parents, communities and the school system to improve care
and education at this crucial stage in a child’s life. Early childhood
services are under-used, and there is little understanding of the need
for child development programmes. In Albania, for example, 37% of
children attend pre-schools, and in FYRoM about 20%; whereas in
Kosovo 2.8% of children do. In addition, the region has the highest
birth rate and highest infant mortality rate of South East Europe.
Rapid urbanisation, with the break-up of extended family care, more
working mothers and poor living conditions – including unsafe
drinking water – contribute to a decline in the health of mothers and
infants.
x Enrolments are low because pre-school is not compulsory,

understanding of the issues is poor, enrolment criteria are arbitrary
and sometimes discriminatory, places are not available, and they are
costly. Payments to teachers are inadequate and uncoordinated.
Curricula are inflexible and inappropriate, and the teachers poorly
qualified. Continuity between pre-school and primary school does not
exist, and communities and parents are not involved in the provision
of pre-school care.
At the time of this survey, there were 48 vocational and technical

secondary schools with 46 344 students and a teaching staff of 3 106. The
spread of these schools is fairly well balanced across the region. About 58% of
the schools are clustered around the larger urban centres (Prishtina, Prizren,
Peja, Mitrovica, Gjilan, Ferizaj and Gjakova) accounting for 52% of teaching
staff and about 52% of students. The remaining schools are located in rural
areas.
Within the vocational schools group, 16 are general technical schools, 10

are classified as ‘economics’ schools, 7 as ‘medical’, 3 as ‘agricultural’, etc.
There is one small ‘arts’ and one medium-size ‘languages’ school. Six schools
provide a mix of vocational and ‘gymnasium’ (academic) education; all 6 of
these schools lie outside the major urban centres with 627 staff (20% of
vocational teachers).
Kosovo’s vocational schooling system directly reflects the former

Yugoslav system, with vocational schools offering practice-oriented education
for up to 3 years and some gymnasia providing a mix of general and specialist
education. Vocational education was essentially supply-driven and theoretically
oriented, rather than competence-based.
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Administration
The responsibility for vocational education rests with UNMIK/DES. Until

recently, an expert was seconded from a German regional administration to
work on vocational education. Due to other priorities of the DES, the
contribution of the expert to vocational education reform was limited. At
regional level, 11 education officers cover the broader education provision in
their geographical area.
Within the UNMIK’s Labour Department, there is an officer responsible

for vocational training. There is no regular exchange of information or common
planning between the competent Education and Labour departments. This could
be in part due to the turnover of staff recruited on short-term, six-monthly
contracts. However, effort is required to ensure that the departments co-operate
and a knowledge management procedure established to ensure that the know-
how acquired by each post holder is retained by the departments.
An information-pooling mechanism to share knowledge could be

considered. This could be particularly useful for example when common issues
of training of vocational teachers/instructors and curriculum reform are being
developed and where synergies between vocational education and continuing
training reforms can be made. The Lead Agency initiative for vocational
training proposed by the UNMIK Education Department (see Reform Measures,
below) could facilitate or manage this service.
Cross-pillar169 co-operation within the UNMIK administration will be

more important given that the Department of Reconstruction in Pillar 4
(Economic Development) has recruited an education and training specialist who
will be an important contact between vocational schools and enterprises.
Material conditions
The combination of 10 years’ exclusion from mainstream Yugoslav

developments and no capital investment has effectively closed down vocational
schooling in Kosovo. Aside from the general material malaise of the schools,
vocational education workshops do not meet minimum standards. Working
materials for vocational schools reflect the former curriculum, which was highly
169
The UNMIK administration was initially organised in ‘pillars’, e.g.
humanitarian work/refugees; civil administration; institution building; and
reconstruction, each led by a different agency such as UNHCR, OSCE, the
European Union etc.
351
occupation-specific. Materials for both students and teachers are poor, if
available, and of insufficient quantity to meet classroom/workshop demand.
Support from NGOs for building refurbishment at selected schools goes

some way to alleviate the problem but cannot redress the critical under-
investment since 1989. Health and safety in existing workshops are of major
concern, in terms of building structures, sanitation and ventilation in workshop
areas. There was little evidence of health and safety awareness being
fundamental to the curriculum and to teaching.
Despite the depressing conditions of the vocational schools, there are

several impressive examples of targeted donor support for workshop
refurbishment and equipment. However, it is important to ensure that vocational
equipment provided by donors – including the associated curriculum and
training of instructors – reflects the reality of the work environments where
graduates will find themselves. A sophisticated vocational education workshop,
which bears little relation to the working tools and methods which young people
will find in industry or enterprise, will not prepare them for the local job market.
Before funding a school workshop, donors should undertake a ‘reality-check’ of
the skill applications and methods in the local labour market; teachers and local
employers are critical in planning, to ensure appropriateness of equipment,
relevance to the local labour market, and ‘fit’ with existing curricula and teacher
training.
Links between vocational school, the local economy and labour market
structures
No structured links exist between vocational schools and local economic

environments: this undermines the entire notion of vocational education. At
school level no staff member has specific responsibility for liaison with
employers or social partner organisations. Links with local labour market
support structures are also poor or non-existent. Schools do not track school
leavers after they get jobs; liaison with and support from local employment
offices are poor.
Finally, a training agency could be created, combining vocational

education and adult education and training, either attached to or with direct
links to the employment service to ensure integrated training and employment
services for Kosovo. Such an institutional framework would underpin efforts to
develop a policy of life-long learning as well as allow more cost-effective
administrative and research services.
352
Each school should have at least one teacher responsible for links with
local employers and another for co-operation with the local employment office.
They would need training, e.g. in communications with employment offices in
terms of data assembly, employment placement and tracking.
Reforms to date
UNMIK/DES has taken steps to redress the setbacks suffered by

vocational education after the 1989 Belgrade emergency provisions. First,
attempts were made to initiate a strategic reflection and forward planning
process for vocational education within the wider DESK education reform
plan.170 A working group was established to define priorities and make
recommendations for reform and development of vocational education. The
working group did not deliver any strategic orientations or recommendations,
which was less the failure of the working group than the general breakdown of
the DESK initiative where local support from the education environment was
lacking.
A second UNMIK/DES initiative is to ‘out-source’ the development for

vocational education to an external organisation or ‘Lead Agency’. This is a
good move, but it should be reinforced with direct involvement of the UNMIK
Labour Department (DOLE), employers’ organisations, and other social
partners to ensure that the vocational education developments are not
considered in isolation from wider training and employment preparation support
systems.171
Vocational teacher training and curriculum will be among the Lead

Agency’s tasks, alongside vocational training legislation, standards,
certification, social partnership, and international networking. It will be
important that the reform and development plans for teacher training and
curriculum development be co-ordinated with a separate ‘agency’ (supported by
Canadian funds) which will address teacher training in particular. Skills
required for much industry and enterprise development are universal, or at least
have many common elements. The use of training packages from other
countries will reduce costs significantly compared with developing them afresh,
provided they are adapted to Kosovar needs.
170
D.E.S.K (“Developing the Education System in Kosovo”). Concept Paper,
UNMIK Education Section 17 October 1999.
171
Since the visit of the OECD team, co-operation has begun between the DES
and the DOLE at the initiative of the Lead Agency and the Kosovo
Employment Observatory.
353
Key to the dialogue will be local involvement and ownership to ensure that
reform recommendations will eventually be followed through on the ground.
Pilot actions, study visits and technical assistance are needed across a range of
subject areas, to support local capacity building in policy and institutional
reform.
Issues and Barriers in vocational education
x Recruitment of vocational teachers, and staff development. There is at

present no specific pre-service training for vocational teachers in
Kosovo. Clearly, this will need to be developed, with particular
attention to the interface with general teacher training and the training
of teachers/instructors for adult training. There is little in-service
training, aside from seminars provided by NGOs and bi-lateral support
projects. While these exercises are meaningful and appreciated by the
teaching community, a systemic development of pre-service and in-
service training of vocational teachers is needed to help establish a
modern and effective vocational training system.
x Training for school management and administration. The

management and administration of vocational schools is in need of
overhaul if an effective system is to be re-established. School directors
and managerial staff should be trained; especially those who were
ejected from their school management jobs after 1989 and those
assuming new management functions.
x School-based enterpreneurship strategy. An area of developing

interest in the region and wider Europe is enterpreneurship in
education, as part of the wider curriculum to promote initiative
amongst young people and to provide the basic knowledge required
for self-employment and or small business operations. This area
should be considered in the curriculum reform discussions to be led by
vocational training ‘Lead Agency’.
x Social partner contribution to vocational education reforms. Social

partners in Kosovo do not, at present, contribute to vocational
education. The earlier DESK vocational education working-group did
not include representatives of employers, while trade union
involvement was confined to teacher unions, with no involvement of
industry or commerce trade unions. These partnerships are crucial to
an effective VET system.
354
x Vocational guidance and counselling. Schools do not provide
vocational guidance and counselling. Some employment offices of the
Kosovo Employment Service provide help to schools, but the
impression is that this is based on personal contacts rather than
standard professional practice.
Higher Education
Origins and development
Although the first faculties and higher education institutions in Kosovo

were founded between 1958 and 1969, they functioned either independently or
within the University of Belgrade. The University of Prishtina was founded in
1970, with four faculties (philosophy, law, engineering, and medicine). By 1990
the number of faculties had grown to 13, and 7 higher schools were attached to
the University. At this time, the languages of instruction were Albanian and
Serbian. In June 1991, however, the Serbian parliament introduced the
notorious “interim measures”, appointing Serbs to all senior posts. Within
6 months, all Albanian staff and students were expelled or had left. The
University Assembly (Senate) then voted to continue working in private
premises, and elected its own rector. For the next 8 years, the work continued in
the ‘shadow’ or parallel system in very difficult conditions. In June 1998, two
buildings were given back to the University, followed in 1999 with a third one;
however, these buildings had been extensively damaged and furniture and
equipment deliberately vandalised.
At present (2001) the University of Prishtina has 14 faculties and 7 higher

schools.172 There are plans to establish additional sub-units, e.g. an Institute of
Psychology; a Department of Political Science/Public Administration; a School
of Journalism leading to a Master of Arts degree; a Department of
Physiotherapy; a Department of Water and Sanitation (civil engineering), and
the Faculty of Education.
The University has always been a focal point for ethnic Albanian
intellectuals in the region, and has good relations with universities in Zagreb,
Tirana and Tetovo.173 The European Universities Association (previously the
172
There is a Teachers’ Faculty at the University in Prishtina, and 4 of the
higher schools are Higher Pedagogical Schools (in Prishtina, Prizren, Gjilan,
and Gjakova).
173
This university does not officially exist and is not recognised in FYR of
Macedonia.
355
CRE), in co-operation with the Council of Europe, has a special Prishtina
Working Group, supported by the World University Service (WUS-Austria),
through which support from the European academic community is channelled.
The University has a moderate level of autonomy, which allows it to keep a
certain distance from daily politics. Most of the teaching staff and students are
Kosovars.
According to the Statutes of the University, its goal is ‘to provide higher
education and research opportunities; to create, defend and transmit knowledge
through teaching and research’.
Academic arrangements
The language of instruction in the University of Prishtina is Albanian, but

legally instruction can also be organised in other languages (e.g., Turkish, and
in the foreign language departments instruction is often given in the relevant
language).
The academic year runs from 1 October through 30 September; there are
two semesters, with a total of 30 weeks’ teaching per year. Examination periods
are in January, June and September; higher schools can have additional exam
periods, often in October and April.
The University currently offers four types of study: undergraduate

(minimal 4 years); scientific post-graduate; professional post-graduate, and
artistic post-graduate. (Some higher schools within the University offer 2- or 3-
year undergraduate courses.) There is mention of a credit system in the Statute,
but this will not be applied until 2001/02 at the earliest. It is unclear and not
applied at present. Curricula are proposed by faculties or schools and approved
by the Senate, and can be reviewed annually. Curriculum planning is not well
organised. Degree programmes are being revised in line with the Bologna
declaration, the 3-5-8 model having been approved by the Senate. While it is
possible for students to take courses in several institutions simultaneously,
recognition of exams among faculties is decided by faculty commissions. There
is no co-ordination at University level of such transfers.
In practice, there are no doctoral or professional studies at present in the

University of Prishtina. However, many post-graduate students take more than 4
years to obtain their Master of Science or Master of Arts degree, and it is
possible then to convert this into a doctorate if the candidate has at least one
paper published in a refereed international journal, and if the University agrees.
This is now expected to change and made much more rigorous.
356
Some occupations (medicine, dentistry, pharmacology, except in
experimental fields) require a one-year internship plus an exam before a
candidate is fully qualified. Lawyers must take an examination after two years’
practice before they are qualified to serve as attorneys or judges. These are good
examples of bringing university preparation closer to the standards of the
profession it serves.
Teaching loads vary from one sub-unit (faculty, higher school, institute) of
the University to another. In principle, they are 5hrs/week for professors, 6
hours for PhDs, 4 for other lecturers and 10 hours for assistants. Sometimes
teachers are appointed to teach just one particular course, regardless of the
number of hours per week. UNMIK has recently issued and instruction which
sets out teaching loads. No member of staff appointed to a full-time position
may undertake any work outside the University, including work for public or
private companies or organisations or another University or higher education
institution within or outside Kosovo, without permission of the University
Board. In granting permission, the Board may attach any conditions at its
discretion.
Teaching at the University is practically monolingual (in Albanian),

although the issue of higher education in the Serbian language remains an issue.
Some Serbian-language faculties are operating in North Mitrovica within the
UNMIK framework; there are, for security reasons, no Albanian-language
students there, although there are students from other minorities. A few small,
informal projects for Kosovo Serbian-speaking students exist elsewhere.
Textbooks and learning materials are usually written by course teachers.

Proposals for textbooks are submitted to the University Publishing Council and,
if considered suitable by two referees, included in the annual publishing plan.
Authors are entitled to a fee but this is rarely paid; instead, authors often sell the
books themselves and collect their fee that way; authors also publish and sell
their own lecture notes (without authorisation or referees). Books published in
Albania are also often used. Issues of intellectual property rights, now important
in many OECD countries, will no doubt become issues in Kosovo as well.
There are no private higher education institutions in Kosovo (2001),

although private higher education is permitted under prevailing decrees
governing the sector. There is a Faculty of Islamic Studies, but this is not part of
the University of Prishtina.
357
Administration
The higher education system is administered at three levels: Kosovo,

University, and Faculty or School level. At the Kosovo level, the decree
governing higher education calls for a National Council of Higher Education,
but this has never been established.
According to the Draft Interim Statutes of the University,174 the principal

organs of the University are a Board and a Senate, both of which exercise their
functions on the principle of majority voting. The Board has the power to
establish other organs, committees and commissions with specific duties. Each
sub-unit (e.g., Faculty, Higher School, or Institute) is an integral part of the
University and no unit may have any form of independent legal personality. The
chief academic and administrative officer of the University is the Rector, who is
responsible to the Board for the workings of the University. The Rector is
selected by the Board from among Professors of the University nominated by
the Senate. The appointment is for a period of four years, renewable once.
At Faculty and Higher School level, the governing body is a Faculty or

Higher School Council. The chief executive officer is a Dean or Director
(depending on the type of sub-unit). The appointments of administrative staff
and teaching staff are governed by the decree of 1994, the University Statutes
(1995) and the revised Statutes of 2000, special regulations of the Senate, and
the statutes of the sub-unit itself.
Appointments to teaching positions are made through public competition

and are usually for 3 years (or 4 years for some professional collaborators and
junior assistant staff). In addition to their teaching duties, Faculties are also
expected to organise research and teach research methods to students. In
practice, most research now is undertaken at the initiative of individual
researchers, often as part of externally funded projects. Faculties are not asked
to submit any reports on their research activities to their governing bodies or to
the University, except for full professors who are expected to submit such
reports every five years after their second re-election in the post.
Finance and budgeting
Until 1991, all higher education in Kosovo was financed directly by the
Provincial Government. Teachers were not civil servants but were paid by their
174
Draft regulation on the Status and Organization of the University of Prishtina.
358
respective institutions. Full time study was free of charge; part-time students
had to pay a small fee plus a ‘tax’ for examinations.
Between 1991 and 1999, the University played a special role in financing
higher education in Kosovo. The shadow government allocated an annual
budget to the University rather than to faculties or schools, which also tried to
raise funds from other sources (including fees for students, which were equal
for all types of studies).
At the time of the team visit (2000/01 academic year) almost the entire HE
financing of salaries and goods-services comes from the Kosovo Consolidated
Budget. Part of this (approximately 20%) comes from internal sources; the
remaining 80% from abroad. A ‘price list’ for extra charges (such as
examination fees and certificates) is approved by the University Senate; costs
are low (tuition is 12.5 EUR per semester for 2000/01).
Students: Access, attendance, learning and assessment
Since secondary school curricula tend to be designed with considerable

involvement of university-level teachers, they are – at least in theory –
compatible with university requirements. However, this all-too-common
arrangement also assumes that most secondary students aim for higher
education, which in the Kosovo context is not the case (in 2000, only 4 545
university places were made available; see section on access and equity, above).
To compete for a place in higher education175, students must be (1)

graduates from Kosovo secondary schools; (2) graduates from secondary
schools in other countries. Graduates from foreign secondary schools must
present a certificate covering a minimum of 12 years of schooling and a formal
graduation certificate which entitles them to apply to a university or undergo a
university entrance examination in that country; (3) applicants who present
certified transcripts of their record of study at an institution of higher learning
which is either recognised by the Association of European Universities or
accredited by a national agency will be eligible for admission in to university or
higher school level. The Convention on Recognition of Qualifications
Concerning Higher Education in the European Region [Lisbon, 11.IV.1997]
applies.
175
Instructions On The Interim Admission Of Regular Students For The Winter
Term of 2000/2001 and on University Matters Concerned with Staff
Development.
359
Each faculty or HE institution sets its own admission criteria. Entrance
exams are often required; admission criteria are publicly announced in advance,
via an advertisement from the University (June). This advertisement contains
the number of places per faculty, admission criteria, application deadlines and
examination dates.
At present only one category of students is admitted: ’regular’ students

(although some ’irregular’ students remain in the system). Admission is based on
a combination of secondary school results expressed as a grade point average
(30%) and entrance exam results (70%). There are no interviews. Successful
students who have completed some tertiary studies in other faculties or outside
the University of Prishtina may be granted advanced placement. The entire
structure of university-level studies is being liberalised to allow students some
leeway in planning their studies.
Students may be admitted to full- or part-time studies, although some

faculties (medicine, engineering) accept full-time students only. Regular
attendance at lectures and experimental classes is expected but the rules are
applied flexibly in practice. Student load is between 20-30 hrs/week
(1 hr = 45 min.).
In order to progress, each student’s attendance record and exam results are
evaluated at the end of each semester before he or she can continue. At the end
of the academic year, students (depending on their study programme), sit
examinations that determine their progress to the next year. Fulfilment of
attendance and exam requirements is confirmed, signed and sealed in the
student’s record; courses and teachers have to be listed (‘semester
confirmation’).
The most common form of assessment is the examination (written or oral).

Students may take an exam up to three times, and a fourth time in front of a
committee. Failing students are required to re-take the course or, if they fail
again, are deprived of their full-time status. The grading system is 5-10 (10 =
highest); 5 = fail. Student records are kept. University graduates are awarded
titles like ‘graduate economist’, “graduate engineer” or ‘professor’ (secondary
school teacher), whereas graduates from higher schools have these titles without
the suffix ‘graduate’ – i.e., they are economists, engineers, or teacher.
There are few counselling or career guidance services available to

students; recently, the World University Service (WUS) has opened a student
advisory centre, which does excellent work. Most graduates try to find jobs
immediately after completing their studies, either through newspaper
advertisements or the Employment Office. Unemployment among graduates is
360
high in some fields, while in others (foreign languages, IT, management) there
are shortages.
Issues and Barriers in higher education
x The University of Prishtina was at the very core of political conflict

and the self-esteem of Albanian Kosovars; it was one of the most
highly politicised places in all of Kosovo. Its focus must now shift to
alignment with Europe, for example through the Bologna Framework.
The first steps are (1) the introduction of the 3-5-8 year (Bachelor,
Master, Doctor) scheme; (2) the application of quality assurance;
(3) the adoption of the European Credit Transfer System; and (4) the
development of true academic autonomy from any future
government.176
x A difficult balance must be struck between the severe restrictions on

university places (only 4 545 in 2001) and the capacity of the higher
education system to cope with more students, and also the capacity of
the labour market to absorb more graduates. Clearly more young
people would like to continue into higher education. It might be
possible to expand the number of places in certain disciplines where
there is a skills shortage. Part-time places, especially for adults who
have missed out on university education, should be expanded.
Possibilities for scholarships to study abroad and student exchanges
could be explored.
x Academic standards and fees are under discussion. During the

‘shadow’ system, efforts went towards keeping students in the system,
and the requirements for entry and performance were not high.
Academic standards, however, must now be raised to bring them back
to European levels; but with the accompanying risk of discouraging
students, or losing them altogether. Benchmarking with other
universities to verify quality standards should be pursued. Fees are
low at the moment, but there are arguments for (a) abolishing them
(e.g. for bright or disadvantaged students), or (b) raising them,
especially for popular faculties where places are scarce.
x The equally difficult question of (ethnic and linguistic) integration

needs to be resolved. There are no precise figures for Serb students
and university staff remaining in Kosovo, but there are apocryphal
176
Michael Daxner, Education Policy Statement 2001, p. 10.
361
accounts of discrimination against Serbs in university admission and
employment. Teaching is now practically monolingual (in Albanian),
apart from a few faculties operating in North Mitrovica and a few
small initiatives elsewhere that allow some Kosovar Serb students to
study in Serbian.
x Some faculties have suffered greatly, especially engineering where

even the old Russian machinery has broken down or has been
damaged beyond repair; also, as jobs in engineering are still very
limited, students are not motivated. Other faculties (e.g., Law)
declined seriously during the years when no Albanian judges or
lawyers were allowed to practice and an attempt at a ‘shadow’
judiciary failed.
x The long years of the ‘shadow’ system have created a haphazard

culture of teaching and learning.177 Attendance during these years
dropped by more than 50%; students often turned up only for
examinations; staff development was non-existent; teachers and
students are no longer used to consulting libraries or journals, or have
no access to them. Modern methods of pedagogy (for teachers) and
active study skills (for students) are badly needed.
x Kosovo and the University have no serious research record. There are
exceptions, but clearly the material as well as the knowledge base are
insufficient for research that can stand up internationally. However,
change will require the open acknowledgement and co-operation from
within academia. The planned Central Laboratory Unit (CLU) and
international links through European partners will provide a basis for
focused and respectable research.
x With a single university, higher education is automatically defined as

the University of Prishtina. While a more diverse tertiary education
system may be desirable, current financial restraints make this
impossible for the medium term.
177
Lynn Davies, ‘Education in Kosovo: Report to the British Council’,
unpublished paper, August 1999, p. 28.
362
Recommendations
The priority aim is a timely hand-over of education into the hands of a

highly autonomous regional government, but without destroying what is now
being built now.178 A six-day workshop in March 2001, with representatives
from all levels, introduced the new two-layer structure, with Serb and non-Serb
minority participation.
x Training programmes are needed for all levels, with international

technical assistance. Policymakers at ministerial level should study
systems abroad, receive training overseas, be connected to other
academics and policy makers and generally gain experience in
international university management. Modern ‘human resource
management’ techniques should be part of these training programmes,
including modern, constructive ways of staff evaluation that are
designed to promote good practice and open staff development. The
Lead Agency concept should be expanded to include new donor
groups, because Kosovo’s budget will not be able to finance essential
reforms.
x The legal system must be enabling, not restricting or controlling. Only

if there are laws that enhance the freedom and opportunity of people
can a democratic environment build a competitive economy. The
focus should be on developing local (rather than central) capacity and
authority.
x Kosovo’s new education system must, from the outset, be designed to

expect parent and community support for the school, either in direct
resources or time, although this is not feasible in many areas at
present. Free education is unlikely ever to be sufficient, so the concept
of external, non-government contributions should be encouraged,
planned and budgeted for from the beginning. The present (interim)
management system in Kosovo is still too close to the traditional
bureaucratic approach. Parents are left out of the equation, and the
parallel system of the past decade has not had the effect it could have.
The opportunity is there to do something different, but needs to be
seized before the cementing of current structures takes it away.
178
Michael Daxner, Education Policy Statement 2001, Prishtina, 7th January
2001, p. 3.
363
x The rebuilding programme is impressive, but buildings are only the
beginning. Schools should develop a community focus, become a
place where anyone who wants to can learn – parents, children, people
out of work and especially teachers. Teacher unions, which had been
so influential in the parallel system, should be involved more closely
in educational decision making. If not, union opposition rather than
co-operation will be the outcome. The situation seems delicately
poised at the moment.
Recommendations: Curriculum, standards and assessment
Establish a coherent curriculum development system that integrates

curriculum, student assessment and examination, training and teaching
approaches, and books/materials aimed at introducing innovative learning and
teaching strategies in the classroom.
Base this system on a clear set of principles, including:
x Ownership of the change process. It is of utmost importance to create

a sense of ownership among all local institutions and stakeholders,
especially teachers, and to directly involve them in planning and
implementing the new curriculum. There is much frustration among
local specialists that their skills and experience are not used enough. A
mechanism of public consultation should also be created, to raise
public awareness of the need to reform.
x Flexibility. Curriculum development should be seen as a non-linear,

cyclic process. The core group should actively reflect on and analyse
work to date with local actors, and regularly revise and rework the
development plan and the curriculum under construction.
x Replicate the model. During the curriculum development process, the

participants will acquire skills in design and development that can be
applied to other design and development projects, for instance in
teacher training reform, development of learning materials etc.
x Balance the speed of curriculum reform with careful consideration of

its impact on the system as a whole. While the time has now come to
stop writing reports and start work on the system in practice, it is easy
for parts of the system (teacher preparation, textbooks, materials,
assessment methods…) to get out of step with curriculum innovation.
The Lead Agency could develop small modules for subjects that
demonstrate some crucial aspect of curriculum innovation; this would
364
give teachers some materials to use in the classroom, and give them a
better grasp of what is meant by ‘new, European standards’. For
example, some reading comprehension materials, both in the language
of instruction and modern foreign languages; applied maths; every-
day-life science. If these domains were to be the focus of the proposed
Standards and Assessment Board, a welcome reinforcement of efforts
would result. Active involvement of teachers in curriculum reform
would serve both the professional upgrading of teachers themselves,
and the direct dissemination of new curricula into classroom practice.
x Improve procedures and data for monitoring and comparing the

outcomes of education. Qualification, linked to employability, is a
major asset for building Kosovo’s future. The proposed Standards and
Assessment Board (SAB) can overcome ethnic barriers by providing
information that is useful for all stakeholders. It is important, though,
that the assessment instruments used do not merely measure
achievement against the ‘old’ attainment targets, but operationalise a
transition to more modern approaches.
x Provide professional support for classroom assessment. The activities

of the SAB should also yield products that would support teachers in
their classroom assessment, and help them find out how their students
achieve with respect to some national average. This could be done by
setting up a procedure for making national assessment results and tests
available to all teachers.
x Reconcile Maturita and university entrance exams. The ‘double

system’ of examining should end. If, in the short term, university
entrance exams must remain, efforts could still be made to share as
much as possible the same exams for different faculties, thereby
enhancing enrolment options for students. Considerable effort needs
to be made to make assessment transparent to students.
Recommendations: Teachers
x Train all teachers to make the transition to the new system. With all
respect to the accomplishments of the past parallel system, experience
acquired there is not a relevant criterion for being an effective
educator now.179 Foster in-house training systems that support school-
based curriculum development, as ‘centralised’ training seems to be
179
Ibid., page 4.
365
more and more difficult to organise and manage. The ‘in-house’
model should involve teachers and administrators from the same
school as groups, so that changes have a discernible and sustained
impact on classroom practice.
x Clarify the priorities for teachers to avoid fragmentation and overload

in education reform in Kosovo. Clear and widely accepted priorities
need to be set for all teachers in terms of what to reform, and how. A
first priority could be to delete unnecessary and inappropriate content
from the curriculum and classroom teaching, to make room for
developing skills and attitudes. Another could be a clear and
conceptually sound focus on those children who have special needs in
regular classrooms, or who do not attend school because they have
special learning needs.
x Establish a consistent pre-service teacher training programme in the

University of Prishtina. Teachers are trained in various institutes in
Kosovo (Table 2, above). The problem is that there is no clear
common philosophy or theoretical background for teacher preparation.
In several EU countries, and in some other countries in the SEE
region, teacher training is becoming the responsibility of universities,
and the university has a Faculty of Education (or similar) for this
purpose. The faculty ensures that teacher training curricula have a
strong pedagogical content, to develop personal teaching skills and an
understanding of children.
x Hence, all pre-service teacher training should be moved under the

umbrella of University of Prishtina. There should be a new faculty in
the university for teacher training, e.g., the Faculty of Education. This
faculty should train pre-primary, primary, general secondary, and
special education teachers. Teacher education, however, is too
important to be the responsibility only of the Faculty of Education. All
faculties need to be aware of, and contribute to, the education of
teachers.
x Assess the needs in in-service training. A serious needs analysis

should be carried out as soon as possible. There are no institutional
structures at central, regional or municipal level that can ensure
quality in-service training for teachers. This is of the utmost
importance, as a new national curriculum, new textbooks and
assessment procedures will be issued and implemented starting with
2001. An institutional structure or a formal task force should be
366
created – at least for the next two/three years – to ensure a rational and
coherent policy for teacher in-service training in Kosovo.
x Establish benchmarks and appraisal mechanisms for good teaching.

Conceptions of what constitutes a ‘good school’ in general and
‘excellent teaching’ in particular should be renewed. First,
benchmarks should be set for all teachers to understand what makes
teaching and learning ‘good.’ These benchmarks should be clear
enough to help teachers compare their own behaviour to the ideal.
Second, there should be a teacher-friendly mechanism for monitoring
the quality of teaching and providing teachers with feedback on their
performance. Traditional inspection systems or school supervisory
structures are probably not the best choice.
Recommendations: Early childhood education
x Co-ordinate health and welfare programmes for the 0-3 age range.
Improving maternal and infant health care is a must (new programmes
are focusing on community-based provision). Information and
education campaigns on good infant feeding practices are
recommended. NGO programmes such as Action against Hunger can
be the foundation for wider public health campaigns targeting good
early childhood development practices not simply the utilisation of
health-focused, clinic-based services. Kindergartens and early
intervention facilities should form a network of information to parents
and carers. Overall, co-ordination of services for the very young
across ministries and agencies is vital to maximise resources and
equity of access. The inter-agency co-ordinating mechanism
recommended in the DESK process should be created and
mainstreamed into the government.
x Improve teacher preparation. Knowledge of child development

should be part of all teacher training programmes. In addition,
professional training of early-childhood carers should be a priority.
x Target support for pre-schools. Given the low economic and technical
capacity of the present system, it is possibly unrealistic to aim for
comprehensive coverage for all children from age 5 onwards. Children
from low income families should be targeted for government support
for early childhood pre- school places run by the private sector.
Encouragement should be given to those wishing to set up private
kindergartens, and legislation put in place to provide standards.
367
x Improve educational opportunities for girls. Awareness of the need
for education for girls should start at the pre-school level, and parents
encouraged to enrol girls in pre-school education programmes.
x Continue and mainstream pilot programmes. The administration

should work with NGOs to ensure that improvements in pedagogy are
mainstreamed into teacher training programmes, used by inspectors,
and not allowed to fade when NGOs eventually leave the region.
x Design a coherent approach to pre-school and the first year of

primary. Smooth transition from pre-school to primary school requires
adequately trained teachers, facilities and the co-operative
development of transition programmes, especially now that 6-year-
olds are included in the primary cycle.
x Step up recruitment and training of vocational education teachers.

Talent-spotting in the existing teaching force could identify a core
group of ‘change agents’ which would raise awareness and stimulate
staff development at school and municipal levels. This core group
should include practice-oriented ‘master’ instructors. A recruitment
drive for vocational teachers, as part of the wider campaign to bolster
teaching staff numbers, could consider candidates who (a) have lost
positions in industry and would consider joining the teaching
profession, or (b) have acquired enterprise or vocational training
experience while abroad, as refugees or otherwise. Such candidates
could participate in the intensive training exercise planned for non-
qualified teachers, e.g. those supported by Canadian funding, and
other moves proposed by the vocational training Lead Agency.
x Widen the perspective. Intensive training could expose the group to

‘good practice’ teacher training and curriculum development
organisations in the European Union and beyond, e.g. in new methods
of teacher training delivery, curriculum, open class room
management, communication skills, working with industry, and
partnership building. Particular attention should be given to the
balance of work-based training and general pedagogical training for
vocational teachers.
x Orient training towards practice. The training of vocational education

teachers should be closely linked with the world of work. A major
368
constraint in Kosovo is that enterprises now are unable to support
vocational teacher training exercises. Pilot projects could provide
opportunities for schools and enterprises to learn together, and the
results should be disseminated amongst other schools and their
economic environments.
x Make optimum use of new expertise in Kosovo. A great deal of work

on teacher training and curriculum reform has been done in the last 8
years supported by the European Union’s PHARE programme. The
policy and experience of neighbouring countries (e.g. Slovenia, which
has the same historical links to FRY, including institutional
arrangements for education and training) could be tapped. In Slovenia,
reform of vocational teacher training and curriculum modernisation
was school-based, included social partners, and could be a model for
school-based reforms in Kosovo.
x Involve social partners. The vocational training ‘Lead Agency’ should

ensure that social partners are firmly integrated into the strategies for
teacher training and curriculum reform. School-based staff
development (directors, teachers, support staff), for example on
vocational school/enterprise links, should involve employers and
social interest groups.
x Make guidance and counselling services available in each vocational

school. A network of teachers could be formed and a training
programme devised. Staff from local employment offices and social
partners should ideally take part in such training, and the development
of a more professional vocational counselling service should be part of
any reform strategy in vocational education and employment. More
importantly, build a strategy to develop vocational learning in all
schools to prepare young people for the world of work.
Recommendations: Higher Education
x Sustain the impact of international agents of change on curriculum,

pedagogy, quality assurance, accreditation, research and continuous
upgrading.
x Recognise previous studies obtained elsewhere by students who enter

the University of Prishtina. Conversely, ensure that degrees awarded
by the University of Prishtina are sufficiently credible for other
European universities to accept them. This implies full transparency in
369
the curriculum, examinations and degree award procedures, as well as
the introduction of a credit system.
x Develop and implement the new legal framework for higher education
in Kosovo, and base new orientations on alignment with Europe and
the Bologna framework to ensure the recognition of qualifications and
the employability of graduates.
x Strengthen regional co-operation (e.g. with Tetovo, Macedonia and

with higher education in Serbia, Montenegro and Albania), and
resolve the issue of the ‘university in exile’ in Mitrovica.
x Focus on equipping the new Central Laboratory Unit and Library to

support learning, teaching and research.
x Exercise less control and provide more guidance. The main aim
should be to turn away from the ‘directive type’ towards a model
offering better counselling, supervision and guidance through
interaction and support.
x Modernise methods of teaching and learning. Change from a teacher

to a student orientation, implies a phasing out of authoritarian style, a
reverse of a repetitive learning trend, and a move towards more
interactive methods. The implementation of extra-university elements,
such as media, political peers etc. and a general modernisation of
didactics are in the planning phase. Most importantly, the change from
the year/teacher system is to be implemented.
x Combat corruption. As in most areas of Kosovar society, corruption is

manifold within higher education system. This creates the most
idiosyncratic developments, where certain outspoken allies of reform
often become the cause of public discontent. Alleged job buying, trade
of examination questions and answers, misuse of donations are among
the problems in this area. Education has always been a highly
politicised training ground for diverse political forces. The university
still dominates in perpetuating this phenomenon despite the first
attempt to implement democratic statutes and more transparent
structures. All parties campaign for a de-politicised non-corrupt
system; they should undertake strong efforts to act accordingly.
x Actively promote measures that encourage young academics to return

to Kosovo from abroad.
370
Figure 1. Education System in Kosovo
AGE GRADE
29
28 Doctoral Master
V
27 studies studies
IV
26 III
25 II Doctoral
24 Master
I studies studies Professional studies
23
VI
24
V
23
IV
22 Undergraduate
III
21 university education
II
20 HIGHER SCHOOLS
I
19
GRAMMAR S. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

19
PHILOLOGIC.
PEDAGOGIC.
IV
18
2 BRANCH
GENERAL
III
SECONDARY
17 16 FIELDS
IV
II
PRIMARY ADULT
16 (4 YEAR) 3y.
I
15 III
EDUCATION
II
EDUCATION
I
PRIMARY EDUCATION
COMPULSORY
15
VIII
PRIMARY
14 UPPER CYCLE
VII
SPECIAL
13
VI
12
V
11
IV
10
III LOWER CYCLE
9
II
8
I
7
6 PREPARATORY
PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION
6
5
4 PRE-SCHOOL
3
2 CHILD CARE
1
LEGEND MATURITA EXAM FINAL EXAM
BRIDGING EXAM ENTRANCE EXAM
371
REFERENCES
Canadian Government (August 2000), Project Description: Teacher Training,

Unpublished.
Conduah Birt, Jacqueline, and Phelps, Laura, (January 2000), Action Against
Hunger, United Kingdom.
Davies, Lynn (August 1999), “Education in Kosova”: Report to the British

Council, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom (unpublished
paper).
Daxner, Michael (2000), “Education in Kosovo: From crisis to recovery and

transformation”, Graz Stability Pact Meeting, 9-10 March 2000
(unpublished paper).
Daxner, Michael (2001), “Education Policy Statement 2001”. Unpublished

policy paper. UNMIK; Prishtina.
Daxner, Michael (2000), “What Kind of Reform do we Need?” – Tuesday

round-table at the KEC, 13 June 2000 (unpublished paper).
European Commission/World Bank (1999), “Towards Stability and Prosperity.

A Program for Reconstruction and Recovery in Kosovo”, EC and the
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International Crisis Group (1999), “Starting from Scratch in Kosovo: The

Honeymoon is Over”, Brussels: ICG Balkans Report no. 83, 13
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International Crisis Group (2000), “Reality Demands: Documenting Violations

of International Humanitarian Law in Kosovo 1999”, Brussels: ICG, 27
June 2000.
372
Judah, Tim (2000), Kosovo: War and Revenge. New Haven and London: Yale
University Press.
Kosovo Foundation for Open Society (KFOS) et al. (November 1999), Draft
proposal to develop a Kosovo Education Centre (KEC) as an information
and didactic resource centre. Prishtina/Vienna: KFOS/KulturKontakt,
Austria.
KFOS June (2000), Strategy for 2001, Education.Early Childhood Education,

Working Group 1, DESK – sub working group development of early
childhood and pre-school education.
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Liberty Imprisoned”. In: Drezov, K. et al., eds. Kosovo: Myths, Conflict
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Leutloff, Caroline / Pichl, Elmar (1999) “The State of Education in Kosovo

after the Cease-fire in June 1999”. In:Center for Study of Balkan
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Malcolm, Noel (1998), Kosovo: A Short History, Macmillan, London.
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Finnish Special Needs Office, (2000), "Effective School for All". Finnish
Support to the Development of Special
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Crisan, Alexandru (2000), Draft Policy Paper for Improving Special Needs and
Inclusive Education in Kosovo, Department of Education and Science,
Prishtina, Kosovo,
Pupovci, Dukagjin (2000), Review of the System of Higher Education in

Kosova, Kosova Education Center, Prishtina.
Spahiu, Nexhmedin (June 1999), “Serbian Tendencies for Partitioning of

Kosova”, Central European University. Budapest, Hungary.
Srivastava, Prachi (2000), Discussion paper on the results of phase 1 of the

Roma/Ashkali education program and implications for future program
design, Prishtina, Kosovo, International Rescue Committee.
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Tomaševski, Katarina, (1999), United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right
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Security Survey”. Kosovo, FR Yugoslavia.
UNICEF (1999), “The Right to Quality Education: Expanding the Vision of

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UNICEF (September 2000), Education Unit, UNICEF’s View on Lead

Agencies, Prishtina.
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System of Kosovo, A Concept Paper. Prishtina: UNMIK Education
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Assistance to Non-Serb Minority Groups. UNMIK/DES: Prishtina.
UNMIK (March 2000), Department of Reconstruction, Capital Investment and

Technical Assistance Requirement for Education for the Year 2000/2001.
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UNMIK. (2000). Draft Regulation on the Status and Organisation of the

University of Prishtina. UNMIK/DES: Prishtina.
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the Winter Term of 2000/2001, and on University Matters concerned with
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374
LIST OF EXAMINERS
Helmut Bachmann (Austria), Ministry of Education, Science and Culture,

Department for Research, Planning, Quality Development and International Co-
operation.
Mircea Badescu, European Training Foundation.
Steven Bakker (The Netherlands), European Education Testing Service.
Ibrahim Barbaros (Turkey), Ministry of National Education, Deputy

Undersecretary for External Relations.
Linda Beijlsmit (The Netherlands), Bureau CROSS, Acting Director.
Virginia Budien /LWKXDQLD 'LUHFWRU &HQWUH IRU (GXFDWLRQDO 6WXGLHV DW WKH
Open Society Fund and the Education and Science Programme.
John Coolahan (Ireland), Professor for Education, National University of

Ireland, Maynooth, Vice-President of the European Union Study Group.
Milena Corradini, European Training Foundation.
Johanna Crighton (The Netherlands), General Rapporteur, education consultant

and senior education advisor to the Open Society Institute, Budapest; former
Senior Assistant Secretary to the University of Cambridge Examinations
Syndicate, United Kingdom.
$OH[DQGUX&ULúDQ5RPDQLD&HQWHURI(GXFDWLRQ%XFKDUHVW
Ernesto Cuadra, World Bank.
Ulrike Damyanovic, European Training Foundation.
Peter Darvas, World Bank.
Yael Duthilleul, World Bank.
375
Anastasia Fetsi, European Training Foundation.
Slavko Gaber (Slovenia), Professor University of Ljubljana; Minister of

Education.
6HUJHM *DEUãþHN 6ORYHQLD )RUPHU 'LUHFWRU RI 7KH 1DWLRQDO ([DPLQDWLRQ

Centre; Director of R & D Unit International Centre for Knowledge Promotion.
Boris Galabov (Bulgaria), Professor of Chemistry, University of Sofia, former

Deputy Minister of Education.
Georg Gombos (Austria), University of Klagenfurt, Institute for Educational

Science.
Peter Greenwood, European Training Foundation.
Anthony Gribben, European Training Foundation.
Peter Grootings, European Training Foundation.
Aims C. McGuinness (United States) Senior Associate, National Centre for

Higher Education Management Systems; advisor to state governments on
education reform; former Director of Higher Education policy, Education
Commission of the States.
Elsie Hunt (United States), Member of the US Teacher Qualification

Commission.
Julian Huppert (United Kingdom), Cambridge University, Trinity College.
Gia Kjellén (Sweden), Social worker, expert in education for children at risk;
President of UNIFEM Sweden.
Jan Kovarovic (Czech Republic), Member of the Education Committee, Centre

of Educational Policy , Faculty of Education University Prague.
Elena Lenskaya (Russian Federation), Deputy Director British Council

Moscow; former Deputy Director for International Relations, Ministry of
Education of the Russian Federation.
John Mallea (Canada), President Emeritus, Brandon University.
376
Alain Michel (France), General Inspector of National Education, Ministry of
Education; former Dean of the l’École National de l’Administration (ENA).
Reema Nayar, World Bank.
Francesco Panzica, European Training Foundation.
Ala Pinzari, World Bank.
Kari Pitkanen (Finland), Director of the National Board of Education.
Egle Prankunien /LWKXDQLD&HQWUHIRU6FKRRO,PSURYHPHQW
Gregor Ramsey (Australia), Director Tertiary Education Consulting Services,

former
Chairman of the National Board of Employment, Education and Training, and

former Managing Director, New South Wales Technical and Further Education
Commission.
Graham Reid (United Kingdom), Former senior official of the Department for
Education and Emplyment; former Chairman of the OECD Education and
Employment, Labor and Social Affairs Committee; former Member of the
Education Committee.
Rosemary Renwick (New Zealand), Senior Policy Analyst, Ministry of

Education, early childhood and curriculum expert; former member of the OECD
Education Committee and CERI Governing Board.
Eluned Roberts-Schweitzer, World Bank.
Pasi Sahlberg (Finland), former head of Curriculum Unit at the National Board
of Education; University of Helsinki; World Bank.
Peter de Souza (Sweden), University of Oerebro, Department of Social

Sciences.
Geoff Spring (Australia), Federal Education Department, Canberra.
Frances Tsakonas (Greece), Ministry for Foreign Affairs.
0HWND 8UãLþ-*DEUþãHN 6ORYHQLD 'LUHFWRU RI WKH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO &HQWUH IRU

Knowledge Production.
377
Evelyn Viertel, European Training Foundation.
Arjen Vos, European Training Foundation.
Doulgas M. Windham (United States) Emeritus Distinguished Service

Professor, University of Albany, State University of New York.
Pavel Zgaga (Slovenia), University of Ljubljana, Director of the Centre for

Educational
Policy Studies, former Minister of Education and Sports.
Ian Whitman (OECD)
Christine Stromberger (OECD).
378
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Reviews of National Policies for Education

South Eastern Europe

Reviews of National Policies for Education

South Eastern Europe

For the CCNM website, please see:

CENTRE FOR CO-OPERATION WITH NON-MEMBERS

Reviews of National Policies for Education

South Eastern Europe

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION

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Publié en français sous le titre :

The Thematic Reviews of Education Policy on education in South Eastern

The transition of the region towards a pluralistic democracy and a market

Fourty-three experts from 28 Countries formed the OECD review teams.

REGIONAL OVERVIEW ..............................................................................9

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA...............................................................105

The thematic survey of 10 education systems in South Eastern Europe

At the same time, it is important – in terms of longer-term policy and

Equally, it is naïve simply to assert the right of every Balkan child to an

Analysing the state of education in countries undergoing economical and

The Thematic Surveys

The reviews of the 10 education systems participating in the OECD study

These thematic reviews are not intended to be full-scale OECD reviews of

The Four A’s

Any education system can be described and, to some extent, evaluated in

In general, the answer here is “yes”. A high percentage of the compulsory

Again in general, the answer is a cautious “yes”.6 The following

x Participation (enrolment, attendance, continuity) is not what it ought

x In terms of gender, the balance is generally even (a legacy from the

 Second, children and young people with special educational

x The team noted more emphasis on policies of selection (especially for

x Access to jobs and university places is also unequal, and weighted

x Most systems adjust in ad hoc ways to funding shortfalls. The most

Quality monitoring systems are inadequate or simply lacking. At best,

All countries surveyed have undergone profound social, economic and

How does an education system “adapt” to changed circumstances,

x Changes in population and employment structures, and therefore in

x Decentralisation and equity issues, for example the newly affirmed

x Wider access to early childhood care and development, especially for

x Greater understanding of the human value and rights of children with

x Greater expectations of (and demand for) upper secondary and tertiary

Several countries surveyed are now formulating longer-term strategies to

Main findings of the CEPS study

Obtaining data presented a number of problems. In some countries of the

Based on the CEPS experience, therefore, there is a clear need for a

 enrolment patterns and numbers of institutions,

 administration in primary and secondary education,

 facilities and equipment,

 cost and financing.

Data from all countries surveyed by CEPS show significant changes in

The down side of migration, of course, is “brain drain” especially at a time

Declining birth rates

Mixed ethnic composition of populations

Ethnic minorities are an important issue, also in education. Ethnic

Increasing numbers of households in the region are living in poverty,

Low educational attainment of the (active) population, particularly in mid-

Structure. Only Romania and Moldova (2002) have 9 years of compulsory

Second, children and young people with special educational

enrolment patterns and numbers of institutions,

administration in primary and secondary education,

facilities and equipment,

cost and financing.

Bulgaria 35.0% of the age cohort (19-24),

Croatia 31.3% (age 20-24),

Moldova 29.0% (age 19-22),

Romania 28.0% (age 19-23),

Serbia 22.63% (age 18-24),

Federation Bosnia-Herzegovina 21.6% (age 19-25),

Macedonia 21.5% (age 19-23),

Albania 15% (age 18-23).

As a place of quality teachers’ education and development, but

As a place of substantial educational research, particularly in

As a place of support for further educational renewal and