Ansi Agma 2004 C08 2008 PDF

ANSI/AGMA 2004- C08
AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD
Gear Materials, Heat Treatment and

Processing Manual
ANSI/AGMA 2004- C08
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Gear Materials, Heat Treatment and Processing Manual
American ANSI/AGMA 2004--C08
National Approval of an American National Standard requires verification by ANSI that the
Standard requirements for due process, consensus, and other criteria for approval have been met
by the standards developer.
Consensus is established when, in the judgment of the ANSI Board of Standards Review,
substantial agreement has been reached by directly and materially affected interests.
Substantial agreement means much more than a simple majority, but not necessarily
unanimity. Consensus requires that all views and objections be considered, and that a
concerted effort be made toward their resolution.
The use of American National Standards is completely voluntary; their existence does not
in any respect preclude anyone, whether he has approved the standards or not, from
manufacturing, marketing, purchasing, or using products, processes, or procedures not
conforming to the standards.
The American National Standards Institute does not develop standards and will in no
circumstances give an interpretation of any American National Standard. Moreover, no
person shall have the right or authority to issue an interpretation of an American National
Standard in the name of the American National Standards Institute. Requests for
interpretation of this standard should be addressed to the American Gear Manufacturers
Association.
CAUTION NOTICE: AGMA technical publications are subject to constant improvement,
revision, or withdrawal as dictated by experience. Any person who refers to any AGMA
technical publication should be sure that the publication is the latest available from the
Association on the subject matter.
[Tables or other self--supporting sections may be referenced. Citations should read: See
ANSI/AGMA 2004--C08, Gear Materials, Heat Treatment and Processing Manual,
published by the American Gear Manufacturers Association, 500 Montgomery Street,
Suite 350, Alexandria, Virginia 22314, http://www.agma.org.]
Approved January 8, 2008
ABSTRACT
This standard provides information pertaining to ferrous and nonferrous materials used in gearing. Factors in
material selection, including material forms, properties, and associated processing and heat treatments are
discussed. Manufacturing procedures to prepare materials for machining and final heat treatment are included.
Heat treating procedures used for gearing are covered in detail, including process descriptions, product
specifications, process controls, and characteristics of heat treated gearing. Post--heat treatment processes to
meet gearing requirements are discussed. Product inspection methods and documentation are covered. Term
definitions, test methods, distortion and residual stress, sources for additional information, and a bibliography
are included.
Published by
American Gear Manufacturers Association
500 Montgomery Street, Suite 350, Alexandria, Virginia 22314
Copyright © 2007 by American Gear Manufacturers Association
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic
retrieval system or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
ISBN: 978--1--55589--904--2
ii © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved
AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD ANSI/AGMA 2004--C08
Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Normative references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4 Manufacturing -- material preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5 Heat treating of ferrous materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6 Post heat treatment processes -- metallurgical effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7 Inspection and certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Annexes
A Definition of terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
B Test methods and test coupons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
C Distortion and residual stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
D Sources for additional information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Tables
1 Common SAE steel designations and their nominal alloy contents . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Typical heat treatments and associated steel grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3 Maximum recommended controlling section size for oil quenched and
tempered gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4 Tensile requirements for standard ductile iron grades per ASTM A536 . . . . 15
5 Tensile requirements for gray iron per ASTM A48/A48M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6 ASTM A897/897M minimum property specifications for ADI castings . . . . . . 17
7 Malleable iron tensile requirements per ASTM A47 and A220 . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
8 Chamfer sizes for gear teeth to be case hardened or surface hardened . . . 20
9 Approximate minimum core hardness of carburized gear teeth . . . . . . . . . . . 25
10 Pressure unit conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
11 Approximate minimum surface hardness -- nitrided steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
12 Approximate minimum core hardness -- nitrided steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figures
1 Material selection factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Steel processing flow chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3 Directionality of forging properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4 Case hardenability of carburizing grades of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5 Cast iron processing flow chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6 Vibration characteristics of steel and cast irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7 Gearing blank features that increase distortion during carburizing . . . . . . . . 26
8 Typical distortion characteristics of carburized gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9 Variations in hardening pattern obtainable on gear teeth with flame or
induction hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
10 Surface hardness versus carbon content for 99% martensite
microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved iii
ANSI/AGMA 2004--C08 AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD
Foreword
[The foreword, footnotes and annexes, if any, in this document are provided for
informational purposes only and are not to be construed as a part of AGMA Standard
2004--C08, Gear Materials, Heat Treatment and Processing Manual.]
ANSI/AGMA 2004--C08 provides a broad range of information on gear materials, gear heat
treatment, and associated processing. This information is intended to assist the designer,
the process and manufacturing engineer, and the heat treater to effectively produce the
gearing required for the application. Data contained herein represents a consensus from
metallurgical representatives of member companies of AGMA.
The goal of ANSI/AGMA 2004--C08 is to present information in a sequence that can be used
to make the necessary technical decisions when producing gearing. ANSI/AGMA
2004--C08 includes updated and extensively revised information from ANSI/AGMA
2004--B89 along with additional information needed to achieve this goal.
ANSI/AGMA 2004--B89 superseded AGMA 240.01, Gear Materials Manual, October 1972,
because of a Metallurgy and Materials Committee decision to revise the document format.
On January 23, 1989, ANSI/AGMA 2004--B89 was approved as an American National
Standard.
This standard has been updated to reflect current technology in the area of steel making and
heat treatment, and edited to include cross references to relevant AGMA standards and
information sheets.
The first draft of AGMA 2004--C08 was completed in May 2001. It was approved by the
AGMA membership in October, 2007. It was approved as an American National Standard
on January 8, 2008.
Suggestions for improvement of this standard will be welcome. They should be sent to the
American Gear Manufacturers Association, 500 Montgomery Street, Suite 350, Alexandria,
Virginia 22314.
iv © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved
PERSONNEL of the AGMA Metallurgy and Materials Committee
Chairman: P. Terry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lufkin Industries, Inc.

Vice Chairman: D.J. Weires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boeing Defense & Space Group
ACTIVE MEMBERS
B. Andreski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . American Metal Treating
C.F. Berndt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Caterpillar, Inc.
T. Biell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scot Forge Company
I. Botto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FFE Minerals
D. Breuer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metal Improvement Company
K. Burriss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Caterpillar, Inc.
G. Diehl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Philadelphia Gear Corporation
M. He . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scot Forge Company
D. Herring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Herring Group
T. Hirschinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Motors Corporation
J. Keough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Applied Process, Inc.
J. Mertz (Editor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rexnord Geared Products
C. Ribaudo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Timken Company
M. Stein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Applied Process, Inc.
L. Witte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Motors Corporation
© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved v
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vi © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved
American National Standard -- ANSI/AGMA 2003--B97, Rating the Pitting Resist-

ance and Bending Strength of Generated Straight
Bevel, Zerol Bevel, and Spiral Bevel Gear Teeth
Gear Materials, Heat ANSI/AGMA 2007--C00, Surface Temper Etch

Inspection After Grinding (Same as ISO 14104)
Treatment and ANSI/AGMA 2101--D04, Fundamental Rating Fac-
tors and Calculation Methods for Involute Spur and
Processing Manual Helical Gear Teeth (Metric Edition)
ANSI/AGMA 6002--B93, Design Guide for Vehicle
Spur and Helical Gears
ANSI/AGMA 6005--B89, Power Rating for Helical
and Herringbone Gearing for Rolling Mill Service
1 Scope ANSI/AGMA 6008--A98, Specifications for Powder
Metallurgy Gears
This manual was developed to provide basic in- ANSI/AGMA 6011--I03, Specification for High
formation and recommend sources of additional in- Speed Helical Gear Units
formation pertaining to metallic gear materials, their ANSI/AGMA 6114--A06, Gear Power Rating for
treatments, and other considerations related to the Cylindrical Shell and Trunnion Supported Equip-
manufacture and use of gearing. ment (Metric Edition)
The gearing application conditions, including allow- ANSI/AGMA 6123--B06, Design Manual for
Enclosed Epicyclic Gear Drives
able stresses, environment, component geometry,
and component weight limitations, must be under- ANSI/AGMA 6133--B98, Materials for Marine
stood to select the proper gear material. Propulsion Gearing
ANSI/AGMA 6135--A02, Design, Rating and
Metallurgical aspects of gearing as related to rating
Application of Industrial Globoidal Wormgearing
(allowable contact stress number and allowable
(Metric Edition)
bending stress number) are not included, but are
covered in AGMA rating standards. ASTM A47/A47M--99, Specification for Ferritic
Malleable Iron Castings
ASTM A48/A48M--03, Specification for Gray Iron
Castings
2 Normative references
ASTM A220/A220M--99, Specification for Pearlitic
Malleable Iron
The following documents contain provisions which, ASTM A255--07, Test Methods for Determining
through reference in this text, constitute provisions of Hardenability of Steel
the standard. At the time of publication, the editions
ASTM A534--04, Specification for Carburizing
were valid. All publications are subject to revision,
Steels for Anti--Friction Bearings
and the users of this standard are encouraged to ap-
ply the most recent editions of the publications listed. ASTM A536--84, Specification for Ductile Iron
Castings
AGMA 920--A01, Materials for Plastic Gears ASTM A897/A897M--06, Specification for
AGMA 923--B05, Metallurgical Specifications for Austempered Ductile Iron Castings
Steel Gearing ASTM E45--05, Test Methods for Determining the
AGMA 930--A05, Calculated Bending Load Inclusion Content of Steel
Capacity of Powder Metallurgy (PM) External Spur ISO 642:1999, Steel -- Hardenability test by end
Gears quenching (Jominy test)
© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved 1
ISO 4967:1998, Steel -- Determination of content of gear material, as shown in figure 1.

nonmetallic inclusions -- Micrographic method
using standard diagrams The specific material selection is often determined
ISO 14104:1995, Gears -- Surface temper etch by cost and availability factors such as standard
inspection after grinding industry alloys and procurement time.
SAE AMS 2300K, Steel Cleanliness, Premium
For example, standard wrought carbon and alloy
Aircraft--Quality Magnetic Particle Inspection
Procedure SAE steel grades such as 1020, 8620, 4320, 4820,
9310, 4140, 4150 and 4340 are available from ser-
SAE AMS 2301J, Steel Cleanliness, Aircraft-- vice centers and steel mills. Service centers can
Quality Magnetic Particle Inspection usually furnish these materials in small quantities
SAE AMS 2304A, Steel Cleanliness, Special Air- and with short delivery time from their inventories.
craft--Quality Magnetic Particle Inspection Steel mill purchases require “mill quantities” and
Procedure long delivery time. However, the mill quantity cost
SAE J422 Dec 83, Microscopic Determination of may be substantially lower, and non--standard steels
Inclusions in Steels can be supplied on special request.
When specifying parts with small quantity require-

3 Materials ments, standard alloys should be specified or engi-
neering drawings should allow optional materials.
Material designations from national or international
3.1 Factors in material selection
standards, such as SAE or ASTM, should be used
Many factors must be considered when selecting a wherever possible.
Design aspects Environment

Allowable bending stress number Corrosion
Allowable contact stress number Operating temperature
Application Lubrication
Hardness Material compatibility with lubricant
Mechanical properties Effect of failure
Tooth type/form/function
Gear size and weight
Life expectancy
Friction properties
Wear resistance Material
Scoring resistance selection
Cost factors
AGMA requirements
Manufacturing
Metallurgical requirements for
Quantity requirements
AGMA material grades for
various applications, as in Heat treatment requirements
AGMA 923 AGMA 6011 Inspection/NDE requirements
AGMA 2003 AGMA 6114 Process availability
AGMA 2101 AGMA 6123 Familiarity with material
AGMA 6002 AGMA 6133 Machinability
AGMA 6005 AGMA 6135
AGMA 6008 Material form
Material cost and availability
Figure 1 -- Material selection factors
2 © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved
3.2 Material form orientation (flow lines) in the part. Total reduction
ratio from rolling and forging shall comply with the
The selection of the basic material form is central to
applicable AGMA standard or AGMA 923--B05. See
the gear manufacturing process.
annex A for calculations of reduction ratio. Typically,
Selection of the gear blank producing method for forging of a steel billet is conducted while the billet is
most applications is primarily a matter of economics, at a temperature above 1050°C. Steel forging stock
with quality becoming increasingly important as is always fully killed to minimize the occurrence of fis-
tooth loads, down time costs, and safety consider- sures during the forging process due to dissolved
ations increase. The gear designer is faced with nu- gases. Forgings may reduce machining time
merous choices, each with its own advantages and compared to round bars. They are available in a
limitations. The choice involves the exploitation of a wide range of sizes and grades.
specific process’ advantage(s) to produce the lowest The standard forging classifications are:
cost component that meets the performance
requirements. -- Open die forging. This method produces a
rough dimensioned piece by mechanical
3.2.1 Wrought deformation between an upper and lower die
(hammer and anvil) in an open frame press or
Wrought steel is the generic term applied to carbon
hammer. This method may be used to improve
and alloy steels that are mechanically worked into center soundness by “drawing out”, or working,
form for specific applications. The standard wrought the side of the billet (or ingot) to produce a longer
steel forms are forgings, round (bar) stock, flat stock, billet with a smaller cross sectional area. Center
and tubing. soundness may also be improved by upset
Cast steel ingots may be either bottom poured or top forging, where the billet is worked from the ends,
poured. Bottom poured ingots show improved resulting in a shorter billet with increased cross
sectional area. Grain flow in the finished product
cleanliness and ingot yield (more usable ingot metal
should be considered to determine the working
after conventional cropping or removal of the top
sequence to be used. This method can be used
pipe cavity and bottom discard of top poured ingots).
for high speed gearing (pitch line velocity greater
Strand casting produces a bloom or billet that is
than 150 m/sec), which requires a sound center
smaller in cross sectional area than an ingot. to resist the high centrifugal stress developed in
Steel manufactured using production methods that operation.
improve cleanliness, such as vacuum degassing -- Closed die forging. This method produces a
and ladle refining, can result in improved transverse closer tolerance piece, generally smaller than an
ductility and impact strength. Cleanliness for various open die forging. The upper and lower dies trap
grades of gearing shall comply with the applicable the steel billet in a closed (confined) cavity, and
AGMA standard or AGMA 923--B05. press action deforms the metal to fill the contour
of the die cavity.
For additional information on wrought steel
-- Rolled ring forging. This method produces a
manufacture and steel making refining practices,
donut--shaped work piece. Typically the
refer to the following sources:
process involves upsetting a billet to a
ASM International Handbooks pancake--shaped piece with a reduced center
area, piercing the center area to make a donut,
Iron and Steel Society (ISS), Steel Products
then working the donut between internal and
Manual
external mandrels to form the proper size piece.
Forging Industry Association, Forging Industry Upper and lower mandrels are also used to
Handbook; Forging Topics; Open Die Forging control height and shape of the final rolled ring.
Technology 3.2.1.2 Round bars (barstock)
3.2.1.1 Forgings Round bars for standard carbon and alloy steel
Forging is the process of hot mechanical deforma- grades are available as hot rolled, hot rolled--cold
tion, or working, of a steel billet into a specific form drawn, hot rolled--cold finished, and forged rounds.
using a set of dies. Working adds to the effective Hot rolled bars are mechanically worked at temper-
reduction ratio, and may provide improved inclusion atures of 1150--1320°C and may be subsequently
annealed, straightened and stress relieved. Hot can produce blanks of higher quality, but at higher
rolled bars may be made from ingots or from continu- cost. A laser is capable of producing small or large
ous cast steel. In either case, the reduction ratio parts. EDM is typically used for smaller parts and is
shall comply with the applicable AGMA standard or highly accurate.
AGMA 923--B05 to sufficiently heal the porosity and 3.2.1.5 Stamping
voids inherent in the as--cast product and achieve
maximum properties. See annex A for calculation of Stamping is a low cost process suitable for making
reasonably accurate, thin, small, flat gears for low
reduction ratio.
speed, low load applications. Die cost is reasonably
Cold drawing produces a close dimensional toler- low, and this process can be used on ferrous and
ance bar with improved mechanical properties (high- nonferrous metals. This process would be satisfac-
er hardness and yield strength) over hot rolled bars. tory for producing low, medium, and high volume
Low to medium carbon steels are normally available gears. It produces a sheared edge that requires
as cold drawn bar for gearing. machining or finishing.
Hot rolled--cold finished bars are machined 3.2.1.6 Fineblanking

(turned, ground and perhaps polished) for improved Fineblanking is a moderate cost process, similar to
size control and surface condition, but show no im- stamping, suitable for making small, flat gears up to
provement in mechanical properties over hot rolled around 15 mm thickness. The tooling for this pro-
or annealed bar. cess is relatively expensive, limiting the process to
relatively high volume production. However, this
Forged round bars are forged round under a press process produces blanks that are more accurate
or hammer at similar temperatures used for hot roll- than stampings. Fineblanking requires minimal draft
ing (higher temperature for lower carbon content and can be used for either ferrous or nonferrous met-
carbon or alloy steel), and can be manufactured to a als.
size larger than can be formed with rolling dies or
3.2.1.7 Extrusion
rolls. Rotary forging may not produce center sound-
ness equivalent to press forging or hammer forging. Round stock extrusion is a process that produces
Forged round bars can be purchased in a variety of a bar of uniform, round cross section that is subse-
heat treat conditions depending upon application. quently precision sawed or machined to the desired
face width. It can be used for ferrous and nonferrous
Approximate maximum diameter of the various
alloys. The die and capital equipment costs are
types of round bar, depending upon steel mill
moderate. Extruded material is usually purchased
capacity, is as follows:
from a producer as “bar stock”. Extrusion is suitable
Hot rolled: 250 mm for making gears of any quality level in low, medium
Cold drawn: 100 mm and high volumes. Extruded product requires
Cold finished: 125 mm subsequent machining to the final configuration.
Forged round: 750 mm
Shaped stock extrusion is a process that produces
3.2.1.3 Flat or plate a uniform bar with the tooth configuration on the out-
side diameter, suitable for low speed gearing. The
Commercial flat or plate steel of numerous carbon
bar is subsequently precision sawed or machined off
and alloy grades is available in standard thicknesses
to the desired face width. The specialized die cost is
and in a wide range of widths and lengths. Flat stock
high, limiting this process to medium and high vol-
is typically available in hot rolled or hot rolled and
ume applications. The process requires no draft.
annealed conditions.
This process can be used for nonferrous metals.
3.2.1.4 Blanking 3.2.2 Casting
Blanking is a process accomplished using either Casting processes encompass a wide array of al-
flame, laser, electrodischarge machining (EDM), or loys, finish tolerances, sizes and production quanti-
water jetting to cut a shape from plate. Simple
ties. Metal casting allows the designer to produce
shapes of low to medium quality can be produced in
unique engineering shapes that would be difficult or
either ferrous or nonferrous alloys. Flame cutting
impossible to machine from a blank.
and water jetting are cost effective for simple, ferrous
shapes of larger size. Laser and EDM techniques Additional information for cast steel is available in:
Steel Castings Handbook, 6th Edition, Steel 3.2.2.4 Die casting

Founder’s Society of America (SFSA)
Die casting is a low cost, near net shape process that
ASM Handbook, Volume 15, Casting uses a metal die with an internal cavity that replicates
the exterior of the desired part. It requires a slight
3.2.2.1 Sand casting draft on all surfaces perpendicular to the die parting
line. The metal can be introduced by gravity or under
Sand molding, the most widely used and lowest cost pressure. It is generally restricted to low melting
casting process, employs a bonded sand (either clay temperature, nonferrous alloys (e.g., aluminum,
and water or a chemical binder system) to create a zinc, magnesium), and relatively small parts. It is
mold cavity from a pattern that replicates the exterior suitable for medium and high volume production and
of the part. Cores are used to produce any internal can be used to produce fairly accurate, lightly
cavities. Both the mold and the core require 1 to 2 loaded, low speed gears.
degrees of draft on surfaces perpendicular to their
respective parting lines. This is a process suitable 3.2.2.5 Injection molding
for low, medium or high volume production and can Injection molding is a cost effective process for high
be used for virtually any shape or size part. By some volume gears in which a molten or semi--solid mate-
techniques, it may be a near net shape process. rial is forced into a precision die to produce a finished
Casting is a widely used process for coarse, low solid component. It is applicable to polymers and low
speed gearing to high quality gears. melting temperature, nonferrous alloys. The size
and quality of injection molded gears is only limited
3.2.2.2 Lost foam casting by the practical application of the existing manufac-
turing technology.
Lost foam is a near net shape process which utilizes
an expendable polymer foam pattern that is coated Draft in the direction of part ejection is normally re-
and invested in dry sand. When the metal enters the quired for easy removal of an injection molded part
mold, the foam evaporates, and the metal assumes from the mold. However, there are several areas on
the shape of the pattern it displaced. Lost foam falls a gear where such drafted surfaces are not desirable
between sand molding and investment casting in or practical, such as across the surface of teeth, and
cost and dimensional accuracy. It requires slight on bore or integrally molded shaft surfaces. These
draft on surfaces perpendicular to the die parting. features are not normally drafted.
The tooling for this process is relatively expensive, 3.2.3 Powder metal
thus limiting it to medium and high volume produc-
tion. The dimensional accuracy allows the elimina- Powder metal (PM) is a process that lends itself well
tion of some machining operations, offsetting the to higher volume production of small components.
increased cost. Low speed coarse gears can be Pressed and sintered parts are suitable for moder-
used with as--cast surfaces. Gears of higher quality ately high quality gears. As the technology contin-
or load capacity require machining. ues to develop, hot forged PM parts of near 100%
density may be suitable for high performance and
3.2.2.3 Investment casting aircraft quality gears. This is a near net shape pro-
cess that allows the designer the opportunity to use
Investment casting has been known throughout his- alloy combinations not available by either traditional
tory as the “lost wax process”. This process requires forging or casting.
the production of a detailed wax pattern of the part
that is then coated with ceramic slurry to produce a The powder metal process provides accurate
ceramic mold that duplicates the shape of the pat- dimensional control over large production runs and
tern. The wax is removed before metal is poured into can produce characteristics and shapes difficult to
the mold. A new pattern and mold are created and obtain by other methods. Therefore, the process can
destroyed with each casting. It is a relatively high reduce cost by eliminating machining operations.
cost casting process, but produces parts of near net However, because of high tooling costs, high
shape. Only minor draft is required. It can be used production volumes may be necessary to realize
for a wide range of ferrous and nonferrous alloys, significant savings.
and has been typically used for medium volume pro- Powder metal gears are formed by compressing
duction. It is economically, but not technically, re- metal powders in a die cavity to form a “compact”.
stricted to rather small parts. It is suitable for The compact is then heated in a controlled
producing gears of moderate accuracy as--cast. atmosphere to metallurgically bond the powder par-
ticles, a process known as sintering. Secondary op- Hardness specifications can be developed for
erations, such as repressing to improve mechanical powder metal parts, but are specified as “apparent
properties, or sizing to obtain precise control of hardness” since the hardness value obtained using a
shape may also be used. Conventional gear refine- standard Rockwell tester (either HRB or HRC) is a
ment techniques, such as gear rolling, shaving or combination of the powder particle hardness and po-
grinding, can also be applied to PM gears. rosity. In PM, there is not a direct correlation be-
tween the tensile strength of heat treated steel and
Spur, straight bevel and miter gears are the easiest apparent hardness as there is in wrought or cast
to produce by way of powder metal technology be- steel (see Metal Powder Industries Federation
cause of the vertical action of the press and the ease Standard 35 for the typical mechanical properties of
of ejection of the compact from the die cavity. How- PM materials).
ever, helical, spiral bevel and other gear forms may
Although numerous powder metal materials are
also be produced.
available, alloy steel is usually specified for gear
ANSI/AGMA 6008--A98 describes the specification applications. Alloy steel gears that are sintered, but
data required to adequately inform the producer of not heat treated, have a tensile strength range of
PM gears about the design features desired by the 275--750 MPa, an elongation of 4% or less, and an
purchaser. It also describes some of the related in- apparent hardness of 60--96 HRB. After heat treat-
dustry practices that commonly apply to PM gears, ment, powder metal alloys have tensile strengths of
such as fillets, chamfers, burrs, surface finish and 690--1280 MPa, elongation of 1% or less, and an
functional gear testing. AGMA 930--A05 provides a apparent hardness of 20--42 HRC, depending on
method to calculate the bending load capacity of density and the alloy selected.
powder metallurgy gears. Further improvements in the mechanical properties
can be achieved by the use of powder forging, where
Parts can be heat treated after sintering with the powder metal preforms are forged to final shape and
same consideration of process controls as in density. Parts processed in this manner have
wrought steels. Carburizing and carbonitriding can strengths and mechanical properties equaling the
be performed, but products with a density under 6.8 properties of wrought materials.
g/cm3 may not develop a definite case due to the
3.2.4 Assembly
ease of diffusion through the more porous, lower
density material. Parts will achieve a file hard sur- Finished gearing may be an assembly of compo-
face. The use of liquid salts is not recommended be- nents produced by either a single manufacturing
cause of the possibility of surface absorption and process or many processes. The assembly may be
resulting bleed--out of the salts and internal joined by welding, brazing, adhesive bonding,
corrosion. Induction hardening can be applied to PM mechanical fastening, swaging, riveting, keying,
gears. press fitting, or by a combination of these or other
joining methods. Assembly may be used for any
A special process, known as sinter hardening, com- shape, size, or quality level of gear. It is typically re-
bines the sintering and heat treat steps into one, stricted to low volume applications due to the amount
eliminating the need for a direct oil quench. This ap- of labor and additional operational steps required,
proach provides an as--quenched structure directly but may be a suitable technique for small lots requir-
from sintering. Gears processed by sinter hardening ing short lead times. Assembly allows the designer
undergo less distortion than conventional sintering to join components of widely varying materials and
and heat treating. Properties similar to a through properties to fully exploit the advantages of the
hardened process can be achieved. Tempering or individual components in the assembly.
stress relief after hardening is required for maximum
strength and durability. 3.2.5 Weld fabrication
For a given composition, density is the single most Weld fabrication is a type of assembly, but differs
significant characteristic of powder metal gears. For from most other procedures in that a metallurgical
example, mechanical properties are directly propor- bond is produced between assembled parts. Weld
tional to density, i.e., higher strengths are achieved fabricated gears are usually manufactured when
at higher density levels. On the other hand, the con- they are more economical to produce than forged or
trolled porosity in powder metal parts permits their cast gears.
impregnation with oil to provide a self--lubricating Weld fabricated steel gears typically consist of a rim
part. section or sections made from rolled or forged rings,
formed plate, or castings; a hub forging or casting; ponent. Therefore, hardenability of these
and steel plate support sections (web or arms) be- components must be sufficient to develop their re-
tween the hub and rim. ASTM A290 covers steel ring quired properties at a tempering temperature of
forgings for fabricated gears. 540°C minimum. Assemblies with all components
annealed or as--rolled should be stress relieved
The steel rim, or tooth section, is typically heat
within the range of 595°C to 675°C.
treated by normalize and temper, or quench and
temper, to obtain specified hardness and mechani- 3.3 Material families -- processing and
cal properties before weld assembly. The steel hub properties
may also be heat treated. After fabrication welding,
stress relieving temperature for the assembly should 3.3.1 Steel
be as high as possible (within the range of 510°C to
650°C), but no higher than 30°C below the temper- A flow chart for processing of steel gears is shown in
ing temperature used for the heat treated steel com- figure 2.
STEEL
Form
Wrought Cast Powder
metal
Conditioning heat treatment

Anneal Stress relieve
Quench and
Normalize
temper
Machine Machine Machine
Through hardening heat treatment
Normalize Quench
Anneal
and temper and temper
Austemper Martemper
Weld fabricated Case hardening or

surface hardening treatment
Direct Overlay
weld weld Carburize Carbonitride Nitride
Induction Flame
Nitrocarburize
Stress harden harden
relieve
Finishing
NOTE: Inspection steps have been omitted to simplify diagram. Inspection should be performed after each process.
Figure 2 -- Steel processing flow chart
3.3.1.1 Steel cleanliness and soundness however, must be fully evaluated with respect to the
need for improved properties for other than critical
Alloy steel manufactured with electric furnace prac- gearing applications.
tice for barstock and forged steel gear applications is
commonly vacuum degassed, inert atmosphere NOTE: For more information see ASTM A534, AMS
2301 and AMS 2300.
(argon) shielded and bottom poured to improve
cleanliness and reduce objectionable gas content Wrought steel is generally considered more sound
(hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen). Improving cleanli- than cast steel because wrought steel is hot worked.
ness and reducing nonmetallic inclusion content by Wrought steel is anisotropic, however, meaning that
limiting sulfur content to a maximum of 0.015 percent mechanical properties such as tensile ductility, fa-
results in improved transverse ductility and impact tigue limit, and impact strength vary according to the
strength, but machinability may be reduced. Vacu- direction of hot working or inclusion flow during form-
um degassed steel may be further refined by ing (see figure 3). Improved steel cleanliness has
vacuum arc remelting (VAR) or electroslag remelting the effect of improving the transverse and tangential
(ESR) of the steel. These refining processes further properties of wrought steel to approach, but not
reduce gas and inclusion size and content for im- equal, the longitudinal properties. Inclusions in
proved fatigue properties to produce the highest wrought steel forgings, barstock, rolled rings, and
quality steel for critical gearing applications. Signifi- plate are perpendicular to the root radius or profile of
cant increase in cost and reduced machinability, machined gear teeth.
Direction of
metal and
inclusion
Rolled flow
ring forging
Transverse Longitudinal tensile test

tensile test bar or properties
bar
Direction of metal
and inclusion flow Transverse tensile
test bar
Longitudinal
Pinion forging tensile test bar
NOTE: ASTM E399 may be used to define test specimen orientation for impact testing.
Figure 3 -- Directionality of forging properties
Castings are generally isotropic (non--directionality to reduce metallurgical nonuniformity such as segre-
of properties). Sound rim sections in castings can gated alloy microstructures (banding) and distorted
provide comparable mechanical properties to forged microstructures resulting from mechanical working.
rim sections.
Table 2 -- Typical heat treatments and
Forged or hot rolled die generated gear teeth, with
associated steel grades
the direction of inclusion (metal) flow parallel to the
profile of teeth, result in the optimum direction of in- Heat treatment Steel grade
clusions for gearing. Application is limited because 1045
quantities or critical application considerations must 15B41
4140
justify the increased development and die costs. Through hardening
4150
4340
3.3.1.2 Steel grades and heat treatments
4350
The specific gear design will usually dictate the 1020
grade of steel required as a function of subsequent 4118
4320
heat treatment, such as through hardening or case
4820
hardening. See table 1 for nominal chemical com- Carburizing
8620
positions of common steel designations and table 2 8822
for typical heat treatments and associated steel 9310
grades. 18CrNiMo7--6
1018
Table 1 -- Common SAE steel designations and Carbonitriding 1117
12L14
their nominal alloy contents
4140
Carbon steels 4150
Nitriding 4340
10xx No intentional alloying 4350
15xx Mn 1.00 -- 1.35% Nitralloy 135M
Alloy steels 1045
41xx Cr 1%, Mo 0.25% 15B41
4130
43xx Ni 1.75%,Cr 0.75%, Mo 0.25% Induction hardening
4140
86xx Ni 0.5%, Cr 0.5%, Mo 0.2% 4150
93xx Ni 3.25%, Cr 1.25, Mo .12% 4340
NOTE:
1045
15B41
“xx” = (nominal percent carbon content X 100)
4130
Flame hardening
4140
Standard AISI or SAE wrought designations modi- 4150
fied with increased silicon levels can be used for cast 4340
gearing. 1018
In addition to steel grades described in this standard, 1141
4140
other steels are used for gears, including hot work Nitrocarburizing
4150
tool steel (H series), high speed steels, austenitic 5160
stainless, martensitic stainless, and precipitation 8620
hardening stainless steels. Customized chemical
compositions are frequently used in applications Common heat treatments for steels include:
with high strength requirements.
(1) Preliminary treatments (performed before
Heat treatment is a heating and cooling process principal treatment)
used to achieve desired properties in gear materials.
Steel gearing may be through hardened or surface -- anneal;
hardened when gear rating or service requirements -- normalize and temper;
warrant higher hardness and strength for improved
-- quench and temper;
fatigue strength or wear resistance. A homogenizing
heat treatment for alloy steel is used in wrought steel -- stress relieve.
(2) Principal treatments bars may be used as an alternative to quench and

tempered steel. However, fatigue properties may be
-- through harden (anneal, normalize,
inferior to those of quench and tempered steel with
normalize and temper, quench and temper,
the same tensile properties. For further details see
austemper, martemper);
ASTM A311.
-- surface harden (flame harden, induction
harden), followed by temper; Martempering, a specialized quenching technique,
can be used to reduce distortion.
-- case harden (carburize, carbonitride),
followed by temper; Austempered steel offers several potential advan-
-- case harden (nitride, nitrocarburize). tages over quenched and tempered martensitic
steel, including increased ductility, toughness and
(3) Post principal treatments strength at a given hardness, and reduced distortion.
-- bake; Stress relief is a thermal cycle used to relieve
-- stress relieve. residual stresses created by prior heat treatments,
machining, cold working, welding, or other
3.3.1.3 Steel through hardening fabricating techniques, and thereby minimize
distortion of the part after subsequent machining.
Through hardening refers to a thermal treatment de-
signed to affect the entire volume of a component To determine compliance with specified hardness
and not only the surface and near surface region. requirements, the hardness of through hardened
“Through hardening” is sometimes a misnomer, be- gearing is generally measured on the gear blank or
cause the material is not necessarily hardened by on the finished gear tooth end face. However, many
the heat treating procedure (annealing), nor is the AGMA standards contain specific requirements for
“through hardened” material necessarily uniform in depth of hardening. Since depth of hardening
hardness throughout the section due to depends upon grade of steel (hardenability), control-
hardenability effects. ling section size, and heat treat practice, achieving
Annealing may be the final treatment (when low specified hardness on the rim end face or outside
hardness requirements permit) or a pretreatment diameter may not necessarily ensure hardness at
applied to the cast or wrought rough gear blank. It the roots of teeth. If gear root hardness is critical to a
results in lower hardness and improved dimensional specific design criteria, the gear tooth root hardness
stability (minimum residual stress) and may improve should be specified. However, care should be taken
machinability. If annealing is used solely to relieve to avoid needlessly increasing material costs by
stress, the heat treatment should be termed stress changing to a higher hardenability steel when
relieving. service life has been successful.
Normalizing results in higher hardness than anneal- See annex A for definitions and illustrations of
ing, with hardness being a function of grade of steel controlling sections. The maximum permitted
and the part section thickness. Normalizing controlling section size for a steel part is based prin-
produces a more uniform microstructure than cipally on hardenability, specified hardness, depth of
annealing. With plain carbon steels containing less desired hardness, quenching process, and
than about 0.4 percent carbon, normalizing does not tempering temperature limitations.
increase hardness significantly over annealing, re- NOTE: Controlling section size should be determined
gardless of section size. based on the configuration of the part at the time of heat
treatment.
The hardness and mechanical properties achieved
from the quench and temper process are higher than Table 3 provides recommended maximum control-
those achieved from either the normalize or anneal ling section sizes for oil quenched and tempered
processes. Tempering reduces the material hard- gearing of several low alloy steels based on speci-
ness and mechanical strength, but improves the ma- fied hardness range, minimum tempering tempera-
terial ductility and toughness (impact resistance). ture of 480°C, and obtaining minimum hardness at
Heavy draft (reduction), cold drawn, stress relieved the roots of teeth.
Table 3 -- Maximum recommended controlling section size for oil quenched and tempered gearing1)
Specified Brinell Alloy controlling section size, mm

hardness, HBW SAE 4140 SAE 4340 4350 Type2)
223--262 200 No restriction3) No restriction3)
248--293 140 No restriction No restriction
262--311 110 No restriction No restriction
285--311 100 640 No restriction
302--352 80 380 No restriction
321--363 Not recommended 305 No restriction
341--388 Not recommended 205 No restriction
363--415 4) Not recommended 100 590
NOTES:
1) Maximum controlling section sizes greater than those above are permitted when substantiated by test data (heat treat
practice). Tempering temperature as low as 480°C may be required to meet these hardness specifications.
Maximum recommended controlling section sizes for nitrided gearing are less than those above for the same hardness
range because of higher tempering temperature required for nitriding gearing (refer to 5.4). Maximum recommended
sizes for flame or induction hardening gearing would be same as above, dependent upon specified core hardness.
2) 4350 Type Steel is generally considered equivalent to SAE 4340 for chemical analysis, except that carbon is
0.48--0.55 percent.
3) “No restriction” indicates maximum controlling section size is not restricted for conventional size gearing.
4) Higher specified hardnesses (e.g., 375--415 HBW, 388--421 HBW and 401--444 HBW) are used, but costs should be
evaluated due to reduced machinability.
Maximum permitted controlling section sizes for a gear tooth ratings for contact stress, (pitting resis-
given material and hardness can also be estimated tance) and bending stress (root strength). Carbu-
by use of the “Chart Predicting Approximate Cross rized gear ratings are higher than the ratings for
Section Hardness of Quenched Round Bars from through hardened and other types of surface hard-
Jominy Test Results” published in Practical Data for ened gearing because of higher fatigue limit. Carbu-
Metallurgists by The Timken Company, and by use of rized gearing is also used for improved wear
published tempering response and hardenability resistance. Improved load distribution can be ob-
data. Refer to ASTM A255 or ISO 642 for informa- tained by hard gear finishing after carburizing. Hard
tion on Jominy testing. Controlling section sizes gear finishing, such as skiving or grinding, results in
greater than 200 mm generally require sectioning some sacrifice of beneficial compressive stress at
and transverse hardness testing of heat treated the surface and substantially increases costs.
parts to determine maximum permitted controlling
Carburized gearing is used in such applications as
section size for a given material and specified
enclosed gear units for general industrial duty, high
hardness range.
speed and aerospace precision gear units, and large
If gearing is normalized and tempered, sectioning open gearing for mill applications. Specified finish
and hardness testing of heat treated parts is required operations after hardening depend upon accuracy
to determine maximum permitted controlling section and contact requirements for all applications.
size. Some gearing does not lend itself to carburize hard-
3.3.1.4 Steel case hardening ening because of distortion. Gearing which distorts
and cannot be straightened without cracking, rack
3.3.1.4.1 Carburizing gears, thin sections, complex shapes, and parts not
designed for finishing (or where finishing is cost pro-
Carburized and hardened gearing is used when
hibitive) present manufacturing problems. Press
optimum properties are required. High surface hard-
quenching after carburizing can be used to minimize
ness, high case strength, favorable compressive re-
distortion.
sidual stress in the hardened case, and suitable core
properties based on selection of the appropriate car- Gearing beyond 2000 mm diameter is difficult to
burizing grade of steel, result in the highest AGMA carburize due to the limited number of available
furnaces for processing. Maximum size of carburize 3.3.1.4.2 Carbonitriding

gearing is currently in the 3000 mm diameter range.
Most of this large gearing requires tooth finishing The carbonitriding process must be conducted at
(skiving, grinding, or both) after carburizing and lower temperatures than used for carburizing, so
hardening. deep cases require prohibitively long cycle times.
However, for shallow case depths, carbonitrided
To ensure that the steel under consideration has suf- cases have equivalent hardness and better wear
ficient case hardenability (capability to satisfactorily and temper resistance than carburized cases be-
harden the case in the roots of teeth), figure 4, which cause of better case hardenability. In fine pitch gear-
is based on hardenability of the steel grade and ruling, the lower alloy steels that can be used for this
ing (controlling) section, may be used. See annex A process along with the lower austenitizing tempera-
for discussion of controlling sections. Steel grades tures, lower quenching temperatures, and less se-
not shown can be evaluated by comparing their vere quenching techniques result in lower core
hardenability to those steel grades presented to de- hardness, reducing tooth growth and distortion. Car-
termine the approximate maximum recommended bonitriding may not be applicable if high core hard-
controlling section size. ness or deep case depth is required.
Core hardenabilty must be sufficient to develop ade- 3.3.1.4.3 Nitriding

quate hardness below the carburized case. Low
core hardness can result in case crushing. Minimum Nitrided gears are used principally when gear geom-
core hardness is specified for the various AGMA etry and tolerances do not lend themselves to other
grades of carburized gearing in the applicable case or surface hardening methods because of dis-
AGMA standards. tortion caused by hardening, and when through
hardened gears do not provide sufficient wear resist-
Core hardenability should also be considered for ad- ance and pitting resistance. Nitrided gears are used
equate strength in keyways and in shaft extensions. on applications where thin, high hardness cases can
Hardness requirements in part locations other than withstand applied loads. Nitrided gears should not
the gear teeth may dictate the material selection and be specified if shock loading is present, due to
manufacturing process. inherent brittleness of the case.
SAE 9310
SAE 4820 Adequate
case hardenability
SAE 4320
SAE 8822
Case may or
SAE 8620 may not
harden No case
hardenability
SAE 4118
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Ruling section, mm
Figure 4 -- Case hardenability of carburizing grades of steel [1]
Nitriding does not lend itself to every gear application exit. The most common application of induction
because of process related restrictions on case treatment is in the hardening of carbon and alloy
depth, surface hardness, core hardness, and materi- steel components with carbon contents of between
al selection. If distortion control is very critical, the 0.4 and 0.5%. Depending upon the steel analysis
ion nitriding process should be considered, because used, surface hardness in the range 50 to 60 HRC
ion nitriding can be accomplished at lower can be achieved. It is a rapid, controllable process,
temperatures than those used for conventional gas which is readily automated. Since only the gear
nitriding. tooth surface of the workpiece is transformed,
distortion is minimized.
Steels containing chromium, vanadium, aluminum,
and molybdenum, either singularly or in combina- Induction hardening is preferred over flame harden-
tion, are required in order to form stable nitrides at ing when closer control of case depth and hardness
the nitriding temperature. pattern along both the tooth flank profile and the root
profile are required.
Typical steels suitable for nitriding are 4140, 4150,
4340, the Nitralloy grades, and steels with chromium 3.3.1.5.2 Steel flame hardening
contents of 1.00 to 3.00 percent. Aluminum contain- Flame hardening is possible on the same types of
ing grades such as Nitralloy 135 and Nitralloy N will gears that can be induction hardened. However,
develop higher surface hardness than non-- profile flame hardening of the flanks and roots is not
aluminum grades. generally available. For herringbone (without gap/
A preliminary quench and temper heat treatment is groove) and spiral bevel gearing, flame hardening is
required to develop an essentially martensitic more available and more economical than induction
microstructure before nitriding. hardening if high root hardness is not required. Most
applications involve hardening of low and medium
3.3.1.4.4 Nitrocarburizing carbon and alloy steel components.
Nitrocarburizing creates an epsilon nitride phase 3.3.1.6 Steel machinability
that improves wear and scuffing characteristics of
Several factors influence the machinability of materi-
gear steels. Since nitrocarburizing is performed at
als and, in turn, affect the economy and feasibility of
lower temperatures than carbonitriding and carbu-
manufacturing. These factors must be considered at
rizing, it is possible to achieve better distortion
the design stage, particularly when high strength
control. This process can be applied to inexpensive
levels are being specified. Factors influencing
steels to create high hardness, shallow cases.
machinability are:
3.3.1.5 Steel surface hardening
-- material being cut, including composition,
3.3.1.5.1 Steel induction hardening microstructure, hardness, shape, and size;
Induction hardening is used when gear teeth require -- cutting speeds, feeds and cutting tools;
high surface hardness, but carburizing and quench- -- condition of machine tools, including rigidity,
ing of the entire part is not suitable because of com- precision, and power;
ponent size, configuration or expected distortion. -- characteristics of the cutting fluid used.
The process may also be used when the maximum
contact and bending strength achieved by carburiz- Only metallurgical factors are discussed here, since
ing and quenching is not required. This process is there is abundant material published elsewhere
also used in place of nitriding when nitriding cannot covering the influence of non--metallurgical factors
produce the deep case depths required on 5 module on machinability.
and larger tooth gearing or cannot produce these Chemical composition and microstructure of steel
case depths economically. have major influences on machinability.
Induction hardening is possible on nearly all types of Aluminum and silicon may form aluminum oxide, sili-
gears, such as spur, helical, double helical and bevel con oxide, and aluminum nitride, hard inclusions that
gears. Herringbone gears can also be induction reduce machinability and increase tool cutting edge
hardened if a sufficient gap or groove is present be- damage. Electric furnace steel making, ladle refin-
tween the sets of teeth to allow for inductor fit and ing, and other quality steel processing steps prevent
these inclusions (ASTM E45, Type B and Type C) Carbon segregation can be reduced with a normaliz-
from becoming major manufacturing problems and ing treatment, which allows the high carbon bands to
from hindering gear performance. diffuse into the low carbon bands.
Holding manganese levels to the low limit at the steel

Calcium is sometimes added during steelmaking to mill will reduce segregation, but will also reduce
improve castability, machinability, and transverse hardenability, because manganese is a potent (and
mechanical properties. Calcium additions can affect low cost) hardenability agent.
the morphology and properties of both oxide and sul-
fide inclusions. However, improvements in trans- Material can be purchased with higher material
verse mechanical properties and machinability are reduction ratios in order to minimize the alloy
due primarily to the effect on sulfide inclusions and segregation bandwidths.
therefore depend on the sulfur level. Various
Carbon content over 0.30 percent decreases
research studies indicate that some types of cal- machinability due to increased steel hardness. De-
cium--containing inclusions are detrimental to pitting pending on carbon and sulfur levels, higher manga-
fatigue performance. nese levels may also decrease machinability. In
general, alloys which increase hardness and tough-
Elements such as sulfur, lead, selenium and tellu- ness decrease machinability.
rium form soft inclusions in the steel matrix and can
3.3.2 Cast iron
improve machining by providing lubrication at the
cutting tool edge. Lead in steel is generally not A flow chart for processing of cast iron components
environmentally friendly and decreases mechanical is shown in figure 5.
properties. Sulfur up to 0.040% forms benign inclu-
sions in gearing that conforms to Grade 1 in AGMA Cast irons are primarily iron--carbon--silicon alloys
923--B05. Grades 2 and 3 in AGMA 923--B05 restrict with additions of alloying elements. The carbon
the sulfur level to 0.025% maximum. Steel chemis- content is typically greater than 2% while the silicon
tries below 0.015% sulfur do not machine as well, content is typically from 1 to 3%.
and some level of sulfur control is required for
Cast irons are formulated and processed so that the
reasonable machinability. Selenium and tellurium carbon forms as graphite. The shape, or morpholo-
additions in combination with manganese and sulfur gy, of the graphite defines the type of cast iron
produce small round inclusions that improve produced. The graphite shape greatly influences the
machining characteristics. final properties of cast iron. Figure 6 illustrates the
vibration characteristics of steel, ductile and mallea-
In general, as carbon, manganese, and alloy con- ble iron, and gray iron. Note that gray iron exhibits
centration increase, the machinability of the steel is the best damping properties.
reduced.
Ductile irons can be specified either fully ferritic,
mixed pearlitic/ferritic or fully pearlitic as--cast.
Non--uniform carbon and alloy (mainly manganese)
distribution is a normal phenomenon in steel solidi- Several types of heat treatment procedures can be
fication. The steel mill can minimize, but not performed on cast iron. The most common include:
eliminate, chemical segregation with magnetic normalizing, ferritizing, quench and tempering, aus-
stirring during the casting operation. The chemical tempering, and flame or induction hardening. Note
that all of these heat treat processes are done to alter
segregation results in high and low hardness bands
the matrix microstructure; they will not alter the as--
(banding) that adversely affect machining. The cut-
cast graphite morphology.
ting tool edge intended to shear the material will push
the higher hardness bands into the lower hardness Normalizing a casting will result in increasing the ten-
(lower yield) bands, increasing the tool load and sile strength over as--cast properties. It can be used
tending to tear the machined surface instead of to meet the properties of 100--70--03 ductile cast iron
shearing metal. (see table 4) and pearlitic malleable iron.
Cast
Inspect--mechanical,
hardness, NDT, micro
Machine
Heat treat
Quench
Ferritize Normalize and temper Austemper Stress relieve
Inspect
(same as above)
Machine
Inspect --
dimensional
Finish
Shot peen Fillet roll Grind
Inspect
Figure 5 -- Cast iron processing flow chart
Ferritizing is often used to meet the properties for

60--40--18 ductile iron (see table 4).
Quenching and tempering is used to meet the prop-

erties for 120--90--02 ductile iron (see table 4) and
martensitic malleable iron.
Austempering is applied to gray and ductile iron to in-

crease strength and toughness. Sufficient alloy con-
tent (or hardenability) is needed to avoid pearlite or
other undesirable high temperature transformation
products. Because this heat treatment produces a
Figure 6 -- Vibration characteristics of steel and strong, tough material that is sensitive to any as--cast
cast irons (Courtesy of Wells Manufacturing defects that may be present, high quality cast iron is
Dura--Bar Division) necessary.
Table 4 -- Tensile requirements for standard ductile iron grades per ASTM A536
60--40--18 65--45--12 80--55--06 100--70--03 120--90--02

Tensile strength, ksi 60 65 80 100 120
Tensile strength, MPa 414 448 552 689 827
Yield strength, ksi 40 45 55 70 90
Yield strength, MPa 276 310 379 483 621
Elongation in 2 in or 50 mm, % 18 12 6.0 3.0 2.0
NOTE:
The above properties are the minimum needed to make the grade.
The resulting microstructure after heat treatment is magnification) and nodularity (deviation from a
dependent on the hardenability of the material. perfect spheroidal shape).
Hardenability refers to the ability to harden to depth
Table 5 -- Tensile requirements for gray iron per
or the ability to avoid transformation to undesirable
ASTM A48/A48M
microstructures when cooling from the austenitizing
temperature. The chemical composition of the cast
iron determines the hardenability, with higher alloyed Class Minimum Class Minimum
tensile tensile
castings having a higher hardenability. The harden-
strength, strength,
ability needed to properly heat treat a casting will de- ksi MPa
pend on the section size, with larger sections
20 20 150 150
requiring more alloy for sufficient hardenability.
25 25 175 175
3.3.2.1 Gray cast iron 30 30 200 200
Gray cast iron was so named because the color of its 35 35 225 225
fracture surface is gray. In this type of cast iron, the 40 40 250 250
graphite has a flake morphology. The size and dis- 45 45 275 275
tribution of the graphite flakes strongly influences the 50 50 300 300
mechanical properties of gray iron. Shorter flakes 55 55 325 325
that have a random distribution will result in higher 60 60 350 350
strengths. As a result, size and distribution of flakes 375 375
are often specified in addition to mechanical and 400 400
physical properties.
The graphite flakes in gray iron improve damping ca- The standard grades of ductile iron are specified by
pacity. Machinability is very good because the flakes three numbers indicating minimum required tensile
lubricate the cutting tool and provide sites for ma- strength, yield strength and percent elongation, as
chining chips to break off. The thermal conductivity listed in table 4.
is increased due to the presence of flake graphite. As the name implies, ductile iron has the best ductil-
However, the presence of the graphite flakes results ity of the conventional grades of cast iron. Ductile
in both low ductility and impact strength. iron properties are similar to malleable iron, but
much larger section sizes can be produced in ductile
Gray cast iron is designated by class according to
iron.
the minimum tensile strength of the iron, as shown in
table 5. Gray cast iron is unusual in that the com- Ductile iron is more expensive to make than gray
pressive strength can be 2.5 to 4 times the tensile iron, but the extra expense is often justified by higher
strength, depending on the class of iron. strength (both tensile and fatigue), higher ductility,
and much higher impact strength. Although ductile
Of all the types of cast iron available, gray cast iron is iron has reasonable machinability (depending on
the easiest to manufacture. As a result, it is the most
grade), damping capacity, and thermal conductivity,
inexpensive cast iron to purchase. these three properties are not as good as those of
Gray iron has relatively low bending and contact fa- gray cast iron.
tigue limits, but has superior noise damping and may Ductile iron can be supplied as--cast or can be
be through hardened or surface hardened to im- through hardened (quenched and tempered,
prove scuffing resistance. austempered, martempered, normalized and
3.3.2.2 Ductile iron tempered) or surface hardened (induction, flame).
Ductile iron is also referred to as nodular iron or 3.3.2.3 Austempered ductile iron (ADI)
spheroidal graphitic iron (SGI). During the produc- ADI is produced by heat treating ductile iron to form a
tion of ductile iron, the molten metal is treated with a unique microstructure that consists of ferrite, or
Mg--bearing or Ce--bearing alloy, which causes the ferrite plus carbide, in high carbon austenite. This
graphite to form in a spheroidal shape. The quality of microstructure, called ausferrite, sets ADI apart from
ductile iron is described by the nodule count (number ductile iron that is either as--cast, quenched and tem-
of graphite spheroids in a square millimeter at 100X pered, or surface hardened. Ausferrite produces
excellent property combinations of strength, ductility, tallic matrix. It also exhibits high resistance to
and toughness. corrosion, excellent machinability (as a ferritic
grade), good magnetic permeability and low mag-
The range of properties in the five grades of ADI netic retention, in addition to good fatigue strength
shown in table 6 are dependent on the choice of heat and damping capacity.
treatment parameters.
Malleable grades are designated by yield strength
When normal stresses are applied to an ADI part in and elongation requirements, as shown in table 7.
service, a localized strain induced transformation,
which hardens the material, can occur. As a result, 3.3.3 Copper base
ADI exhibits excellent abrasion resistance. The
toughness of ADI is significantly better than that of This group of gear materials, in which copper is the
conventional ductile iron and is comparable to that of major chemical component, includes bronzes,
cast and forged steels, but the ductility of ADI can be brasses, and other copper alloys, such as beryllium
lower than ductility in steel. copper.
For additional information, see AGMA 939--A07. Gear bronzes include:
3.3.2.4 Malleable cast iron -- Tin bronzes (phosphor gear bronze). These are
the basic gear alloys. These bronzes are tough
Malleable iron is formed by heat treating white, or and have good corrosion resistance. They
carbidic, iron in order to convert the carbide to irregu- possess excellent rubbing characteristics and
larly shaped graphite nodules called temper carbon. wear resistance, which permits use in gears and
Carbide is needed throughout the section in order to worm wheels for severe wear applications. The
alloys are used without heat treatment. A
produce malleable iron. Since graphite tends to form
common tin bronze is UNS C90700. Common
if the cooling rate is too slow during solidification,
leaded tin bronzes are UNS C92500, C92700
malleable iron castings are typically confined to rela-
and C92900.
tively thin section sizes.
-- Manganese bronzes. This family of yellow
The heat treatment process to produce ferritic mal- brasses is characterized by high strength and
leable iron (referred to as malleabilization) can take hardness. These alloys achieve their
up to 48 hours to complete and results in the produc- mechanical properties without heat treatment.
tion of a ferritic matrix. However, pearlitic and mar- These bronzes have the same strength and
tensitic matrices can also be produced by modifying ductility as annealed cast steel. They have good
the malleabilization cycle or by heat treating ferritic wear resistance, but do not possess the same
malleable iron. degree of corrosion resistance, wearability or
bearing quality as phosphor and aluminum
Malleable iron possesses considerable ductility and bronzes. Common cast manganese bronzes
toughness, similar to ductile iron, due to its combina- are UNS C86200, C86300, and C86500. UNS
tion of nearly spherical graphite and low carbon me- C65700 is a wrought grade.
Table 6 -- ASTM A897/897M minimum property specifications for ADI castings
Grade Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation Impact energy Typical

(MPa/ksi) (MPa/ksi) (%) (J/ft--lb) hardness
(HBW)
1 900/130 650/90 9 100/75 269 -- 341
2 1050/150 750/110 7 80/60 302 -- 375
3 1200/175 850/125 4 60/45 341 -- 444
4 1400/200 1100/155 2 35/25 388 -- 477
5 1600/230 1300/185 1 20/15 402 -- 512
Table 7 -- Malleable iron tensile requirements per ASTM A47 and A220
Grade Tensile strength, Yield strength, % Elongation, Typical hardness

min, psi min, psi min range, HBW
32510 50000 32500 10 156 max
40010 60000 40000 10 149--197
45008 65000 45000 8 156--197
45006 65000 45000 6 156--207
50006 70000 50000 6 179--229
60004 80000 60000 4 197--241
70003 85000 70000 3 217--269
80002 95000 80000 2 241--285
90001 105000 90000 1 269--321
Grade Tensile strength, Yield strength, % Elongation, Typical hardness
min, MPa min, MPa min ranges, HBW
220M10 340 220 10 156 max
280M10 400 280 10 149--197
310M8 450 310 8 156--197
310M6 450 310 6 156--207
340M5 480 340 5 179--229
410M4 550 410 4 197--241
480M3 590 480 3 217--269
550M2 650 550 2 241--285
620M1 720 620 1 269--321
-- Aluminum bronze. Aluminum bronze materials of these brasses is somewhat lower than for the
are similar to the manganese bronzes in higher strength manganese bronzes.
toughness, but are lighter in weight and attain
higher mechanical properties through heat 3.3.4 Other
treatment. As the strength of aluminum bronze In addition to the more common nonferrous materi-
is increased, ductility is reduced. This material als used for gears, several wrought aluminum alloys
has good wear resistance and has low are occasionally used. Specifications are special-
coefficient of friction against steel. Bearing ized and should be resolved between the user and
characteristics are better than for manganese supplier.
bronze but are inferior to the tin bronzes.
Common cast aluminum bronzes are UNS Plastic gearing materials are covered in AGMA
C95200, C95300, C95400, and C95500. 920--A01.
Wrought grades include C62300, C62400,
C63000, and C64200.
-- Silicon bronzes. Silicon bronzes such as UNS 4 Manufacturing -- material preparations

C87600 (cast) or C65500 (wrought) are
commonly used in lightly loaded gearing for 4.1 Preliminary heat treatments
electrical applications because of their low cost
and nonmagnetic properties. Heat treatment of a gear material is performed to de-
velop desired properties, not only in the finished
Gear brasses and other copper alloys are also used. product, but also in the rough material form. Prelimi-
The most common gear brass is yellow brass, used nary heat treatments of rough forms can develop the
because of its good machinability. Other brass ma- optimum microstructure for machining, case harden-
terials are used because of their higher strength, but ing, or surface hardening. Preliminary heat treat-
they are more difficult to machine. Wear resistance ment can also improve dimensional stability.
4.1.1 Heat treatment for machinability dize annealing removes a portion of the carbon from
the iron matrix by forming globular carbide particles,
In order to optimize the machining characteristics of
which lowers the matrix carbon level to a more ma-
a material chemistry, there are preferred
chinable condition. Extra time at austenitizing tem-
microstructure conditions.
perature in the final heat treatment will be required to
Low carbon steel grades (< 0.20% nominal car- get these carbides back into solution for optimum
bon) have good machining characteristics in the metallurgical properties.
normalized and tempered condition. The preferred
4.1.2 Heat treatment before carburizing
prior microstructure is an equiaxed fine lamellar
pearlite/ferrite matrix. Ferrite grains that resemble Gear blanks to be carburized and hardened are gen-
Widmanstatten structure (indicative of marginal aus- erally subcritical annealed, normalized, normalized
tenization) will adversely affect machining. General- and tempered, or quenched and tempered before
ly, microstructure for machining bars and tubes carburize hardening to improve machinability, pro-
processed by steel mills will be acceptable if material vide dimensional stability, and refine grain size.
hardness is above 167 HBW. Material hardness be- Heat treating the rough material form or a rough ma-
low 167 HBW may be acceptable, but will require chined part to a tempered martensite microstructure
metallurgical evaluation of ferrite and grain morphol- before carburizing can result in more predictable
ogy. Forgings and cut blanks, because of furnace growth during carburizing. Volume increase accom-
processing, can have acceptable microstructures at panying martensitic transformation during quench-
hardness as low as 149 HBW. ing after carburizing may be reduced because of the
These grades will machine equally well in the cycle transformation and volume increase that already oc-
anneal or continuous furnace normalize conditions, curred before carburizing.
which produce a microstructure of an equiaxed fine Performing an intermediate stress relief after rough
lamellar pearlite/ferrite. Austenitizing temperature machining, but before machining to dimensions for
and time must be sufficient for carbon homogeniza- carburizing, may improve dimensional stability dur-
tion. Cooling rate from austenitizing temperature ing carburizing.
must be fast enough to avoid coarse pearlite. Heavy 4.1.3 Heat treatment before nitriding
section parts may not heat or cool properly to gener-
ate an equiaxed structure. The pearlite phase from Parts must be quenched and tempered prior to nitrid-
the cycle anneal will appear to be slightly coarser ing to produce the essentially tempered martensitic
than that in the normalize and temper structure. The microstructure needed for acceptable case diffusion
material hardness will generally range from 149 and formation of metal nitrides. Tempering tempera-
HBW to 201 HBW. ture should be a minimum 30°C higher than the in-
tended nitriding temperature to maintain core
Carbon steel grades between 0.20% and 0.30% hardness and minimize distortion from stress relief
nominal carbon machine best in the cycle anneal or during nitriding.
continuous furnace normalize conditions.
4.1.4 Heat treatment before induction
Medium to high carbon steel grades (0.30% to hardening
0.70% carbon) machine best when they have an an-
For more consistent induction hardening results, a
nealed microstructure, a combination of fine lamellar
quench and temper pretreatment to 280--340 HBW
pearlite, coarse lamellar pearlite, ferrite, and spher-
is highly recommended, because a martensitic mi-
oidite (semi--spheroidized pearlite and spheroidized
crostructure is the most easily reaustenitized. The
carbides). The ratio of these microstructure phases
preliminary heat treatment is particularly needed for
will be dependent on the carbon content, alloy
coarse teeth (over 8 module) or lean alloys (e.g.,
composition, annealing temperature, holding time,
SAE 4140). Although normalized, normalized and
section size, and cooling rate.
tempered, or annealed structures can be induction
High carbon steel grades machine best after a hardened, microstructures from these heat treat-
spheroidize anneal. At high carbon levels (> 0.70%) ments require longer heating cycles, multiple heat-
alloy steels in the annealed condition have a high ing cycles, a more severe quench, or a combination
concentration of fine lamellar pearlite, which ad- of these treatments, thereby increasing the
versely affects machining characteristics. Spheroi- likelihood of inconsistencies with the case depth,
hardness and pattern, and the possibility for crack- machined dimensions. Historical data acquired on
ing. The annealed structure is the least receptive to various shape and size components may shorten the
induction hardening. iterative process.
4.1.5 Heat treatment before flame hardening Rough stock is typically machined directly to accept-
able dimensions for carburizing, with sufficient
Preliminary heat treatment required for flame
machining allowance for finishing after carburizing.
hardening is the same as that required for induction
However, the rough stock may be machined to car-
hardening (see 4.1.4).
burizing dimensions plus additional machining
4.2 Rough machining allowance to be removed after an intermediate
stress relief (see 4.1.2).
Rough machining, i.e. machining the rough form to
an intermediate form before final machining, is Machining of the gear teeth creates sharp edges at
performed for any or all of the following reasons: the tooth end faces. Since the sharp edges are
susceptible to cracking during the carburize harden-
-- to decrease mass before through hardening
ing process, the machined gear teeth should be
heat treatments, allowing use of lower
chamfered, rounded, or radiused at both end faces
hardenability material;
before carburizing. Typically 4 module or smaller
-- to allow machining stock after preliminary heat teeth require only breaking the edges. On larger
treatment so that an intermediate stress relief teeth, chamfers should be in accordance with
can be performed; table 8.
-- to reduce the amount of machining required
Table 8 -- Chamfer sizes for gear teeth to be
after heat treatment, when the material may be
case hardened or surface hardened
considerably harder.
4.2.1 Rough machining for through hardening Module Chamfer size,
More than At most mm
When a principal heat treatment is performed, the
4 12 1.5
section size of the blank, forging, bar, tube, or casting
12 25 2
and the material hardenability will dictate the amount
of variation in hardness and microstructure from the 25 -- -- 3
surface to the geometric center of the section. In
order to assure finished part properties that meet 4.2.3 Rough machining for nitriding
drawing requirements, it may be necessary to rough
machine the rough form prior to the principal thermal In order to minimize distortion of certain gearing de-
treatment in order to minimize property variation as- signs, the part can be rough machined, then stress
sociated with section size. If rough machining is not relieved before machining to the dimensions re-
employed, higher hardenability material may be quired for nitriding. Stress relieving temperature
required. should be 15--30°C below the tempering tempera-
ture used for the preliminary quench and temper
4.2.2 Rough machining for carburizing heat treatment. Machining cuts after stress relieving
Machined dimensions before carburizing should en- and before nitriding must be light enough to avoid
sure adequate stock for finishing after carburizing, creating new residual stresses.
but minimize the stock removal required. Because of Machining of the gear teeth creates sharp edges at
the volume increase during martensitic transforma- the tooth end faces. The edges become brittle when
tion, component length, outside diameter, and bore nitrided and should be chamfered, rounded, or
diameter will typically increase during carburize radiused at both end faces before nitriding. Typically
hardening. Therefore, machined dimensions before 4 module or smaller teeth require only breaking the
carburizing must account not only for finishing allow- edges. On larger teeth, chamfers should be in
ance, but also for part growth. Although theoretical accordance with table 8.
estimates of size change can be performed, optimiz-
4.2.4 Rough machining for induction hardening
ing the pre--carburize dimensions will normally re-
quire an iterative process of dimensional checking Gears are typically finish machined prior to induction
after carburizing and adjustment of pre--carburize hardening, and induction hardening is the final
operation in the gear production process. However, 5.1 Through hardening

if finish machining or grinding will be performed on
5.1.1 Through hardening of steel
the gear teeth after induction hardening, stock allow-
ances on gear teeth before hardening should be sim- Through hardened steel gears are heated to a re-
ilar to those used for carburizing. Upon completion quired temperature and cooled in the furnace, or
of the gear tooth machining process, there are sharp quenched in air, gas or liquid. Through hardening
edges at the tooth end faces along the tooth profile may be performed before or after the gear teeth are
and through the root and root fillet region. These formed. Through hardening does not imply equal
edge areas are susceptible to overheating and hardness through all sections of the part;
cracking during the induction hardening process. hardenability must be considered.
Therefore, it is highly recommended that gear teeth The three primary methods of heat treating through
be chamfered, rounded or radiused at both end hardened steel gearing, in ascending order of hard-
faces to minimize the potential for these problems. ness for a given steel, are: annealing, normalizing
Typically, 4 module and smaller teeth require only (or normalizing and tempering), and quenching and
breaking the edges. On larger teeth, chamfers tempering. Modifications of quench hardening, such
should be in accordance with table 8. as austempering and martempering, may also be
used.
4.2.5 Rough machining for flame hardening
5.1.1.1 Annealing of steel
Rough machining considerations are the same as for Annealing consists of heating steel or other ferrous
induction hardening (see 4.2.4). alloys to 800--900°C, and furnace cooling to a
prescribed temperature (generally below 315°C).
4.3 Welding
5.1.1.2 Normalizing or normalizing and
tempering of steel
Process welding of steel castings may be required.
Welding in the tooth region should be followed by an Normalizing consists of heating steel or other fer-
austenitizing heat treatment to eliminate high hard- rous alloys to 870--980°C and cooling in still or
ness, weld heat affected zones. Weld filler metal circulated air.
used in the tooth region must produce weld hardness
Alloy steels are usually tempered at 540--680°C after
equivalent to the base metal after heat treatment. If
normalizing for uniform hardness, dimensional sta-
minor discontinuities are detected on finish ma-
bility and improved machinability.
chined teeth, grinding to remove the flaws and blend-
ing the cavity contour with the surrounding surface 5.1.1.3 Cycle annealing or continuous furnace
may be preferable to welding. Welding, or grinding normalizing of steel
and blending in the tooth region or on other casting This thermal process is similar to the normalize and
areas may require customer notification or customer temper process and is generally performed in a con-
approval. Welded areas should be inspected using tinuous furnace. The material is heated to
the same criteria specified for the casting. 870--980°C and held at temperature for several
hours. The material is force fan cooled to
430--540°C and held for a short time for the parts to
temperature stabilize. The material is then heated to
540--680°C, held for several hours, then control
5 Heat treating of ferrous materials cooled to 320--430°C before cooling to room
temperature.
5.1.1.4 Stress relieving or tempering of steel
Heat treating procedures vary not only for different The preferred temperature range for full stress re-
material types (e.g., steel and ductile iron), but also lieving is 590--690°C. Lower temperatures and lon-
for similar material grades (SAE 4130 and SAE 4140 ger holding times are sometimes used when 590°C
steel). Temperatures noted in this clause are typical, temperatures would reduce hardness below the
but process temperatures for a specific material specified minimum. Stress relief below 480°C is not
must be verified. effective and is not recommended.
It may be possible for the steel mill to combine the relieve residual stresses that can develop when air
stress relieve operation after straightening with the cooling a casting with different section sizes.
temper operation after normalizing. 5.1.2.2 Ferritizing of cast iron
5.1.1.5 Quenching and tempering of steel Ferritizing is most commonly known as annealing.
Quenching is the rapid cooling of steel from a suit- Annealing is subdivided into two different methods,
able elevated temperature of 800--870°C. full or subcritical anneal, depending on the
austenitizing temperature that is used. A full anneal
The rapid cooling causes the gear to become harder requires a higher austenitizing temperature and is
and stronger by formation of martensite. The gear is typically used when carbides are present. In either
then tempered to a specific temperature, generally case, the cast iron is austenitized and then slowly
below 690°C, to achieve the desired mechanical cooled in the furnace to promote the formation of a
properties. ferritic matrix, which also increases the machinability
Tempering temperature is based on the specified of the material.
hardness range, the as--quenched hardness, and 5.1.2.3 Quenching and tempering of cast iron
the material composition. Tempering temperature
Quench and tempering consists of austenitizing the
should be as high as possible while maintaining the
cast iron and then rapidly cooling it to form marten-
specified hardness range. Parts are normally air
site. Because of the rapid drop in temperature,
cooled from the tempering temperature.
distortion and cracking issues are of concern during
5.1.1.6 Austempering of steel quenching.
Austempering consists of austenitizing steel fol- The martensite that forms on quenching is strong,
lowed by rapidly quenching the steel to a range of but very brittle. A temper is performed to achieve the
260°C to 400°C, where the material is transformed final combination of hardness and toughness.
isothermally to primarily lower bainite.
5.1.2.4 Austempering of cast iron
5.1.1.7 Martempering of steel Austempering consists of austenitizing followed by
Martempering consists of austenitizing steel fol- rapidly quenching to a temperature range of
lowed by rapidly quenching the steel into a 260--385°C where the material is transformed
quenchant that is slightly higher than the martensite isothermally to form ausferrite.
start (Ms) temperature. After the temperature is uni- 5.1.3 Equipment and controls for through
form through the section of the workpiece, but before hardening
austenite transformation begins, the work piece is
5.1.3.1 Quenching
removed from the quenchant and air cooled to pro-
duce transformation to martensite. The part must be The designer’s or heat treater’s responsibility is to
tempered once it reaches room temperature. select the quench variables to obtain the required
properties in the gear. The quench needs to be fast
5.1.2 Through hardening of cast iron
enough to avoid secondary transformation products,
Through hardened cast iron is heated to the required but slow enough to reduce distortion and avoid
temperature, then cooled at a suitable rate to cracking. The material hardenability will determine
produce required properties. how severe the quench has to be for a particular part
geometry.
Chemical composition of the cast iron determines
hardening capability and is important in Quench cracks usually originate at sharp corners,
determination of heat treating temperatures and substantial section size changes, or metallurgical
times. anomalies in the raw materials. However, even with
perfectly uniform sections, parts can easily crack if
5.1.2.1 Normalizing of cast iron
made of high--carbon, high--hardenability steels and
Normalizing consists of austenitizing and then cool- the quench is too severe. Delayed quench cracks
ing in still or agitated air. The resulting microstruc- can occur hours or days after quenching, especially
ture is generally a homogeneous, fine pearlite. if improperly tempered or stress relieved. It is good
Normalizing is sometimes followed by tempering to practice to temper immediately after quenching if
achieve the desired hardness. Tempering can also quench crack problems are a concern.
The main factors which control the quench rate are: martensite embrittlement that can occur when
part geometry, type of quenchant, degree of agita- tempering in the range of 260--370°C.
tion, and quench temperature. The geometry will af- 5.1.4 Product requirements and
fect how quickly and uniformly the quenchant will characteristics -- distortion
circulate around the part. Pockets which trap vapor
bubbles and restrict the flow of quenchant should be Quenched and tempered gearing changes size and
avoided. distorts due to mechanical and thermal stresses and
microstructural transformations during heat treat-
There are a variety of quenchants to choose from ment. Quenching the structure to martensite results
with a wide range of quench characteristics. Normal- in growth. Tempering of the hardened structure
ly used quenchants are air or other gases, oil, reduces the volume, but the combined effects of
polymer, molten salt, and water. Water is typically quenching and tempering still result in a volume
used for through hardening to quench plain carbon increase.
steels up to 0.40% carbon content and low alloy Distortion of quenched gearing occurs generally as
steels up to 0.30% carbon content. Oil or polymer is follows:
typically used for quenching through hardening high-
er carbon steels and for quenching carburized (1) Gears
steels. Gray and ductile irons can be quenched in (a) Outside and bore diameters grow larger
air, oil, polymer, molten salt, or water depending on and go out of round.
chemical composition and required properties. (b) Side faces become warped, and exhibit
runout.
Agitation is movement of the quenchant past the
part. The degree and uniformity of agitation greatly (2) Pinions
influences its rate of heat removal. Agitation can be Pinions become bowed, with the amount of
provided by propellers or pumps in the quench tank, bowing increasing with higher length to diameter
or by moving the parts through the quenchant. ratios and smaller journal diameters. The
amount of bowing or radial runout is often
The temperature of the quenchant may affect its abil- confined to journal diameters and shaft
ity to extract heat. Each quenchant should be used extensions for integral shaft pinions.
within its appropriate range of temperature. The
temperature of a water quenchant is more critical Normally, rough gear blanks (forging, barstock, or
than that of an oil. casting) have sufficient stock provided so distortion
can be accommodated by machining. Pinions with
There are several methods available to monitor and high length to diameter ratio may require straighten-
quantify the cooling rate of the quenching process. ing and a thermal stress relief prior to finish
Sample parts or test coupons can also be used as machining. In some exceptional instances, straight-
long as the test piece hardenability is accounted for. ening, thermal stress relief, rough machining, and a
second stress relief prior to finish machining may all
5.1.3.2 Tempering be necessary to keep the pinion dimensionally stable
during finish machining. Sequence of manufacture
Some steels can become brittle and unsuitable for
is dependent upon part design and the temperature
service if tempered in the temperature range of
used for stress relief. Lower tempering tempera-
370--580°C, or if slowly cooled through this range.
tures require lower stress relief temperatures and
This phenomenon is called temper embrittlement
less effective or efficient stress relief.
and is generally considered to be caused by segre-
gation of alloying elements or precipitation of Modified methods of quench hardening, such as
compounds at ferrite and prior austenite grain austempering, reduce distortion and form a modified
boundaries. If the part under consideration must be hardened structure at higher quenchant
tempered in this range, investigate the specific temperatures than those conventionally used.
material’s susceptibility to temper embrittlement and 5.2 Gas carburizing
proceed accordingly. Molybdenum content of
0.25--0.50 percent has been shown to eliminate 5.2.1 Process description of gas carburizing
temper embrittlement in most steels. Temper em- Gas carburizing consists of heating and holding steel
brittlement should not be confused with tempered at normally 900--980°C in a controlled atmosphere,
which causes additional carbon to diffuse into the -- Temperature control. Furnace equipment with
steel (typically 0.60 -- 1.10 percent carbon at the temperature uniformity, close temperature
surface). control, and accuracy of temperature recording
and control instruments is needed. Controls
After carburizing for the appropriate time, gearing should be checked and calibrated at regular
intervals.
will usually be cooled to 800--840°C, held at
temperature to stabilize while maintaining the car- -- Atmosphere control. The composition of the
bon potential, and direct quenched. Alternatively, furnace atmosphere is an important part of
gearing may be atmosphere cooled after carburizing process control. Control of carbon potential in
to below approximately 315°C and then reheated in the furnace atmosphere is critical to carburizing
controlled atmosphere to 800--840°C and and to avoidance of carbon pickup or depletion
quenched. Selected areas of gearing can be during the hardening process. There are three
protected from carburizing (masked) to permit commonly used methods for measuring and
machining after hardening, or can be left unmasked controlling carbon potential in a furnace
and machined after carburizing and slow cooling be- atmosphere:
fore hardening. After quenching, gearing is usually
-- Water vapor concentration. For a given
tempered at 150--190°C. Gearing may be subse-
temperature, the carbon concentration on the
quently given a refrigeration treatment to transform
surface of the part is related to the water
retained austenite and then retempered. vapor concentration (dew point) in a furnace
atmosphere. The water vapor concentration
Higher carbon content is required in the case not is measured using a dew cell or dew pointer.
only for developing hardness, but also for The water vapor concentration is expressed
decreasing the temperature at which martensitic as the atmosphere dew point temperature.
transformation begins during quenching. Carbon
-- Carbon dioxide concentration. The
content of the base material is intentionally low so
concentrations of carbon dioxide and carbon
that martensitic transformation in the core begins at
monoxide in a furnace atmosphere at a given
a higher temperature than transformation in the
temperature are related to the carbon
case. As the carburized part is quenched, core
concentration on the surface of the part. The
material just below the case will begin to transform to carbon dioxide concentration is measured
martensite at a relatively high temperature and will with an external infrared gas analyzer and
increase in volume because of the transformation to expressed as a percentage.
a different crystalline structure. The austenite in the
case is relatively low strength, and will deform to -- Oxygen concentration. The concentration of
accommodate the core expansion. As quenching carbon on the part surface is related to the
progresses, a layer of core material will have oxygen concentration in the furnace
transformed, expanded, and hardened while the atmosphere at a given temperature and
case is still austenitic and low strength. When carbon monoxide level. The oxygen
concentration is measured with an oxygen
temperature in the case reaches the martensite start
probe positioned in the furnace heat
temperature, the case transforms, hardens, and at-
chamber.
tempts to expand. However, the core material is now
hard and resists the case expansion, developing a -- Quench control. The quenching technique for a
residual compressive stress in the case. This residu- given material and process combination must be
al compressive stress increases the capacity of the carefully selected and controlled to consistently
case to resist tensile bending stresses during part produce the desired phase transformations and
service. dimensional response during quenching.
The primary factors controlling the quench rate

5.2.2 Equipment and controls for gas in a free quench are part geometry, type of
carburizing quenchant, degree of agitation and quenchant
temperature. See 5.1.3.1 for details. In die
Carburizing requires close control of many factors quenching, flow rate of the quenchant replaces
including: agitation as a primary factor.
5.2.3 Product requirements and coarse pitch, ground thread worm gearing, heavier
characteristics for carburized steel gearing case depth may be required.
5.2.3.1 Specifications for carburized gearing To aid in obtaining the required properties, the heat
treater should be given the following information as a
To obtain expected performance of gearing, the minimum:
gearing application and loading conditions must be
considered to determine the required case hardness -- material composition;
and case depth on the finished part. Manufacturing -- case depth range;
procedures must be considered to determine the re-
-- surface hardness range.
quired as--carburized case depth that will assure
meeting finished part requirements. The following additional items may be specified in
whole, or in part:
Case hardness and case depth are specified to
produce adequate resistance to both bending -- Core hardness. Approximate minimum tooth
stresses and contact stresses. Case hardness is core hardness that can be obtained in some
typical carburizing grades of steel using agitated
one of many metallurgical factors that affect the al-
oil quenching are shown in table 9.
lowable contact stress number and allowable bend-
ing stress number. For a given application and -- Core microstructure;
loading conditions, specified case depth is typically -- Case microstructure;
based on tooth size. Effective case depth varies with
-- Surface carbon content;
location on the tooth, being shallower in the tooth
root than at 1/2 tooth height. The case must be deep -- Cold treatment;
enough so there is adequate strength (hardness) to -- Areas to be free of carburizing by appropriate
prevent cracking at the sub--surface location where masking using copper plating or commercial
maximum shear stress from contact loading will oc- stop--off compounds.
cur. Case depth must be great enough and core
hardness high enough to resist case crushing from Table 9 -- Approximate minimum core hardness
contact loads. of carburized gear teeth
Hardness HRC minimum1)
The maximum case depth must be limited.
3
Excessive case depths can alter the sequence of Grade module 4--5 6--7 8--13
transformation during quenching (see 5.2.1) and can and module module module
result in decreased residual compressive stress, or smaller
even residual tensile stress, at the tooth surface. 9310 34 33 31 28
This situation will reduce resistance to bending and 4820 36 35 33 27
contact loads. Even if the transformation sequence 8822 34 32 30 25
is proper, heavier case depths increase the volume 4320 33 30 27 23
of material under residual compressive stress, and 8620 28 26 24 18
therefore increase the level of the compensating re- 4620 25 22 18 --
sidual tensile stress at the case--core interface. This 18CrNiMo7--8 35 34 32 30
situation can result in case--core cracking under the NOTE:

1) Depending upon the Jominy curve of the particular
top land. Gearing with narrower top lands for a given material, maximum hardness will typically be 8--10 points
tooth thickness are more susceptible to case--core higher than the minimums listed. Use of H band steel is the
cracking. normal method of hardenability control.
Refer to applicable AGMA standards for details on

specifying case hardness and case depth. 5.2.3.2 Cold treatment (retained austenite
conversion treatment)
The case depth for bevel gears is calculated based
When surface hardness is low due to high levels of
on the tooth thickness at the small end.
retained austenite in the case microstructure, it may
Worm and ground--thread case depths allow for be necessary to refrigerate the parts to transform the
grinding; case depth on unground worm gearing retained austenite to martensite. The refrigeration
may be decreased accordingly. For heavily loaded, temperature may vary from --5°C to --85°C. To
minimize microcracking, parts should be tempered (3) Fixturing techniques in the furnace and during
before and after refrigeration. quenching;
NOTE: Caution should be exercised in the use of (4) Carbon potential of the carburizing atmosphere;
refrigeration treatment on critical gearing. Microcracks (5) Carburizing temperature, rate of heating the
can result which can reduce fatigue strength. Use of
load in the furnace, and temperature prior to
refrigeration may require agreement between the
customer and supplier.
quenching;
(6) Time between quench and temper for higher
5.2.3.3 Carbide control alloy steel;
When high surface carbon results in a heavy contin- (7) Quenchant type, temperature and amount of
uous carbide network in the outer portion of the case, agitation;
parts should be reheated to typically 900°C in a lower
(8) Resultant metallurgical characteristics of the
carbon potential atmosphere to diffuse and break up case, such as carbon content, case depth,
the excess carbide. Carbide networks must be amount of retained austenite, and carbides.
avoided as they tend to reduce fatigue strength of the
material. Once a component is designed to minimize distor-
tion, processing techniques should be optimized to
5.2.3.4 Distortion make distortion consistent. At times, redesign of
components may be required to reduce distortion.
Distortion of carburized gearing makes it one of the
least repeatable of surface hardening processes Stock removal on tooth surfaces after carburize
due to the number of variables which affect distor- hardening must be limited to maintain required sur-
tion. Distortion results from microstructural trans- face hardness and case depth. Excessive stock
formation and thermal stress. Transformation in the removal will also degrade the desired residual stress
case results in growth which sets up residual surface pattern produced by carburize hardening. Surfaces
compressive stress. This stress is balanced by cor- other than the tooth flanks and roots may tolerate
responding residual tensile stress beneath the case. greater stock removal.
General design considerations of carburized gear-
Principal variables affecting the amount of growth,
ing related to distortion include the following (refer to
distortion, and residual stress include:
figure 7):
(1) Geometry; (1) Tooth size, with larger teeth (higher module)
distorting more.
(2) Hardenability (carbon and alloy content) of the
base material. Higher hardenability increases (2) Equal rim thickness at both end faces reduces
growth and distortion; distortion.
Cantilever pinion Blind ended teeth
Offset High length to diameter ratio

web
Web holes Thin web
Figure 7 -- Gearing blank features that increase distortion during carburizing
(3) Radial web support section under the rim should width gears may exhibit “helix wind--up” after
be centrally located. Web support section hardening.
thickness under the rim is recommended to be
(2) End growth on gear teeth at both ends of the face
not less than 40--50 percent of the face width for
due to increased case depth (carburizing from
precision gears. Near solid “pancake” gear
two directions, 90 degrees apart, followed by
blanks, designed with moderate recess on both
improved quench action for the same reason)
sides of the web section, distort less. The recess
may appear as reverse tooth crowning on
is provided to enable clean--up grinding of the
narrow face gearing. Teeth are often crown cut
rim and hub end faces after hardening.
prior to hardening to compensate for reverse
crown, or are chamfered at the ends of teeth.
(4) Holes in the web section close to the rim (to
Teeth may also be both crown cut and
reduce the weight or provide holes for lifting)
chamfered.
may cause collapsing of the rim section over the
holes. (3) Eccentricity (radial runout) of gears and their
bores is dependent upon how they are fixtured in
(5) High length to diameter ratio pinions distort the furnace.
more. Journals may be required to be masked in
(4) Taper across the face (tapered teeth), bore taper
order to prevent carburizing and then be finish
and “hour--glassing” of the gear bore can occur
machined after hardening with sufficient stock
due to non--uniform growth of teeth across the
for clean--up. Masking can also be used for ease
face and non--uniform shrinking of the bores.
of straightening.
(5) Bowing of integral shaft pinions. Integral shaft
(6) Cantilever pinions, with teeth on the end of the pinions should, whenever possible, be hung or
shaft, and “blind ended” teeth on pinions, where fixtured with axis vertical to minimize bowing.
the adjacent diameter is larger than the root
Gears may be fixtured vertically (axis horizontal)
diameter, present problems from both distortion
resting on a support rod through the bores or web
and finishing standpoints.
holes, or fixtured horizontally (individually or
Carburized gearing also exhibits the following typical stacked) to minimize distortion, depending on size
distortion characteristics (refer to figure 8): and face width. Larger ring gears are positioned hor-
izontally with sufficient stock for clean--up of the
(1) Reduction in tooth helix angle after carburizing teeth. Bores and web sections can be masked to
hardening (“helix unwind”), which often requires prevent carburizing, and enable subsequent
an increased helix angle to be machined into the machining.
element prior to carburizing (more prevalent in Thin section gears, such as bevel ring gears, may be
pinions). Teeth on larger diameter, smaller face press quenched to minimize distortion.
Straight
Helical
unwind
Taper Hourglassing
End growth Bowing

(reverse crown)
Eccentricity
Figure 8 -- Typical distortion characteristics of carburized gearing
5.3 Vacuum carburizing and plasma Table 10 -- Pressure unit conversions

carburizing
Pressure Equivalent Equivalent
Vacuum carburizing and plasma carburizing unit unit(s) units(s)
processes are performed in specialized vacuum 1 bar 760 torr 14.7 psia
furnaces operating under a partial pressure, that is, 760 torr 101.3 kPa 1 atm
below atmospheric pressure (760 torr). Vacuum 1 torr 1.33 mbar 1000 microns
carburizing may be performed within a pressure
range from slightly below atmospheric pressure
(approximately 600 torr) to significantly below Traditionally, vacuum carburizing has been
atmospheric pressure (less than 30 torr). Plasma performed at pressures greater than 100 torr. Low
carburizing is typically performed at lower pressures pressure vacuum carburizing, a more recent
(0.1 to 10 torr), and the equipment incorporates a development, is typically performed at pressures be-
DC power supply to generate the plasma. The low 30 torr. Lower process pressures improve the
choice of which technology to employ depends on a uniformity of carburizing, improve furnace
number of factors, including selective carburizing re- cleanliness, and reduce furnace maintenance.
quirements, part geometry, and load configuration. Vacuum carburizing is normally performed at tem-
The following primary principles of atmosphere gas peratures from 870°C to 950°C. When approved by
carburizing apply: the customer, high temperature vacuum carburizing
(above 950°C) may be used.
-- carburizing is performed within the austenitizing
After the workload is heated to achieve temperature
range for steels;
uniformity throughout the part, the carburizing cycle
-- the rate of carburizing increases with increasing begins when a suitable hydrocarbon is introduced.
temperature because the process is based upon The hydrocarbon dissociates, providing a source of
diffusion of carbon within austenite; carbon. Since the near surface becomes saturated
-- a suitable hydrocarbon is necessary to provide a with carbon to the limit of solubility of carbon in auste-
source of carbon. nite, planned interruptions in the addition of
carburizing gas are necessary to allow carbon to dif-
Vacuum processing minimizes or eliminates the fuse into the steel. Thus vacuum carburizing is a
formation of intergranular oxide (IGO). IGO de- boost/diffuse type process. As with atmosphere gas
creases the bending fatigue life of atmosphere gas carburizing, the rate of diffusion is temperature
carburized gearing with unground tooth roots. dependent. A typical vacuum carburizing cycle will
Surface preparation is highly important for consis- balance the addition of carburizing gas with
tent vacuum and plasma carburizing. Parts must be appropriate diffusion time to allow control of the
clean and free of oils, greases and dirt. Cleaning microstructure (retained austenite and carbide
may involve the use of aqueous, semi--aqueous, or formation). The required flow of the hydrocarbon
solvent based chemistry and the proper application source is dependent on the surface area of the load.
of time, temperature, and energy. Surfaces that will Suitable hydrocarbon sources include, but are not
be carburized may be abrasively blasted using gar- limited to acetylene, ethylene, propane, and mix-
net, aluminum oxide or other suitable blasting media. tures of hydrocarbons with other gases. However,
Glass beads are not recommended for cleaning prior natural gas should not be used in vacuum carburiz-
to carburizing due to the difficulty of removing resi- ing because its constituents vary. Liquids such as
due. Clean parts should be handled with lint--free cyclohexane may also be used. After the completion
clean gloves to prevent surface contamination prior of the carburizing gas addition portion of the process,
to carburizing. a final diffusion step is normally performed to
achieve the desired case depth and carbon profile.
5.3.1 Process description of vacuum
Case depth and hardness profiles can be accurately
carburizing
predicted by simulation software, but the final bal-
Conversion factors for terms commonly used to de- ance between carburizing gas addition and boost/
scribe vacuum furnace pressure levels are shown in diffusion time is often determined by experience to
table 10. assure that the desired microstructure is obtained.
5.3.2 Process description of plasma 5.3.4 Equipment and controls for plasma
carburizing carburizing
Plasma carburizing is a process that takes place in In plasma furnaces, a power supply independent of
an ionized gaseous environment within a special- the power supply for heating the furnace is neces-
ized vacuum furnace that typically operates in the sary for generating the glow discharge. Current
0.1 to 10 torr pressure range. The plasma is called density is used to control the amount of carbon avail-
the glow discharge. In the process, the workload is able for carburizing. The area of all metallic surfaces
being heated and, prior to carburizing, cleaning (baskets, screens, parts and masking materials)
(sputtering) of the surface occurs due to the interac- must be included in the calculation for required cur-
tion of the part surface with the activated plasma. rent density. It is advantageous to run standard
Hydrogen is a common addition during this step to loads or to provide an easy method of surface area
aid the cleaning process. The length of time required calculation.
for sputtering is a function of the cleanliness of the 5.3.5 Process limitations of vacuum
parts and fixtures being introduced. This cleaning carburizing
step aids the removal of contaminates, such as
oxides that may inhibit carburizing. Some vacuum carburizing furnaces operate at pres-
sures in the 100--300 torr range and even as high as
Two plasma carburizing methods are in common use 600 torr. At these gas pressures, soot and tar are
today. One uses methane as the source of carbon, common by--products of the vacuum carburizing
while the other relies on propane (or propane diluted process. Rigorous maintenance is necessary to
with hydrogen gas). The carbon transfer character- assure proper furnace operation. In addition, while
istics of the two gases differ. The rate of attraction process uniformity is good, pulsing of the carburizing
may be adjusted by varying process parameters: gas is often used to improve carburizing coverage in
time, temperature, gas pressure, current density or areas such as deep holes or splines.
other plasma conditions. These parameters are ad-
In low pressure vacuum carburizing, furnace pres-
justable to carburize recessed areas and deep
sure is typically less than 30 torr. At these lower
holes.
pressures, gas movement within the workload is
Plasma carburizing temperatures are normally in the adequate without pulsing, and soot and tar formation
range of 850°C to 1090°C. Operation at low vacuum are greatly reduced, but not eliminated.
levels, in the range of 0.1 torr to 15 torr and in the
5.3.6 Process limitations of plasma
presence of an electric field permits the use of
carburizing
methane or propane as the source of carbon. Only
surfaces that come in contact with the plasma glow In plasma carburizing the calculation of surface area
discharge will be carburized. For this reason, me- is essential to proper process control. In addition,
chanical (physical) masks may be used in plasma the boost diffuse relationship must be developed for
carburizing. Copper plating is not a suitable mask for each of the carburizing gas types.
the plasma carburizing process because the copper 5.4 Gas and ion nitriding
will be ionized.
5.4.1 Process description of gas nitriding
5.3.3 Equipment and controls for vacuum
Conventional gas nitride hardening of gearing,
carburizing
which is usually finish machined before nitriding,
Instrumentation should be in place to record and involves heating to a temperature of 510--570°C and
control process variables, including time, tempera- holding at temperature in cracked ammonia atmo-
ture, gas pressure, and gas volume. It is important to sphere (10 to 30 percent dissociation). Under these
recognize that the surface area of the load affects conditions, nitrogen atoms diffuse into the surface to
selection of process parameters. Furnaces should form hard iron nitrides and alloy nitrides. During this
be capable of maintaining temperature uniformity of diffusion, a number of different reactions take place
 5.5°C. The hydrocarbon source should be in the surface region of ferritic materials, leading to
selected to match the furnace operating design. The stratified layers in the case. At nitrogen contents
highest available grade of hydrocarbon should be greater than 8 weight percent, the equilibrium
used. reaction product is epsilon (ε) compound, Fe3N. At
about 6 percent nitrogen a compound called gamma 5.4.4 Ion nitriding equipment and controls
prime (γ′) with a composition of Fe4N is formed. If the
A basic ion nitriding furnace consists of a vacuum
outermost layer formed is γ′, the layer is referred to
chamber, a power supply for furnace heating, and a
as the white layer. Such a surface layer is very hard,
process gas system. An isolated hearth or work sup-
but so brittle that it may spall in use. The layer is often
port is also required to ensure electrical isolation
removed because it is undesirable in certain product
between the work load and furnace vessel. The
applications (see 5.4.5.4). Special nitriding
furnace control system typically is capable of control-
processes can be used to reduce this layer or make it
ling the following parameters: part temperature,
less brittle. The practical limit on case depth is about
vessel wall temperature, absolute pressure level,
1.0 mm maximum, which requires a thorough stress
glow--discharge voltage and current, and gas com-
analysis (for other than wear applications) of the
position. All of these parameters are closely
effectiveness of the case for coarse pitch gearing.
controlled to allow the desired level of nitrogen to
NOTE: Gas nitriding and ion nitriding should not be diffuse into the part and to control case depth
confused with aerated salt bath nitriding, ferritic uniformity over the work piece.
nitrocarburizing or austenitic nitrocarburizing. The
latter three processes involve diffusion of both nitrogen Current density is one of the key parameters in the
and carbon into the surface of ferrous materials, ion nitride process. All metallic surfaces (baskets,
whereas gas nitriding and ion nitriding involve only the screens, parts and mechanical masking) must be in-
diffusion of nitrogen. cluded in the calculation for current density. It is
advantageous to run standard loads to simplify this
5.4.2 Process description of ion nitriding
calculation.
Nitride hardening can also be achieved with the ion 5.4.5 Product requirements and
nitriding process. The ion nitride process uses ion- characteristics for nitrided steel
ized nitrogen gas to achieve nitrogen penetration of
5.4.5.1 Specifications
the surface by ion bombardment. The process can
provide flexibility in determining the type of com- Parts which are to be nitrided should have the
pound produced. The process can also be tailored to following specified:
better control nitriding of geometric problems, such
-- material grade;
as blind holes and small orifices.
-- preliminary heat treatment;
5.4.3 Gas nitriding equipment and controls
-- minimum surface hardness;
Variables in the nitriding process are the combined -- minimum total case depth;
effects of surface condition, degree of ammonia dis-
-- maximum thickness of white layer, if limited;
sociation, temperature, and time of nitriding. Nitro-
gen diffusion at the steel surface is affected by oxide -- areas to be protected from nitriding by masking
and surface contamination. In order to guarantee with copper or tin plating, or commercial stop--off
nitrogen diffusion it may be necessary to remove sur- compounds;
face oxidation by chemical or mechanical means. -- nitriding temperature;
After cleaning and before nitriding, handling with
clean white gloves is recommended. -- metallurgical test coupons.
5.4.5.2 Hardness and case depth
The nitriding process affects the rate of nitrogen dif-
fusion and the thickness of the resultant brittle white Surface hardness is limited by the concentration of
layer on the surface. hard nitride forming elements in the alloy and the
core hardness of the gear. Lower core hardness
A two stage nitriding process (two temperatures with does not support the hard, thin case as well as higher
increased percent of ammonia dissociation at the core hardness. Lower core hardness will result from
second higher temperature) generally reduces the less alloy, larger section size, reduced quench
thickness of the white layer to 0.015--0.025 mm max- severity, and a greater degree of martensite temper-
imum. The white layer thickness is also dependent ing. Lower core hardness results in a microstructure
upon the steel composition. which causes a lower surface hardness nitrided
case, since it limits the ability to form high concentra- Table 12 -- Approximate minimum core
tion of hard metallic nitrides. Surface hardness will hardness--nitrided steels
also increase with increasing nitride case depth.
Steel type Minimum core
Approximate minimum surface hardness which can hardness, HRC
be obtained on nitrided steel is shown in table 11. 4140 28
4150 30
Table 11 -- Approximate minimum surface 4340 32
hardness -- nitrided steels1) Nitralloy 135M 34
Minimum 2--1/2 percent chrome (EN40B 38
surface and EN40C, 31CrMoV91))
Steel type hardness NOTE:
1) British and German analyses, respectively.
HR15N HRC2)
4140 85 48
4150 85 48 5.4.5.3 Distortion
4340 84 46 Nitriding of gearing results in less distortion than
Nitralloy (contains AI) 90 60 carburize, flame, or induction hardening. Nitrided
2--1/2 percent chrome (EN40B 89 58 parts will distort in a consistent manner when all
and EN40C, 31CrMoV9)3) manufacturing phases and the nitriding process are
NOTES: held constant. The amount and direction of growth
1) Data based on 269 HBW minimum core hardness.
or movement should be determined for each part by
2) Converted to HRC from HR15N.
3) British and German analyses, respectively. dimensional analyses both prior to and after nitrid-
ing. During nitriding, outer surfaces grow approxi-
mately 0.013--0.025 mm. Bore size may shrink up to
The specified case depth for nitrided gearing is 0.04 mm depending upon size. Preliminary quench
determined by the surface and subsurface stress and temper heat treatment, which results in distor-
gradient of the design application. Surface hardness tion, is done before machining and nitriding. Since
and core hardness will influence the design’s mini- parts are not heated above the transformation tem-
mum required case depth. Since the diffusion of perature or previous tempering temperature during
nitrogen is extremely slow, it is not normally nitriding, and are not quenched (as occurs during
necessary to specify a maximum case depth. carburizing, flame or induction hardening), nitrided
Sectioning of an actual part to determine case depth gear teeth are not generally required to be ground or
need only be performed when the results of the lapped after nitriding to meet dimensional tolerance
process test coupon are cause for rejection, or when requirements. When close tolerances are required,
the surface hardness of the part(s) is not within 3 gearing can be rough machined, then stress relieved
HRC points of the surface hardness of the test at 30°C below the preliminary tempering tempera-
coupon, or when specified by the customer. ture to relieve rough machining residual stress;
gearing is then finish machined and subsequently ni-
Core hardness obtained in the quench and temper trided. Bearing diameters of shaft extensions are
pretreatment must provide sufficient strength to sup- often ground after nitriding with only minimum stock
port the case under load and to resist tooth bending provided. Surfaces can also be masked from
and rim stresses. In alloys such as series 4140 and nitriding to facilitate machining.
4340 steels, nitrided hardness is lessened appreci-
5.4.5.4 White layer removal
ably by decreased core hardness prior to nitriding.
This must be considered when selecting tempering White layer is typically 0.005 to 0.05 mm, depending
or stress relieving temperatures. Core hardness re- on the nitriding process parameters. The maximum
quirements limit material selection to those steels permitted white layer depends on the AGMA grade
that can be tempered to the core hardness range of gearing, but is 0.025 mm or less, so white layer re-
with a tempering temperature that is at least 30°C moval may be required. The customer may require
above the nitriding temperature. Table 12 shows white layer removal by the manufacturer, regardless
approximate core hardness obtained on typical ni- of white layer thickness, to avoid breakage and loss
trided steels. of the layer during gearing operation.
The most commonly used methods for the removal The allowable durability and root strength rating for
of this white layer are grinding, honing, acid pickling, the different hardening patterns should be obtained
fine sandblasting, or a combination of these from appropriate AGMA rating practices. Bending
processes. Alternately, specialized heat treating strength ratings are lower at the roots of teeth when
processes may be used. only the tooth flanks are hardened.
5.5 Induction hardening A wide variety of materials can be induction hard-

ened, including both cast and wrought forms of
5.5.1 Process description of induction carbon and alloy steels, martensitic stainless steels,
hardening ductile, malleable and gray cast irons. Generally,
steels with carbon content of approximately
0.35--0.55 percent are suitable for induction harden-
Induction hardening is a surface heat treating
ing. Alloy steels of 0.5 percent carbon or higher are
process that heats ferrous metals above the trans-
susceptible to cracking. The higher the alloy content
formation temperature by means of a high frequency
with high carbon, the greater the tendency for
electromagnetic field that induces electrical currents
cracking. Cast irons also have a high tendency for
within the material. For most applications, high cur-
cracking.
rent frequencies of 200kHz or above are used; alter-
natively, medium frequencies of up to 10kHz are
used. The heated workpiece is then rapidly Successful induction hardening of either gray or duc-
quenched (cooled) with polymer or water solutions to tile cast iron is dependent on the amount of carbon in
produce a hardened martensitic structure in the the matrix. In general, a combined carbon content of
heated region. 0.35 -- 0.80% is needed. The combined carbon in
pearlite will readily dissolve at the austenitizing tem-
perature. Pearlite microstructures are desirable.
There are two primary methods of induction harden-
Pearlite promoting alloy additions such as copper,
ing, tooth--by--tooth hardening and spin hardening.
tin, nickel or molybdenum may be necessary to form
Tooth--by--tooth hardening, also called profile, scan
this microstructure.
or progressive hardening, simultaneously hardens
adjacent tooth flanks and the intervening tooth root.
Wide faced gearing is heated by scanning type Condition of the gearing material can influence the
equipment, while more limited areas can be heated magnitude and repeatability of induction hardening.
by stationary inductors. This process uses inductors A quench and tempered material condition or
made specifically for each tooth size (module), tooth preheat treatment provides the best hardening
form (pressure angle) and geometry. This process is response and most repeatable distortion.
typically used on 5 module and larger teeth. Howev-
er, higher frequency can be used for hardening gear 5.5.2 Equipment and controls for induction
teeth from 2.5 to 5 module. With appropriate sup- hardening
porting equipment and power supplies, tooth--by--
tooth induction hardening can be applied to almost The basic components of an induction heating sys-
any tooth size. However, for 2 module and smaller tem are a power supply, inductor and workpiece
teeth, spin hardening in an induction coil is recom- (material to be heated or treated). The power supply
mended. In spin hardening, an induction coil sur- sends alternating current through the gear tooth
rounds the gear while the gear is either spun or inductor/coil, generating a magnetic field. When the
simultaneously spun and scanned through the coil to gear tooth inductor is scanned through the gear tooth
heat the gear teeth. Note that this process generally space, or workpiece is placed in the coil, the magnet-
hardens the entire tooth cross--section to below the ic field induces eddy currents in the workpiece,
tooth roots, reducing the tooth core ductility and generating precise amounts of localized heat with-
increasing distortion. Spin hardening is not recom- out any physical contact between the gear tooth
mended for gear teeth larger than 5 module. See fig- inductor/coil and the workpiece. For induction case
ure 9 for variations of these processes and the hardening, typical frequencies are 450 kHz for case
resultant hardening patterns. Requirements should depths of 1 to 2 mm. Case depths deeper than 2 mm
be resolved with the induction hardening supplier. are typically hardened at 10 kHz.
Spin hardening
Inductor coil Induction coil Induction coil
or flame head or flame head
Type A Type A Type B

(Contour) (Non--contour)
Flank hardening (tooth--by--tooth)
Inductor or flame head Inductor or flame head
Type B Type B
Flank and root hardening (tooth--by--tooth)
Inductor or flame head
NOTE: Type A
-- The hardening patterns shown are not possible for all component sizes and tooth sizes.
-- Type A indicates that flanks and roots are hardened for profile or non--profile patterns.
-- Only spin hardening Type A (profile) is applicable to Grade 3.
-- Type B indicates that the flanks are hardened only to the form diameter.
-- For Type B the full active profile must be hardened with the transition zone not in the root fillet area.
Figure 9 -- Variations in hardening pattern obtainable on gear teeth with

flame or induction hardening
Tooth--by--tooth induction hardening uses inductors Profile hardened tooth patterns for 2 to 6 module
that are machined or fabricated from solid copper gearing can be obtained by dual frequency spin coil
and combined with laminated materials. Spin hard- induction heating using both low (audio) frequency
ening uses inductors produced from coiled copper (AF) of 1--15 kHz and higher (radio) frequency (RF)
tubing and normally cooled with water. The size and of approximately 80--400 kHz. Initially low audio fre-
shape of the coil (single or multiple turn; helical, quency is used to preheat the root area, followed by
round or square; internal or external) depends on the high radio frequency to develop the profile heated
process, the shape of the workpiece, and induction pattern, followed by quenching.
hardening procedure.
Accurate heating to the proper surface temperature
Coarser pitch teeth generally require inductors pow-
is a critical step. Inductor design, heat input and
ered by solid state units or medium frequency motor
cycle time must be closely controlled. Underheating
generator sets. Finer pitch gearing generally utilizes
encircling coils with power provided by solid state results in less than specified hardness and case
units or high frequency vacuum tube units. depth. Overheating can result in cracking.
Induction heating depth and pattern are controlled Quenching after induction hardening can be
by frequency, energy density, quenching, shape of performed with a separate spray following the heat
the inductor, workpiece geometry and workpiece source, or in an immersion quench tank. Polymer
area being heated. solutions or water can be used, depending on the
hardenability of the steel and the hardening (4) Minimum surface hardness required.
requirements. (Maximums may be specified for induction
hardened parts).
Quench time and temperature are critical, and quen-
chant pressure, velocity, and direction must be (5) Those areas where the surface hardness is to be
considered. When localized spray quenching or air measured and the frequency of inspection.
quenching is used, a coolant is used on a portion of
(6) Depth of hardening required and the location(s)
the metal away from the heating zone to maintain the
at which the depth is to be obtained.
base metal near ambient temperature so the part
mass can absorb heat from the heated zone. (7) Whether destructive tests are to be used for
determining the depth of hardening, and the
Furnace tempering is required for all AGMA grades
frequency of such inspection.
of induction hardened gearing. Induction tempering
for stress relief before furnace tempering is recom- (8) Tempering temperature, if required.
mended for Grade 3 gearing to avoid cracking.
Induction tempering is performed using the same (9) Magnetic particle inspection, if required.
frequency used for hardening, or a lower frequency (10)Requirement for the heat treater to submit the
at a reduced power level, to heat the gearing uni- following information.
formly to a temperature of 150--260°C. Tempering
after quenching increases toughness, improves -- Surface hardness range obtained and the
dimensional stability, reduces residual stress, and number of pieces inspected.
reduces cracking susceptibility. -- Depth of hardening obtained at each location
5.5.3 Product requirements and specified when destructive tests are required,
characteristics for induction hardened gearing and the number of pieces inspected.
-- Results of magnetic particle inspection, if
5.5.3.1 Specifications
required.
The drawing, order, or written specification should
5.5.3.2 Hardness and case depth
include the following information:
(1) Chemical analysis range of the material or grade Maximum attainable surface hardness is a function
designation. of the carbon content (see figure 10), but hardness
may be lower as a result of the preliminary heat treat-
(2) Preliminary heat treatment. ment, alloy content, depth of hardening, heating
(3) Hardening pattern required. time, mass and quenching considerations.
70
60
Hardness, HRC
50
40
30
0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70
Carbon, %
Figure 10 -- Surface hardness versus carbon content for 99% martensite microstructure [2]
Effective case depth for induction hardened gears is 5.5.3.3 Distortion

normally defined as the distance below the surface
Selective surface hardening of gear teeth by induc-
at one--quarter tooth height above the root where
tion hardening results essentially in distortion of the
hardness drops 10 HRC points below the surface
teeth only, because only the teeth are heated and
hardness. When the entire tooth cross section
quenched. Amount of distortion increases with case
above the root is hardened, effective case depth
pattern depth and increases as the pattern deviates
does not apply. When the root is also to be
from the profile hardened tooth pattern. AGMA
hardened, depth of case below the root may be
quality level may be reduced approximately one lev-
specified.
el by the induction hardening procedure unless
With induction hardening, the heat affected zone subsequent tooth finishing is performed.
(HAZ) is a region beneath the case that is heated to Spin hardening generally produces the following
700°C--760°C but does not get hardened, and thus distortion characteristics:
has lower strength. If the hardened pattern is such
-- Helical unwinding of the gear teeth, as with
that the HAZ intersects the tooth flank, the point of in-
carburized pinions;
tersection must be a minimum of 3 mm up the flank
from the root fillet. -- Increased growth of the teeth (greater than for
carburized gearing) because the entire tooth
Tooth--by--tooth induction hardening results in case cross section may be hardened in finer pitch
depth at the root approximately 60 percent of the gearing;
depth at the pitchline, due to mass, quench, and -- Crowning or reverse crowning of the teeth
hardenability effects. Tooth--by--tooth hardening of across the face dependent upon the heat
fine pitched gearing using a submerged quench de- pattern. Crowning is more desirable from a tooth
creases the difference between pitchline and root loading standpoint;
case depth.
-- Taper of teeth due to varied heat pattern and
Refer to figure 9 for patterns achieved by the induc- case depth across the face.
tion hardened process. Bending strength capacity is CAUTION: Deep spin hardening of gear teeth may
significantly reduced if a type B pattern (i.e., cause excessive tooth growth and may affect bore size.
unhardened roots) is produced. See applicable 5.6 Flame hardening
AGMA rating standards for additional information.
5.6.1 Process description of flame hardening
When gear sectioning is not feasible or not allowed, Flame hardening is a surface heat treating process
a customer approved procedure should be per- that heats ferrous metals above the upper
formed by the heat treater to estimate hardness and transformation temperature using direct impinge-
case depth. This inspection procedure may include ment of a high temperature flame. The heated work-
acid etching and hardness verification. Grit blasting piece is then rapidly quenched with water, oil, or a
is also occasionally used to detect the hardened polymer solution of the appropriate temperature and
area. concentration to produce a hardened martensitic
structure in the heated region.
NOTE: During tooth--by--tooth induction hardening,
power is lowered and travel is sometimes increased as Flame hardening methods include tooth--by--tooth
the inductor approaches the end faces. This is to and spin hardening. Tooling includes special flame
prevent edge burning and cracking. This is particularly
heads and flame rings specific to the hardening ap-
necessary for helical or double helical gears where
there is an acute and obtuse angle formed at each tooth plication. Tooth--by--tooth flame hardening generally
end face. The acute angle is especially susceptible to hardens the flanks only. Root flame hardening by the
cracking due to overheating extreme caution must tooth--by--tooth process is difficult and should be
be taken when induction hardening these gears specified with care. The spin flame process hardens
and generous end face chamfering is required on the teeth through the entire tooth cross section to
helical and double helical gears. In these instances,
below the roots, reducing core ductility of teeth and
hardness may be lower at the ends, particularly at the
root area. At the root location, existence of a hardness increasing distortion. See figure 9 for variations of
pattern can be demonstrated by acid etching, but actual these processes and the resultant hardening
depth can be accurately measured only by sectioning. patterns.
5.6.2 Equipment and controls for flame (4) Minimum surface hardness required.
hardening (Maximums may be specified for flame
hardened parts).
Three typical gases used for flame heating are
(5) Those areas where the surface hardness is to be
MAPP, acetylene and propane. These gases are
measured and the frequency of inspection.
each mixed with air in particular ratios and are
burned under pressure to generate the flame which (6) Depth of hardening required and the location(s)
the burner directs on the work piece. at which the depth is to be obtained.
(7) Whether destructive tests are to be used for
Simple torch type flame heads are also used to determining the depth of hardening and the
manually harden teeth. Since there is no automatic frequency of such inspection.
control of this process, high operator skill is required.
(8) Tempering temperature, if required.
Accurate heating to the proper surface temperature (9) Magnetic particle inspection, if required.
is a critical step. Burner design, heat input and cycle
time must be closely controlled. Underheating (10)Requirement for the heat treater to submit the
following information.
results in less than specified hardness and case
depth. Overheating can result in cracking. Flame -- Surface hardness range obtained and the
hardening may also cause burning or melting of number of pieces inspected.
tooth surfaces. -- Depth of hardening obtained at each location
specified when destructive tests are required,
Quenching after flame hardening can be performed
and the number of pieces inspected.
with a separate spray following the heat source, or in
an immersion quench tank. Water, oil, or a polymer -- Results of magnetic particle inspection, if
solution can be used, depending on the hardenability required.
of the steel and the hardening requirements. Air 5.6.3.2 Hardness and case depth
cooling may be sufficient for some alloys.
Maximum attainable surface hardness is a function
Quench time and temperature are critical, and quen- of the carbon content (see figure 10), but hardness
chant pressure, velocity, and direction must be may be lower as a result of the preliminary heat treat-
considered. When localized spray quenching or air ment, alloy content, depth of hardening, heating
quenching is used, a coolant is used on a portion of time, mass and quenching considerations.
the metal away from the heating zone to maintain the When the entire tooth cross section above the root is
base metal near ambient temperature so the part hardened, effective case depth does not apply.
mass can absorb heat from the heated zone. When the root is also to be hardened, depth of case
below the root may be specified.
Furnace tempering is required for all AGMA grades
of liquid quenched flame hardened gearing. Flame With flame hardening, the heat affected zone (HAZ)
hardened parts that are air quenched are self-- is a region beneath the case that is heated to
tempered, and separate tempering is unnecessary. 700°C--760°C but does not get hardened, and thus
has lower strength. If the hardened pattern is such
5.6.3 Product requirements and that the HAZ intersects the tooth flank, the point of in-
characteristics for flame hardened gearing tersection must be a minimum of 3 mm up the flank
from the root fillet.
5.6.3.1 Specification
Refer to figure 9 for patterns achieved by the flame
The drawing, order, or written specification should hardening process. Bending strength capacity is
include the following information: significantly reduced if a type B pattern, i.e., unhard-
ened roots, is produced. See applicable AGMA
(1) Chemical analysis range of the material or grade rating standards for additional information.
designation.
5.6.3.3 Distortion
(2) Preliminary heat treatment.
Distortion is similar to that for induction hardening,
(3) Hardening pattern required. and the comments in 5.5.3.3 apply.
5.7 Carbonitriding Other atmospheres, such as 40% endothermic gas +

50% ammonia + 10% air, also are used. The pres-
Carbonitriding is a modified carburizing process, not
ence of oxygen in the atmosphere activates the
a form of nitriding. Carbonitriding is a surface hard-
kinetics of nitrogen transfer.
ening treatment that introduces carbon and nitrogen
into steel above the austenitizing temperature (Ac3). Case depths are shallow, of the order of 0.1 to 0.3
Upon quenching, a martensitic case is achieved, mm. The process reduces surface friction and
with the hardness of the case dependent on the improves corrosion resistance.
carbon level of the martensite and nitride formation.
5.8.2 Austenitic nitrocarburizing
The process is performed in a carbon rich atmo-
Austenitic nitrocarburizing is the process of adding
sphere with the addition of ammonia. The ammonia
carbon and nitrogen to steel at temperatures in the
dissociates on the surface of the part providing a
675°C to 775°C temperature range. The process
source of atomic nitrogen that forms an iron nitride.
can be controlled to produce a surface compound
Typical process temperatures are 790°C -- 900°C.
layer of epsilon carbonitride and, if quenched, a sub-
Since process temperatures are lower than used for
surface layer of bainite, martensite, or both that
carburizing, and since nitrogen inhibits the diffusion
provides a good support structure for the hard
of carbon, carbonitriding generally results in a
surface.
shallower case than is typical for carburized parts.
Case depths are limited to 0.75 mm maximum. The Case depths and process advantages are similar to
process creates a desirable epsilon nitride phase those of ferritic nitrocarburizing, but the process has
that improves case hardness and provides excellent the added advantage of being applicable to plain low
wear and anti--scuffing characteristics. carbon steels.
The temperature range for carbonitriding is not arbi-

trary. At higher austenitizing temperatures, the
thermal decomposition of ammonia is too rapid, limit-
6 Post heat treatment processes --
ing nitrogen availability. At lower temperatures, a metallurgical effects
brittle structure is formed.
6.1 Processing to meet dimensional
It is important to note that a common contributor to
requirements
nonuniform case depths is to begin the ammonia
addition before the load is stabilized at temperature. 6.1.1 Hard grinding
In furnaces that start gas additions as soon as the set
Hard grinding is used to produce highly accurate
point recovers, it is better to introduce a time delay
gears by the removal of material in very small
for the entire load to reach temperature. To prevent
increments after heat treatment. Two methods of
desorption of nitrogen, ammonia additions should be
hard grinding gears are form grinding and genera-
made until the load is quenched.
tion grinding. Form grinding simultaneously
5.8 Nitrocarburizing produces both profiles of the tooth space and the
root using a grinding wheel of the exact form of the
Nitrocarburizing is a modification of nitriding, not a
finished tooth. In generation grinding, the gear rolls
form of carburizing. The two common types of
past straight--sided grinding wheels to produce the
nitrocarburizing are ferritic and austenitic. In this
final gear surface.
process, nitrogen and carbon are simultaneously
introduced into the steel. The most prevalent danger in hard grinding is local-
ized overheating. Adequate process controls and
5.8.1 Ferritic nitrocarburizing
inspection methods (e.g., ANSI/AGMA 2007--C00 or
Ferritic nitrocarburizing involves the addition of nitro- ISO 14104 acid etch inspection, or Barkhausen)
gen and carbon while the part is in a ferritic condition; must be used to ensure no overheated areas are
that is, below the temperature at which austenite present on a finished tooth form. Case depth must
begins to form during heating. The process is be sufficient to allow for the stock removed in hard
typically performed at 550°C to 600°C in an atmo- grinding. Hard grinding is relatively slow and
sphere of 50% endothermic gas + 50% ammonia, or expensive; therefore, it is generally limited to high
60% nitrogen + 35% ammonia + 5% carbon dioxide. quality gears.
6.1.2 Hard honing turning than with grinding, and removing larger
amounts of stock takes less time.
Gear tooth honing is performed to correct minor heat
treat distortions in tooth flank form and to improve the Component surfaces that are machined close to
surface finish in cases where there is a surface finish size, then masked to prevent carbon diffusion
durability or wear problem. during carburizing, may still have higher carbon
content than the base material after carburizing. The
Honing is conducted by rolling the work piece in resulting harder surface may interfere with finish
mesh with a mating abrasive gear tool. The com- machining operations, such as threading, milling or
bination of the contact forces between the tool and broaching of keyways. With sufficient machining
the work gear, and sliding in both the profile and allowance, these same surfaces may be masked to
lengthwise directions, causes material to be prevent carburization or left unmasked and hard
removed from the gear tooth flanks. Honing does not turned after carburizing to remove the entire carbu-
affect the fillet or root. Therefore, it only influences rized case. After the carburized area has been
bending life by the amount of flank form correction removed, these finishing operations can be
made. Modern honing machines that have the ability accomplished using standard carbide or high speed
to control the angular positioning of the tool to the steel tooling.
work gear have the ability to make limited correction
6.1.4 Hard cutting
of runout.
Hard cutting refers to the use of carbide or cubic
The sliding velocities encountered in honing are boron nitride finishing tools. Cutting action and tool
much lower than grinding speeds. This has the dis- speed are similar to those used in hobbing. Hard cut-
advantage that the correction capability is less than ting may or may not remove material in the root fillet,
grinding (generally 50 mm or less). The combination depending on the cutting system used. This process
of low sliding velocities and the short contact time is used primarily for bevel gearing.
makes it essentially impossible to damage the work
Depth of material removed is similar to that removed
material by locally overheating. Generally, honing
by hard grinding. Case depth must be sufficient to
induces or maintains surface compressive residual
allow for stock removed. If coolant flow to the cutting
stresses due to the cool mechanical working of the
area is good, there is less tendency to overheat the
surface material.
surface and cause metallurgical changes during
Cost per part for honing gear teeth is generally less hard cutting than during hard grinding. CBN tooling,
than gear grinding because the machine costs are with its high thermal conductivity and ability to hold a
lower and cycle times are shorter. sharp edge, reduces the risk of overheating and can
be used with or without coolant.
6.1.3 Hard turning
6.1.5 Lapping
Hard turning is similar to conventional turning, but Lapping is a surface finishing operation used to
usually ceramic or cubic boron nitride (CBN) cutting improve the contact between mating gear teeth, typi-
tools are used that can remove material up to 60 cally on bevel or hypoid gears and pinions. A gear
HRC hardness. Hard turning does not directly affect and its mating pinion are normally lapped as a set
the tooth flanks of gearing, but hard turning can be (matched pieces), but they may be lapped as individ-
used as part of the finishing process for diameters ual pieces against a gear shaped lapping tool. A mix-
and faces of carburized gearing. ture of oil and loose abrasive is supplied to the mesh
of lightly loaded mating teeth to refine the surfaces.
Due to distortion during carburizing, component
Contact area can be adjusted during lapping to move
diameters to be finished turned or ground may
from one end of the teeth to the other. This process
require greater than normal finishing stock. This
does not affect the fillet area of the gear teeth.
stock can be more efficiently removed by hard turn-
ing than by grinding. The diameters or faces can be Lapping is used to remove irregularities on gear
hard turned leaving a small amount of stock for finish teeth, but stock removal is normally less than 0.013
grinding (0.25 -- 0.75 mm) or can be finished by hard mm during matched piece lapping. Therefore,
turning, depending on their functions. There is a finished case depth is essentially the same as as--
lower tendency to overheat the surfaces with hard carburized case depth. Because of the light loads,
low speeds, and small amount of material removed The term isotropic finishing may refer to either a
in this operation, there is no overheating to cause vibratory honing or deburring process, or a chemi-
metallurgical changes on the gear teeth, and residu- cally assisted, vibratory finishing process. The
al compressive stresses are not affected. chemical assist is normally a weak solution of either
phosphoric or oxalic acid that will generate a soft
6.2 Processes for performance improvement
conversion layer on the steel surface, which can then
6.2.1 Shot peening be easily removed by a ceramic media included in
the bath. The ceramic media is a special, hard, fine
Shot peening is a cold working process that is used textured material that is available in various sizes
to impart a high magnitude, residual compressive and shapes. The abrading action of the ceramic me-
stress. The process uses small, spherical media to dia will first attack the asperities or other high points
repeatedly strike a surface and create a surface of the surface, and eventually smooth out the
texture that is uniformly dimpled. The dimples can valleys. After the chemical assist phase, the solution
range from visually undetectable to easily apparent is changed to a mildly basic (soap) solution to stop
depending on the shot media size, shot velocity and the reaction, allow the media to abrade the last of the
hardness of the base material. conversion layer, and leave a clean metal surface.
The primary reason to shot peen gears is to improve
tooth root bending fatigue properties. The residual
compressive stress induced by shot peening partial- 7 Inspection and certification
ly offsets the bending stress from service loading,
and also mitigates conditions such as residual Inspection and certification requirements for AGMA
tensile stress, metallurgical stress raisers, grades of through hardened, carburize and hard-
excessive retained austenite, intergranular ened, nitrided, induction hardened or flame
oxidation and localized overheating that can initiate hardened gearing can be found in the applicable
surface failures in a high cycle fatigue application. AGMA rating standards or in AGMA 923--B05. The
Shot peening is not considered effective for information below is commentary on inspection
addressing low cycle or overload failures. methods, characteristics inspected, and documen-
tation of the inspection. See Annex B for test
Shot peening is a repeatable process using
methods.
controlled shot media quality, shot stream energy
(intensity) and shot peening coverage. Shot peening 7.1 Material classification
is not to be confused with shot blasting, a cleaning Material classification may be referred to by one or
process generally not associated with enhancement more of the following terms:
of fatigue properties.
-- grade;
Additional information on shot peening and its
-- class;
application to gearing can be found in AGMA
938--A05, Shot Peening of Gears. -- classification;
-- designation.
6.2.2 Isotropic finish
Confirmation, or certification, that a product meets a
Isotropic finish defines a surface texture that does
specified classification may depend on one or more
not exhibit any directionality or lay from the manufac-
of the following characteristics:
turing process. The primary reasons for using
isotropic finishing are to improve efficiency, reduce -- chemical composition;
operating temperatures, and to reduce break--in -- hardenability;
wear and the associated debris that becomes an
-- cleanliness;
abrasive in the oil system. Surface contact stresses
and shear stresses are also reduced by removal of -- reduction ratio (wrought products only);
surface asperities. The process can be overdone by -- hardness;
making the surface so smooth that it will not retain an
oil film. When this is a concern, both a maximum and -- heat treatment;
minimum surface finish should be specified. -- mechanical properties;
-- microstructure; There are a variety of standards published that

address evaluation and reporting of cleanliness,
-- surface and internal material flaws.
including ASTM A534, ASTM E45, ISO 4967, SAE/
For steel product classifications, any or all of the AMS 2300, SAE/AMS 2301, SAE/AMS 2304, and
characteristics may be specified. Iron casting classi- SAE J422. The purchaser must specify the
fications are identified primarily by mechanical cleanliness required for the gear application and
properties, but there may be additional requirements request the appropriate documentation from the
for composition, or microstructure, or both. Copper manufacturer.
alloys are commonly identified by a UNS number 7.5 Reduction ratio
that defines the chemical composition.
For wrought parts, a report of reduction ratio may be
7.2 Chemical composition specified. For hot rolled bars and open die forgings
that have not been upset forged, the ratio is the cross
Composition of ferrous and nonferrous cast and
sectional area of the original ingot divided by that of
wrought products is normally determined on a test
the final product. For upset forgings, the reduction
coupon poured from the heat used to pour the cast-
ratio reported is the accumulated reduction ratio of
ing, ingot, or strand from which the final product was
straight forging and upset forging as calculated by
manufactured. The producer’s heat analysis is
the supplier. See annex A for details.
commonly used to satisfy composition require-
ments. A product analysis can be performed, but this 7.6 Hardness testing
is usually a destructive test. The number of hardness tests performed must be
Typical methods of analysis are: sufficient to assure that component hardness not
only meets hardness requirements, but that both the
-- spectrometric (optical emission, x--ray); range of hardness values among different compo-
-- combustion infrared absorption; nents in a heat treat lot, and the range of hardness
values on each single component, are small enough
-- atomic absorption; to assure uniform properties for manufacturing and
-- wet. for service.
Parts in a lot may be tested 100% or may be tested
7.3 Hardenability
on a statistical basis, a lot being all parts from a
Hardenability is the property of a ferrous material single heat processed in the same heat treat load (if
that determines the depth of hardening when the heat treated). Testing must be performed with
material is quenched. A standard test to measure instruments of certified calibration.
hardenability and a method to calculate hardenabil-
Gearing can be tested using standard Rockwell,
ity based on chemical composition can both be found
Brinell, or rebound type hardness testers provided
in ASTM A255.
the following conditions are met:
To ensure required hardness at the finish machined -- surface to be tested is accessible and has
surfaces, correlation must be established between suitable surface texture for the test method
the hardness measured on the surface of the rough used;
part or rough machined surface, and hardness on
-- hardness impression is permitted on the surface
the finish machined surface. Minimum hardenability to be tested;
values may be specified by the customer if the
required hardenability for the production part has -- area of surface to be tested is large enough to
been established. As an alternative, the customer meet requirements for the test method and the
resulting size of test impression;
may specify hardness values to be obtained at given
depths on a test coupon or actual part, and require a -- material thickness mass behind the test surface
test report to verify compliance. will adequately support the test load.
In addition to the provisions listed above for testing of
7.4 Cleanliness
steel gearing, testing of finished surface or case
This is a measure of the quantity and distribution of hardened gearing has an additional provision that
non--metallic inclusions in the metal matrix. the applied load must be limited to avoid substrate
influence on the measured hardness of the case. 7.6.1.2 Cylindrical steel forging
Case hardened and surface hardened gearing may (length diameter)
also be tested with files hardened to a specific
Diameter, mm Recommended number
Rockwell C value.
of hardness impressions
Over Not on outside diameter of
over tooth body
7.6.1 Through hardened steel
0 380 2, at mid--length, 180°
apart
Through hardened gearing is commonly inspected 2, 180° apart, 25 mm from
on the side faces of gear rims, on end faces of pinion each end
tooth bodies, on pinion diameters (other than bear- 380 -- -- 3, at mid--length, 120°
ing journals) adjacent to the tooth body, on the top apart
lands of teeth (where size permits), or on the gap 2, 180° apart, 50 mm from
surface of double helical gearing. Although test each end
instruments are available for hardness measure-
ment at the tooth flank or tooth root of larger gearing, 7.6.1.3 Disc shape steel forging
sectioning of the component may be required to (length < diameter)
accurately test these areas. Through hardened
Diameter, mm Recommended number of
gearing is seldom inspected on the tooth flanks or hardness impressions on
Over Not
roots because adequate hardenability and heat side face at mid--radius
over
treatment procedures will ensure specified hardness
0 455 2, one on each side, 180°
at those locations if surface hardness is acceptable. apart
455 -- -- 4, two on each side, 180°
Hardness values at the finished surface of a single apart
component should not vary by more than 40 Brinell
numbers. 7.6.1.4 Ring shape steel forging
Outside Recommended number of

7.6.1.1 Cast steel gear diameter, mm hardness impressions on
Over Not side face at mid--thickness
Outside Recommended number of over
diameter, mm hardness impressions on 0 1015 2, one on each side, 180°
Over Not side face at mid--thickness apart
over of one--piece rims
1015 2030 4, two on each side, 180°
0 1015 2, one on each side, 180° apart and 90° apart from
apart side to side
1015 2030 4, two on each side, 180° 2030 3050 6, three on each side, 120°
apart and 90° apart from apart
side to side 3050 -- -- 8, four on each side, 90°
2030 3050 8, four on each side, 90° apart
apart
3050 -- -- 16 7.6.2 Surface hardened or case hardened steel
Hardness inspection should be performed after the

last thermal operation that could affect hardness has
At least half of the cope side tests should be on a riser
been completed, but there are exceptions. For
contact.
example, hardness testing is performed before silver
plating and subsequent baking, because hardness
Large segmented gears should be hardness tested testing would damage the silver plating. Hardness
on both the cope side and drag side rim faces by testing should be performed after nital etch
agreement between customer and supplier. inspection (if required) and prior to final magnetic
particle inspection, shot peening and chemical Solid, cylindrical (length diameter)
finishing (e.g., plating, black oxide).
Tooth diameter, Recommended number
mm of hardness impressions
Hardness inspection locations may include the gear
Over Not on outside diameter of
tooth root, the end--face of the gear teeth or the tooth body at mid--length
over
adjacent gear rim. When gear teeth roots are in-
spected, testing of three azimuth positions (0, 120 0 75 1
and 240 degree locations) and at each end of the 75 150 2, 180° apart
face width of a gear will help verify uniformity of stock 150 -- 4, 90° apart
removal on parts with ground gear roots.
7.6.5 Austempered ductile iron casting
The applied load must be appropriate for case depth
The heat treater and customer should agree on the
at the test location. Carburized gears or nitrided
number of pieces to test, but parts from several
gears with 0.5 mm or less case require using the
locations in the load should be tested.
HR15N scale. For case depths over 0.5 mm, the
HR30N scale is suitable. Do not use superficial 7.6.6 Copper alloy casting
hardness scales for testing core hardness. Test
The gear manufacturer should specify the number of
locations on case hardened surfaces should be
hardness tests to be performed and the test loca-
agreed upon with the design organization.
tions on the tooth body of the casting.
If surface hardness inspection of the product is not 7.7 Mechanical testing
required, not possible, or not permitted, the custom- Mechanical testing is generally not required if hard-
er or design organization may approve use of ness and microstructure requirements are met. If
representative test coupons or destructive testing of mechanical testing is specified, testing should be
sample product. performed in accordance with recommendations in
annex B. Variations in properties between test
7.6.3 Gray iron casting
coupons and product, covered in annex B, must also
be considered.
At least one hardness test should be made on each
piece, either on the rim side face at mid--thickness or 7.8 Heat treatment
on the outside diameter at mid--face.
Test coupons or heat treated components can be
used to determine the required characteristics of the
7.6.4 Ductile iron casting
heat treated item. Test methods and procedures are
covered in annex B. A report of test results should
Disc shape (length < diameter)
include all metallurgical items affected by the heat
treatment and as specified by the buyer.
Outside diameter, Recommended number
mm of hardness impressions In addition to measuring the characteristics of heat
Over Not on side face of rim at treated gearing, the heat treatment process and
over mid--thickness parameters used should be documented. A report of
0 305 1 heat treatment can be as general as stating the type
305 1015 2, one on each side, 180° of heat treatment performed, e.g., “quenched and
apart tempered”, or as detailed as stating for a carburized
1015 2030 4, two on each side, 180° part, for example, the various carbon potentials,
apart and 90° apart from temperatures, heating and cooling rates, and
side to side quenching medium used. The supplier and custom-
2030 3050 8, four on each side, 90° er should discuss and agree upon the items to be
apart included in a report of heat treatment.
3050 -- -- 16 The equipment used to heat treat the gearing must
be monitored and periodically tested to verify
At least half of the cope side tests should be on a riser correlation between set points and process varia-
contact. bles. Verification of proper equipment operation is
especially important if sampling inspection of -- section size;

finished gearing is used. Records of verification -- geometry;
should be available for purchaser review. -- microstructure (material and heat treat
7.9 Microstructure condition);
-- surface finish.
Only trained metallographers should evaluate
microstructures because interpretation is somewhat Therefore, the part must be manufactured in a way
subjective. Methods for examination are included in that will allow NDT to be performed at the desired
annex B. stage in the manufacturing process. Methods of
testing, test locations, and acceptance standards
An examination report should include: are established between the purchaser and
-- Material grade; manufacturer.
-- Heat treated condition of the specimen 7.10.1 Magnetic particle testing
examined; Magnetic particle inspection (MPI), also known as
-- Location of the specimen within the coupon or magnetic testing (MT), is used to detect surface
component examined (unless defined by the flaws on teeth of finished gearing. These flaws in-
method of examination); clude finish grinding cracks and inclusions.
-- Method of examination; Magnetic particle inspection can also be used to de-

tect surface or slightly subsurface flaws on rough
-- Microstructural characteristics evaluated and material forms or rough machined components.
specified limits for the characteristics evaluated; These flaws include laps, seams, inclusions, hot
-- Actual (or estimated) values of the tears, and cracks thermally induced during flame or
microstructural characteristics, and the method arc cutting, rough grinding, or heat treating.
used to measure or evaluate the characteristics. Report of testing should include:
Gearing microstructure is specified to achieve the -- specification to which the examination was
desired mechanical properties in the component and performed, including test equipment, type of
resistance to the design contact and bending stress. particles used, wet or dry method, and particle
The required microstructure for a component can be concentration (if wet method was used);
found in the AGMA document appropriate for the -- operator name and qualification;
component application. -- acceptance criteria and report of indications in
7.10 Nondestructive testing accordance with the applicable specification.
7.10.2 Ultrasonic testing
Nondestructive testing (NDT) methods are covered
in Annex B. The procedures used for gearing are in- Ultrasonic testing (UT) is used to detect subsurface
tended to assure the required quality level on the sur- flaws both in the tooth region of finished gearing and
face of teeth and in the subsurface tooth region that in the entire volume of rough machined components.
will provide the design contact and bending fatigue These flaws include inclusions, porosity, and internal
resistance. Inspection of other surfaces and subsur- cracks.
face regions may also be required to assure required Report of testing should include:
gearing performance in a given application. -- specification to which the examination was
The NDT method to use should be based on the type performed, including frequency used,
of flaws peculiar to the material form selected, the instrument used, search unit used, surface
type of flaws typical for the material, and the type of finish, and couplant;
flaws allowable in the finished part. Aside from as- -- operator name and qualification;
suring quality of the finished part, NDT may be ap- -- acceptance criteria and list of recordable
plied at any stage in the part manufacture to detect indications in accordance with the applicable
flaws before incurring the expense of further machin- specification.
ing. 7.10.3 Surface temper etch inspection
NDT methods have restrictions related to one or Acceptance criteria for surface temper (localized
more of the following part characteristics: overheating during grinding) should use the classifi-
cation system in AGMA 2007--C00 or ISO 14104. It turer, either in addition to, or instead of, requirements
is good practice to magnetic particle inspect parts for individual inspection documents. The certificate
with temper indications, because these surfaces, es- of compliance should state that the manufacturer
pecially those heavily tempered or rehardened, are complied with all requirements of the purchaser as
susceptible to cracking. stated on the component drawings and in the
7.11 Certificate of compliance purchase order. Enumeration of the requirements in
The purchaser may elect, in the purchase order, to the certificate should be by agreement between
require a certificate of compliance from the manufac- purchaser and manufacturer.
Annex A
(informative)
Definition of terms
[This annex is provided for informational purposes only and should not be construed as a part of ANSI/AGMA
The symbols, terms and definitions used in this stan- transformation range and acicular, resembling
dard are, wherever possible, consistent with ANSI/ tempered martensite, if formed in the lower part.
AGMA 1012--G05 and other approved AGMA
documents. banding. A segregated structure consisting of alter-
nating, nearly parallel bands of different chemical
alloy steel. A steel containing specified quantities of composition, typically aligned in the direction of pri-
alloying elements (other than carbon and the com- mary hot working. Segregation is frequently ex-
monly accepted amounts of manganese, copper, sil- pressed as a departure from the average chemical
icon, sulfur, and phosphorus) added to increase composition. Elements which tend to segregate are
hardenability and to bring about changes in mechan- sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, silicon, and manganese.
ical properties.
base hardness. The surface hardness in the tooth
annealing. Heating to and holding at a suitable tem- area that was developed by through hardening and
perature, then cooling at a suitable rate, to reduce not changed by subsequent heat treatments. If the
hardness, improve machinability, produce a desired material selected has adequate hardenability for the
microstructure, or obtain desired mechanical prop- required hardness and section size combination,
erties. (For ferrous alloys, the term implies full this surface hardness represents the expected hard-
annealing, which is austenitizing and then slow cool- ness at the intersection of the root circle and the
ing through the transformation range.) centerline of the tooth at mid--face width. Base hard-
ness is applicable to through hardened, induction
austempering. Quenching a ferrous alloy (steel or
hardened, flame hardened, and nitrided gearing, but
cast iron) from a temperature above the transforma-
not to carburize and hardened gearing.
tion range in a medium having a rate of cooling suffi-
ciently high to prevent high temperature
bending strength. Resistance of a gear tooth to
transformation products, and maintaining the alloy
bending failure. Bending failure is a fatigue phenom-
temperature within the bainitic range until desired
enon usually resulting in cracking at the tooth root fil-
transformation is obtained. The bainitic transforma-
let. Typical cracks and fractures are illustrated in
tion range is below the pearlitic range, but above the
ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95. See standards such as
martensitic range.
ANSI/AGMA 2101--D04, ANSI/AGMA 2003--B97,
austenite. A solid solution of one or more elements ANSI/AGMA 6002--B93, ANSI/AGMA 6114--A06,
in face--centered cubic iron. In carbon and low alloy ANSI/AGMA 6032--A94, or ISO 6336--5.
steels this phase is stable only at elevated
capable of. Produced in accordance with the proc-
temperatures and is non--magnetic.
essing steps and controls that the producer has es-
austenitizing. The forming of austenite by heating a tablished to assure compliance with the
ferrous material into the transformation range (par- specification, but only documented and not tested to
tial austenitizing) or above the transformation range confirm compliance.
(complete austenitizing).
carbide. A microstructural phase which is a com-
bainite. An aggregate of ferrite and cementite re- pound of metal (M) and carbon (C) having the chemi-
sulting from the transformation of austenite at tem- cal formula of MxCy. See figures A.1 through A.4 for
peratures below the pearlite range but above the photomicrographs of various classifications of car-
martensite start temperature. Its appearance is bide structures (white constituent) in tempered mar-
feathery if formed in the upper part of the bainite tensite.
5% nital etch 5% nital etch

400 X mag. 400 X mag.
Figure A.3 -- Discontinuous carbides

Figure A.1 -- Continuous carbide network
5% nital etch 5% nital etch

400 X mag. 400 X mag.
Figure A.2 -- Semi--continuous carbide network Figure A.4 -- Dispersed carbides
carbon potential. A measure of the ability of a fur- numbers below the specified minimum surface hard-
nace environment containing active carbon to alter ness. Grade 3 induction hardened gearing uses the
or maintain, under prescribed conditions, the carbon carburize and hardened definition for effective case
content of the steel. depth. Note that ISO 6336--5 uses the distance from
the surface to the location where the hardness is
carbon restoration. Carburizing to replace the car-
equal to 80% of the specified minimum surface hard-
bon lost in the surface layer due to previous thermal
ness as its criterion for effective case depth.
processing.
Nitrided or nitrocarburized
carbon steel. A steel having no specified minimum
The effective case depth is measured from the fin-
quantity of alloying elements except manganese
ished surface to a location where the hardness num-
and silicon.
ber is equivalent to 40.8 HRC (421 HK or 400 HV) by
carbonitriding. A modified form of gas carburizing, conversion from a microhardness test result. If the
in which steel (typically plain carbon and very low core hardness is more than 38.9 HRC (391 HK or
alloy) is austenitized in an ammonia enriched carbu- 380 HV), core hardness plus 54 HK or 50 HV (4.6
rizing atmosphere. This results in simultaneous ab- HRC) may be used as the definition of nitrided effec-
sorption of carbon and nitrogen, which results in the tive case depth. Note that this is the same definition
formation of complex nitrides in a high carbon case. used in ISO 6336--5.
carburizing. A heat treatment process in which an case depth, total. For carburized or carbonitrided
austenitized steel is brought into contact with a car- gearing, the maximum depth of diffused carbon.
bonaceous atmosphere of sufficient carbon poten-
The total case depth for induction or flame hardened
tial to cause adsorption of carbon at the surface and
gearing is usually assumed to be the same as the
by diffusion to create a concentration gradient. Car-
hardened depth and effective case depth.
burizing is generally followed by quenching and re-
heating (tempering) of an item to produce a The total case depth for nitrided or nitrocarburized
hardened and tempered case. gearing is the distance from the surface to the depth
at which the HRC hardness number is 110% of the
case. The outer portion that has been made harder
hardness number for the core.
than the inner portion (see core hardness) as a result
of altered composition, microstructure, or both, by case hardening. The generic terminology covering
treatments such as carburize and hardening, hardening methods applicable to steel that change
induction hardening, flame hardening, and nitriding. the chemical composition and microstructure of the
case depth, effective. The distance from the fin- surface layer by adsorption of carbon, nitrogen, or a
ished tooth surface to a specific subsurface hard- mixture of the two and by diffusion, create a chemical
ness value. Stock removal done after heat treating composition gradient.
will reduce the as--heat treated effective case depth Adsorption of carbon processes involve a subse-
and potentially the surface hardness. quent quenching to harden, while adsorption of nitro-
Carburize and hardened or carbonitrided gen does not require quenching to harden.
The effective case depth is measured normal to the case hardness. For carburize and hardened or car-
finished gear surface to a location where the hard- bonitrided gearing and induction or flame hardened
ness number is 50 HRC (542 HK or 515 HV) by con- gearing, the hardness measured at 0.05 -- 0.10 mm
version from a microhardness test result. Note that below the surface using a microhardness test tech-
ISO 6336--5 uses 550 HV, which converts to 52.4 nique.
HRC or 583 HK, as its criterion for determining the
effective case depth. It is recognized that the effec- Case hardness is not to be confused with surface
tive case depth varies with location on the gear tooth. hardness which is taken directly on the surface using
a stationary or portable hardness tester.
Induction and flame hardened
For Grades 1 and 2 gearing, the effective case depth For nitriding or nitrocarburize specifications, the
is measured from the finished surface to a location term surface hardness rather than case hardness is
where the hardness number is equivalent to 10 HRC typically used.
cementite. A hard compound of iron and carbon, Teeth

known chemically as iron carbide, having the chemi-
cal formula Fe3C.
cold treatment. The preferred terminology for cool-

ing carburize and hardened parts to temperatures 300 mm
typically below minus 60°C to reduce retained auste- 40 mm
nite. Cold treatment is also known as sub--zero treat-
ment or deep freezing. If cooled to below minus 50 mm
185°C, the correct terminology is deep cryogenic
treatment. Controlling section:
50 mm thickness
combined carbon. Carbon in steel or cast iron that Figure A.7 -- Disc style gearing blank
is present in other than elemental form.
Teeth
controlling section. The section size which has the
greatest effect in determining the rate of cooling dur-
ing quenching at a location where the specified hard-
ness is required. Figures A.5 through A.8 illustrate
900 mm
the controlling section size for various gearing con- 800 mm
figurations whose teeth are machined after heat
treatment and whose hardness must be maintained
at the roots of the teeth.
Controlling section: 200 mm

Teeth 50 mm rim thickness
Figure A.8 -- Web style gear blank
Note that a flat plate with thickness equal to the diam-

eter of a round bar will cool slower than the bar. The
150 mm thickness of a plate equivalent in cooling rate to that
200 mm
of a round bar (equivalent controlling section size) is
0.7 times the bar diameter.
Controlling section: The controlling section size for the selection of an ap-
150 mm
200 mm diameter propriate type of steel and specified hardness com-
bination must consider part configuration at the time
Figure A.5 -- Solid on shaft pinion blank of heat treatment. Special additional stock allow-
ances, such as those used to minimize distortion
during heat treatment, must be considered.
Teeth converted hardness. The hardness number re-
ported on a scale different from the scale used for
hardness testing. For example an actual
100 mm microhardness test reading of 542 HK500 has a con-
200 mm verted hardness of 50 HRC and would be properly
reported as 50 HRC (542 HK500) with the hardness
number and scale in parentheses representing the
300 mm
Controlling section: actual testing result and method.
50 mm wall thickness
core hardness. The hardness at the intersection of
NOTE. If the bore diameter is less than 20 percent of the root circle and the centerline of the tooth at mid--
the length of the bore, then the controlling section is
face width that was developed during the hardening
determined by figures A.5 or A.7.
of carburized or carbonitrided gearing. An alterna-
Figure A.6 -- Bore style gearing blank tive location is given by ISO 6336--5.
The material must have adequate hardenability for ther coarse (grain size 1--4 ) or fine (grain size 5 or
the required hardness and section size combination finer).
for the required core hardness to be achieved. The
graphite. Carbon in the free state with a shape de-
quench severity must also be adequate in order to
scribed as either flake, nodule, or spheroid. The
achieve the required core hardness.
graphite shape classifies the type of cast iron as ei-
The term core hardness is applicable to carburize ther gray, ductile, or malleable.
and hardened and carbonitrided gearing. Induction, hardenability. The property of a ferrous alloy that
flame, and nitride hardened gearing may use the determines the depth and distribution of hardness in-
term base hardness. duced by quenching.
The core hardness of non--tooth portions (such as hardened depth. For induction or flame hardened
journal areas of carburize and hardened gearing), is gearing, alternative terminology for effective case
the hardness at a specified location such as surface, depth.
quarter radius, mid--radius, or centerline.
hardening. The process of increasing hardness,
crack. Separation of a material matrix to form a lin- typically through heating and cooling.
ear discontinuity with a sharp tip.
hardness. See specific kind of hardness such as
DI (ideal critical diameter). The diameter which, base, case, core or surface.
when quenched in an infinite quench severity (sever- hardness conversion chart. A published docu-
ity approached by such as ice brine), will result in a ment for use in converting from one hardness testing
microstructure consisting of 50 percent martensite at scale to another.
the center of the bar.
Hardness conversion charts should be used with
decarburization. The loss of carbon from the near-- great caution since discrepancies of 0.3 HRC num-
surface of a ferrous material. bers at 30 HRC to 3.9 HRC numbers at 60 HRC,
have been noted between various published conver-
deoxidizing. The removal of oxygen from molten
sion charts. Therefore, it is suggested that the con-
steel by addition of suitable elements, such as silicon version chart used for testing and reporting be
and aluminum, that react with oxygen, primarily
specified. Some of the more popular hardness con-
forming discard slag. version charts are found in ASTM A370, ASTM
direct quenching. The quenching of carburized E140, ISO 6336--5, and certain individual corporate
gearing directly after the carburizing operation, gen- documents and standards. ASTM A370 should be
erally from a reduced temperature within the auste- used whenever no other document is specified.
nitic range. H--steels. Steels that are produced and purchased
to a specified Jominy hardenability range. RH--
ferrite. A solid solution of one or more elements in
steels have a Jominy hardenability range restricted
body--centered cubic iron. In carbon and alloy steels
within the normal H--steel range.
this phase is stable at room temperature.
induction hardening. A surface hardening process
flame hardening. A case hardening process in in which only the surface layer of the work piece is
which only the surface layer of the work piece is heated by electrically induced currents to above the
heated by a flame to above the upper transformation upper transformation temperature and immediately
temperature and immediately quenched. quenched.
free ferrite. The ferrite that is formed directly during intergranular oxidation (IGO). The preferential ox-
cooling without simultaneous formation of carbide. idization of certain alloying elements along grain
boundaries during gas carburizing.
grain size. The dimensions of the grains, or crys-
tals, in a polycrystalline metal exclusive of twinned Jominy end quenching hardenability test. The
regions and sub--grains when present. The ASTM standard method for determining the hardenability of
grain size is a designation bearing a relationship to steel. The test consists of heating a standard 25 mm
average intercept distance at 100 diameters magni- diameter test bar to a specified temperature, placing
fication. Commercial grain size is categorized as ei- the specimen in a fixture so that a stream of water
impinges on one end, cooling the specimen to room nitriding. The introduction of nascent nitrogen into a
temperature, grinding flats, and measuring the hard- suitable solid ferrous alloy by holding at a suitable
ness at 1/16 inch (1.6 mm) intervals starting at the temperature in contact with a nitrogenous material.
quenched end. Adsorption of nascent nitrogen produces case hard-
ening without quenching.
linear indication. An indication with length at least
three times its width.
nitrocarburizing. A heat treating process in which
martemper. Quenching into a liquid media whose carbon and nitrogen are absorbed on the surface of a
temperature is above the martensite start trans- ferrous material and diffuse to produce case harden-
formation temperature, typically 150 -- 260°C, held at ing without quenching. This modified nitriding pro-
this temperature until temperature is uniform cess can be performed in either ferritic or austenitic
throughout, and then cooled to form martensite. temperature ranges.
Martempering is used to achieve reduced distortion
when compared to conventional quenching. This non--martensitic structures. Inclusive terminolo-
process is also widely known as marquenching. gy for ferrite, carbide, retained austenite, pearlite,
martensite. A generic term for microstructures and bainite due to incomplete transformation to mar-
formed by the diffusionless phase transformation of tensite or incomplete austenization. Retained aus-
austenite. Martensite is characterized by an acicular tenite is not included in the quantitative
or needle--like pattern in the microstructure and is metallographic measurement of non--martensitic
the hardest of the austenitic transformation products structures.
in steel.
non--martensitic transformation products. Inclu-
microsegregation. The non--uniform distribution of
sive terminology for ferrite, cementite, pearlite, and
alloying elements, impurities, or phases observed
upper bainite in the surface microstructure of carbu-
primarily in the microstructure of the material.
rize hardened gearing due to incomplete trans-
microstructure. The material structure observed formation to martensite. See figure A.9 for a
on a sample polished to a mirror finish, etched, and photograph of non--martensitic transformation
viewed at 100X or higher magnification. products in martensite.
5% nital etch
400 X mag.
Figure A.9 -- Non--martensitic transformation products in carburized gearing
normalizing. The heating of a ferrous alloy to a suit- For forged or rolled rings:
able temperature above the transformation range B is the cross sectional area of the billet prior
and then cooling, typically in air, to a temperature to upsetting, mm2;
substantially below the transformation range.
C is the height of the cutoff ingot prior to
pearlite. A microstructural constituent consisting of upsetting, mm;
lamellar ferrite and cementite resulting from the D is the height of the upset blank after
transformation of austenite at temperatures above upsetting before piercing, mm;
the bainite range.
E is the height of the upset blank after piercing,
pitting resistance. Endurance limit adequate to re- mm;
sist contact fatigue. Initial pitting and progressive pit- F is the wall thickness of the upset blank after
ting are illustrated and discussed in ANSI/AGMA piercing, before any bore expansion
1010--E95. See standards such as ANSI/AGMA associated with piercing, mm;
2101--D04, ANSI/AGMA 2003--B97, ANSI/AGMA
G is the height of the finish forged or rolled ring,
6002--B93, ANSI/AGMA 6114--A06, ANSI/AGMA mm;
6032--A94 or ISO 6336--5.
H is the wall thickness of the finish forged or
quench and temper. Austenitizing, followed by rap- rolled ring, mm.
id cooling (quenching) and reheating (tempered) to a retained austenite. The metastable austenite re-
temperature generally below 690°C. tained within a quenched microstructure. The
quench severity. The relative rate of heat extrac- amount of retained austenite is a function of carbon
tion of a quenching medium. content, alloy content (especially nickel and
manganese), quench temperature and subsequent
reduction ratio. In forging and rolling, the ratio of
thermal or mechanical treatments.
the cross sectional area of the rough cast ingot or
continuously cast billet to the final cross--sectional shot peening. A cold working process performed by
area. The reduction ratio is calculated by the follow- bombarding the surface of a part with small spherical
ing equation: media. This results in a thin layer of high magnitude
residual surface compressive stress and generally
RR = A C E F (A.1) improves the bending strength in the roots of gear
B D G H
where teeth. Shot peening should not be confused with grit
blasting or shot blasting which are cleaning
RR is reduction ratio; operations.
A is the cross sectional area of the cast ingot specialty nitriding steel. A steel typically alloyed
or continuous cast billet, mm2.
with 1% aluminum to provide higher surface hard-
For bar stock and forged shafting including step ness after nitriding.
shafts for solid on shaft pinion blanks as in figure A.5:
stress relief. A thermal cycle used to relieve residu-
B is the cross sectional area at the finished al stresses created by prior heat treatments, machin-
largest forging diameter in the area where ing, cold working, welding, or other fabricating
the teeth will be, mm2; and, techniques.
C, D, E, F, G and H = 1. surface hardening. The generic terminology for se-
For upset forged gearing blanks as in figures A.7 and lective induction or flame heating of a surface layer
A.8: and then quenching that layer to produce a higher
hardness surface layer. With induction or flame
B is the cross sectional area of the billet prior
hardening there is no significant alteration of the
to upsetting, mm2;
chemical composition of the surface layer.
C is the height of the cutoff ingot prior to upset-
surface hardness. The hardness measured
ting, mm;
directly on the functional surface, after appropriate
D is the height of the finish forged upset blank surface preparation. On surface hardened or case
before piercing, mm; and hardened parts, surface hardness is not to be con-
E, F, G and H = 1. fused with case hardness, which is taken on a metal-
lographic cross section using a microhardness erties can also be used as a process control test
tester. coupon but not for determining core properties un-
less substantiated by documented test data.
surface temper. Localized overheating on ground
surfaces. Can be detected and classified using a test coupon, standardized. Alternative
chemical etch method. terminology for “test coupon, process control”.
tempering. The reheating of a hardened ferrous through hardening. A term used to collectively de-
alloy part to a temperature below the transformation scribe methods of heat treatment of steel other than
range, and then cooling it at any rate. surface hardening techniques.
test bar. A sample used for tensile or impact NOTE: Through hardening does not imply that the part
has equivalent hardness throughout the entire cross
strength testing. Also used as alternate terminology
section.
for a test coupon used for hardness and
microstructure testing. total nominal alloy content. The sum of the mid--
points of the specified ranges for all alloying ele-
test coupon, process control. For carburize and ments added to increase hardenability (e.g., Mn, Cr,
hardened gearing or nitrided gearing, a test coupon Ni, Mo).
used primarily to monitor the consistency of the heat
treatment process in terms of carbon or nitrogen pe- transformation temperature. The temperature at
netration and case microstructure. Sometimes which a phase change occurs.
called a standardized test coupon. traveling indication. An uninterrupted ultrasonic
Due to differences in quench cooling rates and testing signal on the display which moves horizontal-
hardenability, the microstructure and hardness of ly on the sweep line as the transducer is moved on
process control test coupons used for carburize and the scanning surface. Travel of the signal indicates
varied depth of the discontinuity from the scanning
hardened gearing may not be the same as that of the
finished gear tooth. surface, often indicative of a crack.
verification. Confirmation that a condition or prop-
test coupon, representative. A test coupon de-
erty has been achieved.
signed to represent the quenching rate of the fin-
ished gearing tooth. If the coupon is to be used only white layer. Hard, brittle layer of iron nitride com-
to determine the case properties, it can be smaller pound formed on steel during nitriding. The layer is
than one used to determine the core properties of the so named because of its appearance on a polished
gear tooth. A representative test coupon sized for and nital etched cross section. (Other white--ap-
determining the core hardness and microstructure pearing surface layers or features that may be evi-
can also be used for determining the case properties dent on polished and etched cross sections of
or as a process control test coupon. A representa- hardened parts after finishing are not covered by this
tive test coupon sized for determining the case prop- definition.)
Annex B
(informative)
Test methods and test coupons
B.1 Test methods and commentary mid--tooth height case depths, and tips may be 150
percent of mid--tooth height case depths.
The test methods listed in this annex are to be used
when no other method is clearly defined or specified. When carburizing steels of high hardenability, such
Testing is performed to evaluate steel based on the as 4320, 4820 and 9310, are used for fine pitches,
metallurgical requirements of AGMA 923--B05 or the high through hardening characteristics of the
other AGMA standards. steel may prevent obtaining a hardness less than 50
HRC across the tooth section. The case depth
Testing of the actual part is preferred, whenever
should then be determined in the following manner:
practical. However, properly selected test coupons
Measure the base material hardness at mid--tooth
in accordance with AGMA 923--B05 can also be
height at the mid--face. For each one HRC point
used. Depth dimensions are to be measured normal
above 45 HRC, one HRC point should be added to
(not oblique) to the surface.
the 50 HRC effective case depth criterion (example,
Banding -- See microsegregation. core hardness equals 47 HRC, effective case depth
should be measured at 52 HRC). Case depth in
Base hardness -- Per a standard or superficial hard- these instances may also be measured on a test bar,
ness testing method listed under “hardness”. if bar size has been previously correlated to the gear
tooth section.
Carbon -- See surface carbon.
NOTE: Through carburized fine pitch teeth have sever-
Case depth, effective -- Per SAE J423 al disadvantages. Favorable residual compressive
microhardness test method. stresses at the surface are lowered. Excessive tooth
distortion and a loss of core ductility can also occur.
For carburize and hardened gearing and nitrided Parts of this type should be carefully reviewed for case
gearing, unless otherwise specified, the effective depth specifications and for use of lower hardenability
case depth is determined at a location 1/2 of tooth steels such as 4620 and 8620.
height (or from a representative test coupon).
The specified case depth for nitrided gearing is de-
For induction or flame hardened gearing, unless termined by the surface and subsurface stress gradi-
otherwise specified, the effective case depth is de- ent of the design application. Surface hardness and
termined at a location 1/4 of tooth height above the core hardness will influence the design’s minimum
root. required case depth. Since the diffusion of nitrogen
is extremely slow, most specifications only specify a
Sectioning of an actual part to determine case depth minimum case depth requirement.
need only be performed when the results of the test
bar are cause for rejection, or the surface hardness Case depth of nitrided specimens should be deter-
of the part(s) is not within 3 HRC points of the surface mined using a microhardness tester. At least three
hardness of the test bar. hardness tests should be made beyond the depth at
which core hardness is obtained to assure that the
For carburize and hardened specimens, the micro- case depth has been reached.
hardness traverse should be started 0.05 to 0.10 mm
below the surface and extend to at least 0.25 mm be- A test bar, for example 13 to 25 mm diameter with a
yond the depth at which 50 HRC is obtained. Usually length 3 times the diameter, disc or plate section, can
an interval of 0.13 mm is used. Care should also be be used for determining case depth of nitrided parts.
exercised in establishing the perpendicular to the The test section must be of the same specified
tooth surface when starting the traverse. Effective chemical analysis range and must be processed in
case depth at roots are typically 50--70 percent of the same manner as the parts it represents.
Case hardness -- To be measured at 0.05 -- 0.10 mm cating possible decarburization or non--martensitic

depth on a mounted cross section using a structures.
microhardness tester. Method 2 -- Reduction of hardness
For carburize and hardened gearing, unless other- Surface hardness readings are taken in the same
wise specified, the case hardness is determined at a area using two different hardness testing loads, such
location 1/2 of tooth height (or from a representative as HRC and HR15N with major loads of 150 kg and
test coupon). 15 kg respectively. The two sets of readings are
For induction or flame hardened gearing, unless compared using a standard hardness conversion
otherwise specified, the case hardness is chart, such as ASTM A370, ASTM E140 or ISO
determined at a location 1/4 of tooth height above the 6336--5. Decarburization is indicated by a lower con-
root. verted hardness for the lighter load compared to that
For nitrided gearing, unless otherwise specified, the from the heavier load, presuming that proper hard-
case hardness is determined at a location 1/2 of ness testing techniques were used for both sets of
tooth height (or from a process control or tests.
representative test coupon). Method 3 -- Metallographic evaluation
Case hardness should be measured with microhard- A metallographic specimen is prepared per ASTM
ness testers which produce small shallow impres- E3, etched per ASTM E407, and evaluated per
sions, in order that the hardness values obtained are ASTM E1077 or SAE J419.
representative of the surfaces or area being tested.
Those testers which produce Vickers or Knoop hard- Grain size -- Per ASTM E112 or ISO 643.
ness numbers (500 gram load) are recommended. Hardenability -- Per ASTM A255 or ISO 642 end--
Direct surface hardness readings (ASTM E18) or file quench test or by hardenability calculation per ASTM
checks at the tooth tip or flank will generally confirm A255.
the case hardness. However, if secondary trans- Hardness -- Listed below are methods and
formation products are present below the first sever- associated applications.
al thousandths of the case, direct surface checks will
ASTM E10, ASTM A833, Brinell hardness testing
not necessarily indicate their presence. Microhard-
ness inspection 0.05 to 0.10 mm from the edge on a -- Parts not heat treated
polished cross section of the tooth may be necessary -- Through hardened parts
for accurate microhardness readings near the sur- -- Base hardness of flame, induction, or nitride
face. hardened parts
Chemistry -- For steel products, analyze per ASTM ASTM E18, Rockwell hardness testing
A751. For copper alloys, use ASTM E54. -- Through hardened parts
Core hardness -- Per a standard or superficial hard- -- Carburize and hardened parts
ness testing method listed under “hardness”. -- Carbonitrided parts
When required, core hardness may be determined -- Flame or induction hardened parts
by any hardness tester, giving consideration to the -- Nitrided parts
size of the specimen as discussed in B.2. -- Nitrocarburized parts
Banding, which results from the steel melting prac- ASTM E92, Vicker’s hardness testing
tice, can cause variations in core hardness during -- Through hardened parts
testing with a microhardness tester. These varia- -- Carburize and hardened parts
tions should not fall below the minimum, when core
-- Carbonitrided parts
hardness is specified.
-- Flame or induction hardened parts
Decarburization -- Per any of three methods:
-- Nitrided parts
Method 1 -- File hardness -- Nitrocarburized parts
The flanks of a tooth are file hardness tested per SAE ASTM A956, Leeb hardness testing
J864 or ISO 6336--5, with lack of file hardness indi- -- Through hardened parts
-- Carburize and hardened parts terial under test. These particles will gather and hold
-- Carbonitrided parts at the leakage field making the discontinuities visible
to the naked eye.
-- Flame or induction hardened parts
ASTM E384, Microhardness testing Use of electric current is, by far, the best means for
-- Carburize and hardened parts magnetizing parts for magnetic particle inspection.
Either longitudinal or circular fields may be
-- Carbonitrided parts
introduced into parts. There are two types of electric
-- Flame or induction hardened parts current in common use, direct current and alternat-
-- Nitrided parts ing current, and both are suitable for magnetizing
purposes in magnetic particle testing. The magnetic
-- Nitrocarburized parts fields produced by direct and by alternating currents
Intergranular oxides -- In the unetched condition, differ in many characteristics. The main difference,
see metallography and figure B.1. which is of prime importance in magnetic particle
Jominy hardenability -- See hardenability. testing, is that fields produced by direct current gen-
erally penetrate the entire cross section of the part,
Magnetic particle inspection -- Per ASTM E1444 whereas the fields produced by alternating current
regardless of form, or alternatively ASTM E125 for are confined to the metal at or near the surface of the
raw castings, ASTM A275 for raw forgings, or ASTM part under test. From this, it is evident that when
E709 for finished gearing. deep penetration of field into the part is required, di-
Magnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive test- rect current must be used as the source of magnetiz-
ing method for locating surface and near surface dis- ing force. By far, the most satisfactory source of DC
continuities in ferromagnetic material. When a is the rectification of alternating current. Both single
magnetic field is introduced into the part, discontinui- phase and three phase AC are furnished commer-
ties laying approximately transverse to the magnetic cially. By the use of rectifiers, reversing AC is recti-
field will cause a leakage field. Finely divided ferro- fied and the delivered direct current is entirely the
magnetic particles, dry or in an oil base or water base equivalent of straight DC for magnetic particle test-
suspension, are applied over the surface of the ma- ing purposes.
Unetched
400 X mag. \
Figure B.1 -- Intergranular oxidation in carburized gearing
Sources of alternating current are single phase diameter. Amperage requirements should be
stepped down to 115, 230, or 460 volts. This is ac- incorporated into the magnetic particle
complished by means of transformers to the low volt- procedure.
ages required. At these low voltages, magnetizing Field
currents up to several thousand amperes are often
used. The trend in Europe is to use AC current for Head
magnetic particle testing because the intent of their
testing is location of surface discontinuities only. Bath
Subsurface discontinuities are best detected by radi-
ography or ultrasonic nondestructive test methods.
AC currents tends to give better particle mobility, and
demagnetization is more complete than with a DC Current
field.
Discontinuity
There are two essential components of magnetic
particle testing, each of equal importance for reliable
results. The first is the proper magnetization of the
part to be tested, with proper field strength in the ap- Head shot
propriate direction for the detection of defects. The Circular magnetization locates longitudinal
discontinuities and others oriented 45 -- 90
second is the use of the proper magnetic particles degrees to the direction of the field.
type to secure the best possible defect indications
under prevailing conditions. Figure B.2 -- Circular (head shot) magnetic
particle inspection
For further information on magnetic particle testing,
refer to:
Field Current through coil
Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing, C.E. Betz
ASM Handbook Volume 17: Nondestructive
Evaluation and Quality Control
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Edited by
Robert C. McMasters for the Society for Bath
Nondestructive Testing
Magnetizing principles
Some general principles and rules on magnetizing Discontinuity
means, field strength, current distribution and
strength requirements are listed below (refer to
Coil shot
figures B.2 and B.3). Longitudinal magnetization locates transverse
-- Fields should be at 90 degrees to the direction of discontinuities.
defects. This may require magnetizing in two NOTE: Effective length magnetized by coil shot is a
few inches on either side of coil. On long articles,
directions. repeat shots and baths down the length of article.
-- Fields generated by electric currents are at 90 Place articles close to the coil body.
degrees to the direction of current flow. Figure B.3 -- Coil shot magnetic particle
-- When magnetizing with electric currents, pass inspection
the current in a direction parallel to the direction
of expected discontinuities. -- For coil magnetization, a widely used formula for
-- Circular magnetization has the advantage over amperage calculations is:
longitudinal magnetization in that there are few, if
any, local poles to cause confusion in particle NI = 45 000 (B.1)
L∕D
patterns, and it is preferred when a choice of
where
methods is permissible.
-- Circular magnetization specifications generally NI is the ampere turns required;
require from 4 to 40 amps per mm of part L/D is the length to diameter ratio.
NOTE: The 45 000 constant may vary with microns. Particles larger than this tend to settle
specifications. out of suspension rapidly. In general, wet method
-- For prod magnetization with direct current, a materials exhibit a greater sensitivity than dry
minimum of 2.4 amps per mm of prod spacing will powders. Fluorescent particles have the great-
produce a minimum magnetizing force of 20 est contrast of the wet method materials. Al-
Oersteds at the midpoint of the prod line for plate though fluorescent wet particles have the
18 mm thick or less. A safer figure to use, greatest sensitivity and contrast, they can
however, is 8 amps per mm, unless this current provide a confusing background on surfaces with
strength produces an interfering surface power a finish greater than 250 RMS.
pattern. Prod spacing for practical inspection Personnel
purposes is limited to about 200 mm maximum,
except in special cases. Personnel performing the inspection should be qual-
ified in accordance with ASNT--TC--1A.
-- All parts should be demagnetized after magnetic
particle inspection. Mechanical testing -- Per ASTM E8 for tensile test-
ing and ASTM E23 for impact testing (also see hard-
Detection media ness).
The particles used are finely divided ferromagnetic Test material, specimen location and orientation
material. Properties vary over a wide range for differ-
Mechanical property test bars, for tensile testing and
ent applications including magnetic properties, size,
less frequently impact testing, are only required
shape, density, mobility and visibility or contrast.
when specified.
Varying requirements for varying conditions of test
and varying properties of suitable materials have led -- Wrought steel
to the development of a large number of different Test bar stock for steel gearing manufactured
types of available materials. The choice of which from forgings and bar stock are normally ob-
one to use is an important one, since the appearance tained from a prolongation or extension of the
of the particle patterns at discontinuities will be af- rough stock, in the axial or longitudinal direction
fected, even to the point of whether or not a pattern is with respect to the component and the direction
formed. of metal flow during forging. Refer to ASTM A290
and A291 for mechanical test certification of
-- Dry powders. It is evident that size plays an im- forged gearing.
portant part in the behavior of magnetic particles.
-- Cast steel
A large, heavy particle is not likely to be arrested
and held by a weak field when such particles are Test bar stock, approximately 40 × 125 × 150
moving over the surface of the part. On the other mm long, are normally attached to the drag
hand, very fine powders will be held by very weak (bottom) rim edge of the casting or are cast as
fields, since their mass is very small. Extremely separate test blocks from the same heat of steel.
fine particles may also adhere to the surface Refer to ASTM A148 for mechanical test
where there are no discontinuities, especially if it certification of cast gearing.
is rough, and form confusing backgrounds. Most -- Copper base
dry ferromagnetic powders used for detecting
discontinuities are careful mixtures of particles of Copper alloy tensile test bars for centrifugal cast-
all sizes. The smaller ones add sensitivity and ings may be cast in a separate centrifugal mold
mobility, while the larger ones not only aid in for test bars or cast in a chill test bar mold.
locating large defects, but by a sweeping action, NOTE: An integral or separately cast test bar does not
counteract the tendency of fine powders to leave necessarily represent the properties obtained in the
a dusty background. Thus, by including the casting. The properties in the casting are dependent
entire size range, a balanced powder with upon the size and design of the casting and foundry
sensitivity over most of the range of sizes of dis- practice.
continuities is produced. Three test coupons shall be poured from each
-- Wet method materials. When the ferromagnetic melt of metal or per 454 kg of melt except where
particles are applied as a suspension in some liq- the individual casting weighs more than 454 kg.
uid medium, much finer particles can be used. One test specimen should be tested from each
The upper limit of particle size in most commer- group of three test coupons cast. If this bar meets
cial wet methods is in the range of 40 to 60 the tensile requirements, the lot should be
accepted. If the first bar fails to meet the speci- based on experience for design of gearing to accom-
fied requirements, the two remaining specimens modate variance between measured and actual
shall be tested. The average properties of these properties of gearing. In addition to test coupons
two bars must meet specified requirements for providing indications as to the metallurgical quality of
acceptance of the lot. gear materials, test coupons provide a comparison
-- Gray cast iron of steel quality between different orders and can
Gray iron tensile test coupons are cast in sepa- often help identify problems in steel making and heat
rate molds in accordance with the provisions of treating.
ASTM A48. The size of the cast test coupon is
dependent upon the thickness of the tooth There are many reasons that mechanical properties
portion of the casting as follows: obtained from test coupons are not equivalent to
those of gearing including the following:
Thickness As--cast Machined ASTM A48 (1) Wrought products --
of tooth diameter, diameter, test bar
section, mm mm
a) Test coupon orientation and location.
mm
Mechanical properties of forgings and bar
5--14 22 13 A
stock are anisotropic, meaning that
15--25 31 20 B
properties vary between the longitudinal and
26--50 51 30 C
transverse (or tangential) directions. These
NOTE: See ASTM A48 for tolerances on as--cast and
directions are defined with respect to
machined diameter and retest considerations if bar fails to
meet requirements. direction of metal flow and inclusion
orientation induced by mechanical working.
Unless otherwise specified, test results from
-- Ductile cast iron
shaft extensions in the longitudinal direction
Ductile iron test coupon mold design shall be in are those typically reported by forging
accordance with ASTM A536. Size of the Y-- manufacturers for solid--on--shaft gearing.
block mold, if used, is at the option of the The longitudinal direction, however, provides
producer unless specified by the gear optimum properties compared to properties
manufacturer. from the transverse (or tangential) direction.
Test bar stock should remain attached to or ac- The transverse (or tangential) direction is
company the rough stock until all thermal more representative of gear teeth depending
treatment is completed. upon helix angle.
Mechanical properties variations between test Location or depth of the test coupon from the
coupon and product forged section (e.g., from the outside
diameter, mid--section or from the center) and
Mechanical properties obtained from test coupons,
its effect with respect to the degree of
especially tensile ductility (percent elongation and
mechanical working and segregation, causes
reduction of area measured after tensile testing), im-
variance in mechanical properties.
pact strength and fatigue strength, are generally
Segregation is increased and degree of
higher for test coupons than for actual forged or cast mechanical working is reduced towards the
gearing. Tensile and yield strengths of test coupons, center of hot worked or wrought sections.
however, better represent actual corresponding
properties of gearing, provided hardness of the test b) Mass effect. Small section of the test bar
coupons is within the specified range. being tested, and the smaller section of the
gearing from which the test coupon may have
Mechanical properties obtained from test coupons been obtained (e.g. shaft extension), has an
should be considered as an indication of the quality effect on mechanical properties. This
of gear materials, but should not be interpreted as variance is due mainly to the increased
representing the precise mechanical properties of degree of mechanical working and increased
gearing for the reasons cited below. Specified me- response to heat treating, as compared to
chanical properties for test coupons should be mini- larger forged sections. Generally, smaller
mum properties, not typical properties. Designers section test bars and sections show improved
should incorporate appropriate factors of safety mechanical properties.
(2) Castings -- content per ASTM E350. The specimen should be

a) Location of the test coupon. Test coupon may machined dry with high speed cutting tools on cen-
be better located during heat treatment, ters, and at least one gram of clean chips free of
causing increased response to heat treating contamination should be used for analysis.
and improved mechanical properties. Both methods require that prior to carburizing the
b) Mass effect. Small section of the test bar process control specimen, sufficient stock be ma-
being tested, such as standard impact test chined from the surface to be carburized, in order to
bars, results in improved properties remove all material with non--uniform surface
compared to larger cast sections. Also, the chemistry.
smaller section of the standard integral or In addition to determination of surface carbon, car-
separate cast test coupons, and its effect bon gradients in the case of the test bar can be deter-
related to improved solidification mechanism mined at 0.05 to 0.25 mm increments depending on
(reduced micro--segregation and accuracy desired and depth of case. To facilitate ma-
micro--unsoundness) and increased chining the bar for turnings for combustion analysis,
response to heat treating, causes mechanical the bar may be tempered at 650°C or lower before
property variance compared to larger cast machining. Grinding in steps through the case would
sections. allow spectrometric carbon analysis.
Metallography -- Performed at a magnification of Surface integrity of the test bar must be maintained
400 -- 600 diameters. Metallographic samples shall throughout the carburizing process and for subse-
be prepared per ASTM E3 and etched per ASTM quent tempering for machinability. Test bars must be
E407. clean and dry for analysis. For combustion analysis,
Microhardness -- See hardness. the bar must be straightened to within 0.04 mm total
indicated runout (TIR) before turning, and extrane-
Microsegregation -- Analyzed per ASTM A534. Ac- ous carbonaceous material must be excluded from
ceptance criteria is not specified but is to be agreed the turnings.
upon.
Surface hardness -- The hardness measured
Microstructure -- See metallography. directly on the functional surface, after appropriate
Nonmetallic inclusions -- Per any of the following surface preparation. Surface hardness is not to be
confused with case hardness, which is taken on a
methods:
metallographic cross section using a microhardness
-- SAE/AMS 2300, 2301, 2304 for aircraft steels tester.
-- ASTM A534, for carburizing bearing steels If standard bench top hardness testing cannot be ac-
-- ASTM A866, for through hardening bearing complished as stated in ASTM E10 or ASTM E18,
steels portable testing may be accomplished by ASTM
E110 or other appropriate methods.
-- ASTM E45, for inclusion count
Measurement of surface hardness per ASTM E18 is
-- ISO 4967, by comparison to micrographic used as a nondestructive method to evaluate the
diagrams, Method B, Plate II with 200 mm2 conformity of individual workpieces to the surface
inspection area hardness requirements. The measurement method
-- SAE J422, by comparison to micrographic should be appropriate for the size and configuration
diagrams of the workpieces. The teeth area requirements for
hardness measurements include the root of the too-
Surface carbon -- Per one of the following methods:
th. Alternate methods of hardness measurement, in-
Method 1 -- Spectrometric cluding file testing in accordance with SAE J864 or
ISO 6336--5 may be used.
Per ASTM E415.
Method 2 -- Combustion Due to the state of the art of alternate microhardness
testing methods, results may vary by the equivalent
The combustion method utilizes chips from a of three points HRC from actual HRC measurements
machining cut of 0.02 -- 0.10 mm in thickness on a per ASTM E18. The significance and interpretation
carbon control specimen. The chips from this cut are of those results needs to be agreed upon between
collected and analyzed by combustion for carbon the parties.
When measuring directly on the surface of a case the heat treated workpiece. Untreated coarse
hardened part or test bar, superficial or standard grained structures do not lend themselves to ultra-
Rockwell A or C scale may be used. Other instru- sonic testing. Surfaces to be scanned, such as the
ments such as Scleroscope or Equotip are also used outside diameter and ends or end faces of cylindrical
when penetration hardness testers can not be used. or disc shaped rough stock are generally machined
to 125--250 micro--inch maximum surface rough-
Consideration must be given to the case depth rela- ness. This provides improved contact for the trans-
tive to the depth of the impression made by the tes- ducer with the workpiece. One method uses a
ter. Low readings can be obtained when the indenter couplant: oil, glycerin or a commercial paste spread
penetrates entirely or partially through the case. evenly on the surfaces to be inspected. The second
Surface temper -- Per ANSI/AGMA 2007--C00 or method uses water as the couplant, with the trans-
ISO 14104. ducer and workpiece submerged in a tank.
Test coupons -- Microstructure, microhardness and With the most common technique of ultrasonic in-
core hardness characteristics may be determined spection, namely, the pulse echo technique, the
from either actual parts or test coupons. transducer both emits sound waves and receives the
returning signals from the back surface and possible
Ultrasonic inspection -- Ultrasonic inspection is defects. The returning signals are subsequently
recommended for large parts to detect flaws before monitored on an oscilloscope screen as shown in fig-
incurring the expense of machining. When ure B.4 The indication to the left of the oscilloscope
ultrasonic inspection is specified, the following screen in figure B.4 is caused by the sound wave en-
guidelines apply: tering the steel and is called “initial pulse” or “contact
-- For wrought products the straight beam proce- interference”. The indication to the right is caused by
dures described in ASTM A388 should apply. Ei- sound reflecting off of the back surface and in the
ther the flat bottom hole or back reflection method middle is the signal reflecting from any defects
may be used. shown. The horizontal line, called the “sweep line”,
provides a measure of distance or depth in the work-
The sensitivity for the flat bottom hole method
piece, as related to the rate of travel of sound in the
should utilize standard test blocks per ASTM
material. The sweep line can be calibrated by use of
E428 with appropriate reflector size. This sensi-
tivity should be used when radially scanning the a test block or section of known thickness in the
portion of the wrought material that will comprise workpiece in order that each marker shown on the
the tooth area. The tooth area includes only sweep line represents a standard distance or depth.
those portions of the gearing material where the Depth of the defect from the transducer contact point
teeth will be located to a depth below the finished on the scanning surface can, therefore, be deter-
tooth tips of at least 1.5 times the tooth height. mined.
The balance of the part may be scanned using a
distance amplitude correction curve (DAC) Before testing, the instrument must be calibrated ac-
whose construction is detailed in ASTM A388. cording to the test specification. Scanning sensitivity
is often established as either the sensitivity to just ob-
-- For cast products the straight beam procedures tain a specified back reflection height, or at the sensi-
described in ASTM A609 should apply, using the tivity to obtain an indication of specified height from a
back reflection method. flat bottom hole drilled into test blocks.
Ultrasonic inspection is a nondestructive test meth-
Scanning sensitivity and indication limitations are
od to determine the internal soundness and cleanli-
often determined using test blocks by establishing a
ness of gearing by passing sound (ultrasound)
distance--amplitude reference line on the oscillo-
through the material. Very short sound waves of a
scope screen as illustrated in figure B.5. As an ex-
frequency greater than 20,000 cycles per second
ample, sensitivity may be adjusted to establish the
(audible limit) are voltage generated and transmitted
specified indication height [63 mm] from the flat bot-
into the part by a transducer. In the method most
tom hole (FBH) in the 102 mm block, and at the same
often used, returning sound waves are transformed
sensitivity, the indication from the same size FBH in
into voltage and monitored on an oscilloscope
the 306 mm block is noted on the oscilloscope
screen.
screen. A straight line is drawn between the two
There are two test methods used, depending upon points. Any indication noted must not exceed the de-
the media, for coupling the ultrasonic transducer to termined distance--amplitude reference line.
Transducer
Suitable couplant on surface
Y
Defect
Back reflecting surface
Initial pulse Back reflection
X 76 mm
Defect
Markers
Figure B.4 -- Ultrasonic inspection with oscilloscope screen
Also, indications are often specified not to exceed a forming the inspection should be qualified in accor-
certain magnitude and length on the scanning sur- dance with ASNT--TC--1A.
face or result in loss in back reflection height exceed-
ASTM and AGMA specifications which follow may
ing specified limits, both expressed in a percent of
be used for ultrasonic inspection of wrought and cast
the back reflection height established during calibra-
gearing.
tion for scanning sensitivity.
Forgings and bar stock:
Reference can be made to the equipment manufac-
turer’s literature, or to the ASM Handbook Volume (1) ANSI/AGMA 6033--B98.
17, Nondestructive Testing and Quality Control, for (2) ASTM A388, Ultrasonic Examination of Heavy
additional information. Important considerations in- Steel Forgings.
clude appropriate transducer frequency, operator re- Castings:
quirements and qualification, application limitations,
workpiece requirements (grain size), instrument cal- (1) ANSI/AGMA 6033--B98.
ibration, test block requirements, test specifications (2) ASTM A609, Steel Castings, Carbon and Low
and interpretation of test results. Personnel per- Alloy, Ultrasonic Examination Thereof.
Indication from FBH in

102 mm block
Indication from
D--A reference line FBH in 306 mm
block
63 mm
77 mm 281 mm
Test blocks: 306 and 102 mm test blocks containing same size flat
bottom hole drilled to a depth of 25 mm
Figure B.5 -- Distance -- amplitude reference line for ultrasonic inspection
B.2 Test coupons thickness, intergranular oxidation depth, and pro-

cess repeatability. Shim stock is often used to moni-
B.2.1 Process control test coupons
tor atmospheric carbon potential. Variations from
Process control test coupons are used to monitor expected process control limits are used as indica-
various heat treatment process parameters, their tors of unacceptable heat treat process variations.
variation and their interactions, and to verify that As long as the process control test coupons are with-
these parameters are maintained within their ex- in expected control limits, the parts being heat
pected control range. The process control test cou- treated should have the expected metallurgical
pons may be made of various steel grades, different properties.
sizes, and differing geometry depending on the pa-
rameter to be monitored and the heat treat facility’s
The cylindrical process control test coupon for car-
quality control plan. Process control test coupons
are not intended to be used for final acceptance. burize and hardened gearing up to 5.6 module,
should have minimum dimensions of 15 mm diame-
The properties of a process control coupon may be ter × 50 mm long. A 25 mm diameter × 50 mm long
correlated by experience to the properties of the fin- coupon may be used for larger module carburized
ished gearing with regard to hardness and case gearing up to 17 module. The size of the coupon for
depth. The process control test coupon larger than 17 module gearing should be agreed
microstructure may be correlated to the condition of upon, and should approximate the inscribed diame-
the finished gear. The method of correlation should ter at mid height of the tooth cross section. The cou-
be documented. pon length should be a minimum of 2 times the
Process control test coupons may be used to deter- diameter. Test disks or plates may be used whose
mine surface carbon concentration, carbon penetra- minimum thickness is 70 percent of the appropriate
tion, carbon gradients, nitride depth, white layer test bar diameter. For a test disk or plate of thickness
t, minimum disk dimensions are 3t diameter × t, and A representative test coupon should have the same
minimum plate dimensions are 3t × 3t × t. heat treat condition prior to carburizing as the part(s)
represented. This coupon should remain with the
For determination of case hardness, case depth, part(s) represented throughout the entire heat treat
and case microstructure, the process control test process, with the possible exception of heat
coupon should be examined on a section normal to treatments prior to carburizing.
the bar axis or the plate surface and at least one
diameter (or t) from the end face of the test coupon. The representative test coupon, when positioned in
Any post--heat treat stock removal on the part must a heat treat load in the same general area but sepa-
be considered when evaluating coupon test results. rate from the piece part, is intended to represent the
metallurgy of the heat treated tooth section. Hard-
B.2.2 Representative test coupon for ness at the center of the representative test coupon
carburizing approximates core hardness of the gearing. The mi-
crostructure at the center of the minimum size repre-
The representative test coupon shall be from the sentative test coupon approximates the core
same grade of alloy steel with similar hardenability microstructure of the tooth section.
as the production part, but need not necessarily be
B.2.3 Representative test coupon for nitriding
from the same heat of steel. Recommended repre-
sentative test coupon proportions are minimum di- The test coupon should be of the same grade of alloy
ameter of 6 times module, but not less than 15 mm, steel as the part being nitrided, but not necessarily
and minimum length 2 times diameter, as used in from the same heat. Before nitriding,the base hard-
ISO 6336--5. A representative test coupon may con- ness, microstructure, and surface finish of the test
tain a tooth form that will be used to verify the heat coupon should be similar to that region of the part to
treat process. be nitrided. There is no restriction on coupon size,
other than the need to measure case depth free from
With customer approval, representative test coupon any corner or edge effects.
proportions of a minimum diameter of 3 times mod-
B.2.4 Representative test coupon for through
ule, but not less than 15 mm, diameter and minimum
hardening
length 2 times diameter, as used in ISO 6336--5, may
be used. See annex B, Mechanical testing.
Annex C
(informative)
Distortion and residual stress
C.1 Distortion C.2.1 Mechanically induced residual stress

There are two types of mechanically induced
Distortion of gearing during heat treatment is residual stresses, machining stresses and finishing
inevitable and varies with the hardening process. operation stresses. Machining stresses are created
The part design and manufacturing process must by the cutting of the gear shape and can be either
consider movement during heat treatment. beneficial or detrimental. Parts given a final heat
Tolerancing must consider these changes. Section treatment after finish machining may have the gross
size modification may be required along with added residual stresses from milling, turning, and hobbing
stock for grinding or machining after heat treatment. minimized by intermediate stress relief heat
treatments in order to prevent significant distortion
Dimensional changes of gearing resulting from heat during the final heat treatment. Grinding after final
treatment occur principally when steel is quenched. heat treatment must be performed very carefully
These changes occur in both quenched and since it can create residual tensile stresses in the
tempered and surface hardened gears. Distortion is surface of the gear that can adversely affect
due to mechanical and thermal stresses and phase performance. Lapping, honing or careful grinding of
transformation. Process variables and design gears after final heat treatment maintains beneficial
considerations have a significant effect upon the compressive residual stresses. Finishing
amount of distortion. High induced stress can result operations such as shot peening and roller
in quench cracking. Thermal processes such as burnishing also impart beneficial compressive
annealing, normalizing, and diffusion controlled residual stresses when properly controlled. These
surface hardening processes such as nitriding, operations are typically performed on finished gears
which do not require liquid quenching, result in less to improve the pitting and surface bending fatigue
distortions than processes that require liquid resistance.
quenching. Use of cubic boron nitride (CBN) grinding may have
a favorable effect on the residual stresses in the
C.2 Residual stress finished gear. Under extreme grinding conditions,
however, CBN grinding may also induce surface
tempering and residual tensile stresses. Other hard
Residual stresses play an important role in the
gear finishing methods (e.g., skiving) will need to be
manufacture and performance of gears. Residual
individually evaluated as to effect on residual stress
stresses created by machining and heat treating
levels.
operations are responsible for much of the distortion
that occurs during manufacture. The residual stress C.2.2 Thermal and phase transformation
distribution in finished gears can determine whether stresses
or not the gears will survive in service. Residual
C.2.2.1 Through hardening
stresses (either favorable or unfavorable) are
induced mechanically, thermally, by phase Thermal stresses result from the heating and cooling
transformation, or by modification of surface of materials. Quenching of ferrous materials,
chemistry (such as by nitriding). Each of these, particularly fast quenching to form martensite,
singularly and in combination (such as by generates both thermal and phase transformation
carburizing), can affect the degree of in--process stresses. A common type of residual stress pattern
distortion and the residual stress state present in the in small diameter bars is a tensile stress at the
finished parts. The following sections briefly discuss surface and a compressive stress at the center. This
the causes of each type of induced residual stress. stress pattern results from the surface of a bar
cooling and transforming before the center. The later C.2.2.2 Carburizing
phase transformation to martensite at the center
Phase transformation stresses resulting from a
creates volume expansion producing tensile stress
carburized surface layer must be considered in
at the surface. This in turn creates a compressive
conjunction with thermal residual stress because
stress at the center.
carburizing requires heating, and heating can
The second and opposite type of residual stress introduce thermal stresses. In quenched carburized
pattern occurs during quenching of large diameter steels, the transformation temperature of austenite
bars. In this situation, the surface hardens but the to martensite in the core is much higher than in the
center remains at an elevated temperature for some case. Therefore, as the part is cooling,
extended period of time. The thermal contraction at transformation begins in the core and occurs later in
the center exceeds the expansion of the the case. The austenite to martensite
transformation to martensite at the surface, setting transformation creates a volume expansion. The
up residual tensile stress at the center and residual expansion of the case is opposed by the previously
compressive stress at the surface. transformed core, imparting beneficial compressive
stresses in the case. Residual compressive
The above two types of stress patterns are stresses in the case can improve both contact and
determined by two variables, size of the bar and bending fatigue properties.
speed of the quench. When the sum of these two
C.2.2.3 Flame and induction hardening
variables is large, for example large diameter bar
with a fast quench, the stress pattern will be of the Austenitizing and quenching of the surface layer
second type with residual tensile stress at the center produces beneficial residual compressive stress at
and residual compressive stress at the surface. the surface of flame hardened or induction hardened
When the cooling rates of the surface and center are parts. Since the thermal processes are restricted to
similar, the thermal contraction can not overcome the surface regions, hardening produces little
the expansion from the martensitic formation and change to the overall shape of the part. Finishing
residual tensile stress will form at the surface, while operations after hardening, such as grinding or hard
the center will consist of residual compressive finishing, may be necessary to restore the required
stress. accuracy on the gear teeth.
Annex D
(informative)
Sources for additional information
1. ASM International 6. Ductile Iron Society

9639 Kinsman Road 15400 Pearl Road
Materials Park, OH 44073--0002 Suite 234
www.asminternational.org Strongsville, OH 44136
www.ductile.org
2. American Foundry Society 7. Forging Industry Association
1695 North Penny Lane 25 Prospect Avenue West, Suite 300
Schaumberg, IL 60173 Cleveland, OH 44115
www.afsinc.org www.forging.org
8. The Iron and Steel Society
3. American Society for Nondestructive Testing 186 Thorn Hill Road
P.O. Box 28518 Warrendale, PA 15086--7528
1711 Arlingate Lane www.iss.org
Columbus, OH 43228--0518 9. Metal Powder Industries Federation
www.asnt.org 105 College Road East
Princeton, NJ 08540--6692
4. American Society for Testing and Materials www.mpif.org
100 Barr Harbor Drive 10. Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
P.O. Box C700 SAE World Headquarters
West Conshohocken, PA 19428--2959 400 Commonwealth Drive
www.astm.org Warrendale, PA 15096--0001
www.sae.org
5. Copper Development Association 11. Steel Founder’s Society of America
260 Madison Avenue 780 McArdle Drive
New York, NY 10016 Crystal Lake, IL 60014
www.copper.org www.sfsa.org
Bibliography
The following documents and organizations are either referenced in the text of AGMA 2004--C08, Gear Material
Selection, Heat Treatment and Processing Manual or indicated for additional information.
1. Parrish, Geoffrey, The Influence of 17. ASTM A609/A609M--91, Practice for Castings,
Microstructure on the Properties of Carbon, Low Alloy, and Martensitic Stainless Steel,
Case--Carburized Components, ASM International, Ultrasonic Examinations Thereof
1980, p. 132.
18. ASTM A751--07, Test Methods, Practices, and
2. ASM Handbook, Volume 4 Heat Treating, ASM Terminology for Chemical Analysis of Steel
International, 1991, p. 10. Products
19. ASTM A833--84, Practice for Indentation
3. AGMA 938--A05, Shot Peening of Gears
Hardness of Metallic Materials by Comparison
4. AGMA 939--A07, Austempered Ductile Iron Hardness Testers
(ADI) for Gears
20. ASTM A866--01, Specification for Medium
5. ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95, Appearance of Gear Carbon Anti--Friction Bearing Steel
Teeth -- Terminology of Wear and Failure 21. ASTM A956--06, Test Method for Leeb
Hardness Testing of Steel Products
6. ANSI/AGMA 1012--G05, Gear Nomenclature,
Definitions of Terms with Symbols 22. ASTM B783--04, Specification for Materials for
Ferrous Powder Metallurgy (P/M) Structural Parts
7. ANSI/AGMA 6001--D97, Design and Selection
of Components for Enclosed Gear Drives 23. ASTM E3--01, Guide for Preparation of
Metallographic Specimens
8. ANSI/AGMA 6032--A94, Standard for Marine
24. ASTM E8--04, Test Methods for Tension
Gear Units: Rating
Testing of Metallic Materials
9. ASNT--TC--1A (June 80), Recommended
25. ASTM E10--07, Test Method for Brinell
Practice by American Society for Nondestructive
Hardness of Metallic Materials
Testing
26. ASTM E18--07, Test Methods for Rockwell
10. ASTM A148/A148M--05, Specification for Steel Hardness of Metallic Materials
Castings, High Strength, for Structural Purposes
27. ASTM E23--07, Test Methods for Notched Bar
11. ASTM A275/A275M--07, Practice for Magnetic Impact Testing of Metallic Materials
Particle Examination of Steel Forgings
28. ASTM E92--82, Test Method for Vickers
12. ASTM A290--05, Specification for Carbon and Hardness of Metallic Materials
Alloy Steel Forgings for Rings for Reduction Gears 29. ASTM E110--82, Test Method for Indentation
Hardness of Metallic Materials by Portable
13. ASTM A291--05, Specification for Steel
Hardness Testers
Forgings, Carbon and Alloy, for Pinions, Gears and
Shafts for Reduction Gears 30. ASTM E112--96, Test Methods for Determining
Average Grain Size
14. ASTM A311/A311M--04, Specification for Cold
Drawn, Stress Relieved Carbon Steel Bars Subject 31. ASTM E125--63, Reference Photographs for
to Mechanical Property Requirements Magnetic Particle Indications on Ferrous Castings
15. ASTM A370--07, Test Methods and Definitions 32. ASTM E140--07, Hardness Conversion Tables
for Mechanical Testing of Steel Products for Metals (Relationship Among Brinell Hardness,
Vickers Hardness, Rockwell Hardness, Superficial
16. ASTM A388/A388M--073, Practice for Hardness, Knoop Hardness, and Scleroscope
Ultrasonic Examination of Heavy Steel Forgings Hardness)
33. ASTM E350--95, Test Methods for Chemical 40. ASTM E1444--05, Practice for Magnetic
Analysis of Carbon Steel, Low--Alloy Steel, Silicon Particle Testing
Electrical Steel, Ingot Iron, and Wrought Iron
41. MPIF Standard 35, Materials Standard for PM
34. ASTM E384--07, Test Method for Structural Parts
Microindentation Hardness of Materials
35. ASTM E399--06, Test Method for 42. ISO 643:2003, Steels -- Micrographic
Linear--Elastic Plane--Strain Fracture Toughness determination of the apparent grain size
KIc of Metallic Materials
43. ISO 6336--5:2003, Calculation of load capacity
36. ASTM E407--07, Practice for Microetching of spur and helical gears -- Part 5: Strength and
Metals and Alloys quality of materials
37. ASTM E428--05, Practice for Fabrication and 44. SAE J419 Dec 83, Methods of Measuring
Control of Metal, Other than Aluminum Reference, Decarburization
Blocks Used in Ultrasonic Inspection
38. ASTM E709--01, Guide for Magnetic Particle 45. SAE J423 Feb 98, Methods of Measuring Case
Examination Depth
39. ASTM E1077--01, Test Methods for Estimating 46. SAE J864 May 93, Surface Hardness Testing
the Depth of Decarburization of Steel Specimens with Files
PUBLISHED BY
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION
500 MONTGOMERY STREET, SUITE 350
ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA 22314

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ANSI/AGMA 2004- C08

AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD

Gear Materials, Heat Treatment and

ii © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved

© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved iii

iv © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved

PERSONNEL of the AGMA Metallurgy and Materials Committee

Chairman: P. Terry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lufkin Industries, Inc.

© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved v

(This page is intentionally blank)

vi © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved

American National Standard -- ANSI/AGMA 2003--B97, Rating the Pitting Resist-

Gear Materials, Heat ANSI/AGMA 2007--C00, Surface Temper Etch

© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved 1

ISO 4967:1998, Steel -- Determination of content of gear material, as shown in figure 1.

When specifying parts with small quantity require-

Design aspects Environment

2 © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved

© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved 3

Hot rolled--cold finished bars are machined 3.2.1.6 Fineblanking

4 © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved

Steel Castings Handbook, 6th Edition, Steel 3.2.2.4 Die casting

© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved 5

6 © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved

Conditioning heat treatment

Machine Machine Machine

Through hardening heat treatment

Weld fabricated Case hardening or

© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved 7

Transverse Longitudinal tensile test

8 © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved

© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved 9

(2) Principal treatments bars may be used as an alternative to quench and

10 © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved

Specified Brinell Alloy controlling section size, mm

© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved 11

furnaces for processing. Maximum size of carburize 3.3.1.4.2 Carbonitriding

Core hardenabilty must be sufficient to develop ade- 3.3.1.4.3 Nitriding

Figure 4 -- Case hardenability of carburizing grades of steel [1]

12 © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved

© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved 13

Holding manganese levels to the low limit at the steel

14 © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved

Figure 5 -- Cast iron processing flow chart

Ferritizing is often used to meet the properties for

Quenching and tempering is used to meet the prop-

Austempering is applied to gray and ductile iron to in-

60--40--18 65--45--12 80--55--06 100--70--03 120--90--02

© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved 15

16 © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved

For additional information, see AGMA 939--A07. Gear bronzes include:

Table 6 -- ASTM A897/897M minimum property specifications for ADI castings

Grade Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation Impact energy Typical

© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved 17

Grade Tensile strength, Yield strength, % Elongation, Typical hardness

-- Silicon bronzes. Silicon bronzes such as UNS 4 Manufacturing -- material preparations

18 © AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved

© AGMA 2008 ---- All rights reserved 19