Naturalism and Realism in Renaissance Art and

Architecture

- Srija Dutta

1
The concept of naturalism and realism in art gained prominence and developed fully in the

19th century when a shift was noticed from the mythological and biblical subjects of art to a

depiction of regular life and people. However, the seeds of this major transition were sowed

long back in the 14th -15th centuries with the beginning of the Renaissance or “rebirth” in Italy

and eventually all over Europe. Although both naturalism and realism seek to depict reality

accurately and are often used interchangeably, there is a difference between the two. While

naturalism aims at depicting subjects similar to as they appear in real life without stylizations

and idealizations,1 realism is an effort to depict real regular life and landscapes, instead of

religious or mythological subjects.2

The first traces of an attempted naturalism are observed in the works of Giovanni Pisano,

whose ruined large statues at Sienna had the capability of conveying their feelings through

their facial expressions. A Crucifix (see appendix, figure 1) painted by Cimabue (docs.1272-

1303) incorporated a more naturalistic approach by a more realistic portrayal of the body of

Christ with gentle modulations of shadow replacing the harsh lines used earlier. 3 His

Crucifixion fresco at Assisi provides a glimpse of his expertise in capturing emotions. At

almost a contemporaneous time, Pietro Cavallini’s “Last Judgment” fresco approached closer

to physical reality with its capability of showing the subjects as made of flesh, constantly in

motion- an effect achieved by the replacement of lines with light and shade. However, he was

incapable of conveying human emotions with the same reality. 4 Imbibing Giovanni Pisano’s

control of tense emotions, Cimabue’s sensitivity to heroic passion, and Cavallini’s ability to

portray the physical reality of forms, Giotto was the first to make an actual move towards

1
Kaylee Randall, “Naturalism, Realism and Impressionism Explained,” The Collector, published on August 26,
2019, accessed on December 9, 2021, https://www.thecollector.com/naturalism-realism-and-impressionism-
explained/.
2
Ibid.
3
Creighton Gilbert, History of Renaissance art: painting, sculpture, architecture throughout Europe, (New
York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1973), 26.
4
Ibid, 27.

2
adopting naturalism in his paintings.5 His “Virgin and Child Enthroned”(Figure 2) has a

three-dimensionality, achieved through a softening of harsh lines by grading colours

attentively and a better technique of shading. 6 While the angels surrounding Madonna’s

throne in the “Virgin and Child Enthroned” of Cimabue (Figure 3) appear to be pasted above

one another, those of Giotto are positioned more rationally. The gradation and shading

techniques also help him in achieving depth in the throne which makes Madonna sitting in

this picture, more realistic than in Cimabue’s where she appears floating in space.

This urge to closely observe and imitate the natural world with accuracy gained ground from

the 15th century, initially in Flanders and then the rest of Europe. True to the humanist ideal

whereby individuals take a central position, the upcoming trend of drawing portraits of

individual personalities, sometimes shifting from the idealism of the Classical times- as in Jan

van Eyck’s “Man in a Red Turban” (Figure 4), believed to be Eyck’s self-portrait, featuring

the wrinkles and scars of the subject as well as reflections of the studio light in his pupils- 7

contributed greatly to naturalism and realism in Renaissance art.

The “Merode Altarpiece” of Robert Campin8 portrays Joseph’s carpentry shop and a view of

the prosperous Flemish city through its window in its right wing (Figure 5). This painting is

very realistic in its depiction of the Flemish city at that time with tall well-maintained houses,

people gathering in the open market space and entering shops, and walking up major roads,

thus pointing towards the economic prosperity of Flanders at the time.9 It uses the concept of

foreshortening to realistically depict the view of the city with buildings and subjects at a

distance slowly becoming smaller. A partial realism is also noticed in the sense that although

5
Ibid, 28-29.
6
Jennifer Joh, “Italian Renaissance Art: From Abstraction to Naturalism,” Continuities and Innovations in the
Arts of Renaissance Europe, accessed on December 9, 2021,
http://halliemeredith.net/teaching_projects/arts_of_renaissance_europe/pdfs/Joh_Essay.pdf.
7
Marilyn Stokstad, Art History, revised 2nd ed., (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2005), 594.
8
Robert Campin is believed to have been the first great master of Flemish and early Netherlandish painting.
9
Marilyn Stokstad, Art History, revised 2nd ed., (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2005), 581.

3
it depicts the view from Joseph, a religious figure’s workshop, the view in itself portrays the

regular hustle and bustle of Flanders. This image also shows the importance of foreshortening

using the rules of perspective10 in achieving a realistic depiction of space. Such use of linear

perspective was coupled with that of atmospheric perspective, whereby objects at a distance

were presented with a bluish or grayish haze and the sky was painted paler in the horizon, 11 to

provide a more realistic view in Masaccio’s “Tribute Money” (Figure 6) in Italy. Donatello

used linear perspective in his engraving of the “Feast of Herod” (Figure 7) on a gilded bronze

panel for the baptismal font in the Sienna Baptistry, where the vanishing point converges at

the main scene of action- the presentation of the severed head of John, the Baptist- on one

end and the spectators in the other end, thus encouraging the viewers to not just focus on the

event but also to the human reactions to the event. Along with his ingenious use of

perspective, his portrayal of uniformly horrified yet distinguishable individual reactions of

the other subjects in this engraving stays true to the humanist ideal of individuality and never

lets one lose attention from the humans in the artwork. To add to the illusion of real space, he

borrowed the ancient Roman technique of showing subjects in the foreground in higher relief

than objects at a distance.12 Along with the use of perspective, a capture of varied individual

reactions of humans to a particular situation is seen in Leonardo da Vinci’s “The Last

Supper” (Figure 8) where Jesus’s disciples react separately when he discloses the news that

one of them would betray him. To make the image appear more natural, the light entering

from the three windows substitutes the halo usually depicted around Jesus’s head, who is the

central figure.
10
The concept of Perspective was based on the fact that a viewer’s field of vision intersected the flat plane of a
painting at right angles. As per Leon Battista Alberti, a hypothetical one-eyed viewer was to stand at a certain
distance from the work, dead center. From this fixed point, the picture seemingly receded into space at the same
rate, following imaginary lines called orthogonals which met at a single vanishing point at the horizon. These
orthogonals guided an artist in distorting and foreshortening objects in a work to create an illusion of space.
Some artists also used multiple vanishing lines in their works. (See Stokstad, Art History, revised 2nd edition,
583). Alberti based his view on the rules of perspective developed by Brunelleschi in Italy in his architectural
projects.
11
Marilyn Stokstad, Art History, revised 2nd ed., (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2005), 632.
12
Ibid, 624.

4
The use of linseed oil to mix pigments as opposed to tempera painting 13 was an excellent

mode of achieving naturalism. Since oil paint took time to dry, layers could be built and

blended onto each other to accurately achieve varied textures of the object. 14 Furthermore, the

ease of use and cheapness popularized the use of oil paint during Renaissance. During this

time another major discovery in art was the importance of the interaction of the shifting

patterns of light with the surfaces in creating a naturalistic effect. 15 A combination of these is

quite evident in Jan van Eyck’s “Arnolfini Portrait” (Figure 9) which also is a brilliant

example of realism since it depicts, contrary to the norm of showing biblical incidents in

artwork, an elite couple believed to be Giovanni Arnolfini and his wife, Giovanna Cenami.

However, despite its apparent realism, this secular artwork is also imbued with religious

symbolism like the single candle in the chandelier denoting the presence of the Holy Spirit. In

this artwork, light enters through the window in the room drawn and thus casts shadows

accordingly, like in front of Arnolfini covering his feet. This is a deviation from the earlier

artworks where light seems to be falling uniformly throughout the picture, thus taking away

from its naturalism. This interplay of light and shadow (chiaroscuro) was successfully

exploited in Leonardo da Vinci’s painting to show the tangibility of subjects by shadows

accurately conforming to the source of light, thus also portraying an illusion of relief and

enhanced three-dimensionality in the painting. The depiction of rich luxurious objects in the

“Arnolfini Portrait” like the bronze chandelier and richly woven rug is indicative of the

luxurious objects which decorated the houses of the rich mercantile class during those times.

To depict natural lighting in his art settings, da Vinci covered his oil paintings with a thin

13
Tempera painting used unnaturally bright opaque colours mixed with gold leaf. (See Tom Nichols,
Renaissance Art: Beginner’s Guide, (London: Oneworld Publications, 2012), chap 1, Google Books.). The use
of gold leaf was also despised by Leonardo Da Vinci.
14
Tom Nichols, Renaissance Art: Beginner’s Guide, (London: Oneworld Publications, 2012), chap 1, Google
Books.
15
Ibid.

5
coat of light-tinted varnish to give the entire picture an overall hazy effect. 16 This sfumato17

technique made the paintings appear to be set in the twilight, which da Vinci believed to be

the best time to paint. Sfumato has been used in da Vinci’s “Mona Lisa” (Figure 10) which

makes the setting appear very natural. Her enigmatic flirtatious smile and the warmth of her

piercing gaze directed towards the viewer make her appear as almost living and capture the

entire attention of her audience. It can be considered as an example of realism since it is

believed to have been a secular portrait of Lisa Gherardini del Giocondo, wife of a Florentine

merchant.

Depiction of nudes in religious and secular artworks along with the expression of realistic

accurate expressions became an accepted popular norm in Renaissance Europe. Research into

classical sculptures and anatomical knowledge, obtained from observing or performing

dissections, helped artists to depict the human physique accurately as in Antonio del

Pollaiuolo’s “Battle of Ten Nudes” (Figure 11), which quite accurately describes the

movement of muscles in various postures. This artwork might have served as an important

reference for future artists intending to depict individuals since it encompassed a wide range

of postures from different angles. Masaccio exploited his knowledge of capturing both the

physical as well as the emotional reality of the individuals accurately in his “The Expulsion

from Paradise” (Figure 12), where he depicts Adam as covering his face and Eve wailing in

despair and horror after being expelled from heaven. The shadows cast by them add to the

reality of the drawing since light here falls from a single source, unlike the earlier paintings

where the light fell uniformly throughout the picture. His “Tribute Money” also presents this

effect where the figures are differently illuminated depending on their distance from the light

16
Marilyn Stokstad, Art History, revised 2nd ed., (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2005), 650.
17
This technique of covering oil paintings with a light-tinted varnish to produce a hazy effect, popularized by da
Vinci was known as sfumato.

6
source and the drapes and folds are shaded accordingly. His anatomical knowledge helped

him to show the human figures with a bulk.18

Artists like da Vinci and Michelangelo studied anatomy extensively. Michelangelo also

performed private dissections to understand the structure of bones and the muscles covering

them. This helped them in depicting human postures accurately with the exact placement of

muscles as in the human body, which was then clothed with skin using colours and the sharp

distinction in the separate muscles covered using the chiaroscuro technique, as seen in

Michelangelo’s “Libyan Sibyl” of the Sistine Chapel Ceiling. Although his “David” (Figure

13) is heavily inspired by Classical sculptures, it yet again also exudes naturalism. It is

somewhat realistic in the sense that despite resembling a mythological hero from antiquity,

his tense and concerned gaze for the danger that lay ahead makes him appear more human

than Donatello’s David. Despite embodying the idealistic musculature of Classical heroes,

the clear veins visible under his skin and clear eyeballs make David look more natural. The

slight cross-eye of David, discovered by Stanford’s Digital Michelangelo Project 19 makes it

more human, and thus naturalistic since it symbolizes the human imperfection. Despite his

“David” being comparatively idealistic, Donatella’s “Mary Magdalen” (Figure 14) breaks

away from the classical portrayal of her ideal beauty to depicting a more realistic Mary

Magdalen towards the end of her life, clothed in her hair with a more realistic emaciated face

as a result of her growing age and years of self-denial.

A naturalistic and realistic approach was extended to the painting of landscapes in the works

of Giorgione, Albrecht Durer, El Greco. Although Germany’s Albrecht Durer idealizes his

figures, his landscapes are done to utmost precision conforming to reality. The subjects of

Giorgione’s “The Tempest” are highly idealized but the nature appearing in the background
18
Ibid, 632.
19
“10 Facts about Michelangelo’s Statue of David in Florence, Italy,” Context, last updated on December 10,
2021, accessed on December 17, 2021, https://www.contexttravel.com/blog/articles/ten-facts-about-the-statue-
of-david.

7
appears very realistic especially the lightning bolt which also brings it closer to realism since

it depicts real stormy weather. El Greco’s “View of Toledo” (Figure 15) comes exceptionally

close to the original geography of Toledo.

Owing to the predominance of biblical and mythological subjects in artworks, realism was

often seen in association with some symbolism or allusion. However, it was important to start

realism in paintings through the depiction of secular subjects like portraits of elites 20 to

symbolize their power and pride. Sometimes the naturalistic depiction of objects in the

backdrop of the portraits played an essential role in understanding the socio-economic status

and interests of a person and the objects used by them. This, in turn, helped us in assuming

the probable trade interactions like the richly woven rug in the “Arnolfini Portrait” was

apparently imported from Anatolia, thus showing the existence of trade relations between

Turkey and Flanders. An idea about the regular lives of the people can be drawn from some

paintings showing realism, especially those in the calendars. The Limbourgs painted the

“February” page in the calendar section of “Very Sumptuous Hours” where they showed

people sitting in front of a fire in a well-maintained farm during the winters 21 which might

have been a common norm at that time. Protestantism and its rejection of elaborate church

decorations increased the number of secular artworks since now the Church ceased to be the

main patron, thus promoting realism.

Scientific experiments and anatomical dissections continued extensively. The papacy

promoted a form of “Catholic anatomy” which conformed to Galen’s views in opposition to

Northern European Vesalian views.22 An extensive study of anatomy made the more realistic

and natural depiction of human figures, often nude, possible. It helped in appreciating the

20
However, portraits often incorporated stylizations and idealizations since they aimed at showing a perfect
picture of their patron, who used it as a medium to show their power in society.
21
Marilyn Stokstad, Art History, revised 2nd ed., (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2005), 584-586.
22
Domenico Laurenza, Art and Anatomy in Renaissance Italy: Images from a Scientific Revolution, (New York:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2012), 25-26.

8
humanist ideal where man was at the center. Even religious figures came to be presented in

the image of humans, often embodying their imperfections, like the slight cross-eye in

Michelangelo’s “David” or the gashes on Jesus from being beaten on Matthias Grunewald’s

“Isenheim Altarpiece.” This was important in promoting the belief that humans were created

in the image of God and reviving a sense of dignity in them, which was important in

humanism where man was considered superior. The ability to depict realism and naturalism

in art instigated a sense of being a creator, in artists and hence closer to the image of God

since just like He created living beings and the earth, the artist was also creating the same in

his artwork, sometimes by presenting three-dimensional figures on two-dimensional spaces

using the laws of perspective laid down by Leon Battista Alberti in his “De pictura”, based on

the laws of perspective used by Brunelleschi in his architectural framework, seen in

Masaccio’s “Trinity”-an exceptional depiction of three-dimensional space on a two-

dimensional plane using a trompe l’oeil effect23,24 or by improving on his imitation of nature

using the ideal proportions of Man as laid down by Alberti in “De statua.” He could give a

lifelike appearance to his sculpture by bringing out accurate expressions in his image like in

Donatella’s “Equestrian Monument of Erasmo da Narni” where he depicts the tired

expression of an old warrior with sagged jaws, a neck with veins visible from under the skin

and sunken cheeks, from having been on duty from a long time but one who still is

committed to his duty, visible from his alert expression. The capability of depicting

naturalism and realism in his artworks thus exalted an artist’s position in society.

The Baroque period saw further developments in the techniques first introduced during

Renaissance, applying them on more varied subjects. Realism started gaining prominence

with more depictions of still life, secular portraits, lives of commons while intertwining

23
Trompe l’oeil in visual arts refers to the technique of developing an illusion of three-dimensionality on a two-
dimensional plane.
24
Eugene F. Rice, Jr. and Anthony Grafton, The Foundations of Early Modern Europe: 1460-1559, 2nd ed.,
(New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1994), 101.

9
further with naturalism, its potential exploited in the hands of Caravaggio. But these

developments owe their beginnings to the Renaissance period, one infused with a spirit of

classical revival and guided by humanism which realized the individuality and superiority of

man and brought something of a revolution in all aspects of people’s lives.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(Word Count: 2498)

10
Bibliography:

Gilbert, Creighton. History of Renaissance art: painting, sculpture, architecture throughout

Europe. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1973.

Joh, Jennifer. “Italian Renaissance Art: From Abstraction to Naturalism.” Continuities and

Innovations in the Arts of Renaissance Europe. Accessed on December 9, 2021.

http://halliemeredith.net/teaching_projects/arts_of_renaissance_europe/pdfs/Joh_Essay.pdf.

Laurenza, Domenico. Art and Anatomy in Renaissance Italy: Images from a Scientific

Revolution. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2012.

Nichols, Tom. Renaissance Art: Beginner’s Guide. London: Oneworld Publications, 2012.

Google Books.

Randall, Kaylee. “Naturalism, Realism and Impressionism Explained.” The Collector.

Published on August 26, 2019. Accessed on December 9, 2021.

https://www.thecollector.com/naturalism-realism-and-impressionism-explained/.

Rice, Eugene F. Jr. and Anthony Grafton. The Foundations of Early Modern Europe: 1460-

1559, 2nd edition. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1994.

Stokstad, Marilyn. Art History, revised 2nd edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2005.

“10 Facts about Michelangelo’s Statue of David in Florence, Italy.” Context. Last updated on

December 10, 2021. Accessed on December 17, 2021,

https://www.contexttravel.com/blog/articles/ten-facts-about-the-statue-of-david.

11
Appendix:

Figure 1: “Crucifix.” Cimabue, before 1288, tempera and gold on wood. (Source: Basilica of

Santa Croce, Florence, Italy, https://www.santacroceopera.it/en/catalogue-of-works/cimabue-

crucifix/).

12
Figure 2: “Virgin and Child enthroned, surrounded by angels and saints.” Giotto, between

1300-1305 CE, tempera on wood, gold background. (Source: Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence,

Italy, https://www.uffizi.it/en/artworks/virgin-and-child-enthroned-surrounded-by-angels-

and-saints-ognissanti-maesta).

13
Figure 3: “Virgin and Child Enthroned, and Prophets.” Cimabue, between 1290-1300 CE,

tempera on wood, gold background. (Source: Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy,

https://www.uffizi.it/en/artworks/virgin-and-child-enthroned-and-prophets-santa-trinita-

maesta).

Figure 4: “Man in a Red Turban.” Jan van Eyck, 1433, oil on wood panel. (Source: The

National Gallery, London, United Kingdom,

https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/jan-van-eyck-portrait-of-a-man-self-portrait).

14
Figure 5: “Joseph in His Carpentry Shop”, detail of the right wing of the “Merode Altarpiece”

(Triptych of the Annunciation). Robert Campin, between 1425-1428 CE, oil on wood panel.

(Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, The United States of America,

https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/470304).

15
Figure 6: “Tribute Money.” Masaccio, 1427 CE, fresco in the Brancacci Chapel, Florence,

Italy. (Source: Steven Zucker, taken on October 21, 2018, Flickr.com,

https://www.flickr.com/photos/profzucker/50358298122/in/photostream/).

16
Figure 7: “Feast of Herod.” Donatello, between 1423-1427 CE, gilt bronze engraved panel

from the Siena Cathedral Baptistry, Siena, Italy. (Source: Donatello: Biography, and

Sculptures, https://www.donatello.net/the-feast-of-herod.jsp).

17
Figure 8: “The Last Supper,” wall painting in the refractory of the Monastery of Santa Maria

delle Grazie, Milan, Italy. Leonardo da Vinci, between 1495-1498 CE, tempera and oil on

plaster. (Source: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation: World

Heritage Convention, https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/130947).

18
Figure 9: “The Arnolfini Portrait.” Jan van Eyck, 1434 CE, oil on wood panel. (Source: The

National Gallery, London, United Kingdom,

https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/jan-van-eyck-the-arnolfini-portrait).

19
Figure 10: “Mona Lisa.” Leonardo da Vinci, 1503 CE, oil on wood panel, currently present in

the Musee du Louvre, Paris, France. (Source: Pixabay, https://pixabay.com/photos/mona-lisa-

painting-art-oil-painting-67506/).

20
Figure 11: “Battle of the Nudes.” Antonio del Pollaiuolo, between 1465-1470, engraving.

(Source: Cincinnati Art Museum, Ohio, The United States of America,

https://www.cincinnatiartmuseum.org/art/explore-the-collection?id=12520497).

21
Figure 12: “The Expulsion from Paradise.” Masaccio, 1427, fresco in the Brancacci Chapel,

Florence, Italy. (Source: Photo Scala, Scala Archives, New York,

http://www.scalarchives.com/web/dettaglio_immagine.asp?

idImmagine=0105237&posizione=1&inCarrello=False&numImmagini=88&).

22
Figure 13: “David.” Michelangelo, between 1501-1504 CE, marble. (Source: Galleria dell’

Accademia, Florence, Italy,

https://www.accademia.org/explore-museum/artworks/michelangelos-david/).

23
Figure 14: “Mary Magdalen.” Donatello, probably between 1430s-1450s, polychromy and

gold on wood. (Source: Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence, Italy,

https://duomo.firenze.it/en/478/sala-della-maddalena/4885/maddalena-penitente-donatello-

meta-xv-secolo).

24
Figure 15: “View of Toledo.” El Greco, 1610 CE, oil on canvas. (Source: The Metropolitan

Museum of Art, New York, The United States of America,

https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/436575?

searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&ft=view+of+toledo+el+greco&offset=0

&rpp=20&pos=1).

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

25
26