Units, Accuracy & Precision, and Significant Figures

Michael Zamora
BIALIGY.com

January 2022

§1 Introduction
All physical quantities have units, including meters, grams, liters, etc. If you think about measurements,
everything has a unit. Heights are measured in units of length, masses are measured in units of mass, and volumes
are measured in units like liters. We use units to describe what physical quality a certain value is representing. For
example, 4.5 is very different from 4.5 meters, and even more different than 4.5 kilograms. Let's take a look at
some of these units

§2 Units
In the Imperial system, units of length include inches, feet, and miles; units of weight include ounces,
pounds, and tons; and units of volume include cups, pints, and gallons. The conversions between these units,
however, are not uniform and difficult to work with. Instead, we will use the International System, or SI.
With this system, all units are represented by a root with prefixes that alter the scale of the unit by powers of
10. For example, a millimeter comes from the prefix "milli", meaning thousand, and the word
"meter", the base unit of measurement. Thus, there are one thousand millimeters in one meter. Let's
look at some other examples of SI units.
Example §2.1: Units of mass

1) grams Abbreviation: g Standard unit

2) Decagrams Abbreviation: Dg 10 grams
3) Hectograms Abbreviation: Hg 100 grams
4) Kilograms Abbreviation: Kg 1000 grams
5) decigrams Abbreviation: dg 1/10 of one gram
6) centigrams Abbreviation: cg 1/100 of one gram
7) milligrams Abbreviation: mg 1/1000 of one gram

In table 2.1, a number of mass units are listed. These units begin with the standard, or base unit of grams. The units then
scale by powers of ten as they get larger or smaller than the base unit. In common usage, Decagrams, Hectograms,
decigrams, and centigrams are not often used. In the vast majority of problems, you will only ever see grams, Kilograms,
and milligrams. However, it is important to be aware of these alternate units in the event that they appear on problems.

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§2 Units, cont.
There are many other types of units used for measuring different physical properties. The most commonly used of
these are length and volume. Tables 2.2 and 2.3 show units of these types and their abbreviations.

Example §2.2: Units of Length

1) meters Abbreviation: m Standard unit

2) Decameter Abbreviation: Dm 10 meters
3) Hectometer Abbreviation: Hm 100 meters
4) Kilometer Abbreviation: Km 1000 meters
5) decimeter Abbreviation: dm 1/10 of one meter
6) centimeter Abbreviation: cm 1/100 of one meter
7) millimeter Abbreviation: mm 1/1000 of one meter

Example §2.3: Units of Volume

1) liter Abbreviation: l Standard unit

2) Decaliter Abbreviation: Dl 10 liters
3) Hectoliter Abbreviation: Hl 100 liters
4) Kiloliter Abbreviation: Kl 1000 liters
5) deciliter Abbreviation: dl 1/10 of one liter
6) centiliter Abbreviation: cl 1/100 of one liter
7) milliliter Abbreviation: ml 1/1000 of one liter

Once again, in both of these tables, there are a number of units that are not commonly used, including Decameter
and Hectoliter. These are, however real units, and should be well known. To help remember the many imperial
units, it can be helpful to look at their prefixes. Every unit except the base, or standard unit, has a prefix. Generally
speaking, prefixes translate through latin to their modern meanings. For example, "milli-" comes from the latin
mille, meaning one thousand. It's also helpful to look to the abbreviations for each unit. Abbreviations with a
capital letter are larger than the base unit, while those with two lower case letters are smaller than the base unit.

There are many other units used within scientific fields, and a number of them are specific to chemistry. Some of
these units are listed below.

• Temperature: In chemistry, temperatures are evaluated using Kelvin(K). You'll have to know how to convert
between Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin. See the fun fact on the next page for more information about these
different scales.

• Time: seconds, minutes, hours. Using prefixes, we also have milliseconds, nanoseconds, etc.

• Amount of substance: Moles(mols). This unit will be explained in greater detail later, but it is a measurement
similar to a dozen.

• Electric current: Ampere (A)

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§2 Fun Facts: Temperature

--> Fahrenheit was originally determined using 0 as the freezing point of concentrated saltwater.
Pure water freezes at 32 degrees. A higher point, 96 degrees, was used to define resting body
temperature. Then, even intervals were created between these two, and continued beyond these
marks. Thus, a measure of temperature was created. Now, with more accurate measurements, we
know that body temperature is actually 98.6 degrees
--> Celsius was created to describe the boiling and freezing temperatures of pure water, where 0
C is freezing and 100C is boiling. The units for celsius are “sized” differently than Fahrenheit, and
they have different 0 points.
--> Kelvin is also called the absolute scale, by assigning values to relative kinetic energy of
particles. Basically, kelvin measures 0 as the absolute coldest temperature possible in nature. As
we’ll learn later, everything has kinetic energy in the form of heat, which causes it to vibrate at a
certain frequency. Even particles in solids have KE, including solids like ice. Just because it feels
cold doesn’t mean it has no heat. If there were absolutely no KE in an object, its temperature
would equal 0K. This temperature is called absolute zero.

§3 Prefixes
Prefixes, as mentioned earlier, are used to change the order of magnitude of a unit. Essentially each prefix
corresponds to the number of zeroes you add (or take away) from the base unit. For example, one kilogram is
equal to 1000 grams. In this case, "kilo" means thousand. Refer to table 3.2 for more prefixes.

Example §3.1 SI Prefixes

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§§§ Additional Topic: Unit definitions. §§§

This additional topic is intended for those who are interested in learning about the importance of unit
definitions. This learning isn't required for your course and is included here solely to provide additional
information and to slate your curiosity.

Measurements like time, temperature, mass, and length were once defined by physical properties. Time was
measured by the day/night cycle, the temperature was measured by comparing water freezing and the
temperature of the human body, and both mass and length were measured against physical objects. Yes, that’s
right. There is a physical object called The Kilogram, against which other weights are compared. It’s kept in a
secure vault in France. Technically speaking, if The Kilogram was destroyed, every weight ever measured using
the kilogram as a base would be meaningless. Not to worry, though. This definition of a kilogram is no longer
used.

If measurements are made against physical properties, their level of precision comes into question. Due to the
wobble of the earth’s rotation, a day 1000 years ago may have a different length to a day in 2022. Therefore, the
measurements of time when defined by days and nights are subject to change. Research done today could not be
accurately reproduced 1000 years from now. Instead, we define time with a constant measurement. In this case,
that measurement is a certain number of periods of radiation that are emitted by radioactive atoms. Mass is the
same. Due to atomic reactions, degradation, etc. The Kilorgram’s mass has changed over the years. To counteract
this, the kilogram is now defined by a number known as the Planck constant. This number describes the
relationship between the energy and frequency of a photon. With some mathematical analysis, this can be used to
define mass. Again, length is now measured using the exact distance light travels in an exact window of time
rather than against a bar of metal of some fixed (and technically arbitrary length). If you’re interested in the
meter, look up its history, as, before a bar of metal, it was described using the size of the earth.

§4 Taking Measurements
To understand the difference between precision and accuracy, we first need to understand the reliability of
measurements. The reliability of a measurement depends on the instrument used for that measurement. For
example, if you’re measuring something with a standard metric ruler, and its length is 13cm, it would not make
sense to report 13.53251 cm. This is because the units beyond one tenth are not known with precision on a metric
ruler. Similarly, if you were using a highly accurate scale capable of measuring a mass to 5 decimal places, you
wouldn't report 15.89247 grams as 16g, unless your calculations require or allow for approximations. A general
rule of thumb is to add one place value beyond the lowest place value on the measurement scale. Revisiting the
ruler example, if the ruler only includes whole number markings, you could report 13.5 cm. This tells anyone else
looking at your data that you were able to measure to the ones place, and estimated an additional half centimeter.
This estimation is a judgment call on the part of the observer, and is thus suspect to inaccuracy. Digital
measuring devices do not often allow for this kind of approximation, so only use as many decimal places as are
reported on the device you are using. In a graduated cylinder or volumetric flask, measurements of volume can be
challenging due to the presence of a meniscus, a parabolic shape that is represented by the liquid. This shape is
due to the adhesion of the atoms in the liquid to the walls of the cylinder. This pulls some liquid up the sides, but
does not change the volume. Volumes with a meniscus should always be measured from the bottom of the
meniscus.

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§4.1 Precision vs Accuracy

Precision and accuracy are two very important factors to consider when taking measurements. Contrary to their
definitions, these are completely distinctive properties of a measurement. Let's go over them. Precision refers to
how close measurements are to one another. It can also be used to describe how variable or reliable your device is.
Accuracy refers to how close measurements are to an actual or expected value. Here's an example. Assume you are
an archer, firing arrows at a target. If you always hit the bullseye, you are both accurate and precise. This is
because your shots (measurements) are close to or on the desired (or expected) value, and because your shots
always land in the same spots. Use the picture below to visualize other situations.

Example §4.1 Precision and accuracy

§4.2 Significant figures

significant figures are an important aspect of measurements, especially when they are used in calculations.
generally speaking, these significant figures are a reference to the level of detail you can report in an answer. For
example, if you take measurements using a metric ruler and a stopwatch, both of which can only measure to one
decimal point, you cannot calculate velocity and report it to 12 decimal points. just because your calculator can
find those additional place values doesn't mean you can report them in an answer.

Let's go over some of the rules for significant figures.

• Any non place-holding digits are considered significant figures: The number “23.5” has 3 significant
figures(sig figs), while “23.56” has four.
• Once the decimal point is passed, zeros that precede the first non-zero digit are not significant. “Trailing
zeros” or zeros that appear after the last non-zero digit add to the precision of the measurement and are
significant. Ex: “0.008” has one sig fig, while “0.00800” has three. The three trailing zeros indicate that the
number is known to those additional levels of accuracy
• Exact numbers have infinitely many significant figures, and can be used with as many as makes sense in
calculations Ex: 10 pencils is exactly ten pencils. 10, in this case, can be reported as 10.000000000000 if you
wanted to write it in that way.
• In calculations
o Multiplication and division
 The number of sig figs in the result is equal to the number of sig figs in the least precise
factor. Ex: 10.2*4.56 = 46.5. 10.2 has three sig figs, so the answer must also have three sig
figs.

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§4.2 Significant figures, continued

o Addition and subtraction
 The number of decimal places in the result is equal to the number of decimal places in the
number with the fewest decimal places. Ex: 10.23-4.2 = 6.0. 4.2 has one decimal place, so
the answer of 6.03 must be rounded to one decimal place.

To avoid errors, only round in the final answer, keeping track of the number of sig figs as you go.