Cold Regions Science and Technology 176 (2020) 103086

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Cold Regions Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/coldregions

Modeling fish habitat condition in ice affected rivers T

⁎
Ian M. Knack , Fengbin Huang, Hung Tao Shen
Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York, USA

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Hydro-morphological conditions in rivers can change significantly with the presence of ice. These changes can
Winter fish habitat affect fish habitat, which can have important effects on fish mortality during the winter months. It is important
River ice to consider thermal-ice processes and their interactions with channel morphology in fish habitat models. In this
Cold regions hydrodynamics paper, a review of wintertime fish habitat preference is presented and used to develop recommendations for
Numerical modeling
habitat suitability curves for the winter period. A case study was used to illustrate the importance of considering
River restoration
Freeze-up
the winter period when determining changes to fish habitat due to river restoration efforts. The impact of the
dam removal on fish habitat quality for both open water and ice affected conditions were evaluated using
existing water habitat suitability curves as well as the developed winter curves. River conditions were simulated
with a two-dimensional hydro-thermal-ice-sediment river dynamic model coupled with an IFIM and PHABSIM
type fish habitat suitability model. The model considers thermal-ice as well as sediment and bed change con-
ditions in rivers to allow for more detailed habitat suitability evaluation than previous models. Simulations show
habitat quality will improve for both open water and ice affected conditions in the restored reach of the St. Regis
River.

1. Introduction of the hydro-morphological changes through the winter (Knack and

Winter is an important and difficult time for fish in ice-affected
rivers due to the physiological effects of cold-water temperatures, ice
cover conditions, and frazil and anchor ice events (Annear et al., 2002;
Finstad et al., 2004; Huusko et al., 2007; Cunjak et al., 2013). The
change in energy demands and physiological stresses fish face during
the winter period in cold climates alters their habitat selection beha-
viour in order to conserve energy, avoid starvation, and protect them-
selves against predation, suspended ice crystals, in addition to being
trapped by ice formation or sediment deposition. Wintertime stresses on
fish can be exacerbated by anthropogenic changes to rivers (Alfredsen
and Tesaker, 2002; Annear et al., 2002; Linnansaari et al., 2009;
Heggenes et al., 2018), which include hydropower development, river
restoration, and instream flow control. It is important to evaluate these
changes to the quality and quantity of fish habitat to ensure the habitat
is not negatively impacted (Katopodis, 2005; Katopodis and Ghamry,
2007). The restoration of rivers and streams to improve stream quality
often involves improving ecological quality through the improvement
of physical habitat characteristics by restoring hydro-morphological
function (Smith et al., 2002; Jones et al., 2003; Bernhardt et al., 2005;
Linnansaari et al., 2009. The planning of river restoration must include
both the ice free and the ice affected periods to ensure the effectiveness
Shen, 2017) as well as to minimize negative impacts to fish habitat
during the winter period.
The objective of this study was to develop a numerical modeling
tool that can simulate the suitability of wintertime habitat. A habitat
suitability model for the winter period requires coupling a river ice
processes model with a habitat suitability model. A review of existing
wintertime habitat suitability models is presented below to justify the
selection of a model for the present study. A review of fish behaviour
during the winter was conducted to establish a set of habitat suitability
curves for the winter period. In order to illustrate the applicability of
the proposed model to wintertime habitat assessment for river re-
storation projects, a case study of the removal of the Hogansburg Dam
from the St. Regis River near Hogansburg, NY was conducted and
presented in the following sections.
1.1. Wintertime habitat models
Mathematical models can help to assess winter habitat conditions
and evaluate the impacts of engineering projects, such as in-stream
habitat restoration projects, and the operators of dams and hydropower
stations (Katopodis, 2005). Also, biologists can use the models to de-
termine potential changes to flow and habitat characteristics to help

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Corresponding author at: 8 Clarkson Ave. Potsdam, New York, USA.
E-mail addresses: iknack@clarkson.edu (I.M. Knack), fehuang@clarkson.edu (F. Huang), htshen@clarkson.edu (H.T. Shen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2020.103086
Received 2 June 2019; Received in revised form 20 February 2020; Accepted 4 May 2020
Available online 07 May 2020
0165-232X/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
I.M. Knack, et al.
focus and plan fieldwork. This can be particularly important during the
winter when fieldwork becomes more difficult, costly, and dangerous
(Huusko et al., 2007; Weber et al., 2013). Winter habitat suitability
modeling generally combines a river ice model capable of simulating
hydraulics and river ice processes with a habitat suitability model that
uses the calculated physical characteristics of the river (e.g. depth,
velocity, etc.) to determine the suitability of the habitat for a particular
fish species. Katopodis (2003) and Waddle (2007) developed a model
for winter fish habitat using River2D and a habitat model using the
Instream Flow and Incremental Methodology (IFIM) and Physical Ha-
bitat Simulation (PHABSIM) (Bovee, 1986; Bovee et al., 1998) metho-
dology (See next section for a detailed discussion of habitat modeling
with IFIM). River2D is a two-dimensional hydrodynamics model that
can simulate flow conditions under an ice cover (Steffler and Blackburn,
2002; Katopodis and Ghamry, 2007). The ice cover thickness and
roughness are predefined throughout the domain by the user. The cover
can be the full river surface or part. Albers et al., 2002 developed a
suspended sediment model for RIVER2D but does not interact with the
ice cover. The HABITAT model Alfredsen et al. (2004) and Alfredsen
and Tesaker (2002) is built into the River System Simulator (RSS)
(Killingvot and Fossdal, 1994), which is a modeling platform that al-
lows multiple models capable of simulating different river processes to
be integrated. For winter habitat modeling, the one-dimensional river
ice model RICE (Lal and Shen, 1991) is used for simulating hydraulics
and ice processes and HABITAT is used for determining physical fish
habitat from the output of the RICE model. RSS uses HEC-6 to simulate
sediment transport and bed change, which is included in the HABITAT
calculations but does not consider the effect of the ice processes. RSS
has been used to simulate conditions on a number of Norwegian rivers
(Bjerke et al., 1994).
Huusko et al. (2007) pointed out the need of modeling methods for
predicting ice processes at different scales, especially at local scales. No
existing model, to the authors' knowledge, includes the coupling of all
of the significant ice related processes for wintertime habitat modeling
(i.e. unsteady hydrodynamics, thermal-ice dynamics, sediment trans-
port and bed change). In this study, an IFIM habitat model was added to
the two-dimensional hydro-thermal-ice-sediment river dynamics
model, RICE2D (Knack and Shen, 2018a), which is capable of simu-
lating the thermal-ice and sediment processes at different temporal and
spatial scales. The model improves on existing fish habitat models by
including thermal-ice dynamics and sediment transport and bed change
on fish habitat. RICE2D is an extension of the model RICE (Shen et al.,
1995), DynaRICE (Shen et al., 2000), and CRISSP2D (Liu et al., 2006),
which includes unsteady hydrodynamics, thermal-ice dynamics (water
temperature, frazil ice production, production and transport of surface
ice, anchor ice growth and release, ice cover formation and decay,
undercover frazil jam, breakup, and surface ice jam), and sediment
transport and bed change. The model has been applied and validated
for numerous field cases (Shen, 2010) including freeze-up (Huang et al.,
2012; Knack et al., 2015; Wazney et al., 2019), ice jam formation and
release (Shen and Liu, 2003; Knack and Shen, 2018b), and ice breakup
(Knack and Shen, 2018b). The details of the IFIM habitat model coupled
to the RICE2D model are presented below.
1.2. IFIM and PHABSIM model details
The habitat model used in River2D, HABITAT, and the present
model are based on the Instream Flow and Incremental Methodology
(IFIM) and Physical Habitat Simulation (PHABSIM) (Bovee, 1986;
Bovee et al., 1998) methodology. These habitat models use suitability
index curves developed for particular species and life stages of fish,
which describe the preference of those fish for certain physical habitat
characteristics such as velocity, depth, substrate size and availability,
dissolved oxygen, pH, suspended sediment concentration (see Fig. 1).
IFIM habitat models use the physical habitat characteristics in a river to
determine the habitat suitability index for each characteristic at each
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Cold Regions Science and Technology 176 (2020) 103086
location in the river and at each time. A composite suitability index can
be determined for each location using a weighting factor for that fish
species or river reach (i.e. minimum value, harmonic mean, etc.). In this
study, the mean of the suitability indices on each node. Additionally,
the total weighted usable area (WUA) for the river reach can be cal-
culated to give a value of the total area suitable for fish habitat:
n
WUA = ∑ Aj ∏ Si,j
j=1 i (1)
where j is the node number, n is the number of nodes in the river reach,
Aj is the area of node j, Si,j is the suitability index of factor i (i.e. depth,
velocity, water temperature, substrate, etc.) on node j. The WUA can be
compared to the total area to determine what fraction of the total area
is suitable fish habitat. The WUA of different design options or pre- and
post- project can be compared to evaluate project benefits objectively.
In order to use an IFIM habitat model in the winter, habitat suit-
ability index (HSI) curves need to be developed for the winter period.
Despite the importance of winter to fish in cold climates, research on
the winter behaviour and habitat preferences of fish has been limited
compared to other seasons (Heggenes et al., 2018) due to the inherent
difficulty and field safety issues involved with locating and identifying
fish habitat preferences (Huusko et al., 2007; Weber et al., 2013). There
is also significant variation in the conclusions drawn in different studies
about the behaviour and habitat preference of fish during the winter,
especially with regards to their preference for cover types. These dif-
ferences appear due to variations in the physical habitat in the rivers
studied (Stickler et al., 2008), the ice processes in the rivers where the
studies were conducted, and the methods used to track fish during the
winter (e.g. Weber et al., 2016). In order to develop a set of winter
habitat preferences for juvenile salmonids, such as Atlantic salmon and
brown trout, for habitat modeling, a literature review is presented in
the next section. From this information, a set of generalized habitat
preferences were developed for salmonids during the winter were de-
veloped for use in modeling. It is hypothesized that these habitat pre-
ferences, combined with a comprehensive river ice processes model,
could be used as a tool to further study and refine the understanding of
the effect of wintertime conditions on fish habitat quality and quantity.
This tool could also be used to help design field studies to improve our
understanding of winter fish habitat preference.
1.3. Winter effects on fish habitat
During the summer months, salmonids prefer riffle sections with
relatively high velocity. These areas provide better feeding habitat and
higher dissolved oxygen. The shift to winter habitat selection behaviour
has been found to be triggered by a reduction in water temperature to
4~8 ° C beginning in late Autumn (Jensen and Johnsen, 1986; Griffith
and Smith, 1993; Scruton and Clarke, 1999; Huusko et al., 2007).
Salmon and trout become less active, seek shelter in deep pools and
coarse substrate, and become more nocturnal during the winter
(Rimmer et al., 1984; Cunjak and Power, 1986; Fraser et al., 1993;
Linnansaari et al., 2008; Watz et al., 2014; Heggenes et al., 2018). Cold
water temperatures reduce the metabolic demands of fish and greatly
reduce time spent feeding (Chapman, 1966; Brett, 1979). Swimming
efficiency is also greatly reduced in cold water (Rimmer et al., 1985).
Despite the thermal stress caused by lower water temperatures, sal-
monids are capable of adapting to the stress through acclimation and
behavioural adjustments (Angilletta et al., 2002; Elliott and Elliott,
2010; Shuter et al., 2012; Araujo et al., 2013; Crozier and Hutchings,
2014; Gerken et al., 2015). The reduction in feeding needs and meta-
bolic demands necessitates a reduction in energy expenditure to pre-
vent starvation. Fish are forced to move to areas of low velocity when
they are active such as pools (Simpkins et al., 2000; Hiscock et al.,
2002; Vehanen and Huusko, 2002; Mäki-Petäys et al., 2004; Heggenes
et al., 2018) and areas with cover such as border ice, ice cover, or
I.M. Knack, et al.
Fig. 1. Atlantic Salmon habitat suitability curves (adapted from Stanley and Trial, 1995).
coarse substrate when they are inactive to minimize energy expenditure
(Stickler et al., 2007; Linnansaari and Cunjak, 2013) and avoid pre-
dators (Meyers et al., 1992; Young, 1995; Cunjak and Power, 1986).
The change in water temperature alters the period of salmonid activity
from the daytime during the summer, to the night-time during the
winter (Linnansaari and Cunjak, 2013; Heggenes et al., 2018), although
Linnansaari and Cunjak (2013) found that the level of fish activity
during the night drops significantly during frazil ice events in the
freeze-up period, with most fish seeking shelter or resting in pools
during the events.
The selection of habitat by fish, throughout the year, can be divided
into two factors: density-independent abiotic and density-dependent
biotic (Alfredsen and Tesaker, 2002). Density-independent abiotic fac-
tors are physical characteristics of the river that influence habitat se-
lection. These factors include depth, velocity, substrate, and vegetative
or physical cover. Density-dependent biotic factors include factors such
as predation, competition, and social interaction. The reduction of
metabolic requirements of all fauna in the river system reduces the
importance of the biotic factors affecting habitat selection. Predation is
greatly reduced during the winter, with the exception of some en-
dothermic terrestrial predators (Annear et al., 2002), semi-aquatic
mammalian predators, e.g. mink, otter, mergansers (Carss et al., 1990;
Linnansaari and Cunjak, 2013), and cold active fish predators, e.g.
burbot. Reduced feeding needs of the fish themselves, lessens compe-
tition between fish, and there has been an observed reduction in social
behaviour and competition during the winter (Cunjak and Power, 1986;
Mäki-Petäys et al., 2004; Stickler et al., 2008). The increased need to
preserve energy while avoiding the potential dangers of changing ice
conditions and the predation that remains, increases the relative im-
portance of abiotic factors (Alfredsen and Tesaker, 2002). The modeling
of habitat preference for the winter period is generally limited to
physical habitat, which is justified by the shift in relative importance of
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Cold Regions Science and Technology 176 (2020) 103086
abiotic factors.
Ice formation plays a significant role in the habitat selection and
survival of fish (Calkins, 1990). The inherent difficulty and safety issues
involved with locating and identifying fish habitat preferences in the
field (Huusko et al., 2007; Weber et al., 2013) has limited research on
habitat preference. Along with significant differences in the physical
habitat and ice processes in the rivers studied (Stickler et al., 2008), and
the methods used to track fish during the winter (e.g. Weber et al.,
2016) has led to varied conclusions on habitat preference during the
winter. To address this, winter ice processes are discussed below, and
the fish behaviour discussed for each.
The most common method for studying fish behaviour and habitat
preference during the winter is through the use of radio transmitters
(e.g. Brown et al., 2000) and passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags
(e.g. Roussel et al., 2004; Linnansaari et al., 2009; Stickler et al., 2008;
Weber et al., 2016). PIT tag tracking has a limited detection range with
the size tags that can be used with juvenile Atlantic salmon and brown
trout, which are the most commonly tracked during the winter. This
limited range makes their use in detecting fish in pools during the
winter more difficult (Stickler et al., 2008) and has been found to have
reduced detection probability with increased ice thickness (Weber
et al., 2016). Despite the limitations of PIT tag tracking of fish, sig-
nificant gains have been realized through recent studies using the
method.
Frazil ice is typically the first ice to form in a river other than border
ice. Supercooled water and frazil ice can be very stressful for salmonids
(Brown et al., 1999). Frazil ice will cause fish to move to more suitable
habitat to reduce exposure to the coldest water and frazil ice at night
when the fish are active (Brown et al., 1999; Brown et al., 2011;
Simpkins et al., 2000; Stickler et al., 2007). Suitable habitat for
avoiding frazil ice can include three types of cover: coarse substrate
(Cunjak and Power, 1986; Roussel et al., 2004; Stickler et al., 2008;
I.M. Knack, et al.
Linnansaari et al., 2009; Linnansaari and Cunjak, 2013) deep, low ve-
locity pools (Brown and Mackay, 1995; Jakober et al., 1998), and under
ice cover. The reported cover preference of salmonids during frazil ice
events varies widely by study. Many studies, especially early ones, re-
ported a preference for deep, slower habitats such as pools (e.g. Baltz
et al., 1991; Brown and Mackay, 1995; Cunjak and Power, 1986;
Chisholm et al., 1987; Hiscock et al., 2002; Mäki-Petäys et al., 2004;
Heggenes et al., 2018). Deep pools can protect fish from frazil ice by
reducing flow velocity and turbulence, which allows the frazil ice to
float to the surface. These pools also allow ice covers to form earlier in
the season. Fish have been found to be forced out of pools by the for-
mation of hanging dams from frazil deposited on the underside of the
cover reduced the flow depth in the pool and increased the flow velo-
city (Brown and Mackay, 1995; Brown et al., 2000). These phenomena
would be limited to a pool that is located directly below an open-water
rapid section but is of significance to fish habitat modeling. The for-
mation of an ice cover in streams has been found to increase fish be-
haviour in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Rimmer et al., 1984; Saraniemi
et al., 2008; Linnansaari et al., 2009).
A number of other studies have found that fish prefer coarse sub-
strate to ice cover for shelter from frazil ice events (Cunjak and Power,
1986; Linnansaari et al., 2008, 2009; Stickler et al., 2008). Each of these
studies were conducted in low embedment, coarse sediment streams
where fish had access to coarse substrate for protection. Therefore, it
may be that fish prefer the coarse substrate to the ice cover for the
added protection from predation when substrate is available (Heggenes
et al., 2018). Three of the studies also focused on shallower portions of
the study sites (Linnansaari et al., 2008, 2009; Stickler et al., 2008) due
to limitations of the PIT tags as discussed earlier. This limited detection
of fish in deeper pools and under thicker ice covers may have under-
counted the use of ice cover and pools during frazil ice events in these
studies.
In streams with coarse substrate and strong turbulence, the frazil ice
can accumulate on the bed forming anchor ice (Kerr et al., 2002; Dubé
et al., 2014). In streams with coarse substrate anchor ice often forms in
the night and releases during the day (Kempema and Ettema, 2011).
Juvenile salmonids adjust their behaviour to avoid being trapped in
anchor ice by being active at night when temperatures are the coldest
leading to anchor ice events (Alfredsen and Tesaker, 2002; Linnansaari
and Cunjak, 2013). Many studies found that fish are forced to move out
of coarse substrate when anchor ice forms (e.g. Brown and Mackay,
1995; Jakober et al., 1998; Brown et al., 1999; Stickler et al., 2007;
Heggenes et al., 2018), while others have found that fish will take cover
in the substrate during anchor ice events (e.g. Cunjak and Power, 1986;
Roussel et al., 2004; Stickler et al., 2008; Linnansaari et al., 2009;
Linnansaari and Cunjak, 2013). Stickler et al. (2008) and Linnansaari
and Cunjak (2013) found fish trapped under anchor ice with no re-
ported mortality as they were able to escape after the anchor ice re-
leased. The significant characteristics of anchor ice events for fish
mortality are their severity and whether the ice is solid or loosely ac-
cumulated (Stickler et al., 2008; Linnansaari et al., 2009; and
Linnansaari and Cunjak, 2013). Loose accumulations allow fish to swim
out and continue to use the substrate and anchor ice as shelter.
Sediment transport and deposition can also have an increased im-
pact on habitat suitability during the winter. Suspended sediment can
be detrimental to fish all year, but particularly during the winter when
fish increasingly rely on coarse substrate to avoid predation. The in-
creased flow resistance of the ice cover increases sediment deposition
during the winter, which can reduce usable substrate for shelter.
The above studies were used here to develop habitat suitability
index curves (HSI) for salmonids during the winter. These HSI are based
on observations from the studies above but should be further verified
and validated. Temperature variation is not significant to fish when the
water temperature drops below 4~8 ° C (Heggenes et al., 2018). As a
result, water temperature is used as a indication of habitat preference
change rather than for habitat suitability when it drops below the
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Cold Regions Science and Technology 176 (2020) 103086
4~8 ° C threshold. A decrease in the water temperature to below 5 ° C
will be used in the model to indicate a switch to winter habitat suit-
ability curves. The review above indicates only that, during the winter,
fish move to areas that provide protection from predation, high velo-
cities, and frazil ice. There is currently no information about fish pre-
ference for depth or velocity during the winter, and it is likely far less
signifcant during the winter. Therefore, the RICE2D model considers
two HSIs during the winter period: a cover suitability index and a frazil
suitability index. The details of these indices are presented below.
1.3.1. Cover
Cover on a river can be from brush, debris, ice, or substrate. A cover
can provide both visual protection from predators and reduce velo-
cities, which benefit fish during the winter. In the present model, there
are three primary covers considered for winter habitat modeling: sur-
face ice, substrate, and low velocity pools. Although low velocity pools
do not have significant visual protection from predators, it does offer
velocity protection and protection from frazil events which is sig-
nificant during the winter. Based on the review of fish preferences
above, the following conclusions about fish behaviour have been drawn
about the use of cover during the winter period:
In open water river sections:
• Low embedment substrate is preferred,
• If no substrate is available, or if the substrate is covered by anchor
ice, deep, slow pools are suitable.
In ice covered sections: substrate, deep pools, or the ice cover itself,
can provide adequate cover.
Thomas and Bovee (1993) developed a cover suitability index (CSI)
for adult brown trout based on velocity shelter and visual isolation
effects of cover, giving regions that are open water or that provide no
velocity protection (i.e. ice velocity is greater or equal to water velo-
city) a CSI of 0.72, and ice-covered regions with velocity protection a
CSI of 1.0. Because the present model can simulate the change of pro-
portion of sediment sizes in the bed, in addition to ice conditions and
hydraulics, this cover suitability index was expanded using the cover
preferences outlined above:
• If substrate is available, taken as a substrate suitability index (SSI)
greater or equal to 0.7, i.e. Fig. 1, and there is no anchor ice (see
next section), the CSI is 1.0 for all ice conditions;
• If the SSI is less than 0.7, or there is anchor ice present, the CSI of
Thomas and Bovee is used;
• Surface ice that provides velocity shelter was modified from the
criteria of Thomas and Bovee to include ice concentration as an
indication of visual protection: the CSI increases linearly from 0.72
when the ice concentration is below 0.2, to a maximum of 1.0 when
the surface ice concentration reaches an aerial concentration of 0.6,
which indicates the initiation of an ice cover.
1.1.1 Anchor ice
The RICE2D model simulates anchor ice with a porosity of 0.4 and a
flow in the substrate below the anchor ice (Shen et al., 1995). The
model does not calculate how solid or loose the accumulation of anchor
ice is, which does not allow for determination of whether or not fish
could push through. Therefore, all anchor ice is considered to make the
substrate unavailable to fish and the substrate suitability index is set
equal to zero.
1.3.2. Frazil ice
Although the minimum volumetric concentration of frazil ice that
fish can tolerate is not known, they are known to avoid frazil ice, as
discussed above. Therefore, it is assumed that frazil ice concentrations
above 0.001 m3 m−3 would cause fish to move. To treat this condition
in the model, the frazil ice suitability index decreases linearly from 1.0
I.M. Knack, et al.
Fig. 2. The St. Regis River and surrounding locations.
in an area with a frazil ice concentration of zero to a suitability index of
0 at a concentration of 0.001 m3 m−3 or larger.
2. Case study: Hogansburg Dam Removal, St. Regis River
The extended RICE2D model, with the habitat model, was applied to
a reach of the St. Regis River, near Hogansburg, New York, USA (Fig. 2)
to determine the relative change in physical habitat quality for Atlantic
Salmon due to the decommissioning and removal of the Hogansburg
Dam. The pre- and post-dam removal bathymetries are shown in Fig. 3.
An analysis was done for both the open water and ice-affected periods.
The modeled section of river extends from Helena, NY, to the con-
fluence with the St. Lawrence River. The Hogansburg Dam was re-
moved during the Summer of 2016 to increase habitat connectivity and
improve overall habitat condition and availability in the St. Regis River.
The removal of the Hogansburg Dam reconnected the St. Lawrence
River with 442 km of stream habitat upstream of the dam. Removal of
the dam was expected to benefit migratory fish such as Atlantic salmon,
American eel, brook trout, brown trout, walleye, lake sturgeon, and
muskellunge (McKenna et al., 2015). The pre-removal condition of fish
habitat and the distribution of fish species in the study area was eval-
uated before the removal of the dam (McKenna et al., 2015). The post-
removal habitat assessment was limited to an assumed post-removal
main channel water depth of 0.15 and 0.3 m and the associated flow
conditions for those depths. The change in sediment mobility and 100-
year flood plain for the pre- and post-removal hydraulic conditions was
evaluated by Jantzen and Mitchell (2018). However, no study on the
fish habitat using simulated conditions for open water or ice affected
periods were conducted to determine if there would be any significant
5
Cold Regions Science and Technology 176 (2020) 103086
impacts on winter fish habitat.
To illustrate the applicability of the model, the open water and ice
affected habitat of Atlantic Salmon was examined to determine the
effect on fish habitat due to the removal of the Hogansburg Dam.
Atlantic Salmon was selected as the species of interest because it is a
historically important fisheries species to the region, especially to the
St. Regis Mohawk Tribe which lives along the river. The change in
physical habitat conditions during open water and freeze-up conditions
are examined by simulating each for both the pre- and post- dam re-
moval bathymetries, to give a total of four cases. The area upstream of
the Hogansburg Dam, before the removal of the dam, was inaccessible
to Atlantic Salmon. Because it was inaccessible, it could be removed
from the WUA which would guarantee a large increase in WUA for the
post-removal conditions. Therefore, rather than focusing on change in
usable area, the focus of the analysis is on whether the newly accessible
habitat will be suitable for Atlantic Salmon throughout the year, which
will aide in the reestablishment of Atlantic Salmon in the St. Regis
River.
2.1. Model domain
The model domain for this study includes a 13.5 km reach of the St.
Regis River from Helena, NY, at the upstream end, to the town of St.
Regis, NY downstream, at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River (Figs. 2
and 3). The St. Regis River has an average width of 240 m in the study
reach and an average depth of 1.7 m upstream of the dam location and
3 m downstream near the confluence with the St. Lawrence River. The
average bed slope in the study reach is 0.05%. A 1.3 km section of the
river near the Hogansburg Dam was surveyed in 2012. The remainder
I.M. Knack, et al. Cold Regions Science and Technology 176 (2020) 103086

Fig. 3. Bathymetry of the study reach of the St. Regis River for a) pre- and b) post-dam removal, c) and d) show the corresponding bathymetry in the vicinity of the
dam.

Table 1 of the river was surveyed on September 26, 2017 (Jantzen, 2018), in-
Model parameters. cluding 386 cross sections between Helena, NY and the St. Lawrence
Parameter Description Value Units River. Cross sections had a typical spacing of 30 m except near the
confluence with the St. Lawrence River where they increased to 150 m.
ni Manning's ice roughness for a single layer ice 0.02 S M-1/3 The spacing of survey points along cross sections were 1.5 to 4 m in the
cover
main channel and 30 to 150 m in the floodplain. The surveyed bathy-
ni,max Maximum Manning's ice roughness for an ice 0.06 S M-1/3
jam
metry was used to create a triangular finite element mesh for the do-
vb Buoyancy velocity of frazil ice 0.01 M S−1 main. The Hogansburg Dam was included in the model domain by in-
ti,0 Initial thickness of frazil pans 0.01 M cluding the elevation of the weir in the finite element mesh at the site
ep,0 Initial porosity of frazil pans 0.40 M3 M−3 (Fig. 3c) which was removed for the post-dam removal bathymetry
ϕ Angle of repose for rubble ice 46°
(Fig. 3d). The mesh has 12,376 nodes and 22,607 elements with an
vcr Critical velocity for ice erosion from bottom 1.50 M S−1
of ice jam average side length of 3 m near the dam site and 15 m outside of the
Frcr Critical Froude number for ice entrainment 0.09 dam site. This nodal spacing put the mesh resolution close to the re-
hwa Linearized heat transfer coefficient between 20.0 W C°−1 M−2 solution of the survey point spacing along the cross sections. The total
air and water
area of the model domain is 2.02 km2.
Detailed sediment data is not available for the study reach.
However, from site visits and information available in Jantzen and
Mitchell (2018) and McKenna Jr. et al. (2015) indicate the bed material

6
I.M. Knack, et al.
Fig. 4. Velocity suitability index for open water conditions for a) pre- and b) post-dam removal bathymetry, c) and d) show the corresponding bathymetry in the
vicinity of the dam.
pre-dam removal was generally gravel and boulders below fine sedi-
ment accumulation. Post-dam removal, it is expected that the flows will
flush the fine sediment out of the headpond and into the St. Lawrence
River (McKenna Jr. et al., 2015).
2.2. Boundary and initial conditions
The model boundary conditions are based on typical conditions
during the periods being simulated. For both open water and freeze-up,
the downstream water level was taken as the historical mean water
level of the St. Lawrence River at the mouth of the St. Regis River,
47.0 m (NAD83). The water level in the St. Lawrence River is highly
controlled and varies by less than 1.25 m. The downstream water level
at the St. Lawrence River has limited impact on hydraulics upstream of
the dam because of a steep cascade downstream of the dam site (CH2M,
2015). November is typically the end of the open water season, with air
temperatures consistently dropping below freezing at night starting in
mid-December. Freeze-up of the St. Regis typically occurs in late
7
Cold Regions Science and Technology 176 (2020) 103086
December to early January. Therefore, for this study, the upstream
boundary condition for open water conditions was taken as the mean
November flow rate, 34.0 m3/s, and the mean January flow rate was
used for the freeze-up cases, 28.3 m3/s. A steady flow rate is used in this
study to evaluate the changes in physical habitat due to the dam re-
moval rather than short term changes due to unsteady flows. During the
open water simulation, the air temperature was assumed to be a con-
stant 10 ° C and the water at the upstream boundary was 10 ° C. During
the freeze-up simulation, the air temperature was a constant −20 ° C
and the water at the upstream boundary was 0.01 ° C. The initial se-
diment conditions consisted of 50% coarse gravel (20 mm) and 50%
sand (0.4 mm) which represents average conditions in the river
(Jantzen, 2018). The sediment boundary condition was the equilibrium
transport of the sediment at the upstream boundary.
2.3. Model calibration
The model was not calibrated to measured water levels and flow
I.M. Knack, et al.
Fig. 5. Depth suitability index for open water conditions for a) pre- and b) post-dam removal bathymetry, c) and d) show the corresponding bathymetry in the
vicinity of the dam.
rates because the only measured water levels are at the St. Lawrence at
the downstream boundary, and 10 km upstream of the upstream
boundary of the model. No comparison was made to the Jantzen and
Mitchell (2018) study because the flows in that study were much higher
than the present study and was similarly uncalibrated to field data. Ice
condition data is also limited to general observations of midwinter ice
conditions pre-dam removal. Although the model was not calibrated for
the study site, the objective of the case study was to evaluate the re-
lative change in habitat suitability after removal of the dam. Therefore,
typical model parameters were used, with the exception of Manning's
bed roughness for the model domain. The bed roughness was estimated
from the bed material size (coarse sand), which gives nb = 0.025.
Additional model parameters selected for the simulation are provided
in Table 1.
2.4. Fish habitat analysis
For this analysis, the habitat suitability indices for Atlantic Salmon
8
Cold Regions Science and Technology 176 (2020) 103086
discussed in Section 1 are used. A water temperature of 5 ° C was used
as a switch between open water and winter habitat preference. For
water temperatures above 5 ° C, the mean of the suitability indices for
water temperature, velocity, depth, and substrate suitability were used
to determine the composite suitability. For water temperatures below
5 ° C, the mean of the cover and frazil suitability indices was used to
calculate the composite suitability. The distribution of suitable habitat
and the weighted usable area and total available area for all four cases
is calculated and compared.
3. Results and discussion
Although the model is fully unsteady, for the purposes of this case
study, steady state conditions were simulated. Therefore, simulations
were run until steady conditions were reached throughout the domain.
For the freeze-up simulations, the simulations were run long enough for
changes in ice conditions to be relatively small with time. The condi-
tions at this time represented typical freeze-up conditions for
I.M. Knack, et al.
Fig. 6. Substrate suitability index for open water conditions for a) pre- and b) post-dam removal bathymetry, c) and d) show the corresponding bathymetry in the
vicinity of the dam.
comparison of fish habitat.
The simulations show that the most significant changes between
pre- and post-dam removal were located near the site of the dam. For
both open water and freeze-up conditions, the water velocity was
higher post-dam removal near the dam site because of the reduced
depths with no impoundment behind the removed dam. The velocity
suitability index (SIvel) is shown in Fig. 4. The change in velocity from
the removal of the dam is reflected in the change in SIvel, with only a
localized reduction because of the higher velocities at the dam site post
removal. Before the removal of the dam, the majority of the river is
deeper than Atlantic Salmon prefer (Fig. 5). After the removal of the
dam there is an improvement in depth suitability near the dam, but the
overall depth suitability remains low. The increased velocities flushed
the fine sediments and left coarse gravel as the primary sediment with a
size of 25 mm, improving the substrate suitability index throughout the
domain (Fig. 6). The temperature suitability index for the open water
period before the freeze up is not shown because simulations showed
temperatures close to 10 ° C throughout the domain, giving a nearly
9
Cold Regions Science and Technology 176 (2020) 103086
uniform temperature suitability index of 0.5.
Freeze-up conditions varied significantly between the pre- and post-
dam removal cases. Pre-dam removal an ice cover formed over nearly
all of the domain due to the lower velocities from the dam. The pre-
sence of the ice cover reduced frazil ice concentrations throughout the
domain. Post dam removal an ice cover formed from the confluence
with the St. Lawrence to the downstream end of the removed dam. The
lack of a cover allowed for continual frazil ice production and relatively
high frazil ice concentrations, as high as 0.001 m3/m3. The freeze-up
suitability indices are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. The cover suitability
index (SIcover) is shown in Fig. 7. The SIcover is higher for the post-dam
removal conditions due to the availability of coarse substrate
throughout the domain and no anchor ice, even where ice did not
provide velocity shelter. For the pre-dam removal conditions velocity
protectant surface ice formed including everywhere below the dam, and
some in the headpond just above the dam, compensating for the sub-
strate being too small to provide cover. No significant anchor ice
formed in either case, which appears to be typical for this area based on
I.M. Knack, et al.
Fig. 7. Cover suitability index for freeze-up conditions for a) pre- and b) post-dam removal bathymetry, c) and d) show the corresponding bathymetry in the vicinity
of the dam.
limited field observations and small sediment sizes. The frazil suit-
ability index is shown in Fig. 8. The pre-dam condition has a higher
suitability index due to the lower concentration of suspended frazil ice
in the headpond of the dam (0.0001 m3/m3 in the headpond vs.
0.0004m3/m3 in the rapids sections). The slower moving water in the
headpond allows the frazil to come out of suspension and deposit on the
underside of the ice cover. There is also a longer open water area in the
post-removal simulation that allows for more frazil ice generation and
lower frazil suitability index (as high as 0.001 m3/m3 in many rapids
areas throughout the domain).
The composite suitability on each node is calculated as the mean of
the suitability indices on the node. The composite suitability for all four
cases is shown in Fig. 9. The comparison of the composite suitability
distribution shows increased habitat suitability throughout the domain
after the removal of the Hogansburg Dam for open water conditions,
primarily due to the flushing of fine sediments from the course gravel.
For the freeze-up conditions, there is a decrease in habitat suitability
post-dam removal, due to the increased frazil ice production. The high
10
Cold Regions Science and Technology 176 (2020) 103086
availability of substrate in the post-removal bathymetry means that
Atlantic Salmon could hide during frazil ice events but would need to
move to find more suitable habitat in the long term. The weighted
usable area (WUA) and Total Wet Area (total surface area of the domain
that has depth greater than 0.1 m) for all cases are given in Table 2.
WUA is given as both a total area and as a percentage of the Total Wet
Area. The simulation results show that there is a significant improve-
ment in overall habitat suitability for Atlantic Salmon in the St. Regis
River after the removal of the Hogansburg Dam for open water condi-
tions. This result was expected and was a major motivator for the re-
moval of the Hogansburg Dam (McKenna et al., 2015). The simulation
results also show that there was not a significant change in WUA during
freeze-up because of the removal of the dam. As mentioned earlier, the
most significant contribution to fish habitat from removing the Ho-
gansburg Dam is the removal of the barrier to fish passage, opening up
the rest of the St. Regis River to migrating fish species such as Atlantic
Salmon. What was important was that the removal of the dam create
conditions during the winter that would impact the long-term effort to
I.M. Knack, et al.
Fig. 8. Frazil suitability index for freeze-up conditions for a) pre- and b) post-dam removal bathymetry, c) and d) show the corresponding bathymetry in the vicinity
of the dam.
encourage fish to return to the river. The simulations show that there is
no significant negative impact on wintertime fish habitat from the re-
moval of the Hogansburg Dam.
4. Summary
The quality of fish habitat in a stream or river is an important aspect
in the design and execution of river restoration projects. Combining
habitat suitability modeling with detailed river models can provide
valuable insight into the biological side of river quality. The study re-
viewed existing studies on fish behaviour during the winter in ice af-
fected climates and presented proposed fish habitat preferences for
salmonids in winter. The habitat suitability curves that were developed
were used in the two-dimensional hydro-thermal-ice-sediment river
dynamics model, RICE2D, coupled with a PHABSIM, IIFM fish habitat
model. This is the first two-dimensional model to combine unsteady
hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, ice dynamics, sediment transport,
and habitat suitability in a single model. This model provides a unique
11
Cold Regions Science and Technology 176 (2020) 103086
ability to gain insight into the changing habitat of fish during the cold
winter period, although it is also applicable to non-winter conditions.
The model was shown to be a useful assessment tool, especially for
exploring fish habitat during the winter ice periods and evaluating the
success of restoring fish habitat for all seasons. The removal of the
Hogansburg Dam on the St. Regis River, Hogansburg, NY was evaluated
using the model. The simulation results showed that the removal of the
dam will increase fish habitat for open water conditions due to im-
proved substrate conditions and increased velocities and reduced
depths near the original dam site. The simulations also showed that
there would be no significant overall loss of wintertime fish habitat
from the removal of the dam, despite increased frazil ice production
from the removal of the dam.
Since there is a very limited understanding on fish habitat pre-
ference in winters, additional research on the effect of various winter
thermal-ice phenomena of fish behaviour will be needed. The model
can be used to assist the planning of such studies when it is difficult to
observe all the physical variables such as flow and thermal-ice
I.M. Knack, et al. Cold Regions Science and Technology 176 (2020) 103086

Fig. 9. Composite suitability index for a) pre-dam removal bathymetry, open water conditions, b) post-dam removal bathymetry, open water conditions, c) pre-dam
removal bathymetry, freeze-up conditions, and d) post-dam removal bathymetry, freeze-up conditions.

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