K1 Final Report

PRODUCTION OF GLYCEROL MONOOLEATE (GMO) FROM
GLYCEROL AND OLEIC ACID FOR ANTI-BACTERIA AGENT
GROUP KK1
HO DANY A164216
MUHAMMAD HAMIZAN AZMAN A163509
MASHITAH MOHD HISBAN A163419
HAZWANI KHALIESAH BT MAT NAZRI A164021
ARINA ATIQAH BT AZHAR A163472
SUPERVISOR: PROF. DATO' IR. DR. WAN RAMLI WAN DAUD
DR. ANG WEI LUN
PROJECT SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT FOR THE BACHELOR’S

DEGREE OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN DAN ALAM BINA

UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA
BANGI
2021
ii
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work in this project is on our own except for quotations and
summaries which have been duly acknowledged.
13th July 2021 HO DANY
A164216
MUHAMMAD HAMIZAN AZMAN
A163509
MASHITAH MOHD HISBAN
A163419
HAZWANI KHALIESAH BT MAT

NAZRI
A164021
ARINA ATIQAH BINTI AZHAR
A163472
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to explicit our thankfulness and gratefulness because our project was
carried out successfully. Besides that, we would like to express our honour to our
beloved supervisor, Prof. Ir. Dr. Wan Ramli Wan Daud and Dr. Ang Wei Lun for their
time and endless support, advice and guidance while completing this project. Many
thanks are also given to all lecturers from the Department of Chemical Engineering who
have sacrificed their time to teach and guide us regarding their expertise.
We also would like to give our appreciativeness to Tun Sri Lanang which guides
us in searching information regarding this project. We would like to express our
thankfulness and highly indebted to our seniors for their helps and advice on how to
complete this project. We also owe our deepest gratitude to our course mates for their
help and support by completing this project. We would like to say thank you to the
authors, technical papers and articles from various sources that help us to find
information regarding this project.
Finally, we also thank all who have directly or indirectly supported and helped us
complete this project. We also would like to express the thanks to our parents, course
mates and friends who were willing to sacrifice their time to help us find solutions to
all the problems and support given continuously while completing this project.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The final design project is created to produce high glycerol monooleate (GMO) purity
for anti-bacterial agent purpose. The raw material of glycerol and oleic is used and
through the enzymatic glycerolysis in the packed bed reactor to obtain a mixture of
GMO, by-product of glycerol dioleate (GDO) and water. The best location to build the
plant is situated in Kampung Kepayang, Simpang Pulai, Perak. Some highlighted
criteria for the chosen plant location, which are place near to alpha trading Sdn. Bhd.
for raw material supply, near Lumut port, Ipoh airport and transportation.
In this design project, a natural anti-microbial agent has been developed from
oleic acid and glycerol. Glycerol Monooleate (GMO) is a non-toxic, biodegradable and
biocompatible material with a good natural antibacterial agent for non -alcohol-based
hand sanitiser. GMO can be used as a moisturizer, emulsifier and flavouring agent. In
industry, GMO is widely used in the cosmetic product in the formulation of lipsticks,
eye shadows, makeup bases, and skincare products. Glycerol dioleate (GDO) is the by-
product from glycerolysis process which also called as diolein. GDO is in the same
glyceride group as glycerol monooleate (GMO) with two fatty acids. GDO has wide
application in various industry such as pharmaceutical and cosmetic. GDO used as a
lubricant on the surface of the skin to give a smooth and soft appearance texture in
cosmetic products. In the market, GDO usually being produced in the form of liquid or
soft solid.
The annual production of the main product, which is the glycerol monooleate is
1.99 kilotonnes per year. This production is only about 0.1% of the supply and demand
shortage in the year 2026 with production per hour at 227.52 kilograms of GMO. The
quantity of oleic acid received plays an important role in producing products as it is the
main raw material. The chosen plant location is at Kampung Kepayang, Simpang Pulai,
Perak. This selection is based on raw material availability price, facilities and
infrastructure availability, labour availability and environmental impact.
Generally, the plant production of glycerol monooleate from oleic acid and
glycerol is divided into two-part, which is the glycerolysis reaction and separation
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process part. The production of GMO will take place in the chemical plant by
the reaction between oleic acid and glycerol that will undergo enzymatic glycerolysis
reaction in packed-bed reactor along with solid immobilized lipases (Novozym 435).
The enzymatic glycerolysis process occurs at 70 ͦC and 101.3 kPa with oleic acid
conversion at 86% to produce both GMO and GDO. The products consist of GMO,
GDO, and unreacted reactant will undergo molecular distillation and distillation process
to recover unreacted reactants. Next, the product will undergo purification part by
produce product at purity up to 99% in powder form.
Mass and energy balance is conducted for the whole plant using manual and
simulation calculations. Two simulation software has been used, which is the Superpro
Designer® in the calculation of the designed plant. The manual calculation and
simulation calculation have been compared for both mass and energy balance. The error
percentage obtained is less than 1%. Besides, the total heat energy recovery from heat
integration is 50% obtained by using the pinch analysis steps to reuse the heat energy
and reduce the use of utilities that require high energy consumption like heater and
cooler. Process flow diagram (PFD) after heat integration have been drawn for the
production plant.
Control system has been designed for each equipment that involves in the
production plant. Degree of freedom analysis has been done to determine the number
of parameters controlled in the equipment. The control strategies have been stated for
each equipment. The piping system and suitable pipe size have been determined for
each stream involved in the plant production. A piping and instrumentation diagram
(P&ID) have been drawn for the production plant.
Wastewater treatment plant includes sequencing equalization tank, skim tank,

three series of the floatation tank, aeration tanks, clarifiers, sludge thickener and filter
press. The wastewater treatment plant is designed based on the Standard A discharge
limit stated by DOE. The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen
demand (COD) value of the discharged wastewater are 64.4mg/L and 4.2 mg/L,
respectively. The treated water will be discharged into Sungai Geruntum near the main
plant is located.
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Economic evaluation for this production is carried out in order to identify the
profit for the whole process. The sales price for the GMO and GDO is RM 105.60 per
kg and RM 150.50 per kg respectively. Our production is expected not to make a profit
for the first two years because construction is still ongoing, and by the third year, half
of the processing plant will be operated. Minimum Appropriate Rate of Return (MARR)
is 0.3, which is a reasonable value for the new product and fresh plant established. It is
acceptable as it could offer a higher return of investment compared to the expected rate.
Besides, the payback period (PBP) is 2.4 years, and it could attract investors as it offers
an early payback period. Moreover, the net present value (NPV) and net discounted
flow rate of return (DCFRR) is RM 47.9 million and 0.3, respectively.
For plant safety, all the potential hazards of all chemicals and microbe involving
in the production are identified by referring to the material safety data sheet (MSDS).
All the chemical hazards, toxic and flammable materials in this production are identified
in which the most flammable material in our plant is methane. Flammable gas detector
will be placed in our plant to detect any leakage of methane. Legislative requirements
which apply to chemical production plant are identified as well. Hazard identification,
risk assessment and risk control (HIRARC) study are conducted throughout the plant to
evaluate all possible hazards and their related risks. Hazard system is done based on
each equipment to identify the sources, receptors, how it is transmitted and the barrier.
HAZOP studies has been conducted on every equipment involved in the process.
Different study nodes are identified for each equipment with different parameters and
guide words. A revised P&ID is drawn after HAZOP studies by taking appropriate
action, such as installing alarms and flow controller.
Detail’s design of reactors, separators and heat utilities were carried out. All
equipment is designed by us stainless steel (SS-316). Mechanical designs for unit operations
which determine the thickness of the vessel design with include the value of corrosion
allowance. Maximum allowable working pressure for part and vessel is calculated for the
unit process design. Vessel support, type of flange, base ring and anchor bolt calculation is
included.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iv
TABLE OF CONTENT vii
LIST OF TABLES xvii
LIST OF FIGURES xxiv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Source Of Raw Material 2
1.1.1 Oleic Acid 2
1.1.2 Glycerol 3
1.1.3 Tert-Butanol 4
1.1.4 Tert-Pentanol 5
1.1.5 Water 5
1.2 Product Usage 6
1.2.1 Glycerol Monooleate 6
1.2.2 Glycerol Dioleate 6
CHAPTER II MARKET ANALYSIS 8

2.1 Gmo Market 8
2.2 The Supply And Demand Of Gmo 9
2.3 Plant Capacity 10
2.4 Future Marketing Potential 11
CHAPTER III CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 12

3.1 Process Design Level 1 12
3.1.1 Operating Condition 12
3.1.2 Chemical Reaction 14
3.1.3 Reaction Stoichiometry 14
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3.1.4 Reaction Conversion 15

3.1.5 Selectivity 18
3.1.6 Design Constraint 20
3.2.1 Input-Output Structure 21
3.2.2 Design Capacity 22
3.2.3 Overall Mass Balance 22
3.2.4 Economic Potential Analysis For
Level 2, Fep2 22
3.3.1 Number Of Reactor 23
3.3.2 Heat Effect On Reactor 24
3.3.3 Reactor Sizing 26
3.3.4 Reactor Costing 27
Level 3, Fep3 28
3.4.1 Distillation Column, D-101 30
3.4.2 Vacuum Evapourator, V-101 31
3.4.7 Spray Dryer, S-101 39
3.4.8 Spray Dryer, S-102 41
Level 4, Fep4 42
3.5 Production Process Of Glycerol Monooleate 43
3.5.1 Process Flow Diagram 43
3.5.2 Process Description 43
3.6 Mass Balance 46
3.6.1 Overall Mass Balance 46
3.6.2 Overall Mass Balance By Superpro 50
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3.6.3 Comparison Of Mass Balance

Between Manual Calculation And
Superpro 50
3.7 Energy Balance For The Main Operation 51
CHAPTER IV HEAT INTEGRATION 54

4.1 Introduction 54
4.2 Pinch Analysis 54
4.2.1 Data Extraction 54
4.2.2 Interval Temperature 55
4.2.3 Heat Cascade 56
4.2.4 Heat Exchanger Network 57
CHAPTER V PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION 60

5.1 Introduction 60
5.2 Process Control Analysis 60
5.3 Control System For Unit Operation 61
5.3.1 Reactor, R-101 61
5.3.2 Vacuum Evapourator And Condenser 63
5.3.3 Heater 67
5.3.4 Distillation Column 68
5.4 Piping System 69
5.4.1 Liquid Flow 69
5.4.2 Vapour Flow 70
5.4.3 Mixture Flow 71
CHAPTER VI WASTE MANAGEMENT 75

6.1 Introduction 75
6.2 Environmental Act And Regulations In Malaysia 76
6.3 Solid Waste 77
6.4 Waste Generated-Wastewater 77
6.5 Waste Minimization 80
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6.6 Wastewater Treatment Plant 81

6.6.1 Equalization Tank 81
6.6.2 Skim Tank 82
6.6.3 Floatation Tank 1 83
6.6.4 Floatation Tank 2 84
6.6.5 Aeration Tank 1 85
6.6.6 Clarifier Tank 1 86
6.6.7 Aeration Tank 2 88
6.6.8 Clarifier Tank 2 88
6.6.9 Sludge Thickener 88
6.6.10 Filter Press 89
6.7 Design Summary 89
CHAPTER VII PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT 91

7.1 Introduction 91
7.2 Suggestion Of Plant Location 91
7.3 Selection Of Plant Location 93
7.4 Plant Layout 94
7.4.1 Factors Influencing The Plant Layout 94
7.4.2 Plant Layout Description 96
CHAPTER VIII ECONOMY ANALYSIS 98

8.1 Introduction 98
8.2 Design Life 99
8.2.1 Scrap Value 99
8.2.2 Plant Capacity Estimation 99
8.3 Total Capital Investment 100
8.3.1 Fixed Capital Investment, Cfc 100
8.3.2 Working Capital Investment, Cwc 103
8.3.3 Land Capital Investment, Cl 104
8.3.4 Total Capital Investment, Ctc 104
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8.4 Total Product Cost 105

8.4.1 Working Capital Investment, Cwc 105
8.4.2 Cost Of Manufacturing, Com 105
8.4.3 General Expenses, Ge 111
8.5 Depreciation 113
8.6 Profitability Analysis 114
8.6.1 The Method That Does Not Consider The
Time Value Of Money 115
8.6.2 The Method That Considers The Time
Value Of Money 122
8.6.3 Breakeven Analysis 126
Chapter Ix Hazard Identification And Analysis 127
9.1 Introduction 127
9.2 Legislative Requirements 127
9.2.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974 127
9.2.2 Occupational Safety And Health Acts 1994 128
9.2.3 Factories And Machinery Act 1967
(Act139) 128
9.3 Hazard Identification 129
9.3.1 Identification Of Chemical Hazards 129
9.3.2 Identification Of Toxic Materials 131
9.3.3 Identification Of Hazardous, Flammable
Materials 131
9.4 Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment And Risk Control
(Hirarc) 132
9.5 Concept Of Hazard System 140
CHAPTER X DETAIL PROCESS DESIGN 147

10.2 Detailed Design Of Tank, T-101 (Prepared By: Mashitah
Binti Mohd Hisban, A163419) 147
10.2.2 Design Pressure (Internal Pressure) 150
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10.2.3 Minimum Wall Thickness, Tmin 150

10.2.4 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure For
Vessel (Mawpvessel) 151
10.2.5 Combined Loading 153
10.2.6 Elastic Stability 156
10.2.7 Vessel Support 157
10.2.8 Skirt Thickness Design 158
10.2.9 Base Ring And Anchor Bolt Design 159
10.2.10 Design Of Flanges Joints 161
10.2.11 Summary Of Detail Design Of Tank, T-101 162
10.3 Design Of Cooler, E-104 And E-107 (Prepared By:
Hazwani Khaliesah Bt Mat Nazri, A164021) 163
10.3.1 Design Specification Of Cooler, E-104 164
10.3.2 Tube-Side Coefficient 167
10.3.3 Shell-Side Coefficient 167
10.3.4 Overall Coefficient 169
10.3.5 Tube-Side Pressure Drop 169
10.3.6 Shell-Side Pressure Drop 170
10.3.7 Design Summary Of Cooler, E-104 170
10.3.8 Design Specification Of Cooler, E-107 171
10.3.9 Design Summary Of Cooler, E-107 172
10.4 Detailed Design Of Condenser C-101 174
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10.7 Detailed Design Of Reboiler B-102 190
10.7.1 Heat Loads 191
10.7.2 Boiling Coefficient And Overall Coefficient 192
10.7.3 Maximum Allowable Heat Flux 193
10.7.4 Reboiler Layout Design 193
10.8 Detail Design Of Distillation Column, D-101 195
10.8.1 Introduction 195
10.8.2 Design Of Distillation Column 196
10.8.3 Type Of Tray 197
10.8.4 Material Of Construction 197
10.8.5 Number Of Stages 198
10.8.6 Detail Design Of Heater, E-101 265
10.9 Detail Process Design For Spray Dryer S-101 267
10.9.2 Column Design Selection And Consideration 267
10.9.3 Data And Assumption For Spray Dryer S-101 268
10.9.4 Column Design Calculation 268
10.9.5 Cyclone Introduction 279
10.9.6 Cyclone Design Calculation 279
10.9.7 Summary Of Process Design For Spray Dryer
S-101 284
10.9.8 Summary Of Process Design For Spray Dryer
S-102 284
10.10 Detail Process Design For Heat Exchanger (He-105) 285
10.10.2 Dimension Of Heat Exchanger 286
10.10.3 Summary Of Process Design For Heat
Exchanger He-105 295
CHAPTER XI MECHANICAL DESIGN 265

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11.2 Mechanical Design Of Packed Bed Reactor, R-101 265

11.2.1 Sizing Of Pressure Vessel 266
11.2.2 Design Factor 267
11.2.3 Design Of Bed 268
11.2.4 Design Of Jacket 268
11.2.5 Design Pressure (Internal Pressure) 274
11.2.6 Minimum Wall Thickness, Tmin 274
11.2.7 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure For
Vessel (Mawpvessel) 277
11.2.9 Maximum Stress Intensity 282
11.2.11 Vessel Support 284
11.2.12 Skirt Thickness Design 284
11.2.14 Design Of Flanges Joints 288
11.2.15 Summary Of Mechanical Design Of Packed
Bed Reactor 290
11.3 Mechanical Design Of Double Effect Falling Film
Evapourator, V-101. 291
11.4 Design Specification Of Evapourator 292
11.4.1 Tube Design Details 292
11.4.2 Design Parameters Of Evapourator 293
11.4.3 Material Selection In Evapourator Vessel
Design 295
11.4.4 Wall Thickness Of Double Effect
Evapourator 295
11.4.5 Overall Wall Thickness Of Double Effect
Evapourator 298
11.4.6 Tube Sheet Thickness 299
1) Longitudinal And Circumferential Stresses 301
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2) Direct Stress 302

3) Bending Stress 303
4) Primary Stresses 304
11.4.9 Design Of Vessel Support 307
11.4.10 Skirt Thickness 307
11.4.12 Flanges And Joints Design 313
11.4.13 Design Summary Of Vacuum Evapourator,
V-101. 314
11.5 Mechanical Design Of Reboiler (B-102) 316
11.5.1 Design Specification 316
11.5.2 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure 317
11.5.3 Minimum Wall Thickness 317
11.5.4 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure 318
11.5.6 Support Design 320
11.5.7 Flanged Joint 320
11.6 Mechanical Design Of Distillation Column, D-101 321
11.6.4 Dimension Of Distillation Column D-101 324
11.6.5 Vessel Support And Flanged Joint 325
11.6.6 Summary Of Design 326
11.7 Mechanical Design – Spray Dryer S-101 327
11.7.4 Design Pressure 328
11.7.5 Wall Thickness 329
11.7.6 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure
(Mawp) 330
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11.7.7 Combine Loading 330

11.7.8 Support Design 333
11.7.10 Summary Of Design 339
CHAPTER XII CONCLUSION 340

REFERENCE 342
12.1 Appendix A 344
12.2 Appendix B 359
12.3 Appendix C 361
12.4 Appendix D 363
12.5 Appendix E 365
12.6 Appendix F 367
12.7 Appendix G 369
xvii
LIST OF TABLES
No. Page
Table 1. 1 The physical and chemical properties of Glycerol

Monooleate (GMO) 1
Table 1. 2 The physical and chemical properties of oleic acid 3
Table 1. 3 The properties of Glycerin 4
Table 1. 4 The physical and chemical properties of tert-butanol 5
Table 1. 5 The physical and chemical properties of tert-
pentanol 5
Table 1. 6 The physical and chemical properties of water 6
Table 1. 7 The physical and chemical properties of glycerol
dioleate 7
Table 3. 1 Operating condition for proposed reaction 14
Table 3. 2 The chemical formula, molecular weight and symbol
used for the respective chemicals in the reactions 15
Table 3. 3 Symbol used for respective component in reaction
equations 16
Table 3. 4 Reaction constant for involved reaction 17
Table 3. 5 Final concentration for each component. 17
Table 3. 6 Selectivity of all components involved in reaction 19
Table 3. 7 The destination of each components after main
process 21
Table 3. 8 Mass balance in R-101 22
Table 3. 9 The price for reactant and product for production of
GMO 23
Table 3. 10 Specific heat capacity of each component 24
Table 3. 11 Ta based on the conversion 25
Table 3. 12 The parameter of packed bed reactor for every
conversion 27
Table 3. 13 Symbol used for respective component in reaction
equations 28
xviii
Table 3. 14 The economic potential analysis for level 3 29

Table 3. 15 Operating condition for distillation column, D-101 30
Table 3. 16 The dimension and annual cost for distillation
column, D-101 31
Table 3. 17 Operating condition for vacuum evapourator, V-101 31
Table 3. 18 Heat duty for vacuum evapourator, V-101 32
Table 3. 19 Dimesion and estimation cost for vacuum
evapourator, V-101 32
Table 3. 22 Dimesion and estimation cost for vacuum
Table 3. 25 Dimesion and cost estimation for vacuum
Table 3. 32 Operating condition for spray dryer, S-101 40
Table 3. 33 The dimension and annual cost estimation for spray
dryer, S-101 40
Table 3. 34 Operating condition for spray dryer, S-102 41
Table 3. 35 The dimension and annual cost estimation for spray
dryer, S-101 41
Table 3. 36 The economic potential analysis for level 4 42
Table 3. 37 Mass Balance of stream 46
xix

Table 3. 43 Mass balance of unit operation 49
Table 3. 44 Comparison between the manual and simulation
mass balance 51
Table 3. 45 Data for Heat of Formation of Each Component 52
Table 3. 46 Heat capacity coefficient of component 52
Table 3. 47 Specific Heat Capacity of Element 53
Table 3. 48 Specific Heat Capacity of component 53
Table 3. 49 Summary of Energy Balance on each unit operation 53
Table 4. 1 Data for each utility stream. 54
Table 4.2 Data for each utility stream. 55
Table 4.3 Heat capacities at Tint. 55
Table 4. 4 Heat cascade iteration. 56
Table 4. 5 Conclusion of heat cascade. 57
Table 4. 6 Total energy recovery. 59
Table 5. 1 List of variables for modelling equation of Reactor 61
Table 5. 2 Summary of control strategy for Reactor R-101 63
Table 5. 3 List of variable for modelling equation of Vacuum
Evapourator 63
Table 5. 4 Summary of control strategy for vacuum
evapourator 65
Table 5. 5 Summary of control strategy for vacuum
evapourator 66
Table 5. 6 Summary of control strategy for Heater E-102 67
Table 5. 7 The sizing for the piping system of liquid flow 72
Table 5. 8 the sizing for piping system of vapour flow 74
Table 5. 9 the sizing for piping system of mixture flow 74
Table 6. 1 Discharge limit for Standard A and B of industrial effluent 76
xx
Table 6. 2 Acceptable conditions for industrial discharge effluent

containing chemical oxygen demand (COD) for a specific
trade or industry sector 77
Table 6. 3 Discharge limit according to standard A by Environmental
Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulation 2009 78
Table 6. 4 The flow rate for each component in wastewater from
GMO production plant 78
Table 6. 5 COD for each component in wastewater 79
Table 6. 6 Value obtained for each parameter and discharged limits. 80
Table 6. 7 Discharge limit at Skim Tank 83
Table 6.8 Discharge limit at Floatation tank 1. 84
Table 6. 9 Discharge limit at Floatation tank 2 85
Table 6.10 Discharge limit at Aeration tank. 86
Table 6. 11 Discharge limit at Clarifier tank 1. 87
Table 6. 12 Discharge limit at Aeration tank 2. 88
Table 6. 13 Discharge limit at Clarifier tank 2. 88
Table 6. 14 Available belt size for different type of sludge 89
Table 6. 15 Design summary for wastewater treatment plant 90
Table 7. 1 Comparison of specification between each location 91
Table 7. 2 Mark analysis for plant location 92
Table 7. 3 Scoring result for each of plant location 93
Table 8. 1 Plant estimation 99
Table 8. 2 the purchase cost for plant equipments 102
Table 8. 3 the direct cost estimation 102
Table 8. 4 the total indirect cost 103
Table 8. 5 the raw material cost 106
Table 8. 6 the labour requirement 107
Table 8. 7 the operating labour for the plant operation 107
Table 8. 8 the total direct manufacturing cost 109
Table 8. 9 the total fixed charge 110
Table 8. 10 the total general expenses cost. 113
Table 8. 11 the summary of project investment 115
Table 7.12 the summarization of economic analysis for this plant 126
xxi
Table 9. 1 Chemical hazard identification 130

Table 9. 2 Hazardous toxic materials identification 131
Table 9. 3 Hazardous flammable materials identification 131
Table 9. 4 Description of likelihood 132
Table 9. 5 Description of severity 132
Table 9. 6 Risk Matrix 133
Table 9. 7 Explanation on risk matrix 133
Table 9. 8 HIRARC study of plantwide 134
Table 9. 9 HIRARC study of chemical reaction 135
Table 9. 10 Hazard system based on chemicals and equipment 141
Table 10. 1 Design of packed bed reactor 148
Table 10. 2 The design specification of packed bed reactor 149
Table 10. 3 The design pressure of each part of packed bed
reactor 150
Table 10. 4 Minimum wall thickness for each part of packed bed
reactor, R-102 151
Table 10. 5 MAWPvessel for each part of packed bed reactor 152
Table 10. 6 Value of Bolt size and Root Area 161
Table 10. 7 Parameters for openings of packed bed reactor 162
Table 10. 8 The standard dimension of flanges of streams 162
Table 10. 9 Summary of tank, T-101 design 163
Table 10. 10 Physical Properties for Cooling Water and Mixture
For Cooler, E-104. 163
Table 10. 11 Detail design for Cooler, E-104. 170
Table 10. 12 Physical properties for cooling water and mixture for
Cooler, E-107. 172
Table 10. 13 Detail design for Cooler, E-107. 172
Table 10. 14 Physical Properties of Vapour Mixture and cooling
water at tube for Condenser C-101 174
Table 10. 15 Design Specification of Condenser C-101 180
water at Tube for Condenser S-102 181
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water at Tube for Condenser C-103 189
Table 10. 20 Physical properties of mixture in boiler B-102 191
Table 10. 21 Summary detail design of reboiler (B-102) 194
Table 10. 22 Important Parameter of Distillation Column D-101 196
Table 10. 23 Flow Rate of Distillation Column D-101 196
Table 10. 24 Constants A, B and C for the Antoine Equation 198
Table 10. 25 Values of x and K for Feed, Distillate and Bottom in
Distillation Column 198
Table 10. 26 Summary of Number of Stages of Distillation
Column 202
Table 10. 27 Summary of Column Diameter 205
Table 10. 28 Specifications of distillation column D-101 206
Table 10. 29 Design specification of E-101 265
Table 10. 30 Specification of FS1.5 Rotary Atomizer 267
Table 10. 31 Specification of centrifugal fan 268
Table 10. 32 Design Specification for Spray Dryer S-101 284
Table 10. 33 Design Specification for Spray Dryer S-102 284
Table 10. 34 Properties of Shell and Tube Side Fluid 286
Table 10. 35 Tube side specifications for Heat Exchanger HE-105 295
Table 10. 36 Shell Side Specifications for Heat Exchanger HE-
105 296
Table 11. 1 Design of packed bed reactor 267
Table 11. 2 The design specification of packed bed reactor 268
Table 11. 3 The design pressure of each part of packed bed reactor 274
Table 11. 4 Minimum wall thickness for each part of packed bed
reactor, R-101 276
Table 11. 5 MAWPvessel for each part of packed bed reacto0072 278
Table 11. 6 Specification of the support for packed bed reactor 284
Table 11. 7 Value of Bolt size and Root Area 288
Table 11. 8 Parameters for openings of packed bed reactor 289
Table 11. 9 The standard dimension of flanges of streams 290
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Table 11. 10 Summary design of packed bed reactor, R-101 290

Table 11. 11 Parameter of Falling Film evapourator V-101. 292
Table 11. 12 Parameter of Falling Film evapourator V-101 293
Table 11. 13 Design shape for each part in falling film evapourator. 294
Table 11. 14 Dimension of vessel in falling film evapourator. 294
Table 11. 15 Design specification based on operating condition. 295
Table 11. 16 Iteration for cylindrical shell wall thickness. 298
Table 11. 17 Nominal size flanges for manhole. 314
Table 11. 18 Detail design for vacuum evapourator V-101. 314
Table 11. 19 Specification of reboiler (B-102) 316
Table 11. 20 maximum allowable pressure specification 317
Table 11. 21 tcalc calculation 317
Table 11. 22 tmin calculations 318
Table 11. 23 MAWP part 318
Table 11. 24 combined loading and weight analysis 319
Table 11. 25 Saddle support dimensions 320
Table 11. 26 Dimensions of the flanges 321
Table 11. 27 Operating condition of distillation column D-101 322
Table 11. 28 Types of shape for each parts of distillation column
D-101 323
Table 11. 29 Specifications of distillation column D-101 324
Table 11. 30 Dimensions of distillation column D-1013 325
Table 11. 31 Summary of mechanical design of D-101 326
Table 11. 32 The operating condition of Spray Dryer S-101 327
Table 11. 33 Design Pressure with safety factor of Spray Dryer S-
101 329
Table 11. 34 The summary of wall thickness on each part of the
vessel of Spray Dryer S-101 329
Table 11. 35 The summary of MAWP on each part of the vessel in
Spray Dryer S-101 330
Table 11. 36 The summary of Mechanical Design of Spray Dryer
S-101 339
xxiv
LIST OF FIGURES
No. page
Figure 1. 1 The structural formula of Glycerol Monooleate

(GMO) 1
Figure 1. 2 The chemical structure of oleic acid 2
Figure 2. 1 The GMO market by grade 8
Figure 2. 2 The GMO market by applications 9
Figure 2. 3 the supply and demand of GMO from year 2020 to
2026 10
Figure 3. 1 Binary solvent mixture ratio of tert-butanol and tert-
pentanol 12
Figure 3.2 Ratio of substrate to solvent mixture (w/v) 13
Figure 3. 3 Ratio of substrate to solvent mixture (w/v) 13
Figure 3. 4 Graph of concentration against conversion 18
Figure 3. 5 Selectivity of all components involved in reaction 20
Figure 3. 6 Block diagram of the main process 21
Figure 3. 7 The economic potential analysis level 2 23
Figure 3. 8 Adiabatic temperature of PBR vs conversion 26
Figure 3. 9 The graph of economic potential analysis for level 3 29
Figure 3. 10 The graph of economic potential analysis for level 4 43
Figure 3. 11 SuperPro process simulation 50
Figure 4.1 Relationships between Tint hot and cold stream. 56
Figure 4. 2 Grid design for heat exchanger network. 57
Figure 4. 3 Design network above pinch 58
Figure 4. 4 Design network below pinch 58
Figure 5. 1 Control configuration of Reactor R-101 62
Figure 5. 2 Control configuration of Vacuum Evapourator, V-101
and V-102 65
Figure 5. 3 Control configuration of Vacuum Evapourator, V-103 66
Figure 5. 4 Control configuration of Heater, E-102 67
Figure 5. 5 Control configuration of Distillation Column, D-101 68
xxv
Figure 7. 1 Plant location at Kampung Kepayang, Simpang Pulai, Perak 94

Figure 8. 1 the breakeven analysis curve 126
Figure 10. 1 Tank, T-101 148
Figure 10. 2 Design of lap-join flange 162
Figure 10. 3 Cooler, E-104. 163
Figure 10. 4 Temperature profile for Cooler, E-104 164
Figure 10. 5 Cooler, E-107 171
Figure 10. 6 Condenser (C-101) 174
Figure 10. 7 Condenser C-102 181
Figure 10. 8 Condenser (C-103) 189
Figure 10. 9 Reboiler (B-102) 190
Figure 10. 10 Cross-sectional of top view of the cylinder reboiler 193
Figure 10. 11 Distillation Column D-101 195
Figure 10. 12 Schematic diagram of sieve tray 197
Figure 10. 13 High Efficiency Cyclone 280
Figure 10. 14 The dimension of the spray dryer S-101 281
Figure 10. 15 Factor φ and ψ graph 282
Figure 10. 16 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 285

Figure 10. 17 Tube-side heat transfer factor 289
Figure 10. 18 Constant Ks and nt 290
Figure 10. 19 Shell- bundle clearance 291
Figure 10. 20 Shell-side heat transfer factors, segmental baffles 292
Figure 10. 21 Tube-side friction factors 294
Figure 10. 22 shell-side friction factor 295
Figure 11. 1 Packed Bed Reactor 266
Figure 11. 2 Temperature profile for heat exchange in jacketed vessel 271
Figure 11. 3 Design of lap-join flange 289
Figure 11. 4 Temperature profile for heat exchange in jacketed vessel 292
Figure 11. 5 Basic layout for evapourator. 294
Figure 11. 6 Illustration lap joint flanges. 314
Figure 11. 7 Reboiler (B-102) 316
Figure 11. 8 Saddle support dimension 320
Figure 11. 9 Steel welding neck flanges 321
xxvi
Figure 11. 10 Layout Spray Dryer 328

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Based on our plant design, our main product is Glycerol Monooleate (GMO) with the
chemical name of 2,3-dihydroxy propyl (Z)-octadic-9-enoate is a glycerol fatty acid
ester produced by semi-batch enzymatic glycerolysis process with other by-products,
which is a particular type of Glycerol Dilaurate (DAG) and water. GMO is a non-toxic,
biodegradable and biocompatible material used to form various liquid crystalline drug
formulations. It can be an excellent natural antibacterial agent for non -alcohol-based
hand sanitiser. Figure 1.1 below show the structural formula of GMO.
Figure 1. 1 The structural formula of Glycerol Monooleate (GMO)
Source: Milak & Zimmer 2014
Table 1. 1 The physical and chemical properties of Glycerol Monooleate (GMO)
Characteristic Properties
Chemical formula C21H40O4
Appearance Clear yellow liquid
Melting point 9C
Boiling point 238-240oC at 3 mm Hg
Flashpoint 218-235oC
Density 0.9420 at 20/4oC
Molecular weight 356.5 g/mol
2
1.1 SOURCE OF RAW MATERIAL
Six raw materials are used to produce glycerol monooleate (GMO): oleic acid, glycerol,
tert-butanol, tert-pentanol, and water. All these materials will enter the packed-bed
reactor and undergo enzymatic glycerolysis to produce GMO as the main product and
glycerol dioleate (GDO) with water as a side product.
1.1.1 Oleic acid
The main raw material used for the production of glycerol monooleate is oleic acid.
Oleic acid, or so-called omega-9 fatty acid, is well-known as the main material in
essential oil or used as cooking oil in daily life. This raw material is biodegradable
because it can be obtained from many sources such as edible oil, meat and plants. In
this project, the oleic acid is mainly obtained from palm olein, a side liquid product
from the palm oil process. The palm olein contains almost 40-50% of oleic acid, and
Malaysia is one of the world's largest palm oil exporters.
Figure 1. 2 The chemical structure of oleic acid
Source: Pubchem 2019

3
Table 1. 2 The physical and chemical properties of oleic acid
Chemical name 9Z-octadecenoic acid; cis-9-Octadecenoic acid
Physical state Liquid
Odour Peculiar lar-like odour
Colour Colourless
Boiling point 286.11oC
Melting point 16.3 oC
pH 9.1-9.5
1.1.2 Glycerol
Glycerol is a sweet-tasting liquid belonging to the alcohol family of organic compounds.

Glycerol can be found in most essential oil plants. Glycerol was discovered in 1779 by
the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Sheele from 1742-1786. Until 1948 all glycerol was
obtained as a by-product in making soaps from animal and vegetable fats and oils.
Glycerol can be found in two forms: natural glycerol as a by-product of the
oleochemical and biodiesel industries and synthetic glycerol from propylene
production. Malaysia is one of the most popular countries with high production and
export of biodiesel products since 2019, which has led to consequences of increased
waste of glycerol. Most companies provide glycerol in the form of glycerin. Table 1.3
below shows the type and properties of glycerin.
4
Table 1. 3 The properties of Glycerin
Properties Crude Glycerin Technical Grade 99.7 -USP Grade

Glycerin Glycerin
Glycerol Content 40 – 88% 98.0 Min 99.70%
Ash 2.0% Max N/A N/A
Moisture Content N/A 2.0% Max 0.3% Max
Chlorides N/A 10 ppm Max 10 ppm Max
Colour N/A 40 Max (Pt – Co) 10 Max. (APHA)
Specific Gravity N/A 1.262 (@25C) 1.2612 Min
Sulfate N/A N/A 20 ppm Max
Assay N/A N/A 99.0 – 101.0% (on dry
basis)
Heavy Metals N/A 5 ppm Max 5 ppm Max
Chlorinated N/A 30 ppm Max 30 ppm Max
Compounds
Residue on Ignition N/A N/A 100 ppm Max
Fatty Acid & Ester N/A 1.00 Max 1.000 Max
Water 12.0% Max 5.0% Max 0.5% Max
pH (10% Solution) 4.0 – 9.0 4.0 – 9.1 N/A
DEG and Related N/A N/A Pass
Compounds
Organic Volatile N/A N/A Pass
Impurities
Organic Residue 2.0% Max 2.0% Max N/A
Source: Glycerin Specifications - SRS Biodiesel)
1.1.3 Tert-Butanol
Tert-butanol or commonly known as tert-butyl alcohol, is an anthropogenic compound

produced in large quantities from several precursors, including 1-butene, isobutylene,
acetyl chloride and dimethylzinc, and tert-butyl hydroperoxide. Ter-butanol also
classified as flammable substances which can be used solvent, chemical intermediate,
ethanol denaturant, paint remover ingredient, gasoline octane booster and oxygenate. In
the production of glycerol monooleate, the tert-butanol is used as a solvent.
5
Table 1. 4 The physical and chemical properties of tert-butanol
Molecular formula C4H10O
Colour Colourless
Odour Camphor-like
pH 7 at 20oC
o
Melting point 25.7 C at 101.3 kPa
Boiling point 82.41 oC at 101.3 kPa
Flash point 15 oC
Density 0.78 g/cm3
Source: MSDS 2016
1.1.4 Tert-Pentanol
Tert-pentanol is also called amyl alcohol, a highly flammable liquid that instantly reacts
with any substances such as plastic and ignites a flame. Tert-pentanol has the same
function as tert-butanol that acts as a solvent but commonly used in pharmaceutical,
corrosion inhibitor or coating materials and resins.
Table 1. 5 The physical and chemical properties of tert-pentanol
Molecular formula C5H12O
Physical state liquid
Colour Colourless
pH 6 at 20oC
Melting point -12 oC
Boiling point 102 oC
Density 0.805 g/cm3 at 25 oC
Source: MSDS 1016
1.1.5 Water
Water is a natural source of material that covered 70% of the world. Water is used for
this process is clean water get from a big company such as SYABAS. In this process,
clean water acts as a carrier for the tert-butanol and tert-pentanol solvent to react with
other raw materials. The additional water function is becoming a universal solvent as
the water contains polarity that can easily dissolve the glycerol and oleic acid.
6
Table 1. 6 The physical and chemical properties of water
Chemical formula H2O
Molecular weight 18 g/mol
Colour Colourless
pH 7
Melting point 0oC
Boiling point 100oC
Density 1 g/cm3
1.2 PRODUCT USAGE
The production of glycerol monooleate by the enzymatic glycerolysis process produces

the main product: glycerol monooleate and other by-products that are glycerol dioleate
and water.
1.2.1 Glycerol Monooleate
Glycerol monooleate (GMO) is classified as a monoglyceride made up of glycerol and

fatty acid. Glycerides generally produced by the reaction of glycerol acid in the presence
of a catalyst, either chemical or biological catalyst. The reaction proceeds to the
distillation column to obtain a specific GMO. The glycerol monooleate used as a
moisturizer, emulsifier and flavouring agent. The GMO is widely used in cosmetic
products to formulate lipsticks, eye shadows, makeup bases, and skincare products with
a range below 0.1% to 5% concentration. Industries use glycerol Monooleate as a carrier
compound for the enhancement of intestinal drug absorption. The Glycerol monooleate
is suitable to put as a hand sanitiser ingredient because of its moisturizer function and
slight activity toward microbial activities, causing growth inhibition of
Corynebacterium sp concentrations above 1.40 µmol/ml.
1.2.2 Glycerol Dioleate
Glycerol dioleate (GDO) is in the same glyceride group as glycerol monooleate but have
two fatty acids. In the study of esterification of glycerol and oleic acid, by considering
80% conversion of oleic acid, the amount of glycerol dioleate produce, 34.6%, is lesser
7
than glycerol monooleate, 59.4%. We decide to focus on the production of glycerol

monooleate and glycerol dioleate as our side-product by considering this case. The
GDO is used as a lubricant on the skin's surface, giving a smooth and soft appearance
in a cosmetic product.
Table 1. 7 The physical and chemical properties of glycerol dioleate
Molecular formula C39H72O5
Physical state White soft solid
Boiling point 678.3oC
Flashpoint 189.2oC
Density 0.934 g/cm3
CHAPTER II
MARKET ANALYSIS
2.1 GMO MARKET
Glycerol monooleate (GMO) is generally known as an emulsifier and thickening agent

in the food and beverages industry and as a moisturizer in some cosmetic products and
stabilisers in the pharmaceutical industry. The applications of GMO in industries have
become phenomenal because of their function and ability. With the largest share in the
global market, the food and beverage industry is the most dominant industry in the
worldwide Glycerol Monooleate market. In the forecast period, 2018-2023, the
cosmetics industry is expected to observe enormous growth. Glycerol monooleate is
also likely to be used as a stabilizer in the pharmaceutical industry's manufacture of
drugs to promote development.
The GMO Market by Grade
Industrial
Food
Others
Figure 2.1 The GMO market by grade.

9
The GMO Market By Applications
Cosmetic & Personal Care

Textile
Plastic
Food
Others
Figure 2.2 The GMO market by applications.
Based on the pie chart in figure 2.1, the GMO market share is the highest for the
industrial-grade type by 91.74%. This is meant that GMO is highly used for industrial
purposes. The non-toxic and safe consumption in food properties allows the GMO to
become second-highest for food-grade type by 5.23%, after the industrial grade. GMO
as hand sanitiser ingredient becomes the truth because the cosmetic and personal care
industry holds the highest percentage of GMO market by applying 73.54%.
2.2 THE SUPPLY AND DEMAND OF GMO
The market growth of glycerol monooleate is expected to increase and grow with a
compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.4% from 2021 to 2026. The trend of supply
and demand for GMO is shown in figure 2.3.
10
Supply & Demand Curve

100000000
Demand & Supply (kg)

80000000
60000000
40000000
20000000
0
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026
Year
Demand Supply
Figure 2.3 The supply and demand of GMO from the year 2020 to 2026.
Source: Global Glycerol Monooleate Market Research Report (2020)
2.3 PLANT CAPACITY
The plant capacity of production of glycerol monooleate is calculated based on Figure

2.3.
Year of calculated : 2026
GMO demand : 66.43 million
GMO supply : 46.50 million
Deficient : 19.93 million
Cater (0.1%) : 1.993 million
Operation hour : 8760 hours
Plant capacity : 227.52 kg/hr
Plant capacity (per year) : 1,993,075.2 kg/year

11
2.4 FUTURE MARKETING POTENTIAL
Glycerol monooleate is a multifunctional material used in many industries. The ability

to moisturise, emulsify, and thicken agents has attracted many industry experts to
explore and use glycerol monooleate as an ingredient in their products. The important
role of glycerol monooleate in cosmetic and personal care as a moisturizer can attract
many cosmetic and personal care industry experts such as the United States of Amerika,
France, Brazil and China. Furthermore, glycerol monooleate has widely been used in
the food industry as a thickening agent. The raw materials for the production of glycerol
monooleate are renewable resources to last long in the market for many years.
CHAPTER III
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
3.1 PROCESS DESIGN LEVEL 1
Process design level 1 requires determining the process and operating conditions in the
selected product's production. The required information in this process design involves
raw material, chemical reaction, operation conditions, conversion, selectivity, and
design constraints.
3.1.1 Operating Condition
A perfect operating condition is important to obtain the optimum yield of the desired
product. Besides, it also greatly reduces unreacted waste and hence reduces the cost of
operating. The below shows the effect of various conditions respective to the production
of GMO. The objective is to obtain the best operating condition that can produce the
maximum yield of GMO.
a. Binary Solvent
Figure 3.1 Binary solvent mixture ratio of tert-butanol and tert-pentanol.

13
Figure 3.1 shows the binary solvent mixture ratio of tert-butanol and tert-pentanol.
According to the figure, there are no significant differences in the production yield of
GMO among varied combinations of solvent mixtures. Considering its cost and melting
point, TB/TP mixture ratio of 80/20 is chosen for the production.
b. Ratio substrate to the solvent mixture
Figure 3.2 Ratio of the substrate to the solvent mixture (w/v).
Figure 3.2 shows the effect of the ratio of substrate to solvent mixture against the yield
of GMO. The result shows that the GMO reached its maximum level at 40% substrate
and decrease linearly with increasing ratio. Hence, the substrate shall not exceed 40%
of the solvent mixture to obtain a high yield of GMO.
c. Effect initial water content to the reactor
Figure 3. 3 Ratio of substrate to solvent mixture (w/v).

14
Figure 3.3 shows the effect of initial water content in the glycerol against the yield of
GMO. Optimum water is required to balance the rigidity of the enzyme structure. The
result shows the water content of 3% (w/w) in glycerol gives the best yield of GMO.
The result above shows that the optimum operating condition for enzymatic
GMO production is determined to be with a molar ratio of 80:20 tert-butanol to tert-
propanol as a binary solvent system, the molar ratio of 1:3 oleic acid to glycerol, 40
wt% of substrates in the solvent mixture, and 3 wt% water content in the glycerol.
3.1.2 Chemical Reaction
Glycerol monooleate (GMO) production from glycerol and oleic acid involves the
enzymatic glycerolysis process (Zhu et al., 2011). The raw material for this process is
glycerol, oleic acid, lipase enzyme and tert-butanol/tert-pentanol as the binary solvent:
the immobilized lipases, Novozym-435 from Candida antartica (Zeng et al. 2010).
Glycerol, oleic acid and tert-butanol/iso-propanol will be premixed in the tank. After
premix, the mixture is fed to reactor contained immobilized lipase for glycerolysis
reaction. After the reaction, the product produce contains Glycerol monooleate (GMO),
Glycerol dioleate (GDO) and water. The chemical reactions involved were shown in
equation 3.1. The reaction condition is shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Operating condition for proposed reaction.
Condition Value Unit

Temperature 70 ͦC
Pressure 101.3 kPa
3.1.3 Reaction stoichiometry
Overall glycerolysis reaction:
2C3 H8 O3 + 3C18 H34 O2 → C21 H40 O4 + C39 H72 O5 + 3H2 O ...(3.1)

15
3.1.4 Reaction conversion
The reaction kinetics equation is from (Singh et al. 2013). Table 3.2 below
shows the chemicals involved in the reaction and respective chemical formula,
molecular weight, and symbol.
Steps of glycerolysis reaction:
OA+ Gly→GMO+H2O …(3.2)
GMO+Gly →GDO+ H2O …(3.3)
2OA+Gly→GDO+ H2O …(3.4)
Table 3. 2 The chemical formula, molecular weight and symbol used for the
respective chemicals in the reactions.
Components Chemical Formula Molecular Symbol

Weight (kg/kmol)
Glycerol C3H8O2 92.09 Gly
Glycerol monooleate C21H40O4 356.5 GMO
Glycerol dioleate C39H72O5 621.0 GDO
Oleic acid C18H34O2 282.47 OA
Water H2O 18.02 H2O
The kinetic rate law is derived from the reaction from (3.2) to (3.4) involved, as shown
in equations (3.5) to (3.7).
r1=k1[OA][Gly] …(3.5)
r2=k2[GMO][Gly] …(3.6)
r3=k3[OA]2[Gly] …(3.7)
From equations 3.5 to 3.7, the rate of change of concentration for each reaction
component can be shown by the following differential rate equations from equations 8
to 12.
16
Table 3.3 Symbol used for the respective component in reaction equations.
Chemicals Symbols
Oleic acid, C18H34O2 A
Glycerol, C3H8O2 B
Glycerol monooleate, C21H40O4 C
Glycerol dioleate, C39H72O5 D
Water, H2O E
d(C𝐴 )
= −k1 (C𝐴 )(C𝐵 ) − k 3 (C𝐴 )(C𝐵 )2 (3.8)
dt
d(C𝐵 )
= −k1 (C𝐴 )(C𝐵 ) − k 2 (C𝐴 )(C𝐶 ) − k 3 (C𝐴 )(C𝐵 )2 ...(3.9)
dt
d(C𝐶 )
= k1 (C𝐴 )(C𝐵 ) − k 2 (C𝐴 )(C𝐶 ) ...(3.10)
dt
d(C𝐷 )
= k 2 (C𝐴 )(C𝐶 ) + k 3 (C𝐴 )(C𝐵 )2 ...(3.11)
dt
d(C𝐸 ) ...(3.12)
= −k1 (C𝐴 )(C𝐵 ) − k 2 (C𝐴 )(C𝐶 ) − k 3 (C𝐴 )(C𝐵 )2
dt
The concentration of the component will change in the reaction depends on the conversion of
the reaction. By using the chain rule, the differential equation in terms of conversion is obtained.
d(C𝐴 ) k1 (C𝐴 )(C𝐵 ) − 2k 3 (C𝐵 )(C𝐶 ) ...(3.13)

=
dX k1 C𝐴 𝑋
d(C𝐵 ) −k1 (C𝐴 )(C𝐵 ) − k 2 (C𝐶 )(C𝐵 ) − k 3 (C𝐵 )2 (C𝐴 )2

= ...(3.14)
dX k1 C𝐴 𝑋
d(C𝐶 ) k1 (C𝐴 )(C𝐵 ) − k 2 (C𝐵 )(C𝐶 )

= ...(3.15)
dX k1 C𝐴 𝑋
17
d(C𝐷 ) k 2 (C𝐵 )(C𝐶 ) + k1 (C𝐶 )(C𝐵 )

= ...(3.16)
dX k1 C𝐴 𝑋
...(3.17)
d(C𝐸 ) k1 (C𝐴 )(C𝐵 ) + k 2 (C𝐶 )(C𝐵 ) + k 3 (C𝐴 )2 (C 𝐵)
=
dX k1 C𝐴 𝑋
Information for the rate constant, k, is obtained from (Singh et. al. 2013). The constant rate
value is calculated using equations 3.18 to 3.20. Table 1.4 shows the rate constant for the
reaction involved.
kf1= kf1 ͦexp(-Ef1/RT) ...(3.18)
kf2= kf2 ͦexp(-Ef2/RT) ...(3.19)
kf3= kf3 ͦexp(-Ef3/RT) ...(3.20)
Table 3.4 Reaction constant for the involved reaction.
No. kf (ͦ kmol min-1 lit-1) E (kJ mol-1) k (min-1 L-1)

r1 240053.7 44998.03 0.0337
r2 21285844.0 66039.53 0.0019
r3 390003.1 52869.03 0.0035
POLYMATH® software is used to obtain the final concentration for each component from
equation (3.13) to (3.17) using the Range-Kutta approach. The final concentration is plotted in
the function of conversion from X=0.1 to X=1.0. Table 4.5 shows the final concentration
calculated in Polymath, and figure 3.6 shows the concentration graph for each component
against conversion.
Table 3.5 Final concentration for each component.
X Ca Cb Cc Cd Ce
0.10 1 4 0 0 0
0.10 1.000 4.000 4.00E-07 4.11E-08 4.41E-07
0.16 1.033 3.953 0.033 0.003 0.037
0.20 1.060 3.914 0.060 0.006 0.067
0.23 1.094 3.864 0.095 0.010 0.106
0.30 1.187 3.726 0.190 0.020 0.213
18
0.34 1.248 3.632 0.253 0.028 0.285

0.38 1.321 3.519 0.328 0.036 0.372
0.41 1.407 3.383 0.418 0.047 0.478
0.48 1.628 3.022 0.651 0.076 0.757
0.52 1.766 2.790 0.799 0.095 0.938
0.56 1.918 2.532 0.963 0.117 1.143
0.59 2.083 2.252 1.142 0.141 1.371
0.66 2.465 1.606 1.564 0.200 1.923
0.70 2.665 1.280 1.786 0.232 2.223
0.73 2.855 0.981 1.998 0.263 2.514
0.77 3.040 0.700 2.206 0.294 2.805
0.82 3.209 0.455 2.398 0.323 3.077
0.86 3.320 0.303 2.523 0.342 3.257
0.90 3.413 0.178 2.630 0.358 3.411
0.95 3.469 0.105 2.693 0.368 3.504
Figure 3.4 Graph of concentration against conversion.
3.1.5 Selectivity
Selectivity is defined in equation 3.20 below:
Concentration of product
Selectivity = (3.20)
the concentration of reactant×conversion of limiting reactant
The selectivity of each component is determined using POLYMATH® software. Table

3.6 and figure 3.7 shows the selectivity of all components involved in the reaction.
Based on the selectivity, conversion 0.86 is selected based on the maximum selectivity
of the desired product.
19
Table 3.6 Selectivity of all components involved in the reaction.
X Sc Sd Se
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.10 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.16 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.20 0.166 0.017 0.184
0.24 0.254 0.027 0.282
0.27 0.348 0.037 0.388
0.34 0.551 0.059 0.618
0.38 0.664 0.073 0.749
0.42 0.787 0.087 0.893
0.45 0.923 0.104 1.055
0.52 1.240 0.145 1.443
0.56 1.424 0.170 1.673
0.60 1.613 0.196 1.916
0.63 1.805 0.223 2.167
0.70 2.219 0.284 2.729
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.10 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.16 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.20 0.166 0.017 0.184
0.24 0.254 0.027 0.282
0.27 0.348 0.037 0.388
0.34 0.551 0.059 0.618
0.38 0.664 0.073 0.749
0.42 0.787 0.087 0.893
0.45 0.923 0.104 1.055
0.52 1.240 0.145 1.443
0.56 1.424 0.170 1.673
20
Figure 3.5 Selectivity of all components involved in the reaction.
3.1.6 Design Constraint
In our process, the first constraint in glycerol monooleate production is it can produce
in two ways. The first way is the high-temperature esterification of laurate acid and
glycerol with inorganic alkaline catalysts. The second way is the partial hydrolysis of
laurel oils. However, esterification and partial hydrolysis commonly high cost produced
dark-colour products and have a low yield. Therefore, in our process of glycerol
monooleate production is that we use glycerolysis. The glycerolysis of oils and fats is
reaction-mild and can produce a higher yield and better quality.
The second constraint is that glycerolysis can be carried out with two catalyst
methods: chemical synthesis or enzymatic synthesis. Chemical synthesis is usually
using acid or metal oxide catalysts, while enzymatic synthesis is using lipase catalysts.
Enzymatic synthesis has several advantages, including mild reaction conditions, higher
yields, and lower energy consumption (Buchori et al. 2020). Thus, immobilized lipases
were used to convert glycerol and oleic acid into Monoacylglycerol (MAG), rich in
Glycerol monooleate (GMO). The immobilized enzyme will attract more attention
because it can be reused (Datta, Christena & Rajaram 2013)
21
3.2.1 Input-Output Structure
The figure shows the input-output structure that portrays the overall reaction in the
system. The raw materials used in the production of GMO are oleic acid and glycerol.
The reaction involves enzymatic glycerolysis process aid with immobilized lipases,
Novozym-435 from Candida antartica (Zha et al. 2014). The output from the process
is GMO, GDO and water, as shown in Figure 3.6.
Glycerol
Glycerol Oleic Acid
Process GMO
GDO
Oleic Acid
Water
Figure 3.6 Block diagram of the main process.
The destination of each product formed from the plant process is shown in the table. It
is determined by comparing its boiling point to that of the propylene, which is -48℃. It
is important to identify each component's destination (Table 3.7). It is necessary to
simplify the downstream processes, such as distillate, waste treatment, extraction, and
purification of the desired product Glycerol Monooleate.
Table 3.7 The destination of each component after the main process.
Components Boiling Light/ Heavy Destination Density

Point ℃ (kg/m3)
Oleic Acid 360.0 Heavy By product 895
Glycerol 290.0 Heavy By product 1126
Tert-butanol 83.0 Heavy Solvent 781
Tert- pentanol 102.0 Heavy Solvent 815
GMO 483.3 Heavy Main Product 970
GDO 678.3 Heavy Valuable by product 900
H2O 100.0 Heavy Waste Treatment 997
22
3.2.2 Design Capacity
The plant capacity of the designed plant is 227.52kg/h, which fulfils the deficient gap
between demand and supply. The plant will operate for 355 days per annum with a ten-
day shut down period.
3.2.3 Overall Mass Balance
The plant capacity used in the production of GMO is 227.52kg/hr. The conversion of
the limiting reaction, glycerol, is 86%. Based on the operating condition, the ratio of
80:20 tert-butanol to tert-propanol is used as a binary solvent. The molar ratio of 1:4
oleic acid to glycerol, 40wt% of glycerol in the solvent with a water content of 3wt% in
the glycerol. There are 97% of GMO obtained during the separation. From the overall
glycerolysis reaction, the mass balance of the reactor can be obtained. The mass balance
in R-101 is shown in table 3.8.
Table 3.8 Mass balance in R-101.
Inlet Outlet
Compo Molecular
nent weight Molar flow rate Mass Flow Molar flow rate Mass Flow
(kmol/hr) rate (kg/hr) (kmol/hr) rate (kg/hr)
Oleic
282.5 1.97 557.61 0 0
Acid
Glycerol 92 5.92 544.78 4.60 423.72
Tert-
74 18.33 1356.80 18.33 1356.80
butanol
Tert-
88 3.85 339.20 3.85 339.20
pentanol
GMO 356.5 0 0 0.65 234.56
GDO 621 0 0 0.65 408.58
Water 18 0.90 16.34 2.88 51.87
Total 2814.74 2814.74
3.2.4 Economic Potential Analysis for Level 2, FEP2
Gross profit for glycerol monooleate production over conversion is calculated using the
formula stated below and the price of reactants and products for the overall process.
FEP2 = Main Product Value + ∑ By − Product Value − ∑ Raw Material Value …(3.21)
23
Table 3.9 The price for reactants and products for the production of GMO.
Materials Price (RM)

Glycerol 4.03
Oleic acid 4.84
Tert-butanol 7.26
Tert- pentanol 12.1
Glycerol Monooleate 105.6
Glycerol dioleate 150.5
Water 0.1
FEP2 (RM Million)

800
600
Gross Profit (RM Million)
400
200
0
-200 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.86 0.9 1
-400
-600
-800
-1000
Rate of Conversion
FPE2 (RM Million/yr)
Figure 3.7 The economic potential analysis level 2.
For process design level 3, the reactor system is considered more comprehensively.
Variables of design, such as the number of reactors, reactor sizing, heat management
and excess reactant, are discussed to determine the higher accuracy of product
distribution. Lastly, the economic potential analysis 3 (fEP3) is conducted after
equipment costs for reactors are considered.
3.3.1 Number of Reactor
There is one main reactor used in the production of Glycerol Monooleate. A packed bed
reactor will produce Monoacylglycerol (MAG) rich in glycerol monooleate for the
24
glycerolysis process, which involves catalyst. The catalyst used in enzymatic

glycerolysis reaction is immobilized lipases (Novozyme 435).
3.3.2 Heat effect on reactor
A reaction can release or absorb heat. This will affect the temperature and have a
deviation from the set temperature. To maintain the specified temperature, the reactor
must be jacketed with hot or cold water flow. Heat effect and the adiabatic temperature
is calculated to determine it is adiabatic or isothermal. Table 3.10 shows the specific
heat.
Table 3.10 Specific heat capacity of each component.
Component Specific heat capacity, Cp (J/mol.K)

Glycerol 265.41
Oleic acid 672.6608
Glycerol Monooleate 618.5226
Glycerol Dioleate 1397.226
Water 75.15
Tert-butanol 192.7974
Tert-pentanol 230.1524
The adiabatic temperature, with the assumptions that the average specific heat
can be used, is shown using the formula below:
∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑛𝑗 ∆𝐻𝑟𝑗
𝑚
+ ∑𝑚 𝐾
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 𝐶𝑝𝑖 (𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑚 ) − ∑𝑘=1 𝐹𝑘 𝐶𝑝𝑘 (𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑚𝑖 ) = 0 (3.22)
A simpler form for Ta calculation is:
° (𝑇 )]+∑
𝑥[∆𝐻𝑅𝑥 𝑅 𝜃𝑖 𝐶𝑝𝑖 𝑇𝑚 +𝑋∆𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑅
𝑇𝑎 = ∑ 𝜃𝑖 𝐶𝑝𝑖 +𝑥∆𝐶𝑝
(3.23)
Where,
ΔHRX (TR) = The heat of reaction at a reference temperature
Cpi = Specific heat of each product i which includes reactant and impurities
25
Ta = The adiabatic temperature of the reactor
Tm = The inlet temperature of the reactor
TR = Reference temperature
x = Conversion
θi = The ratio of reactant i to limiting reactant
ΔCp = Total specific heat of each reaction
A spreadsheet is used to solve the adiabatic temperature, and the data for the
reactor is tabulated in Table 3.11 and shown in Figure 3.7 below.
Table 3.11 Ta based on the conversion.
Conversion, x PBR (Ta)

0.1 343.84
0.2 344.50
0.3 345.14
0.4 345.75
0.5 346.33
0.6 346.90
0.7 347.44
0.8 347.97
0.9 348.47
1 348.96
26
Adiabatic temperature,Ta vs Conversion,x

350.00
Adiabatic temperature, Ta (K)

349.00
348.00
347.00
346.00
345.00
344.00
343.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Conversion, x
PBR
Figure 3.8 Adiabatic temperature of PBR vs conversion.
Figure 3.8 shows that the adiabatic temperature of the packed bed reactor
increases when conversion increases, which shows that they are exothermic reactions.
3.3.3 Reactor Sizing
Reactor sizing needs to be determined for the estimation of reactor costing. The reactor
chosen used is a packed bed reactor (PBR). A few parameters are important to calculate
the packed bed reactor design: flowrate of excess reactant (oleic acid) and the hydraulic
retention time (HRT). Our plant production aims to convert 86%; thus, the volume of
the reactor is 661.88 m3 with an internal diameter of 6.55 m and 19.65 m for high.
The volume of the reactor is modelled using the design equation of PBR,
𝑑𝑣 𝐹0
=
𝑑𝑥 𝜌𝑐 (1 − 𝜖)(−𝑟)
Where,
𝐹0 = flowrate of oleic acid
𝜌𝑐 = density of catalyst
27
𝜖 = Voidage bed of the reactor
𝑟 = Rate of reaction
The density of catalyst for the packed bed reactor is 400 kg/m3 with voidage bed
of reactor value of 0.33 and rate of reaction value of 0.657954. The reactor's volume is
calculated to convert 10% to 100% for future plant extension. The volume obtained will
be used to calculate the reactor's diameter and height by considering the ratio of
diameter to height, 1:3.
Table 3. 12 The parameter of packed bed reactor for every conversion.
Conversion Volume (m3) Diameter (m) Height (m)

0.1 5692.16 13.42 40.25
0.2 2846.08 10.65 31.95
0.3 1897.39 9.30 27.91
0.4 1423.04 8.45 25.36
0.5 1138.43 7.85 23.54
0.6 948.69 7.38 22.15
0.7 813.17 7.01 21.04
0.8 711.52 6.71 20.13
0.86 661.88 6.55 19.65
0.9 632.46 6.45 19.35
1 557.62 6.23 18.68
3.3.4 Reactor Costing
The annual costing is calculating using the correlation proposed by Guthrie. The cost of
reactors is calculated by using the equation, as shown below. The installation cost is
approximately three times its annual cost.
Annual cost:
𝐼 7775.3
𝐾𝑟𝑡 = ( 𝑀𝑆𝐾) ( ) 𝐷1.066 𝐿0.82
𝑅 (2.18 + 𝐹𝑚 𝐹𝑝 )𝐹𝐼 (3.24)
𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐷 3
Installation cost:
28
𝐼
𝐾𝑟 = ( 𝑀𝑆𝐾 ) 7775.3𝐷1.066 𝐿0.82
𝑅 (2.18 + 𝐹𝑚 𝐹𝑝 )𝐹𝐼 (3.25)
𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐷
Where,
𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐾 = Marshall and Swift Index of construction year, 2020
𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐷 = Past Marshall and Swift Index
D = Diameter of the reactor, m
LR = Length of the reactor, m
FM = Material of construction factor
FP = Pressure factor
FI = Installation factor
The type of material used to fabricate the reactor is stainless steel 316, and the
operating pressure is at 1 bar. The Marshall and Swift Index for the past decade shown
in Table 3.13 below.
Table 3.13 Symbol used for the respective component in reaction equations.
Parameter Value
Number of Reactor 1
Conversion 0.86
IMSK 1729.4
IMSD 1446.6
D (m) 6.55
H (m) 19.65
Fm 2.15
FP 1.98
FI 1.5
Kr (RM Million) 8.827
Krt (RM Million) 2.942
The equation of potential economic analysis for level 3 is given by:

29
𝐹𝐸𝑃3 = 𝐹𝐸𝑃2 − ∑ 𝐾𝑟𝑡 …(3.24)
Hence, by using the equation above, we obtain the value of fep3 as shown in
Table 3.14.
Table 3.14 The potential economic analysis for level 3.
Conversion Krt (RM Million) FEP2 (RM Million) FEP3 (RM Million)
0.1 11.38 -895.35 -906.73
0.2 7.36 -69.83 -77.19
0.3 5.70 205.34 199.64
0.4 4.76 342.93 338.17
0.5 4.14 425.48 421.34
0.6 3.69 480.52 476.83
0.7 3.35 519.83 516.48
0.8 3.08 549.31 546.23
0.86 2.94 563.71 560.77
0.9 2.86 572.24 569.38
1 2.68 590.59 587.91
FEP3 (RM Million/yr)

800
600
Gross profit(RM Million/year)
400
200
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
Conversion rate
FEP3 (RM Million/yr)
Figure 3.9 The graph of potential economic analysis for level 3.

30
Process design level 4 involved a separation process to separate two or more mixtures
from obtaining high purity of the product. Separation units involved in the purification
of the desired product are the distillation column, evapourator, spray dryer and heater.
3.4.1 Distillation column, D-101
The equation below can be used to calculate the cost for the distillation column:
Installation cost:
Km = (IMSk / IMSd) 7775.3 D0.82 L0.82 (2.18+FmFp)Fl + 8472 (Ac0.65+AR0.65) (3.25)
Annual cost:
Kmt = (IMSk / IMSd) (7775.3/3) D0.82 L0.82 (2.18+FmFp)Fl + 8472 (Ac0.65+AR0.65) (3.26)
Table 3.15 shows the distillation column's operating condition, and Table 3.16 shows
the dimension and annual cost for the distillation column, D-101.
Table 3.15 Operating condition for a distillation column, D-101.
Parameter Value
Inlet feed temperature, TL 100℃
Product temperature, TT (Top) 80℃
Product temperature, TB (Bottom) 100℃
Pressure (kPa) 101.3
Diameter (m) 12.80
Height (m) 2.44
Area of condenser, AC (m2) 0.91
Area of reboiler, AR (m2) 19.52
IMSk 1729.4
IMSd 1446.6
Fm (stainless steel) 2.15
31
Table 3.16 The dimension and annual cost for the distillation column, D-101.
X Distillate, D Bottom, B The actual Column Column The annual

(kg/h) (kg/h) number of diameter, height, H cost, Kmt
stage, N D (m) (RM
million/year)
0.1 764.10 10248.79 4 11.3 2.44 2.88
0.2 362.61 4786.44 4 11.4 2.44 2.88
0.3 165.97 2965.65 4 10.8 2.44 2.74
0.4 133.26 2055.26 4 11.1 2.44 2.81
0.5 113.63 1509.02 4 11.4 2.44 2.88
0.6 100.55 1144.87 4 11.7 2.44 2.97
0.7 91.20 884.75 4 12.0 2.44 3.07
0.8 80.77 594.40 4 12.8 2.44 3.28
0.86 78.74 537.94 4 13.0 2.44 3.34
0.9 764.10 10248.79 4 11.3 2.44 2.88
1 - - - - - -
3.4.2 Vacuum Evapourator, V-101
Table 3.17 shows the operating conditions for the vacuum evapourator, V-101.
Purchase cost annual cost for evapourator can be calculated using equations below
given in Sorour (2015).
Purchased cost = 75228.2 (A)0.5053 (3.27)
Annual cost of evapourator = Purchased cost (1+0.6)0.1 (3.28)
Where A refers to the area of the evapourator for heat transfer
Table 3.17 Operating condition for vacuum evapourator, V-101.
Parameter Value
Product temperature, TP 140 ℃
Final composition of condensate, xL 0.80
The pressure of the vapour space of the 0.005 Pa
evapourator
The pressure of steam supplied 143.3 kPa
Latent heat of steam, λ 2230 kJ/kg
Inlet steam temperature, TS 135 ℃
Heat capacity of feed, cpF 0.00245 kJ/kg.K
32
Enthalpy of evapouration, HV 2231.8 kJ/kg

Overall coefficient, U 2500 W/m2℃
IMSk 1729.4
IMSd 1446.6
Table 3.18 below shows heat duty for vacuum evapourator, V-101 and Table
3.19 shows the dimension and annual estimation cost for vacuum evapourator column,
V-101.
Table 3.18 Heat duty for vacuum evapourator, V-101.
X Liquid flowrate, Vapour Steam flowrate, Heat duty,Q

L (kg/h) flowrate, V S (kg/h) (kW)
(kg/h)
0.1 14411.9 13735.6 14592.9 9039.5
0.2 7228.1 6845.6 7319.0 4533.7
0.3 4548.9 4833.6 4894.3 3031.7
0.4 3400.6 3636.3 3682.0 2280.8
0.5 2711.6 2917.9 2954.6 1830.2
0.6 2252.3 2439.0 2469.6 1529.8
0.7 1924.2 2096.9 2123.2 1315.2
0.8 1678.1 1840.3 1863.5 1154.3
0.86 1557.9 1715.0 1736.6 1075.7
0.9 1486.7 1640.8 1661.4 1029.1
1 1333.6 1481.2 1499.8 929.0
Table 3.19 Dimension and estimation cost for vacuum evapourator, V-101.
X Area (m2) Width,W (m) Height,H (m) Purchase Annual cost,

cost, Km Kmt
(RM (RM
million/year) million/year)
0.1 361.6 11.0 32.9 1.476 0.354
0.2 181.3 7.8 23.3 1.041 0.250
0.3 121.3 6.4 19.1 0.850 0.204
0.4 91.2 5.5 16.5 0.736 0.177
0.5 73.2 4.9 14.8 0.658 0.158
0.6 61.2 4.5 13.5 0.601 0.144
0.7 52.6 4.2 12.6 0.557 0.134
0.8 46.2 3.9 11.8 0.522 0.125
0.86 43.0 3.8 11.4 0.503 0.121
0.9 41.2 3.7 11.1 0.492 0.118
1 37.2 3.5 10.6 0.467 0.112
33
Purchased cost = 75228.2 (A)0.5053 (3.29)
Annual cost of evapourator = Purchased cost (1+0.6) 0.1 (3.30)
Where A refers to the area of the evapourator for heat transfer.
Table 3.20 Operating condition for vacuum evapourator, V-102.
Parameter Value
Product temperature, TL 135 ℃
evapourator
IMSk 1729.4
IMSd 1446.6
Table 3.21 below shows heat duty for vacuum evapourator, V-102 and Table
3.22 shows the dimension and annual estimation cost for vacuum evapourator column,
V-102.
X Liquid flowrate, Vapour Steam flowrate, Heat duty, Q

(kg/h)
0.1 2045.7 11689.9 2072.0 1283.5
0.2 1019.6 5826.0 1032.6 639.7
0.3 4548.9 3871.4 686.2 425.1
0.4 3400.6 2894.1 513.0 317.8
34
0.5 2711.6 2307.7 409.0 253.4

0.6 2252.3 1916.8 339.7 210.5
0.7 1924.2 1637.6 290.3 179.8
0.8 1678.1 1428.2 253.1 156.8
0.86 1325.9 232.0 235.0 145.6
0.9 1486.7 1265.3 224.3 138.9
1 1333.6 1135.0 201.2 124.6
Table 3.22 Dimension and estimation cost for vacuum evapourator, V-102.
X Area (m2) Width,W (m) Height, H (m) Purchase The annual

cost, Km cost, Kmt
(RM (RM
0.1 51.3 4.1 12.4 0.550 0.132
0.2 25.6 2.9 8.8 0.387 0.093
0.3 17.0 2.4 7.1 0.315 0.076
0.4 12.7 2.1 6.2 0.272 0.065
0.5 10.1 1.8 5.5 0.242 0.058
0.6 8.4 1.7 5.0 0.221 0.053
0.7 7.2 1.5 4.6 0.204 0.049
0.8 6.3 1.4 4.3 0.190 0.046
0.86 5.8 1.4 4.2 0.183 0.044
0.9 5.6 1.4 4.1 0.179 0.043
1 5.0 1.3 3.9 0.169 0.041
Purchased cost = 75228.2 (A)0.5053 (3.31)
Where A refers to the area of the evapourator for heat transfer.
Table 3. 23 Operating condition for vacuum evapourator, V-103.
Parameter Value
Inlet feed temperature, TF 140 ℃
35

The pressure of vapour space of evapourator 0.005 Pa
IMSk 1729.4
IMSd 1446.6
Fp 1
FI 1.5
Table 3.24 below shows heat duty for vacuum evapourator V-103, and Table
3.25 shows the dimension and annual estimation cost for vacuum evapourator column
V-103.
X Liquid flowrate, Vapour Steam flowrate, Heat duty,Q

(kg/h)
0.1 677.0 11012.9 11150.7 6907241.7
0.2 677.0 5149.0 5213.5 3229473.9
0.3 677.0 3194.4 3234.4 2003551.3
0.4 677.0 2217.1 2244.9 1390590.0
0.5 677.0 1630.7 1651.2 1022813.2
0.6 677.0 1239.8 1255.4 777628.7
0.7 677.0 960.6 972.6 602496.9
0.8 677.0 751.2 760.6 471148.0
0.86 677.0 648.9 657.0 407000.9
0.9 677.0 588.3 595.7 368987.8
1 677.0 458.0 463.7 287259.7
Table 3. 25 Dimension and cost estimation for vacuum evapourator, V-103.
X Area (m2) Width, W (m) Height, H (m) Purchase The annual

cost, Km cost, Kmt
(RM (RM
0.1 276.3 9.6 28.8 1.288 0.309
0.2 129.2 6.6 19.7 0.877 0.211
0.3 80.1 5.2 15.5 0.689 0.165
0.4 55.6 4.3 12.9 0.573 0.138
36
0.5 40.9 3.7 11.1 0.491 0.118

0.6 31.1 3.2 9.7 0.427 0.103
0.7 24.1 2.8 8.5 0.376 0.090
0.8 18.8 2.5 7.5 0.332 0.080
0.86 16.3 2.3 7.0 0.308 0.074
0.9 14.8 2.2 6.7 0.293 0.070
1 11.5 2.0 5.9 0.258 0.062
Table 3.26 shows the operating condition for the vacuum evapourator, V-104. Purchase
cost annual cost for evapourator can be calculated using equations below given in
Sorour (2015).
Purchased cost = 75228.2 (A)0.5053 (3.33)
Parameter Value
Inlet feed temperature, TL 165 ℃
evapourator
IMSk 1729.4
IMSd 1446.6
Fp 1
FI 1.5
37
V-104.
Table 3. 27 Heat duty for vacuum evapourator, V-104.

(kg/h)
0.1 598.4 194.8 197.3 122.20
0.2 586.7 191.0 193.4 119.80
0.3 575.2 187.2 189.6 117.46
0.4 563.9 183.6 185.9 115.15
0.5 552.8 180.0 182.3 112.89
0.6 542.0 176.4 178.7 110.68
0.7 531.4 173.0 175.2 108.51
0.8 521.0 169.6 171.7 106.38
0.86 510.7 166.3 168.4 104.30
0.9 500.5 162.9 165.0 102.21
1 490.5 159.7 161.7 100.17
X Area (m2) Width,W (m) Height,H (m) Purchase Annual cost,

cost, Km Kmt
(RM (RM
0.1 4.89 1.28 3.83 0.168 0.040
0.2 4.79 1.26 3.79 0.166 0.040
0.3 4.70 1.25 3.75 0.164 0.039
0.4 4.61 1.24 3.72 0.163 0.039
0.5 4.52 1.23 3.68 0.161 0.039
0.6 4.43 1.21 3.64 0.160 0.038
0.7 4.34 1.20 3.61 0.158 0.038
0.8 4.26 1.19 3.57 0.156 0.038
0.86 4.17 1.18 3.54 0.155 0.037
0.9 4.09 1.17 3.50 0.153 0.037
1 4.01 1.16 3.47 0.152 0.036
38
Table 3.29 shows the operating condition for the vacuum evapourator, V-105. Purchase
cost annual cost for evapourator can be calculated using equations below given in
Sorour (2015).
Purchased cost = 75228.2 (A)0.5053 (3.35)
Parameter Value
Inlet feed temperature, TL 165 ℃
The pressure of vapour space of evapourator 0.005 Pa
IMSk 1729.4
IMSd 1446.6
Fp 1
FI 1.5
V-105.
Table 3. 30 Heat duty for vacuum evapourator, V-105.

39

(kg/h)
0.1 503.9 94.5 95.7 59.3
0.2 494.0 92.7 93.8 58.1
0.3 484.3 90.9 92.0 57.0
0.4 474.8 89.1 90.2 55.9
0.5 465.5 87.3 88.4 54.8
0.6 456.4 85.6 86.7 53.7
0.7 447.4 83.9 85.0 52.6
0.8 438.7 82.3 83.3 51.6
0.86 430.1 80.7 81.7 50.6
0.9 421.5 79.1 80.0 49.6
1 413.0 77.5 78.4 48.6
X Area (m2) Width,W (m) Height, H (m) Purchase The annual

cost, Km cost, Kmt
(RM (RM
0.1 2.37 0.89 2.67 0.116 0.028
0.2 2.32 0.88 2.64 0.115 0.028
0.3 2.28 0.87 2.61 0.114 0.027
0.4 2.23 0.86 2.59 0.113 0.027
0.5 2.19 0.85 2.56 0.112 0.027
0.6 2.15 0.85 2.54 0.111 0.027
0.7 2.11 0.84 2.51 0.110 0.026
0.8 2.06 0.83 2.49 0.108 0.026
0.86 2.02 0.82 2.46 0.107 0.026
0.9 1.98 0.81 2.44 0.106 0.026
1 1.94 0.80 2.41 0.105 0.025
3.4.7 Spray Dryer, S-101
The estimated cost for a spray dryer can be calculated using equations as shown below
(Towler, & Sinnott 2013). The ratio of height and diameter of the spray dryer, S-101,
will be at 2.5. The density of feed fluid is at 940.7 kg/m3 as the fluid consists mainly of
glycerol monooleate.
Krt = a + bSn ...(3.37)
a = 190 000
40
b = 180
n = 0.9
Where Krt is the purchase cost of equipment, a and b refer to the cost constant,
S is evapourated rate (kg/h), and n is the exponent for spray dryer equipment. Table
3.32 below shows the operating condition for the spray dryer, S-101 and Table 3.33
shows the dimension and annual cost estimation for spray dryer, S-101.
Table 3. 32 Operating condition for spray dryer, S-101.
Parameter Value
Inlet flowrate, Fin 246.94 kg/h
Inlet feed temperature, Tin 25℃
Product temperature, Tout 30 ℃
Residence time, t 4h
Feed density, r 940.5 kg/m3
IMSk 1729.4
Fp 1
FI 1.5
Table 3. 33 The dimension and annual cost estimation for spray dryer, S-101.
X V (m3) D (m) H (m) S (kg/h) Krt (RM million

per year)
0.1 1.21 0.77 1.94 20.58 0.193
0.2 1.19 0.77 1.92 20.17 0.193
0.3 1.17 0.76 1.91 19.78 0.193
0.4 1.14 0.76 1.90 19.39 0.193
0.5 1.12 0.75 1.88 19.01 0.193
0.6 1.10 0.75 1.87 18.64 0.193
0.7 1.08 0.74 1.86 18.27 0.192
0.8 1.06 0.74 1.85 17.91 0.192
0.86 1.04 0.73 1.84 17.56 0.192
0.9 1.02 0.73 1.82 17.21 0.192
1 1.00 0.72 1.81 16.87 0.192
41
3.4.8 Spray Dryer, S-102
The estimated cost for a spray dryer can be calculated using equations (Towler &
Sinnott 2013). The ratio of height and diameter of the spray dryer, S-102, will be at 2.5.
The fluid density is at 900.0 kg/m3 as the fluid consists mainly of glycerol dioleate.
Krt = a + bSn ...(3.38)
a = 190 000
b = 180
n = 0.9
Krt is the purchase cost of equipment, a and b refer to the cost constant, S is
evapourated rate (kg/h), and n is the exponent for spray dryer equipment. Table 3.34
shows the operating condition for the spray dryer, S-102 and Table 3.35 shows the
dimension and annual cost estimation for spray dryer, S-102.
Table 3. 34 Operating condition for spray dryer, S-102.
Parameter Value
Inlet flowrate, Fin 430.06 kg/h
Inlet feed temperature, Tin 15℃
Product temperature, Tout 15 ℃
Feed density, r 900 kg/m3
IMSk 1729.4
Fp 1
FI 1.5
Table 3. 35 The dimension and annual cost estimation for spray dryer, S-101.
X V (m3) D (m) H (m) S (kg/h) Krt (RM million

per year)
0.1 2.11 0.93 2.33 15.12 0.1921
0.2 2.07 0.93 2.31 14.82 0.1920
0.3 2.03 0.92 2.30 14.53 0.1920
0.4 1.99 0.91 2.28 14.25 0.1920
0.5 1.95 0.91 2.27 13.97 0.1919
0.6 1.92 0.90 2.25 13.69 0.1919
0.7 1.88 0.90 2.24 13.42 0.1919
42
0.8 1.84 0.89 2.22 13.16 0.1918

0.86 1.81 0.88 2.21 12.90 0.1918
0.9 1.77 0.88 2.19 12.64 0.1918
1 1.73 0.87 2.18 12.39 0.1917
The equation for potential economic analysis for level 4 is given by:
FEP4 = 𝐹𝐸𝑃3 − ∑ 𝐾𝑟𝑡 …(3.39)
Hence the FEP4 for all conversion is shown in the table below,
Table 3. 36 The potential economic analysis for level 4.
Conversion FEP3 (RM Million) Krt (RM million) FEP4 (RM Million)
0.1 -906.73 4.1281 -910.8581
0.2 -77.19 3.887 -81.077
0.3 199.64 3.636 196.004
0.4 338.17 3.641 334.529
0.5 421.34 3.6649 417.6751
0.6 476.83 3.7199 473.1101
0.7 516.48 3.7909 512.6891
0.8 546.23 3.9788 542.2512
0.86 560.77 4.0258 556.7442
0.9 569.38 3.5578 565.8222
1 587.91 0.6597 587.2503
43
FEP4 (RM Million)

800
600
400
200
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.86 0.9 1
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
Comversion
FEP4 (RM Million)
Figure 3. 10 The graph of potential economic analysis for level 4.
3.5 PRODUCTION PROCESS OF GLYCEROL MONOOLEATE
3.5.1 Process flow diagram
The process flow diagram of the proposed plant is shown in Appendix B.
3.5.2 Process Description
Monoacylglycerol (MAG) is used widely in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical

industries as an emulsifier, stabilizer, and conditioner. MAG also have potential as an
antimicrobial agent and has higher antimicrobial activity than its fatty acids form.
Glycerol monooleate is one of MAG. Glycerol monooleate (monoolein) (GMO) can be
synthesized from the reaction between glycerol and oleic acid with the aid of a catalyst
(Naulidia et al. 2020). Several routes to produce MAG include esterification, partial
hydrolysis, and enzymatic glycerolysis (Zha et al., 2014).
44
Esterification and partial hydrolysis commonly high cost, dark-colour product

and have a low yield. The production of GMO from oleic acid and glycerol has focused
on the enzymatic glycerolysis process using lipase enzyme. This process including
premixing, glycerolysis reaction and separation.
Three pumps converged to a manifold before entering the reactor with pressure
170.3 kPa. One of the pumps was used for the oleic acid, and the other two for glycerol
and tert-butanol/tert-pentanol mixture as binary solvents. Glycerol inlet is heated with
a heater at 70°C to decrease the glycerol viscosity and more comfortable for the
pumping process. The reactants converged into the manifold by the pump and directed
to the reactor for glycerolysis reaction. From the manifold, the mixture will flow to the
packed bed reactor for enzymatic glycerolysis reaction. The solid immobilized lipases
(Novozym 435) were used to convert glycerol (Gly) and oleic acid (OA) into Glycerol
Monooleate (GMO). Tertbutanol/tert-pentanol is organic solvents function to increase
glycerol and oleic acid's miscibility in the enzymatic glycerolysis process (Zhu et al.,
2011). The by-products in this process are Glycerol dioleate (GDO) and water. The
reaction temperature is controlled at 70°C, 170.3 kPa, with 12 hours reaction time. The
reactor's outlet consists of a liquid mixture of Glycerol, OA, GMO, GDO, water, and
tert-butanol/tert-pentanol.
After enzymatic glycerolysis, GMO and GDO are coexistent in the mixture. The
molecular distillation method is used to produce highly pure GMO. Molecular
distillation is a vacuum distillation in which the molecules (distillates) escaping from
the warm liquid to reach the cooled surface of the condenser before colliding with other
molecules (residues) and consequently returning to the liquid (Zhu et al. 2011). The
separation process includes evapouration, distillation, and extrusion to obtain high
purity of GMO. A vacuum evapourator is selected because it may lower the normal
boiling point of the solvent for separation. V101 is used in pre-treatment to separate
binary solvents, tert-butanol/tert-pentanol, from the liquid mixture after glycerolysis
reaction in the main reactor, R-101. The operating condition for the evapourator is under
vacuum pressure. V-101 is operating at 55°C, and 10 kPa. Steam is supplied as the
heating medium for V-101. The top product's separation product is tert-butanol/tert-
pentanol at 90% recovery, while the bottom product is Gly, OA, GMO, GDO, water,
45
and some of the binary solvents. The top product will flow to the second evapourator
as steam, and bottom products flow through a heater then enter the second evapourator,
V-102.
The concentrated product from V-101 entered the second evapourator while the
top product was entering E-102 as steam to heat the evapourator. The concentrated
product from V-101 containing Gly, OA, GMO, GDO, water and a slight trace amount
of tert-butanol and tert-pentanol. V-102 used to further the pretreatment of binary
solvents, which is tert-pentanol and tert-butanol. V-102 operate at temperature 55°C
with 10 kPa under vacuum condition. The top product's separation products are tert-
butanol and tert-pentanol at 90% recovery, while the bottom product is Gly, OA, GMO,
GDO, water, and a small number of binary solvents. The steam inlet contains tert-
butanol and tert-pentanol leave the evapourator as condensate. Vapour produced at the
top will enter the condenser, C-101 with 40°C operating conditions to form liquid
distillate. The liquid distillate and condensate will be recycled back to the reactor while
the bottom product will enter the next evapourator.
The concentrated product from V-102 entering the third evapourator, V-103 to
separate GMO and GDO from unreacted reactants. Steam is supplied into the
evapourator at 150°C to boil up the feed solution until approximately 140°C at pressure
10 kPa. Recovery of 90% of Gly and OA, a small amount of tert-butanol/tert-pentanol
and water will be separated at the top while GMO and GDO at the bottom. Vapour
produced at the top will enter condenser C-102 with 40°C operating conditions to form
liquid distillate before entering distillation column, D-101 for unreacted reactant
recovery. The bottom product will enter the third evapourator, E-104.
V-104 functions to separate the main product, which is GMO, from GDO. Steam
is supplied into the evapourator at 170°C to boil up the feed until approximately 165 ͦ C
at low pressure, 10 kPa. GMO will be recovered at 90% at the top, while GDO and a
small amount of GDO will be separated at the bottom. The top vapour produced will be
used as a heating medium on the following evapourator, V-105, while it condenses to a
liquid. The bottom concentrated product will enter the last evapourator, V-105, for the
purification process.
46
The top product from V-104 entering V-105 as heating medium to boil up the
feed mixtures from the bottom product of E-104 at temperature 180 °C, 10 kPa. V-105
will obtain high purity GMO up to 99%. The top product of V-105 consists of GMO,
and a small amount of GDO will be condensed into liquid before entering the extruder,
S-101. The bottom product consists of almost up to 95% of GDO and a small amount
of GMO. The concentrated bottom product will also undergo a solidification process
through a spray dryer, S-102.
The distillate from the evapourator, V-103, is fed to the distillation column, D-
101 to purify unreacted reactant Gly and OA from a mixture containing mainly binary
solvent and water. The operating condition of the distillation column is at 100 ͦ C, 101.3
kPa. The purification producing distillate consists of tert-butanol/tert-pentanol and
water. The top product will become a waste of the process. The bottom product consists
of Gly and OA with 95% recovery pumped through a cooler and recycled back to the
inlet reactor, R-101.
The distillate from evapourator V-105 and condenses distillate from evapourator
V-104 entering spray dryer, S-101 to produce solid powder form of GMO. The mixture
will be cooled down first to 25 °C by a cooler before entering S-101. The product of S-
102 is a solid form and containing 99% of GMO and a small amount of GDO, Gly and
OA. The concentrated mixture from evapourator V-105 entering spray dryer, S-102 to
produce solid powder of GDO. The product of S-102 is a solid form and mainly
containing GDO and a small amount of GMO, Gly and OA.
3.6 MASS BALANCE
3.6.1 Overall mass balance
The mass balance for the process is calculated manually with Microsoft Excel and
shown in Table, while main unit operations are shown in Table 3.37.
Table 3. 37 Mass Balance of the stream.
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/h)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
47
Oleic Acid 0.00 0.00 561.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 561.54 0.00
Glycerol 0.00 0.00 0.00 126.52 126.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 126.52
Tert-Butanol 0.00 17.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 17.90 0.00 0.00
Tert-Pentanol 14.65 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.65 0.00 0.00 0.00
Glycerol Monooleate 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Glycerol Dioleate 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.88 10.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.88
Steam 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 14.65 17.90 561.54 137.40 137.40 14.65 17.90 561.54 137.40
48
Table 3. 38 Mass Balance of stream.

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Oleic Acid 648.39 648.39 648.39 90.77 90.77 90.77 0.00 90.77 90.77
Glycerol 633.47 633.47 633.47 512.41 512.41 512.41 0.00 512.41 512.41
Tert-Butanol 1577.68 1577.68 1577.68 1577.68 1577.68 1577.68 1435.44 142.24 142.24
Tert-Pentanol 394.42 394.42 394.42 394.42 394.42 394.42 278.04 116.38 116.38
Water 19.00 19.00 19.00 54.53 54.53 54.53 1.56 52.97 52.97
Steam 3272.96 3272.96 3272.96 3272.96 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 6545.93 6545.93 6545.93 6545.93 3272.96 3272.96 1715.05 1557.92 1557.92

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Oleic Acid 90.77 0.00 0.00 0.00 90.77 90.77 90.77 89.25 89.25
Glycerol 512.41 0.00 0.00 0.00 512.41 512.41 512.41 510.55 510.55
Tert-Butanol 142.24 124.01 124.01 1559.45 18.23 18.23 18.23 18.23 18.23
Tert-Pentanol 116.38 101.46 101.46 379.50 14.92 14.92 14.92 14.92 14.92
Water 52.97 6.56 6.56 8.13 46.41 46.41 46.41 15.94 15.94
Steam 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 1557.92 232.03 232.03 1947.08 1325.89 1325.89 1325.89 648.89 648.89
Table 3.40 Mass Balance of the stream.

28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Oleic Acid 1.52 1.52 1.52 0.46 1.07 1.07 1.07 0.44 0.44
Glycerol 1.86 1.86 1.86 0.56 1.30 1.30 1.30 0.40 0.40
Tert-Butanol 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Tert-Pentanol 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water 30.47 30.47 30.47 15.14 15.32 15.32 15.32 2.42 2.42
Steam 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 677.00 677.00 677.00 166.26 510.74 510.74 510.74 80.67 80.67
49

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Oleic Acid 0.63 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.00 89.25 89.25 2.40
Glycerol 0.90 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.00 510.55 510.55 3.60
Tert-Butanol 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 18.23 18.23 17.90
Tert-Pentanol 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.92 14.92 14.65
Water 12.90 17.56 17.56 17.56 0.00 17.56 15.94 15.94 15.94
Steam 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 430.06 246.94 246.94 246.94 229.38 17.56 648.89 648.89 54.49
Table 3.42 Mass Balance of the stream.

46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
Oleic Acid 0.63 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.00 89.25 89.25
Glycerol 0.90 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.00 510.55 510.55
Tert-Butanol 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 18.23 18.23
Tert-Pentanol 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.92 14.92
Glycerol Monooleate 7.04 227.52 227.52 227.52 227.52 0.00 0.00 0.00
Glycerol Dioleate 408.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water 12.90 17.56 17.56 17.56 0.00 17.56 15.94 15.94
Steam 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 430.06 246.94 246.94 246.94 229.38 17.56 648.89 648.89
Table 3. 43 Mass balance of unit operation.
Unit Equipment Stream Mass Flow Rate

(kg/h)
R-101 Packed Bed Reactor Inlet stream 12 6545.93
Outlet stream 13 6545.93
V-101 Vacuum Evapourator Inlet stream 15 3272.96
Outlet stream 16, 17 3272.97
V-102 Vacuum Evapourator Inlet stream 16,19 3272.97
Outlet stream 26,28 1325.89
V-105 Vacuum Evapourator Inlet stream 31, 34 677.0
D-101 Distillation Column Inlet stream 44 648.89
S-101 Spray Dryer Inlet stream 40 246.94
S-102 Spray Dryer Inlet stream 51 430.06
50
3.6.2 Overall mass balance by SuperPro
The mass balance is also calculated by using process simulation software, which
is SuperPro. The simulated mass balance is documented for comparison with the manual
calculation.
Figure 3. 11 SuperPro process simulation.
3.6.3 Comparison of Mass balance between manual calculation and SuperPro
Table 3.44 shows the comparison of mass balance calculation between manual
calculation and SuperPro. The similarity between both methods is quantitatively
measured as the percentage of error. A variation is noticed due to reasons such as (i) the
difference in decimals between the SuperPro and Microsoft Excel and (ii) relatively
more assumptions done during the manual calculation. Nevertheless, the result is
deemed satisfactory as the percentage of error is not more than 0.001%.
51
Table 3. 44 Comparison between the manual and simulation mass balance.
Unit Equipment Stream Manual Simulation Percentage

Mass Flow Mass Flow Error (%)
Rate (kg/h) Rate (kg/h)
R-101 Packed Bed Inlet stream 3272.96 3272.96 0
Reactor 12
Outlet stream 3272.96 3272.9574 0.0000794
13
V-101 Vacuum Inlet stream 3272.96 3272.9574 0.0000794
Evapourator 15
Outlet stream 3272.97 3272.9573 0.0000794
16, 17
Evapourator 16,19
Outlet stream 32752.97 3272.9574 0.0000794
22, 23
Evapourator 25
Outlet stream 1325.89 1325.87 0.001508
26,28
Evapourator 30
Outlet stream 677.0 678.1 0.1622
31, 32
Evapourator 31, 34
Outlet stream 677.0 678.1 0.1622
37,38
D-101 Distillation Inlet stream 648.89 649 0.01695
Column 44
Outlet stream 648.88 649 0.01695
46,48
S-101 Spray Dryer Inlet stream 246.94 246.95 0.004
40
Outlet stream 246.94 246.95 0.004
41, 42
S-102 Spray Dryer Inlet stream 430.06 430.05 0.0023
51
Outlet stream 430.06 430.05 0.0023
52,53
3.7 ENERGY BALANCE FOR THE MAIN OPERATION
The heat of reaction is the difference between the heat of formation for reactants and
the sum of heat formation for products. The standard molar heat of formation, ΔĤ°r for
gas at 298K and 1atm of the reactants, as well as products, is

52
ΔĤ°𝑟 = ∑ ΔĤ°𝑓 (products) − ∑ ΔĤ°𝑓 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) ...(3.40)
The data for the heat of formation of each component is shown in Table 3.55.
Table 3. 45 Data for Heat of Formation of Each Component
Component ΔHf (kJ/mol)

Glycerol -669.6
Oleic Acid -764.8
GMO -914.09
GDO -1670
Water -285.8
Enthalpy change in each component is important in order to determine the overall heat
change. The molar enthalpy change of a component is given by:
𝑇
∆Ĥ = ∫𝑇 2 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 ...(3.41)
1
Where CP is the molar heat capacity of the component; T1 is the reference temperature,
and T2 is the inlet or outlet temperature
Table 3.46 shows the heat capacity coefficient of the component.
Table 3. 46 Heat capacity coefficient of the component.
Component Cp Constant
A B C D
Glycerol 132.145 8.60E-01 -1.97E-03 1.81E-06
Water 92.053 -4.00E-02 -2.11E-04 5.35E-07
Where Cp of the component is
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇 + 𝑐𝑇 2 + 𝑑𝑇 3 ...(3.42)
The rest of the component is obtained by using the ratio of the element's specific heat
capacity. Table 3.47 shows the element's specific heat capacity, while Table 3.58 shows
the specific heat capacity of the component.
53
Table 3. 47 Specific Heat Capacity of Element.
Element Specific Heat Capacity, (kJ/kmol.K)

Carbon, C 8.527
Hydrogen, H 14.414
Oxygen, O 14.5494
Table 3. 48 Specific Heat Capacity of component.
Component Cp Constant (kJ/kmol)

GMO 618.52
GDO 1397.23
Oleic acid 672.66
Tert-butanol 192.80
Tert- pentanol 230.15
Energy balance, Q ̂ 𝒐 𝑭𝒐 − 𝑯
=𝑯 ̂ 𝒊 𝑭𝒊 + ∑ 𝒓𝒏 ∆𝑯
̂ ° 𝒓𝒏
Assumption: There are no kinetic energy, potential energy and work done by the system
because the unit process used is a closed system.
Table 3.49 shows the summary of the energy balance on each unit operation.
Table 3. 49 Summary of Energy Balance on each unit operation.
Unit Equipment Energy Balance (kJ/hr)

R-101 Packed Bed Reactor -18360.4
V-101 Vacuum Evapourator 128000
V-104 Vacuum Evapourator -303000
D-101 Distillation Column -3360
S-101 Spray Dryer 35300
S-102 Spray Dryer 20800
CHAPTER IV
HEAT INTEGRATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Heat integration is a method that is performed to reduce and minimize energy

consumption in the process plant. Heat integration includes determination of pinch
analysis, and from that heat, exchanger network can be obtained.
4.2 PINCH ANALYSIS
Pinch analysis generally used to determine heat exchanger networks. The important
information in pinch analysis is pinch point or pinch temperature. A pinch point occurs
between the hot and cold stream curves where the heat should not be transferred across
the pinch point. Methods used to determine the pinch point is the temperature-enthalpy
diagram and problem table method. The problem method is chosen to perform the
analysis since it can generate a more accurate value.
4.2.1 Data extraction
In this analysis, 12 utility streams are involved, consisting of 7 cold streams and five
hot streams. Table 4.1 shows the information and data for each utility unit.
Table 4. 1 Data for each utility stream.
Stream Type Specific Heat Source Target Heat Load

number Capacity, CP Temperature, Temperature, (kW)
(kW/K) Tsource ( ̊ C) Ttarget ( ̊ C)
5 cold 0.0127 27 70 0.548
11 cold 0.0122 37 70 0.401
15 cold 0.0122 40 55 0.182
43 cold 0.0189 80 100 0.413
55
39 hot 0.0206 140 25 2.176

47 hot 0.0004 100 70 0.013
49 hot 0.0152 180 15 2.515
4.2.2 Interval temperature
The actual temperature Tact is converted into interval temperature Tint using equations
(4.1) and (4.2) in the problem table method.
Hot stream: Tint = Tact – 1/2ΔTmin ...(4.1)
Cold stream: Tint = Tact + 1/2ΔTmin …(4.2)
ΔTmin = 20 ̊ C
Table 4.2 Data for each utility stream.
Stream Type Tact ( ̊ C) (+)/(-) Tint ( ̊ C)

number
5 cold 27/70 + 37/80
11 cold 37/70 + 47/80
15 cold 40/55 + 50/65
43 cold 80/100 + 90/110
39 hot 140/25 - 130/15
47 hot 100/70 - 90/60
49 hot 180/15 - 170/5
Table 4.3 Heat capacities at Tint.
Tint ( ̊ C) Interval, i ΔTint ( ̊ C) Cpi ΔHi=CpiΔTint Excess/Deficient

heat
170
130 1 40 -0.0152 -0.608 Deficient
110 2 20 -0.0358 -0.716 Deficient
90 3 20 -0.0169 -0.338 Deficient
80 4 10 -0.0362 -0.362 Deficient
65 5 15 -0.0113 -0.1695 Deficient
60 6 5 0.0009 0.0045 Excess
50 7 10 0.0013 0.013 Excess
47 8 3 -0.0109 -0.0327 Deficient
37 9 10 -0.0231 -0.231 Deficient
15 10 22 -0.0358 -0.7876 Deficient
5 11 10 -0.0152 -0.152 Deficient
56
Tint ( Cͦ ) Interval Cpi

170 49
130 1 39 -0.0152
110 2 -0.0358
90 3 47 -0.0169
80 4 43 -0.0362
65 5 -0.0113
60 6 0.0009
50 7 0.0013
47 8 15 -0.0109
37 9 11 -0.0231
15 10 5 -0.0358
5 11 -0.0152
CP 0.0127 0.0122 0.0122 0.0189 0.0206 0.0004 0.0152
Figure 4.1 Relationships between Tint hot and cold stream.
4.2.3 Heat cascade
Heat cascade is carried out to determine the pinch point where the heat is equal to zero,
and pinch temperature can be obtained. The heat introduced to the top is the minimum
heat required for hot utility process, QHmin, while the heat at the bottom is the minimum
heat required for the cold utility process, QCmin when the pinch point is set. Table 4.4
shows the calculation for heat cascade to determine pinch point using iteration.
Table 4. 4 Heat cascade iteration.
Tint ( ̊ C) Interval, i ΔHi=CpiΔTint First iteration Second iteration

170 0 -2.1890
130 1 -0.608 0.608 -1.5810
110 2 -0.716 1.324 -0.8650
90 3 -0.338 1.662 -0.5270
80 4 -0.362 2.024 -0.1650
65 5 -0.1695 2.1935 0.0045
60 6 0.0045 2.189 0.0000
50 7 0.013 2.176 -0.0130
47 8 -0.0327 2.2087 0.0197
37 9 -0.231 2.4397 0.2507
15 10 -0.7876 3.2273 1.0383
5 11 -0.152 3.3793 1.1903
The conclusion obtained from the heat cascade above is listed in table 4.5 below.
57
Table 4. 5 Conclusion of heat cascade.
Parameters Values
Minimum required heat for hot utility process, QHmin -2.1890 kW
Minimum required heat for hot utility process, QCmin 1.1903 kW
ΔTmin 20°C
Pinch temperature 60°C
Hot stream pinch temperature 70°C
Cold stream pinch temperature 50°C
4.2.4 Heat Exchanger Network
A grid can represent a heat exchanger network where the process streams are drawn as
horizontal lines, with the stream number shown in square boxes. Hot streams are drawn
at the top of the grid and flow from left to right. The streams are drawn at the bottom
and flow from right to left for the cold streams. Figure 4.2 shows a heat exchanger
network in grid form for this process.
∆H above ∆H below Cp
70 C
pinch (kW) pinch (kW) (kW/K)
140 C
2.3736 39 25 C 2.3736 0.0206
100 C
0.0126 47 70 C 0 0.0004
180 C
2.5147 49 15 C 2.5147 0.0185
70 C 27 C
0.5482 5 0.5482 0.0127
70 C 37 C
0.4015 11 0.1825 0.0122
55 C 40 C
0.1825 15 0.1825 0.0122
80 C
0.3784 100 C 43 0 0
50 C
Figure 4. 2 Grid design for heat exchanger network.

58
For heat exchanger design above the pinch, the condition that must be fulfilled
is CpH<CpC. Only hot utilities are allowed for this design. The heat transfer design for
the above pinch is shown in figure 4.3.
CpH<CpC PINCH
70°C
ΔH above pinch CP
(kW) (kW/K) 140°C 70°C
2.3736 0.0206 39
100°C 70°C
0.0126 0.0004 47
180°C 70°C
2.5147 0.0152 49
27°C 70°C
0.5482 0.0127 H 5
0.5482kW
37°C 70°C
0.4015 0.0122 H 11
0.4015kW
40°C 55°C
0.1825 0.0122 H 15
0.0126 0.1699kW
100°C 80°C
0.3784 0.0189 2.5147 H 43
2.1363kW
Figure 4. 3 Design network above the pinch
CpH>CpC
PINCH
70°C
CP ΔH below pinch
70°C 25°C (kW/K) (kW)
39 C 0.0206 2.3736
1.8254 kW
70°C 15°C
49 C 0.0152 2.5147
2.5147 kW
50°C 27°C
5 0.0127 0.5482
2.3736
50°C 37°C
11 0.0122 0.1825
50°C 40°C
15 0.0122 0.1825
Figure 4. 4 Design network below the pinch
For heat exchanger design below the pinch, the condition that must be fulfilled is
CpH>CpC. Only cold utilities are allowed for this design. The heat transfer design for
the below pinch is shown in figure 4.4.
59
Total heat recovery indicates that energy saved after heat integration by using pinch
analysis. It can be calculated using formula 4.3 below.
Energy before integration−energy after integration

Percentage recovery (%) =
Energy after integration
× 100 …(4.3)
Table 4. 6 Total energy recovery.
Energy Requirement (kW) Total Energy Recovery (%)

Before After
6.248 3.3793 45.91
CHAPTER V
PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This section is focusing on the details of the equipment listed in the plant, including
valves, fitting, and configuration. Control systems and basic instrumentation are also
introduced in the plant.
5.2 PROCESS CONTROL ANALYSIS
In-process control analysis, the determination of control objectives, manipulated

variables, controlled variables, and control type are considered. Control system is
crucial in plant operation to control and maintain the unit operates within safe limit
because any variation that occurs in unit operation will affect the product quality.
Besides, control systems maintain the proper ratio of ingredients, regulate, temperatures
and monitor outputs. Without control systems, products quality will be different (ACI
Controls, 2017). The primary objective when specifying instrumentation and control
schemes, as stated by Towler and Sinnot (2013):
1. Safe plant operation:
i) To ensure the process variables within known safe operating limits.
ii) To detect any dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms
and automatic shutdown systems.
iii) To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating

procedures.
61
Furthermore, control systems can assist in achieving the targeted production

rate, maintaining the product quality at specific standards, operate at an efficient low
cost and commensurate with the other objectives and maintain a steady operation with
minimal operator intervention.
5.3 CONTROL SYSTEM FOR UNIT OPERATION
Each unit operation in this plant is controlled by several objectives so that each unit
meets the specific requirement for product production and ensures safe operations.
5.3.1 Reactor, R-101
Table 5.1 shows the variables involve in the modelling of Reactor R-101
Table 5. 1 List of variables for modelling equation of Reactor
Variables Definition
F12 Volume flow rate inlet feed stream.
F13 Volume flow rates out for top product stream.
T1 Temperature for inlet feed stream.
T2 Temperature for outlet product stream.
V The volume of the Reactor.
Q Heat supply from steam to the Reactor
d. Mathematical model
Overall Mass Balance
𝑑𝑉
𝜌 = 𝜌12 𝐹12 − 𝜌13 𝐹13 ...(5.1)
𝑑𝑡
Energy Balance
𝑑𝑇
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝐹𝑖 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) − ∆𝐻 + 𝑄 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉 ...(5.2)
𝑑𝑡
62
e. Degree of freedom analysis
Number of variables: 5 (F12, F13, Ti, To, Q)
Number of the equation: 2
Number of disturbances: 1 (F12)
Degree of freedom = 5-2-1=2
f. Control Strategy
Hence, two more variables must be controlled, which mostly are T, and level. The figure
shows the control configuration of R-101, while the table shows the control strategies
on R-101.
12
TT
12
Cooling
TC
12 Water
out
LT
14
Cooling LC
Water 14
In
R-101
14
13
P106
Figure 5. 1 Control configuration of Reactor R-101

63
Table 5. 2 Summary of the control strategy for Reactor R-101
Parameter Control Controlled Manipulated Control Type of valve

Objective variables variables action
Temperature To control the Temperature, Cooling water If the Diaphragm
temperature of T inlet flowrate temperature is valve
R- 101 (Set: T = higher than
70 °C) the setpoint,
the valve
opening will
increase; if the
temperature is
lower than the
setpoint, the
valve opening
will decrease
Level To avoid Level of the The flow rate If the level is Diaphragm
overflow and reactor, (Set: of outlet higher than valve.
spillage 75% of the stream 14. the setpoint,
reactor the valve
volume) opening will
increase; if the
level is lower
than the
setpoint, the
valve opening
will decrease
5.3.2 Vacuum evapourator and condenser
Vacuum evapourator, which is part of the separation unit is important to maintain the
product quality by controlling the steam supplied into the evapourator. Table 5.3 shows
the variables involve in the modelling of the single-effect evapourator for unit V-101
and V-102.
Table 5.3 List of the variable for modelling equation of Vacuum Evapourator.
Variables Definition
F1 Volume flow rate inlet feed stream.
F2 Volume flow rates out for top product stream.
F3 Volume flow rates out for concentrated stream.
T1 Temperature for inlet feed stream.
T2 Temperature for outlet top product stream.
T3 Temperature for outlet bottom stream.
V The volume of the evapourator.
Q Heat supply form steam to the evapourator.
P The pressure of evapourator.
Vvapour Volume of vapour
64
Total mass balance:
𝑑(𝑉)
𝜌 = 𝜌1 𝐹1 − 𝜌2 𝐹2 − 𝜌3 𝐹3 (5.3)
𝑑𝑡
Total energy balance:
𝑑(𝑇3 )
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉 = 𝜌1 𝐶𝑝1 𝐹1 (𝑇1 − 𝑇3 ) + 𝑄 (5.4)
𝑑𝑡
Equation of states (Ideal Gas Law):
𝑃𝑉𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 (5.5)
Degree of freedom:
i. Number of variables = F1, F2, F3, T1, T2, T3,Q,V,P,Vvapour (9)
ii. Number of equation = 3
iii. Disturbance = F1, T1, Vvapour
iv. Number of the degree of freedom = 6-3= 3
v. Controlled variables = T3,V, P
Figure 5.2 shows the control configuration, which represents the double effect vacuum
evapourator, V-101 and V-102, while Table 5.4 shows the evapourator's control
strategies. This control strategy also is applied to the evapourator, V-104 and V-105.
65
39a
TT TC
23 23
Cooling
23 Water
Out
20
PC
PC
20a
23a Cooling
PT
Water In
20a 20a PT
TC 23a 23a
Steam in 22 C-101 24 TC
31
21a 27a
20b
21b 27b
Steam out
LT
FT 22
19 TT
22 LT
FC 27
19
LC
V-101 22 LC 27
19b 22 V-102 27
21 26
P-111
25 P-110
Figure 5. 2 Control configuration of Vacuum Evapourator, V-101 and V-102
Table 5. 4 Summary of the control strategy for vacuum evapourator
Type of Objective Control Manipulated Control action Type of

controller variable variable valve
Level To control Liquid level The flow rate -Any variation in the Diaphragm
the liquid in of the bottom liquid level in the valve
level inside evapourator stream, evapourator will be
the column. number 21. detected. The signal
evapourator. (50% of the is transmitted to level
column control (LC) to
volume) regulate the valve
opening at the bottom
product stream to
change the bottom
flow rate.
- If the evapourator
level exceeded 50%,
the signal will be
transmitted to the
level controller to
open the valve
opening.
Temperature To control The Feed steam If the temperature is Diaphragm
the temperature flowrate higher than the valve.
temperature of the bottom setpoint, the valve
bottom product opening will
product stream. decrease. If the
stream. (T= 55 °C) temperature is lower,
the valve opening
will increase.
66
Pressure of To control Operating Flow rate Valve opening Diaphragm

evapourator the pressure pressure inlet of increases when the valve
of the (P = 10 kPa) cooling water pressure inside the
evapourator in the evapourator is higher
condenser. than the set point. If
the pressure is lower
than the set point, the
valve opening is
decreased.
Figure 5.3 shows the control configuration of a single effect vacuum evapourator, V-
103, different from the double effect evapourator.
TT TC Cooling
TT TC 28 28 Water
23 23
Cooling
23 Water P-113 Out
Out 28
Cooling
Water PC Cooling
PC
In 28a
Water
23a Cooling
Water In In
PT
PT
28a
C-102
23a 23a 28a
C-101 24 TC
TC
31
31
27a
Steam in
20b 31b
27b
Steam out
LT
31
LT
27 TT LC
31 31 31
LC 27
22 27
V-103
26 30
P-111 P-112
Figure 5.3 Control configuration of Vacuum Evapourator, V-103. PT

44
TT TC
44 44
Table 5.5 29for vacuum evapourator.

Summary of the control strategy
Type of Objective Control Manipulated Control action Type of

controller variable variable valve
Level To control Liquid level A flow rate of Any variation in Diaphragm
the liquid in the bottom liquid level in the valve
level inside evapourator stream, evapourator will be
the column. stream detected. The signal
evapourator. (50% of the number 28. is transmitted to level
column control (LC) to
volume) regulate the globe
valve opening at the
bottom product
stream to change the
bottom flow rate.
67
Temperature To control The Feed steam If the temperature is Diaphragm

the temperature flowrate higher than the valve.
temperature of the bottom setpoint, the valve
bottom product opening will
product stream. (T= decrease. If the
stream. 140 ͦC) temperature is lower,
the valve opening
will increase.
Pressure of To control Operating Flow rate Valve opening Diaphragm
evapourator the pressure pressure (P = inlet of increases when the valve
of the 0.005 kPa) cooling water pressure inside the
evapourator in the evapourator is higher
condenser. than the set point. If
the pressure is lower
than the setpoint, the
valve opening is
decreased.
5.3.3 Heater
12
TT
12
TC
12
E-102
11
Figure 5. 4 Control configuration of Heater, E-102
For the Heater unit that we used, below are the variables that are considered.
Table 5. 6 Summary of the control strategy for Heater E-102
Parameter Control Controlled Manipulated Control Action

Objective Variable Variable
Process fluid To control the Temperature, T The electrical Any deviation in
outlet outlet temperature with stream current of the temperature of
temperature of process fluid at setpoint Heater process fluid at
the desired the heater outlet
temperature will be detected.
Signal will be
transmitted to TC,
which will signal
to regulate the
current of the
heater to
manipulate the
temperature.
68
5.3.4 Distillation column
PT PC
44 44
TT TC
44 44
LC
45
C-104
LT
45
RE-101
45
P-114 P-113
43 44
E-109
P-111
D-101
LT
48 B-101
LC
48
Figure 5. 5 Control configuration of Distillation Column, D-101
Table 5. 7 Summary of the control strategy for Distillation Column D-101
Type of Objective Control Manipulated Variable Control Type of

Controller Variable Action Valve
Pressure To prevent The The pressure in the If the pressure Diaphragm

from higher temperature distillation column in the
pressure distillation
drop column drops,
the signal will
be sent to the
controller to
close the valve
to
prevent from
product enter
the reflux
drum
Temperature Provide the The pressure The temperature at the Whenever the Diaphragm
desired feed and distillation temperatures
temperature column are not
for feed achieved, the
and product signal will be
sent to heat the
flowrate at
feed and cool
down at the
distillate.
69
Level To The size of The level of flowrate in If the flowrate Diaphragm

maintain the reboiler the reboiler and reflux level in the
the and reflux drum reflux drum
optimum drum and reboiler is
level in the almost empty,
reflux drum the pump will
and boiler be opened.
5.4 PIPING SYSTEM
The piping system is one of the important parts of constructing a chemical industry
plant. Pipes are used to channelling one unit operation to another unit operation carried
solid, liquid and gas substances. Many materials are used to construct piping systems,
such as fibreglass, steel, aluminium, etc. The piping system involves pipes, flanges,
gaskets, fittings, valves, bolting and pipe support. The critical parameter for designing
the pipe system is the pipe diameter. To minimize the piping system's cost and get the
pipe's optimum size, the pipe's optimum diameter needed to be calculated. The optimum
diameter for piping system ais different for every state of substances. Its nominal size
identifies the diameter of pipes with optimum diameter calculation. As for our plant, we
choose stainless steel as the material for piping system because of the ability to
withstand pressure and temperature for our chemical plant process. All the piping used
is stainless steel Schedule 40. The sizing of the pipe is determined based on
ASME/ANSI B36.19 Stainless Steel Pipe.
5.4.1 Liquid Flow
The diameter for stainless steel pipe can be determined by the equation below
Stainless steel: Di,optimum = 0.465m0.51 ρ-0.36 ...(5.5)
Where, Di,optimum is inside optimum diameter, m is flowrate (kg/s) and ρ is

density (kg/m3).
70
5.4.2 Vapour Flow
For a long pipe, the gas velocity can approach the sonic velocity. The vapour velocity
is determined using the thermodynamic relationship.
𝑅𝑇
𝑈=√ ()
𝑀
where
R is the gas constant = 8.314 J/mol.K
T is the temperature of the stream, K
M is the molecular weight of the vapour, g/mol
The vapour velocity value, U then will be used in the equation below,
𝑄𝑚 = 𝜌𝑈𝐴
Where Qm is the gas flow rate (kg/s), ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m3), U is the sonic
velocity (m/s), A is the cross-sectional area of pipe (m2).
Thus, the diameter of the pipe can be determined by the equation below,
4𝐴
𝐷=√
𝜋
The diameter determined from the equation above will be compared with the
standard ANSI/ASME B36.10M:1995 Wrought Steel Pipe Seamless and Welded to
determine the nominal pipe dimension.
71
5.4.3 Mixture Flow
Lines transporting gas and liquid in the two-phase flow should be sized primarily based
on flow velocity. Flow velocity should be kept at least below fluid erosional velocity.
The following equation can determine the velocity above which erosion may occur,
𝜎
𝑉𝑒 =
√𝜌𝑚
Where Ve is the fluid erosional velocity (ft/s), C is empirical constant (100 for
continuous service), ρm is gas/liquid mixture density at operating pressure and
temperature (Ibm/ft3)
Once Ve is known, the minimum cross-sectional area required to avoid fluid erosion
may be determined from the following derived equation (5.10.
𝑍𝑅𝑇
9.35𝐶+
21.25𝑃
𝐴=
𝑉𝑒
Where A is the minimum pipe cross-sectional area required (ft2), G is the mixture flow
rate (Ibm/s), Z is gas compressibility factor, R is gas/liquid (m3 gas/m3liquid), T is
operating temperature (oR), and P is operating pressure (psia)
72
Table 5. 8 The sizing for the piping system of liquid flow
Stream F (kg/h) F(kg/s) Density(kg/m3) Doptimum (m) Doptimum (inch) Dnominal (inch) Dout (inch) t (inch) Din (inch)
1 12.58 0.003494444 805 0.002336088 0.091971803 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
2 15.38 0.004272222 780 0.002617775 0.10306181 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
3 560.82 0.155783333 870 0.015754758 0.62026481 0.75 1.051 0.113 0.825
4 129.64 0.036011111 1260 0.006532842 0.257198006 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
5 129.64 0.036011111 1260 0.006532842 0.257198006 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
6 12.58 0.003494444 805 0.002336088 0.091971803 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
7 15.38 0.004272222 780 0.002617775 0.10306181 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
8 560.82 0.155783333 870 0.015754758 0.62026481 0.75 1.051 0.113 0.825
9 129.64 0.036011111 1260 0.006532842 0.257198006 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
10 5071.88 1.408855556 4715.6 0.026357338 1.037688399 1.25 1.661 0.14 1.381
11 5071.88 1.408855556 4715.6 0.026357338 1.037688399 1.25 1.661 0.14 1.381
12 5071.88 1.408855556 4715.6 0.026357338 1.037688399 1.25 1.661 0.14 1.381
13 5629.5 1.56375 5721.6 0.025928177 1.020792346 1.25 1.661 0.14 1.381
14 2814.75 0.781875 5721.6 0.018207348 0.71682329 1 1.315 0.133 1.049
15 2814.75 0.781875 5721.6 0.018207348 0.71682329 1 1.315 0.133 1.049
15a 1499.76 0.4166 0.6 0.357581736 14.07799294 16 16 0.5 15.5
15b 1499.76 0.4166 0.6 0.357581736 14.07799294 16 16 0.5 15.5
16a 1481.16 0.411433333 2585 0.017468672 0.687741612 0.75 1.051 0.113 0.825
17 1333.59 0.370441667 5721 0.012439707 0.48975128 0.75 1.051 0.113 0.825
18 1333.59 0.370441667 5721 0.012439707 0.48975128 0.75 1.051 0.113 0.825
19 1333.59 0.370441667 5721 0.012439707 0.48975128 0.75 1.051 0.113 0.825
21 198.62 0.055172222 2585 0.006269669 0.24683686 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
22 1679.78 0.466605556 2585 0.018626515 0.733325897 1 1.315 0.133 1.049
73
23 1134.97 0.315269444 5721 0.011457525 0.451082757 0.75 1.051 0.113 0.825

24 1134.97 0.315269444 5721 0.011457525 0.451082757 0.75 1.051 0.113 0.825
25 1134.97 0.315269444 5721 0.011457525 0.451082757 0.75 1.051 0.113 0.825
25a 463.74 0.128816667 0.6 0.196518867 7.736947797 8 8.626 0.322 7.982
25b 463.74 0.128816667 0.6 0.196518867 7.736947797 8 8.626 0.322 7.982
27 459.49 0.127636111 4715 0.007745439 0.304937948 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
28 675.48 0.187633333 5006 0.009226231 0.363236732 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
29 677 0.188055556 5006 0.009236814 0.363653364 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
30 677 0.188055556 5006 0.009236814 0.363653364 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
30a 168.37 0.046769444 0.6 0.117219329 4.614924976 5 5.563 0.258 5.047
30b 168.37 0.046769444 0.6 0.117219329 4.614924976 5 5.563 0.258 5.047
31a 166.26 0.046183333 4072 0.004861941 0.1914146 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
32 510.74 0.141872222 5006 0.008000256 0.314970096 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
33 510.74 0.141872222 5006 0.008000256 0.314970096 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
34 510.74 0.141872222 5006 0.008000256 0.314970096 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
36 80.67 0.022408333 4072 0.003362258 0.132372096 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
38 246.94 0.068594444 4072 0.005948802 0.234204336 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
39 246.94 0.068594444 4072 0.005948802 0.234204336 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
43 457.97 0.127213889 4715 0.007732362 0.304423074 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
44 457.97 0.127213889 4715 0.007732362 0.304423074 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
45 41.42 0.011505556 4715 0.002270191 0.089377423 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
46 41.42 0.011505556 4715 0.002270191 0.089377423 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
47 41.42 0.011505556 4715 0.002270191 0.089377423 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
48 416.55 0.115708333 3715 0.008027563 0.316045171 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
49 416.55 0.115708333 3715 0.008027563 0.316045171 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
74
Table 5. 9 the sizing for piping system of vapour flow
Strea F F(kg/s) T (K) M Density U (m/s) A (m2) Doptimum Dnominal Dout t Din
m (kg/h) (g/mol) (kg/m3) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch)
26 459.49 0.12763 413.1 554.83 4715 2.4881635 1.08796E- 0.003721632 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
6 5 34 05
31 166.26 0.04618 438.1 749.06 4072 2.2052514 5.14303E- 0.002558802 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
3 5 43 06
35 80.67 0.02240 423.1 749.06 4072 2.1671744 2.53926E- 0.001797963 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
8 5 88 06
42 17.56 0.00487 353.1 18 1000 12.771689 3.81921E- 0.00069729 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
8 5 83 07
53 12.9 0.00358 353.1 18 1000 12.771689 2.80568E- 0.000597649 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
3 5 83 07
Table 5. 10 the sizing for piping system of mixture flow
Density F Doptimum Dout

Stream P (psia) (Ibm/ft3) (Ibm/s) T (oR) R Z Ve (ft/s) A (m2) (inch) (inch) t (inch) Din (inch)
37 14.69 312.52458 0.263367 815.67 10.732 5.36961E-06 5.656632 0.435352 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
40 14.69 191.78496 0.151225 536.67 10.732 1.3299E-05 7.220923 0.195847 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
50 21.8 312.52458 0.263367 815.67 10.732 7.96851E-06 5.656632 0.435352 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
51 21.8 312.52458 0.263367 518.67 10.732 1.25314E-05 5.656632 0.435352 0.5 0.839 0.109 0.621
CHAPTER VI
WASTE MANAGEMENT
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this glycerol monooleate production plant, only liquid waste and solid waste
generated throughout the operation—the liquid waste needed to be treated before
discharge to prevent harmful effects on the environment and public health. Figure 6.1
below shows the waste generated during the plant operation process.
Figure 6.1 Waste generation in the production of GMO and GDO

76
6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ACT AND REGULATIONS IN MALAYSIA
Some environmental acts and regulations are needed to follow by the chemical industry
for waste management to prevent pollution by the waste generated. The regulations are
listed below:
1. Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations 2009
2. Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005
Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations 2009 applies to any

premises that release or discharge industrial effluent into soil or inland waters. The
treated wastewater from the plant must follow Standard A and B stated in the regulation,
Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations 2009 for wastewater discharge
purposes. The parameter discharge limit for Standard A and B are shown in Table 6.1
below:
Table 6. 1 Discharge limit for Standard A and B of industrial effluent
Parameter Standard A Standard B

pH 6.0- 9.0 5.5 – 9.0
Temperature 40˚C 40˚C
COD 20 mg/L 50 mg/L
BOD5 at 20˚C 20 mg/L 50 mg/L
Suspended Solid 50 mg/L 100 mg/L
Cadmium 0.01 mg/L 0.02 mg/L
Arsenic 0.05 mg/L 0.01 mg/L
Cyanide 0.05 mg/L 0.01 mg/L
Lead 0.10 mg/L 0.5 mg/L
Copper 0.20 mg/L 1.0 mg/L
Manganese 0.20 mg/L 1.0 mg/L
Nickel 0.20 mg/L 1.0 mg/L
Zink 1.0 mg/L 1.0 mg/L
Boron 1.0 mg/L 4.0 mg/L
Iron 1.0 mg/L 5.0 mg/L
Phenol 0.001 mg/L 1.0 mg/L
Free Chloride 1.0 mg/L 2.0 mg/L
Sulfide 0.50 mg/L 0.50 mg/L
Oil and grease 1.0 mg/L 10 mg/L
Ammonia and nitrogen 10 mg/L 20 mg/L
Source: Malaysia 2009

77
6.3 SOLID WASTE
Solid waste in glycerol monooleate (GMO) production plant is the solid catalyst and
sludge produce from wastewater treatment. The catalyst waste is produced from the
main reactor to support glycerolysis reaction to form glycerol monooleate products
(GMO). The catalysts deactivate with time, and the spent catalysts are usually discarded
as solid wastes. The sludge collected from the clarifier will be thickened by reducing
the water content and reducing the volume. The sludge will enter the filter press for the
dewatering process and forming sludge cakes. The sludge will be sent to Kualiti Alam
and landfill under schedule waste SW4, which may contain either inorganic or organic
constituents.
6.4 WASTE GENERATED-WASTEWATER
For the production of GMO plants, the waste generated is wastewater. The wastewater
produced from the separation and purification process of products. The wastewater
contains several unreacted substances such as oleic acid, glycerol, tert-butanol, tert-
pentanol, and water. The acceptable condition for discharge wastewater follows the
Environmental Quality Act 1974 (EQA 1974) for industrial effluent, as shown in Table
6.2. Since the treated wastewater will be released to Sungai Geruntom, Simpang Pulai,
Perak, it will fall on standard A regulations based on EQA 1974. The discharge limit
for standard A is shown in Table 6.3 by Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent)
Regulation 2009.
Table 6. 2 Acceptable conditions for industrial discharge effluent containing chemical

oxygen demand (COD) for a specific trade or industry sector
Trade/industry Unit Standard

A B
Pulp and paper industry
Pulp mill mg/l 80 350
Pulp mill (recyled) mg/l 80 250
Pulp and paper mill mg/l 80 300
Textile industry mg/l 80 250
Fermentation and mg/l 400 400
distillery industry
Other industries mg/l 80 200
Source: Koga (2010)

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Table 6. 3 Discharge limit according to standard A by Environmental Quality

(Industrial Effluent) Regulation 2009
Parameter Discharge limit

COD 80 mg/l
BOD5 at 20°C 20 mg/l
Oil and grease 1.0 mg/l
Source: Koga (2010)
Table 6. 4 The flow rate for each component in wastewater from GMO production
plant
Component Flow rate

kg/h m3/h
Water 15.94 0.0159
Oleic acid 2.40 0.0024
Glycerol 3.60 0.0036
Tert-butanol 17.90 0.0179
Tert-pentanol 14.65 0.0147
The concentration of COD in wastewater can be estimated based on the

concentration of organic material in the wastewater. Oleic acid forms an oil waste in
wastewater. The estimated COD contributed by each component are shown below:
Oleic acid : 51
C18 H34 O2 + O ⟶ 18CO2 + 17H2 O
2 2
The molecular weight of : 282.47 g/mol
oleic acid
The molecular weight of : 51/2(32) = 816 g/mol
oxygen
The concentration of oleic : 2.40 kg/hr 1 × 106 mg 1000kg 0.001 m3
× × ×
acid in wastewater 18.34 kg/hr 1 kg 1 m3 1L
= 130,861.50 mg/l
Using the formula below to calculate COD:
C
Chemical Oxygen Demand, COD = ( )(n × MO2 )
nP × MP O2
Where: C = Concentration of product compound produced, mg/l.
Mp = Molecular weight of the product compound, g/mol.

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MO2= Molecular weight of the oxygen demanded g/mol.
nP= Number of moles of product, mol.
nO2 = number of moles of oxygen, mol.
Let COD = X
282.47 g/mol 130,861.50 mg/l

=
816 g/mol X
Hence, X = 378,033.02 mg/l
Glycerol : 17
C3 H8 O3 + O ⟶ 8CO2 + 4H2 O
2 2
Tert-butanol : C4 H10 O + 6O2 ⟶ 4CO2 + 5H2 O
Tert-pentanol : 15
C5 H12 O + O ⟶ 5CO2 + 6H2 O
2 2
Table 6.5 below shows a summary of the COD value obtained contributed by each
component in wastewater.
Table 6. 5 COD for each component in wastewater
Component Molecular The molecular Concentration

weight (g/mol) weight of of COD (mg/l)
oxygen
(g/mol)
Oleic acid 282.47 816 14,818.09
Glycerol 92.09 272 64,061.66
Tert-butanol 74.12 192 228,756.70
Tert-pentanol 88.15 240 174,137.20
Total 481,773.60
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Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is important to determine the amount of

oxygen needed by microorganisms to oxidize organic matter in wastewater. BOD
concentration in untreated wastewater ranges between 0.3 to 0.8 of COD (Akcin et al.,
2005). Because the wastewater created may not contain any hazardous components or
adapted microorganisms that require stabilization, the level is estimated to be 0.8.
BOD in wastewater = 0.8(481,773.60)

= 302,289 mg/l
The parameter value obtained for BOD, COD, and oil exceeds the standard limit
stated by Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulation 2009. Hence, proper
treatment needs to be done to treat wastewater effluent until it complies with the limited
value before discharge the water into the environment. Table 6.6 shows the value for
parameter obtained for wastewater of production of GMO plant and limit value.
Table 6. 6 Value obtained for each parameter and discharged limits.
Parameter Value obtained Discharged limit

COD 481,773.60 mg/l 80 mg/l
BOD 302,289 mg/l 20 mg/l
Oil 14,818.09 mg/l 1.0 mg/l
6.5 WASTE MINIMIZATION
In Glycerol monooleate (GMO) production plant, tert-butanol and tert-pentanol are

being used as a solvent to reduce glycerol and oleic acid's immiscibility for easier the
glycerolysis reaction in the reactor, R-101. The solvents do not use in the reaction to
produce the product. Most of the tert-butanol and tert-pentanol will be removed from
the plant after the reaction. The separation of most of the solvents occurs in a vacuum
evapourator, V-101. However, removing a large number of solvents will give the plant
financial gain and increase the cost of the treatment system. Hence, to reduce the
treatment system's cost and purchase new solvents, most of the removed solvent will be
recycled back to the reactor.
Besides, glycerol is used in excess to maximize the conversion, and oleic acid
is a limiting reactant. Based on mass balance, not all the reactant is converting into the
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product. Some of the unreacted reactants, such as glycerol and oleic acid, will be
removed as waste from the distillation column, D-101. To reduce the cost of purchasing
raw material and treatment systems, glycerol and oleic will be recycled back to the main
reactor.
6.6 WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
Wastewater treatment plant for the production of GMO consists of several processes.
The wastewater is treated by using primary and secondary treatment methods. The
wastewater produce needs to be treated until it fulfilled the discharge limit for BOD,
COD and oil, as shown in Table 6.6. The unit includes the equalization tank, skim tank,
floatation tank, aeration tank, clarifier, sludge thickener, and filter press in the
wastewater treatment plant. The wastewater treatment plant diagram is shown in
Appendix C.
6.6.1 Equalization tank
An equalization tank is used to stabilize the pH of the wastewater mixture from the
distillate of the distillation column, D-101. The mixture is containing oleic acid,
glycerol, tert-butanol and tert-pentanol in the form of an emulsion. No reduction of
BOD, COD and oil value will happen at this stage.
Retention time = 1 day (Ures 2014)
Inlet flowrate, Q= 54.49 kg/h
Assume bulk density =water density= 1000 kg/m3
Volume, V = 𝜏Q = 24*54.49/1000 = 1.31 m3
By considering the safety factor of 1.2, the new volume will be at 1.57 m3
The cylindrical tank is used for equalization tank, the diameter of the tank is
82
V= πr2h = πD2h/4
H= 1.58 m
D= 0.82 m
6.6.2 Skim tank
The Skim tank act as an oil-water separator as the mixture coming from the evaluation
tank is a mixture with two layers. Thus, the separation will be using physical separation,
which is separation based on gravity different. The oil or oleic acid will rise at the top;
sludge will be settled at the bottom of the tank, and wastewater leaving in the tank's
middle layer. The reduction at this stage is 99% of removal oil, 30% COD and 40%
BOD (R. Smith 2005) and gives the outlet discharge shown in Table 6.7. The calculation
for the designed skim tank is shown below.
Rise velocity rate, Vt = [g(ρw-ρo)(d2)]/18μw
Where,
Vt = The rise rate of the oil droplet (m/s)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
ρw = Water density (kg/m3)
ρo = Oil density at design temperature (kg/m3)
μw = absolute viscosity of water (Ns/m2)
ρw = 999 kg/m3 at 30°C
ρo = 895 kg/m3 at 30 C
μw = 7.97x10-4 (Ns/m2) at 30°C (Appendix 6)
free oil-globule diameter = 0.015 cm

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Vt = [9.81(999-895)( 0.015x10-2)2]/(18x7.97x10-4) = 0.0472 m/s
Area of the tank is based on following criteria,
Separator water depth, 3 ≤ d ≤ 8 feet (to minimize turbulence)
Separator width, w of 6 – 20 feet
Depth/width (d/w) of 0.3-0.5
Design Calculation: Choose depth, d = 1.35 m
Width, w = 4.5 m
A= d x w = 6.075 m2
Horizontal velocity, U
U = flowrate/area = (54.48/1000)/6.075 = 0.0090 m/s
U/Vt = 0.0090/0.0472 = 0.1907 (below 15, hence acceptable)
After interpolation, F factor at U/Vt = 0.1907 is 1.195
Plant area, Ad = QF/Vt = 54.48/1000(1.003)/ 0.047 = 1.38 m2
Length, Ls = Ad/w = 1.38/4.5 = 1.38 m
Let the length, L= 1.50 m
Table 6. 7 Discharge limit at Skim Tank
Parameter Initial value Outlet discharged

COD 481,773.60 mg/l 337,241.5 mg/L
BOD 302,289 mg/l 181,373.4 mg/L
Oil 14,818.09 mg/l 148.2 mg/L
6.6.3 Floatation tank 1
Dissolve air flotation is a treatment process used to remove suspended matter such as
oil or solids from aqueous effluent. The removal can be done by dissolving or injecting
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air under pressure into the basin containing wastewater. The released air dissolve in
wastewater and form tiny bubbles, which refer to suspended matter or oils to float on
the water's surface. The floating matter will be collected by a skimming device later.
The effluent concentration will be reduced by about 95% oil, 60% COD, and 70% BOD
(R. Smith 2005) at this stage and gives the outlet discharge, as shown in Table 6.8. The
calculation for the floatation tank is shown below.
Retention time =24h
Minimum required volume, V = 𝜏Q = 12 x (54.48/1000) = 1.31 m3
Take required volume = 2.0 m3
Take depth = 1 m, width = 1 m, length = 2.0 m
Table 6.8 Discharge limit at Floatation tank 1.

COD 337,241.5 mg/L 134,896.6 mg/L
BOD 181,373.4 mg/L 54,412.0 mg/L
Oil 148.2 mg/L 7.4 mg/L
6.6.4 Floatation tank 2
The effluent from floatation tank 1 is further treated in the second floatation tank to
reduce oil, COD, and BOD value. Dissolve air flotation uses to remove suspended
matter such as oil or solids from aqueous effluent. Injecting air under pressure is applied
into the basin containing wastewater. The released air dissolve in wastewater and form
tiny bubbles, which refer to suspended matter or oils to float on the water's surface. The
floating matter will be collected by a skimming device later. The effluent concentration
will be reduced by about 95% oil, 60% COD, and 70% BOD (R. Smith 2005) at this
stage and gives the outlet discharge as shown in Table 6.9. The calculation for the
floatation tank is shown below.
Retention time =24h
Minimum required volume, V = 𝜏Q = 12 x (54.48/1000) = 1.31 m3

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Take required volume = 2.0 m3
Take depth = 1 m, width = 1 m, length = 2.0 m
Table 6. 9 Discharge limit at Floatation tank 2

COD 134,896.6 mg/L 53,958.6 mg/L
BOD 54,412.0 mg/L 16,323.6 mg/L
Oil 7.4 mg/L 0.37 mg/L
6.6.5 Aeration tank 1
Aeration tank function to reduce chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) in a waste management system aeration tank function. Aeration
tanks use bacteria to oxidize organic substances in wastewater, which will reduce the
COD and BOD. It promotes the growth of bacteria by the quantity of food and oxygen
supplied in the wastewater. In Glycerol Monooleate (GMO) production plant
wastewater, the most contributed COD and BOD are tert-butanol and tert-pentanol.
Table 6.11 shows the discharge limit at this stage. The design calculation is shown
below:
The hydraulic residence time 72 hours (P. Insell, 1987).
The aeration residence time, τ = 72 hours
Q = 54.48 kg/hr
Minimum required volume, V = τ x Q = 72 x (54.48/1000) = 3.92 m3
Take minimum required volume = 4.0 m3
Take Height (H) = 1.5 m, Width (W) = 1.5 m, Length (L)= 3 m
Hence volume of tank, V tank is 6.75 m3.

86
Food to mass ratio F/M is between 0.2-0.6.
F/M = (Volume flow,BOD)/(Biomass,MLSS)
BODin = (16,323.6 mg/L)(1×10-6 kg/mg) x 54.48 L/hr x 24 hr/day
= 21.34 kg
Standard activated sludge process, range of F/M is 0.25-0.5 (Mishoe, 1999).
Assume F/M ratio is 0.3.
0.3= (21.34)/(Biomass,MLSS) ; MLSS= 71.13 kg (71.13 kg of biomass must be

maintained in aeration tank)
Suspended solid growth for an aerobic process capable to remove 98% of BOD and
COD (Nadayil et al., 2015).
Table 6.10 Discharge limit at Aeration tank.

COD 53,958.6 mg/L 1079.2 mg/L
BOD 16,323.6 mg/L 326.5 mg/L
Oil 0.37 mg/L 0.37 mg/L
6.6.6 Clarifier tank 1
Clarifier used to remove heavier sludge solids by settling and being separated from the
liquid. The settled solids or sludge are directed towards the centre by using a collection
scrapper. The treated effluent will at the top be separated from sludge produce. The
design of the clarifier depends on the surface of the tank and the time of water retained
in the systems. In a primary clarifier tank, removal of BOD can reach 20 to 40% while
50 to 70% for suspended solid (TSS) (PSATS, 2014). The common retention in the tank
is usually about 2 hours at maximum flow, the overflow rate typically 28.8 to 36 m3/m2
day and weir overflow rate measured in m3/mL (Davis, 2010). Table 6.12 shows the
discharge limit at this stage.
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SL= Inlet flowrate/Area = 35 m3/m2.day
Inlet volumetric flowrate, Q = 287.8 kg/hr
Area, A = ((54.48/1000) m3/hr (24 hr/1 day)) / (35 m3/m2.day) = 0.0374 m2
πr2 = 0.0374 m2
Hence the radius, r = 0.11 m
Hydraulic retention time, τ = 2 hours
Since cylindrical tank is used, the height of the tank is:
V=πr2h
V=HRT×Q
V = 0.11 m3 ~ 0.2 m3
h=V/(πr2 ) = 5.26 m, D = 0.22 m
the dimensions for cone shape of clarifier are:
H = 5.26 m, D = 0.22 m
The removal efficiency for clarifier for BOD is between 30 – 40%, and maximum
efficiency is taken:
Table 6. 11 Discharge limit at Clarifier tank 1.

COD 1079.2 mg/L 1079.2 mg/L
BOD 326.5 mg/L 195.9 mg/L
Oil 0.37 mg/L 0.96 mg/L
88
6.6.7 Aeration tank 2
To fulfil the limited value in discharge effluent, secondary aeration needs to be

implemented, suspended solid growth for an aerobic process capable of removing 98%
of BOD and COD (Nadayil et al., 2015). Table 6.13 shows the discharge limit at this
stage.
Table 6. 12 Discharge limit at Aeration tank 2.

COD 1079.2 mg/L 21.58 mg/L
BOD 195.9 mg/L 3.92 mg/L
Oil 0.96 mg/L 0.96 mg/L
6.6.8 Clarifier tank 2
The removal efficiency for clarifier for BOD is between 30 – 40%; maximum efficiency
is taken as shown below. Table 6.14 shows the discharge limit at this stage.
Table 6. 13 Discharge limit at Clarifier tank 2.

COD 21.58 mg/L 21.58 mg/L
BOD 3.92 mg/L 2.35 mg/L
Oil 0.96 mg/L 0.96 mg/L
6.6.9 Sludge thickener
The most common unit that is used for thickening the sludge is by using gravity sludge.
All the sludge forms will be collected in a tank to let it settle and compact at the bottom
by gravity, and then the sludge will be discharge from the bottom of the tank to the filter
press. The sludge is collected once a day. Based on the concentration of the COD and
BOD of waste products, the total sludge is assumed as 35%.
ST = (54.48 kg/hr/1000) (0.35)

= 0.02 m3/hr
89
V = τ x ST = 24 x (0.02) = 0.48 m3
Considering safety factor 1.2, the volume of the sludge tank is = 0.58 m3
cylinder tank with conical at the bottom is used, the dimension of tank is taken as shown
below:
H = 1.5 m
V
r2 = = 0.12 m, D = 0.12 m
hπ
6.6.10 Filter press
The sludge collected from the clarification tank is sent to the filter press unit. The water
from the sludge will be removed to produce sludge cake. The water form from the
process will be sent back to the equalization tank. Duration for each process in filter
press commonly 3 hours and operate twice a day. The flow rate of sludge in this
wastewater treatment plant is taken as 0.08 m3/h. There is different available belt size
for different industries. The available size is shown in table 6.15 below.
Table 6. 14 Available belt size for different type of sludge
Width of belt Type of sludge

(cm) Primary paper Chemical sludge Digest sludge Raw sludge
sludge flow (m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h)
capacity (m3/h)
40 1-2 0.5-1.5 0.5-1.3 0.5-1
60 2-3.5 1.5-3 1-2.5 1-2
80 3-5 2.5-4 2-3.5 2-3.5
100 4-6 3.5-5 3-4.5 3-4.5
150 10-15 8-13 8-12 8-12
200 20-25 18-23 17-22 17-22
250 30-36 27-32 25-30 25-30
300 40-50 38-45 35-40 35-40
Source: Sludge Treatment and Disposal
From table 6.15, a 40 cm width belt is used for filter press.
6.7 DESIGN SUMMARY
The summary of design dimension for all wastewater treatment units is shown in Table
6.16 below.
90
Table 6. 15 Design summary for wastewater treatment plant
Treatment unit Dimension Value

Equalization tank Width 0.82 m
Height 1.58 m
Skim tank Height 1.35 m
Length 4.50 m
Width 4.50 m
Floatation tank 1 Height 1.00 m
Length 2.00 m
Width 1.00 m
Floatation tank 2 Height 1.00 m
Length 2.00 m
Width 1.00 m
Aeration tank 1 Height 1.50 m
Length 3.00 m
Width 1.50 m
Clarifier 1 Radius 0.11 m
Height 5.26 m
Aeration tank 2 Height 1.50 m
Length 3.00 m
Width 1.50 m
Clarifier 2 Radius 0.11 m
Height 5.26 m
Sludge thickener Radius 0.06 m
Height 1.50 m
Filter press Width of belt 40 cm
CHAPTER VII
PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Location selection is an important decision and a significant factor in increasing

profitability for future expansion. The plant construction needs to accommodate raw
material supply, transport facilities, availability of labor, utilities, climate, availability
of suitable land, local community considerations, and its environmental impacts
(Zhuang 2016).
7.2 SUGGESTION OF PLANT LOCATION
Based on the designed plant, three locations are chosen for consideration, which is (i)
Kampung Kepayang, Perak, (ii) Sungai Buloh, Selangor, and (iii) Johor Bahru, Johor.
Table 7.1 shows the specification for each location, and Table 7.2 shows the mark
analysis for each factor. The final decision is based on the scoring analysis listed in
Table 7.3 Johor Bahru. Johor is selected as an ideal location for the proposed plant as it
collects the highest score among other locations.
Table 7. 1 Comparison of specification between each location
Selection Kampung Kepayang, Bukit Rahman Putra, Skudai, Johor

Simpang Pulai, Perak Sungai Buloh, Selangor
Price RM 127 630 per acre RM 1 524 600 per acre RM 6 969 600 per acre
Size Availability 6 acre 3acre 2acre
Raw Material 34.6 km from Alpha 46.0 km from Suriachem 39.1 km from Pacific
Supply Trading Snd Bhd, Ipoh sdn bhd, Klang Oleochemicals Sdn
Bhd, Pasir Gudang
Location Well known area Well known area Well known area
Facilities ▪ Have public transport ▪ Have public transport ▪ Have public transport
92
▪ 100 m away from ▪ 500m away from ▪ 2.2 km away from

PLUS PLUS PLUS
▪ 23.7 km to Ipoh ▪ 76.5 km from KLIA ▪ 14.6 km from Senai
Airport Airport
Port 92.0 km to Lumut Port 45.1 km to Klang Port 30.8 km to Pasir
Gudang Port
Availability of ▪ Residents of ▪ Residents of Kampung ▪ Residents of
labour Kampung Tekkah, Baru Sungai Buloh, Kampung Skudai,
Kampung Kepayang, Kampung Paya Jahas Kampung Skudai
Kampung Pekalan Hilir, etc Baru, Taman Nesa,
Baharu, etc ▪ Fresh graduates and etc.
▪ Fresh graduates and skilled worker ▪ Fresh graduates and
skilled worker skilled worker
Utilities and ▪ Electricity supply by ▪ Electricity supply by ▪ Electricity supply by
Infrastructure TNB power station at TNB power station at TNB power station at
Simpang Pulai Sungai Buloh Pasir Gudang
▪ Lembaga air Perak ▪ SYABAS (Syarikat ▪ Ranhill SAJ Sdn Bhd
▪ 16km to hospital, Bekalan Air Selangor (Syarikat Air Johor)
school, and good Sdn Bhd) ▪ 6km to hospital,
resident area ▪ 18km to hospital, school, and good
school, and good resident area
resident area
Environmental Very safe ▪ Very safe ▪ Very safe
Impact
Nearby river Near to Sungai Near to Sungai Keroh Near to Sungai Skudai
Geruntom
Table 7. 2 Mark analysis for plant location
Criterion 5 4 3 2 1
Price <RM1 000 <RM2 000 <RM3 000 <RM4 000 >RM4 000
000 000 000 000 000
Infrastructure Fully Develop Moderate A little Not develop
develope develop
Raw material <20km <30km <40km <50km >50km
supply
Utilities Near to Have Moderate Shortage one Shortage of
electricity, electricity, either water, water and
water, and water, and electricity, electricity
natural gas natural gas and natural and natural
gas gas
Public Utilities <15km to <25km to <35km to <45km to >45km to
hospital, hospital, hospital, hospital, hospital,
school, and school, and school, school, and school, and
transport transport transport transport
facilities facilities facilities facilities
Residental Near to site Slightly near Moderate Slight far Far from the
distance area to site area from the site site area
area
Labour Very high High chance Moderate Low chance No labour
Availabilities chance for for people to for people to available
people to work work
work
Port <40km <60km <80km <100km >100km
93
Environmental Very safe Safe Moderate A little dangerous

Impact dangerous
Table 7. 3 Scoring result for each of plant location
Criterion Kampung Kepayang, Bukit Rahman Putra, Skudai, Johor

Simpang Pulai, Perak Sungai Buloh, Selangor
Price 5 4 1
Raw Material Supply 3 2 3
Infrastructure 1 1 1
Size availability 5 3 2
Utilities
Port facilities 3 4 5
Airport facilities 5 4 5
Roadway utilities 5 5 5
Nearby river 4 3 5
Public Utilities 4 4 5
Labour Availabilities 5 5 5
Residential distance 4 5 5
Environmental Impact 5 5 5
Total 49 45 47
7.3 SELECTION OF PLANT LOCATION
Based on the weightage and the scoring given, Kampung Kepayang, Simpang Pulai,
Perak has the highest score and thus chosen as the strategic location for our plant
because:
1. Spacious space for plant expansion in the future

2. Lowest land prices per square feet
3. Raw material availability and near to supplier
4. Has high unemployment rate for labour availability
5. Has public facilities that are available around the plant site location
6. Residential distance is near to the site.
94
Figure 7. 1 Plant location at Kampung Kepayang, Simpang Pulai, Perak
7.4 PLANT LAYOUT
Plant layout is an important element before doing the construction of the plant. It refers
to physical facilities such as machinery and equipment involved, administrative
buildings and others. An ideal plant layout should provide the optimum relationship
among output, floor area and manufacturing process. It facilitates the production
process, minimises material handling, time and cost, allows flexibility of operations,
easy production flow, and makes economical use of the building. Besides that, it also
must promote effective utilisation of labour and provides employees’ convenience,
safety, comfort at work, maximum exposure to natural light and ventilation.
7.4.1 Factors Influencing the Plant Layout
The economic construction and operation of a unit process will depend on the plant
equipment specified on the process flow sheet and laid out. There are six factors that
need to be considered, which include:
95
g. Costs
By adopting a plant layout that can make the shortest run of connecting pipes between
the equipment and adopting the least amount of structural steelwork, one can minimise
the construction cost. However, these arrangements may not necessarily be the best
arrangement for operation and maintenance.
h. Process requirement
All the required equipment has to be installed properly, depending on the process. Even
the installation of the auxiliaries should be done so that it will occupy as minimal space
as possible.
i. Operation
Equipment that is frequently operating should be conveniently located in the control

room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at a proper position and
height. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow easy access
to equipment.
j. Maintenance
For example, heat exchangers need to be site so that the tube bundles can be easily
withdrawn for cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement
of catalyst or packing should be located outside the buildings. Meanwhile, equipment
that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should
be placed undercover.
k. Safety
A blast wall is needed for isolation purposes and confines the effect of an explosion if
there is any potentially hazardous equipment present. There should be at least two
escape routes for the operator from each level in the process area.
96
l. Plant expansion
Equipment should be installed conveniently for future expansion in the process area,
mostly in the pipe alleys. Besides that, service pipes should be oversized to allow for
future requirements.
7.4.2 Plant layout Description
Two entrances are designed for the production plant; one is located north of the
production plant and is for loading entrance purposes. It allows transportation of
material and products vehicles such as lorries and tankers. This backdoor entrance will
open where there are deliveries of the raw material or product. It will open for
emergency purposes.
Another entrance is located at the east of the production plant and is used for
general purposes. All staff will own one company entrance card, where they will just
have to scan the card at the entrance. The gate will automatically open and will be
recorded. They can park their vehicles at the parking lot near this entrance. For non-
employees to enter the production plant, they will need to register and grant access from
the security guard. Thus, all entrances will be built in a guardhouse to monitor and
manage the production plant’s security.
A weighing bridge will be constructed at the transportation entrance. Any

transportation must pass through the bridge for monitoring the rough weight of the
goods. Any documentation and permits of transportation can be dealt with in the
guardhouse. After passing the weighing bridge, the lorries and tankers will park at the
designated loading bay located in front of the warehouse and raw material storage.
The main office, which is the administrative office, will be located opposite the
parking area. The cafeteria, restroom, and prayer room will be located next to the main
office. There are also even a medical room near the main office and the main plant for
injured or sick staff. Changing room and restroom will also be provided near the
production plant to let staff change PPE before entering the production plant.
97
The waste disposal area and the wastewater treatment plant will be located at
the back of the main production plant. This location is decided after considering the
wind direction so that the plume of waste gaseous and any fouling odour will drift away
from the plant. Maintenance and workshop will also be located near the production plant
for frequent schedule inspection and maintenance purposes. The control room will
locate near the process plant for easy control. The raw material’s storage will locate
near the feed, while a warehouse will be near the product line area.
The laboratory will locate near the wastewater treatment plant, warehouse, and
processing plant. It has an appropriate safe distance and also saves staff travelling time
between buildings. Therefore, it can easily analyse and keep track of the item’s quality,
not upsetting the plant and achieve desired quality standards. It also for research and
development purposes.
There will have a future expansion area provided so that the plant will expand
if there are any possibilities of doing so in the future. The Assembly area is also an
essential area for the production plant. In case any emergency or unwanted event occurs,
the employees will be using this area to gather. There will be two emergency assembly
areas near the two entrances and are located safely from hazardous areas such as storage
tanks, processing plants, and warehouses. No smoking is allowed in the plant and
personal protective equipment. PPE such as safety helmet, safety boots, cover-all, safety
goggle and face shield must enter the process plant, laboratory, wastewater treatment
plant, warehouse and storage tank. Lastly, a blast wall is used as a fence will for
isolation purposes and defensive against explosions. Plant layout is shown in Appendix
D.
98
CHAPTER VIII
ECONOMY ANALYSIS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Economic analysis is a compulsory action needed to be taken before constructing a

chemical plant. A good and manageable economic analysis will contribute to feasible
and profitable plant construction. The important value to be calculated in the economic
analysis including Return of Investment (ROI), Payback Period (PBP) and Net Present
Value (NPV) to determine the profitable plant to operate.
Until the plant is constructed and the service starts, a significant sum of money
must first be spent to:
• Purchase and install machinery and equipment
• Purchase or rent land and prepare a site
• Obtain utility services such as electricity, water and wireless
• Construct building for administrative office, production facilities, utilities,

warehouse, control rooms, laboratories, maintenance workshops, canteen,
medical infirmary and many more
Expenses to start plant operation before obtaining revenue from sales such as buying
raw materials, materials to support production, transportation of raw materials and
products, wages and many more.
99
8.2 DESIGN LIFE
The production of glycerol monooleate will not directly operate in the year 2020. A lot
of consideration needs to be managed before start-up the plant operation. Our plant
design aims to start our plant operation for 0.86% conversion and increase slightly from
the year 2020 to 2026 and more. A few factors will affect our chemical plant's life span,
including natural disaster, miscalculation on costing, world supply and demand, and
others.
8.2.1 Scrap Value
The scrap value refers to any no longer usable properties that can be sold and profit for
new plant construction. Since our chemical plant is fresh and starting from zero, thus
we do not have any longer usable properties to be sealed.
8.2.2 Plant Capacity Estimation
The plant capacity for our chemical plant is 227.52 kg/hr and will maintain until the
year 2026 and will be double after the year 2026 and for upcoming years. For the first
6 years, we will focus on stabilizing the plant operation without any problem in terms
of cost, production, profit, and other major problems. Whenever the plant production
already stable, then the production will increase, achieving the double value of the
previous plant capacity.
Table 8. 1 Plant estimation
Parameter Description
Plant Constructuion Year 2020
Plant Operating Life Year 2020 to Year 2040
Production Capacity Year 2020 to Year 2026: 227.52 kg/hr
The year 2026 to the Year 2040: 455.04 kg/hr
Price of Product GMO: RM 105.60
Price of By-Product GDO: rm150.50
Scrap Value -
100
8.3 TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT
The total capital investment, CTC, can be explained by the following equation,
CTC=CFC+CWC+CL ()
Where,
CFC = Fixed capital investment
CWC = Working capital investment
CL = Capital investment to purchase land for the plant
8.3.1 Fixed Capital Investment, CFC
The overall cost of planning, building and installing a plant and the related
modifications required for the plant site is fixed capital investment (CFC). In fixed
capital investment, there are two main elements, which are:
• Manufacturing fixed capital investment or commonly known as direct

costs.
• Non-manufacturing fixed capital investment or commonly known as

indirect costs
Manufacturing fixed capital expenditure is the capital needed for the process
equipment installed, including all components required for the full operation of the
process. Non-manufacturing fixed capital investment is the capital needed for all
components of the plant which are not directly related to the operation of the process
and the overhead of construction.
101
m. Direct Cost
Direct costs, also known as fixed capital expenditure in manufacturing, are the capital
needed for the process equipment installed, including all components required for the
full operation of the process. There are few components involved in direct costs: the
cost of purchased equipment, installation of purchased equipment, instrumentation and
control, piping, electrical system, design, operation, process and auxiliary, and service
and yard improvement. To estimate the capital investment, the cost of purchased
equipment is needed as the basis. To measure the purchase cost of the services, an
equation is used and shown as below:
Cost value for equipment, Ce = a+bSn ()
where a, b = constant; S = size of equipment; n = exponent for equipment
In the book Chemical Engineering Design (Second Edition) by Ray Sinnot &
Gavin Towler, the parameters for this equation for each system are written. Since the
data presented by this book is based on the US Gulf Cost Base for 2007, the inflation
index of the NF refinery is necessary to change the purchasing costs for the current year.
The 2007 and 2017 values of the Nelson-Farrar (NF) index are 2281.6 and 2611.8,
respectively. The cost is then translated to the Malaysian Ringgit from the US dollar.
Purchase cost of equipment at present time,
I1
Cpe2=Cpe1 (8.3)
I2
Cpe1 = Purchase cost of equipment in past time
Cpe2 = Purchase cost of equipment at current time
I1 = Nelson-Farrar Index year in past time
I2 = Nelson-Farrar Index at current time

102
The total cost of the equipment purchased, which includes all the project
equipment, is shown in the table below.
Table 8. 2 the purchase cost for plant equipment
Equipment Unit Cost per unit (RM Million) Purchased cost (RM Million)
Packed-Bed Reactor 1 3.26 3.26
Pump 13 0.06 0.78
Heater 6 0.013141083 0.078846498
Cooler 5 0.050374152 0.25187076
Condenser 4 0.036318123 0.145272492
Vacuum evapourator 4 0.252600822 1.010403288
Distillation column 1 0.171 0.171
Reflux drum 1 0.036008401 0.036008401
Reboiler 1 0.016210688 0.016210688
Extruder 2 0.109509027 0.219018054
Waste treatment plant
Equalization tank 1 0.014176 0.014176
skim tank 1 0.012151 0.012151
Floatation tank 3 0.017012 0.051036
aeration tank 2 0.101262 0.202524
Clarifier 2 0.021872 0.043744
Filter press 1 0.031188 0.031188
Sludge thickener 1 0.068858 0.068858
pump 9 0.06 0.54
TOTAL 6.932307181
Table 8. 3 the direct cost estimation
Component Delivered purchased (%) Cost (RM million)

Purchased equipment delivered 100 6.932307181
Purchased-equipment installation 39 2.703599801
Instrument and controls (Installed) 26 1.802399867
Piping (installed) 31 2.149015226
Electrical system (Installed) 10 0.693230718
Building (including services) 29 2.010369082
Yard improvements 12 0.831876862
Services facilities (installed) 55 3.81276895
TOTAL 302 20.93556769
n. Indirect cost
Indirect costs, also known as non-manufacturing fixed capital expenditure, are the
capital required for all components of the plant that are not directly connected to the
operation of the process and the overhead of construction. Engineering and regulation,
103
building costs, contractor fees and contingency are included. The summarization of the
total indirect cost is shown in the table below.
Table 8. 4 the total indirect cost
Component Purchased equipment (%) Cost (RM million)

Engineering and supervision 32 2.218338298
Legal Expenses 34 2.356984442
Construction Expenses 4 0.277292287
Contractor's fee 19 1.317138364
Contigencies 37 2.564953657
TOTAL 126 8.734707048
o. Total Fixed Capital Investment
The total fixed capital investment is the sum of direct cost and indirect cost given by
the equation below:
CFC = Direct Cost + Indirect Cost
CFC = RM 20.94 Million + RM 8.73 Million
CFC = RM 29.67 Million
8.3.2 Working Capital Investment, CWC
The working capital is the amount of money invested in the following components:
APPENDIX A Raw materials and supplies to be kept as stock
APPENDIX B Finished products in stock and semi-finished materials in the process of

being manufactured
APPENDIX C Accounts receivable

104
APPENDIX D Cash kept on hand for the monthly payment of operating expenses, such
as salaries, wages and raw material and supplies purchases
APPENDIX E Accounts payable
APPENDIX F Taxes payable
The working capital cost for our plant production is 75% of the purchased equipment
cost.
Working Capital Investment, CWC = 75% × Purchased Equipment
CWC = 75% × RM 6.93 Million
CWC = RM 5.20 Million
8.3.3 Land Capital Investment, CL
Land capital investment is the cost of purchasing land for a chemical plant. Our plant
has decided to choose land at Kampung Kepayang, Simpang Pulai, Perak for about 6
acres with the price of RM127,630 per acre. The land capital investment value is shown
below:
Land Capital Investment, CL = 6 × RM 127,630
CL = RM 0.766 Million
8.3.4 Total Capital Investment, CTC
The total capital investment for production of glycerol monooleate,
CTC = CFC + CWC + CL
CTC = RM 29.67 Million + RM 5.20 Million + RM 0.766 Million

105
CTC = RM 35.635 Million
8.4 TOTAL PRODUCT COST
The total product cost is all the costs that related to:
APPENDIX A Operation of the plant
APPENDIX B Selling the products
APPENDIX C Recovering the capital investment
APPENDIX D Contributing to corporate functions such as management, planning,

organising staff development programs and research and development
Total product cost is divided into two categories and shown in the equation below:
Total product cost (TPC) = cost of manufacturing (COM) + general expenses (GE)
8.4.1 Working Capital Investment, CWC
8.4.2 Cost of Manufacturing, COM
Cost of manufacturing are all the expenses directly connected with the manufacturing
operation, which can be classified into three types:
• Direct manufacturing costs or variable production costs
• Fixed charges or fixed manufacturing costs
• Plant overhead costs
Thus, cost of manufacturing can be determined by using the equation below:

106
Cost of manufacturing (COM) = DMC + FC + PO … (8.5)
Where
DMC = direct manufacturing costs
FC = fixed charges
PO = plant overheads
p. Direct Manufacturing Cost
Direct manufacturing costs are costs that vary with the rate of production from a plant.
There are few costs that need to consider in direct manufacturing cost as stated below:
i. Raw Material
The raw material is an important component that needs to be considered in

manufacturing costs. The raw material used in this plant production is glycerol, oleic
acid tert-butanol and tert-pentanol. The estimation of raw material cost is tabulated in
the table below.
Table 8. 5 the raw material cost
Raw Material Feed Flow Rate Price Annual Cost

(kg/hr) (RM/kg) (RM million/year)
Oleic acid 662 4.84 28069261.12
Glycerol 647 4.03 22833963.11
Tert-Pentanol 403 12.1 42686677.56
Tert-butanol 1610.878809 7.26 102448026.1
Total 196,037,927.93
107
ii. Operating Labour
Operating labour is the second highest consideration in determining the cost of

manufacturing. It can be divided into two types which are skilled labour and unskilled
labour. You can receive the hourly wage rate from the Labour Department of the
Ministry of Human Resources for operating labour in various industries at different
locations. There are different methods for estimating the labour requirements of a
chemical process plant, and the Ulrich method was used to calculate the labour
requirements.
Table 8. 6 the labour requirement
Equipment Unit Operator per equipment per shift Operator per shift
Packed-Bed Reactor 1 0.15 0.45
Pump 13 0 0
Heater 6 0.1 0.4
Cooler 5 0.1 0.1
Condenser 4 0.1 0.3
Vacuum evapourator 4 0.5 0.5
Distillation column 1 0.5 0.5
Reflux drum 1 0.5 1.5
Reboiler 1 0 0
Extruder 2 0 0
Equalization tank 1 0.5 0.5
skim tank 1 0 0
Floatation tank 3 0 0
aeration tank 2 0.35 0.35
Clarifier 2 0 0
Filter press 1 0.1 0.1
Sludge thickener 1 0 0
pump 9 0 0
Total labour 6.7
Table 8. 7 the operating labour for the plant operation
Condition Value
Operating hour per day 24
Shift per day 3
Hour per shift 72
Total shift per year 1095
Shift per week per operator 5
Shift per year per operator 260.7142857
108
Operator required to fulfil all shifts 4.2

per year
Total operator shift 15
Total operating labour 63
Labour monthly salary 2200
Total Operating Labour Cost, COL 1,663,200.00
iii. Direct supervisory and clerical labour
To have a certain amount of direct supervisory and clerical labor, some production
operations are necessary. Due to the amount of operational labour, the size of the
process, and product quality requirements, this form of labour is required. We spent
15% of operating labour cost for direct supervisory and clerical labour, given a value of
RM 0.249 Million.
iv. Utilities
For a manufacturing activity that depends on the amount necessary, plant location and
source, the costs of steam, cooling water, electricity are required. We invest about 12%
of total product cost and value of RM 36.89 Million in this plant.
v. Maintenance and Repair
To monitor the security factor, maintenance and repairs are necessary. In the process
industries, maintenance and repair costs are between 2-10% of overall fixed capital
expenditure. We used RM 1.76 Million for maintenance and repair, which is 5% of
fixed capital investment.
vi. Operating Supplies
The products consumed, such as graphs, lubricants, test chemicals, custodial supplies
and similar supplies, are operational supplies. These products are not known to be the
cost of raw materials or repairs and maintenance. The operating supplies are 15% of
maintenance and repair by a given value of RM 0.26 Million.
109
vii. Laboratory Charge
Laboratory fees cover the expense of laboratory testing for operational control and
quality control of goods. The cost estimation for laboratory charge is 15% of operating
labour cost with a value of RM 0.25 Million.
viii. Catalyst
In this facility, catalysts are used, and this cost is also taken into account based on the
catalyst requirement and price for the specific process. We are taking a rough estimation
of 10% of raw material for catalyst and a value of RM 19.60.
ix. Patent and Royalties
Patents protect many products and production processes. Therefore, based on the
quantity of material created, it is appropriate to pay for patent rights or a royalty to use
the patents held by others. For this plant, 3% of the total product cost will be invested
for patent and royalties.
The total direct manufacturing cost, DMC, is summarized in the table below:
Table 8. 8 the total direct manufacturing cost
Direct manufacturing cost Cost (RM)

Raw material 196,037,927.93
Waste treatment and disposal 2,257,005.42
Utilities 36,885,456.18
Operating labour 1,663,200.00
Direct supervisory and Clerical 249,480.00
labour
Maintenance and repair 1,764,272.18
Operating supplies 264,640.83
Laboratory charges 249,480.00
Catalyst 19,603,792.79
Patents & royalties 9,221,364.05
Total 268,196,619.38
110
q. Fixed Charge, FC
Fixed fees are expenses that are not affected by the output volume of a facility. Local
taxes, insurance and interest, are three factors that are taken into consideration in this
rate.
i. Local Taxes
The magnitude of local property taxes depends on the plant's specific position and the
state legislation. Annual property taxes are 2 to 4% for fixed capital expenditure in
densely populated areas. Local property taxes have the lowest range in less crowded
regions than heavily populated areas and are 1 to 2 per cent of fixed capital spending.
The land at Kampung Kepayang, Simpang Pulai, Perak is not highly populated with
villagers or houses. Thus the local taxes that we need to pay just rough at 2% of fixed
capital investment with a given value of RM 593,405.49.
ii. Insurance
Property insurance premiums depend on the type of process being conducted in the
processing procedure and the level of safety facilities available. The percentage for
covering the insurance is 1% of fixed capital with a value of RM 51,992.30.
iii. Interest
The rate of interest charge for our plant production is 5% of the total capital cost. The
table below shows the summarization of fixed charge, FC
Table 8. 9 the total fixed charge
Percentage
Fixed Charge Refer of percentage (%) Cost (RM)
Local Taxes Fixed capital 0.02 593,405.49

Insurance Fixed capital 0.01 51,992.30
Interest Total capital 0.05 1,764,272.18
Depreciation
Total Fixed Charge 7,066,555.39
111
r. Plant Overhead, PO
The overhead expense of the plant consists of general maintenance and overhead of the
plant, payroll overhead, shipping, medical care, safety and security, restaurants,
entertainment, salvage labs and storage facilities. Around 60 per cent of the overall cost
of operating labour, direct supervisory and clerical labour costs and maintenance and
repair costs in this plant are estimated.
Plant overhead, PO
= 0.6 × [Operating labour cost + Direct supervisory and clerical labour cost +
Maintenance and repair cost]
= RM 2,206,171.31
Thus the cost of manufacturing, COM can be calculated after the value for direct
manufacturing cost, fixed charge and plant overhead cost are obtained.
Cost of Manufacturing, COM
COM = RM 268,196,619.38 + RM 7,066,555.39 + RM 2,206,171.31
COM = RM 277,469,346
8.4.3 General Expenses, GE
General expenditures are the expenses associated with management and administrative
tasks that are not specifically connected to the development process. Three variables
need to be considered in calculating the general costs: operating expenses, sales and
marketing expenses, and research and development expenses. The formula that was
used to measure the general costs is :
General expenses, GE = AE + DM + RD … ()
112
where
AE = Administrative expenses
DM = Distribution and marketing expenses
RD = Research and development expenses
s. Administrative Expenses, AE
Administrative costs include expenses related to executive and administrative

operations, including wages and salaries for supervisors, accountants, computer support
personnel, technical and legal staff, among others. Office equipment and services,
outside communications, administrative buildings and other overhead products are also
included. In this plant, 2% of operating labour will be used for administrative expenses
and given a value of RM 332,640.
t. Distribution and Marketing Expenses, DM
Wages, equipment and other expenditures for sales offices, salaries, fees and travel
expenses for sales managers, shipping expenses, container costs, promotional expenses
and professional sales service are included in this expenditure. These costs are 2 to 20
per cent of the overall cost of the product. The higher number typically refers to new
products or limited amounts sold. As our oleic acid and glycerol are sent by bulk
quantity, 11% of the total product cost will be the channel for distribution and marketing
expenses by a value of RM 33,811,668.
u. Research and Development Expenses, RD
Research and development costs include wages and salaries for all workers directly
related to this form of work, fixed and operational costs for all machinery and equipment
involved, costs for materials and services, and consultant fees. 5% of the total product
cost will cover the research and development expenses with a value of RM 15,368,940.
113
By completing the value of AE, DM and RD, we can obtain general expenses.
Table 8. 10 the total general expenses cost.
General Expenses Ref. of percentage Percentage (%) Cost (RM)

Administrative Operating labour 0.2 332,640
Distribution & Total product cost 0.11 33,811,668
marketing
Research & Total product cost 0.05 15,368,940
development
Total General Expenses 49,513,248
The total cost for general expenses is RM 49.513 million. Thus, the product cost
can be calculated by using the equation below:
Total Product Cost, TPC
TPC = COM + GE
TPC = RM 277.469 million + RM 49.513 million
TPC = RM 307.378 million
8.5 DEPRECIATION
Equipment, structures and other material artefacts consisting of a production facility,

generally regarded as a reduction in the value of properties as time passes. Depreciation
is thus a measure of the decline in an asset's value over time. Physical installations are
depreciable, including costs such as the plant's design and engineering, shipping and
field erection. The land is not depreciable, but land changes are depreciable, such as
grading and incorporating utility services. Some firms use depreciation to set aside a
fund to repair a facility if it is no longer operable. Five methods can be used to determine
the depreciation value of a plant:
• Straight-line method
• Declining balance method

114
• Double declining balance method
• Sum of years digits method
• Sinking fund method
In this plant, we used the straight-line method to calculate the depreciation

value. In this method, the property value is assumed to decrease linearly with time over the
service life. The equation used to calculate the annual depreciation charge is shown as
following:
𝐶𝐹𝐶 −𝑆
𝐴𝐷 = ()
𝑛
CFC = Fixed capital investment
S = salvage or scrap value of the plant or equipment at the end of its service life
n = service life of the plant or equipment
The estimated annual depreciation of this plant is RM 7.49 million/year.
8.6 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
The profitability analysis is a part of the planning of enterprise resources that helps
administrators predict a proposal's profitability. Sales and benefit potential specific to
market aspects such as consumer age groups, geographic regions or product types can
be expected by probability analysis. This cost and income analysis of the company to
assess if it will profit, how much profit it will make and when it will begin to make a
profit.
For a development project, there are two forms of profitability analysis: methods
that do not take into account the time value of money and methods that take into account
115
the time value of money. Determining the viability of the project is highly dependent
on sales, taxes, depreciation and operating expenditure.
Table 8. 11 the summary of project investment
Parameter Unit Value

Production at full capacity kg/yr 20,936,400
Fixed Investment Capital RM 29,670,274.73
Working Capital RM 5,199,230.39
Land Capital RM 765,780.00
Total Capital Investment RM 35,635,285.12
Direct Manufacturing Cost RM/yr 268,196,619.38
Total Fixed Charges RM/yr 7,066,555.39
Total Plant Overhead Cost RM/yr 2,206,171.31
General Expenses RM/yr 49,513,248.24
Total Product Cost RM/yr 307,378,801.53
Design Life years 40
Taxiation Rate % 25
Scrap Value RM 0
Annual Depreciation Cost (Straight line method) RM 7,490,000
Minimum Accecptable Rate of Return (MARR) % 30
Glycerol monooleate Sales Price RM/kg 105.6
Glycerol dioleate Sales Price RM/kg 150.50
Water sales price RM/kg 0.1
8.6.1 The method that does not consider the time value of money
v. Return of Investment, ROI
The ratio of benefit to expenditure is calculated in this process. Net benefit and overall
expenditure of capital are the most common way to compute ROI. It can be
communicated as follows:
𝑁𝑝𝑗
𝑅𝑂𝐼 = × 100%
𝐶𝑟𝑐
Where
ROI = Annual return on investment in percentage per year
Npj = Net profit of the year j

116
CTC = Total capital investment
Some measures use gross profit before tax or cash flow to replace the net profit.
The company’s policy determines the mode of measure. Total capital investment varies
whether there is additional investment during the project's operation. Therefore, the
profitability analysis for any year does not represent the profitability during the project's
useful life. The ROI of a project is then calculated as an average over the life of the
project, and the equation is shown as follows:
1
( ) ∑𝑛
𝑗=1(𝑁𝑝,𝑗 )
𝑛
𝑅𝑂𝐼 = ∑𝑛
()
𝑗=−𝑏 𝑐𝑗
Np,j = net profit of the year j
n = life span of the project
-b = the year where the first investment is made on the project based on year 1 as
the start of operation of the project
Cj = amount of investment made for the year j
The value for return of investment, 1.20, is obtained.
The ROI obtained is then compared with the rate of the return value, defined as
the Appropriate Minimum Rate of Return (MARR) and assigned the symbol Marr,
either in fraction or percentage. This importance is dependent on the process type and
the risk level of the project itself. In this plant, the MARR selected is 0.3, which is a
reasonable value for new products and fresh plant established. The calculated ROI
showed more than the value of MARR by meant that the project is feasible.
117
w. Payback Period, PBP
The payback period measures profitability in terms of the amount of time needed for an
average return equal to the capital investment. The initial fixed capital investment and
the annual cash flow are usually used in this calculation by using the following equation:
𝑉+𝐴𝑋
𝑃𝐵𝑃 = ()
𝐴𝑗
Where
V = manufacturing fixed capital investment
Ax = non-manufacturing fixed capital investment
Aj = annual cash flow
The value for the payback period obtained is 1.009 year
The reference of PBP can be calculated by using the equation as shown below
to use as a parameter to compare the PBP calculated above. The project is said to be
acceptable if the PBP for the project is lower than PBPref.
0.85
𝑃𝐵𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0.85 ()
𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑟 + 𝑛
Where
marr = Minimum acceptable rate of return
n = Number of years
118
The PBPref is calculated and get a value of 2.481751825. By comparing

the calculated PBP and the PBPref, the value of PBP calculated is lower than PBPref. It
is indicated that the plant is acceptable.
x. Net Return, Rn
Net return is a measure of profitability whereby the amount of cash flow is greater than
that needed to reach the minimum reasonable return rate and recover the total capital
investment. The equation used to calculate the net return is shown below:
𝑅𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑁𝑝,𝑗 − 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑟 (𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑗=−𝑏 𝐶𝑗 ) ()
Where
Rn = money value of rate return
Np,j = net profit of year j
Cj = total capital investment of year j
If the equation is divided by n, the average Rn,ave is obtained as shown below:
𝑅𝑛,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑁𝑝,𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝑇𝐶 ()
The positive net return value means that the cash flow to the project is currently
higher than the amount required to repay the investment and earn a return that satisfies
the minimum reasonable rate. The project profits at a rate higher than the margin. The
summary of this plant ROI, PBP and Net Return is shown below:
• The ROI, 1.20, is more than MARR, 0.3
• The PBP value, 1.009, is lesser than PBPref, 2.481751825

119
• The Net Return value is shown positive, which is RM 1,294,195,883.87
As conclusion, the plant design project is acceptable and payback profit.

120
Table 7.6.1 the summarization of investment for the

plant.
Ye Production Expenditure Income (RMmil) Gross Profit Depreciation Taxable Income Tax Payable Net Profit Cash Flow
ar Rate (RMmil) (RMmil) (RMmil) (RMmil) (RMmil) (RMmil) (RMmil)
0 0 0 - 8,154,465 - 0 - -
54,697,418.66 54,697,418.66 62,851,883.84 54,697,418.66 62,851,883.84
1 0.86 8,154,465
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90
2 0.86 8,154,465
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90
3 0.86 8154465.182
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90
4 0.86 8154465.182
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90
5 0.86 8154465.182
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90
6 0.86 8154465.182
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90
7 0.86 8154465.182
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90
8 0.86 8154465.182
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90
9 0.86 8154465.182
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90
10 0.86 8154465.182
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90
11 1 8154465.182
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55
12 1 8154465.182
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55
13 1 8154465.182
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55
14 1 8154465.182
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55
15 1 8154465.182
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55
16 1 8154465.182
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55
121
17 1 8154465.182
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55
18 1 8154465.182
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55
19 1 8154465.182
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55
20 1 8154465.182
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55
21 0 0 8154465.182 -8154465.182 0 0 -8154465.182
- -
TOTAL
1,310,605,109.47 1,131,206,875.
46
AVERAGE
65,530,255.47 56,560,343.77
ROI 1.20 per year
PBP 1.008630213
122
8.6.2 The method that considers the time value of money
The time value of capital, Net Present Value (NPV) and Discounted Cash Flow Rate of
Return are considered by two techniques (DCFRR). The discount factor for both methods
should be determined by using the equation as shown below:
1 1
𝑓𝑑𝑖,𝑛 = = (1+𝑖)𝑛 ()
𝑓𝑖,𝑛
The Net Present Value (NPV) is defined as the present total value of a cash flow
time series. If Mar is positive for the NPV value of a project at the minimum reasonable
rate of return, then the project is said to gain a return greater than Mar and is desirable.
The following equation is used to calculate the project's NPV value:
𝑁𝑃𝑉 = ∑𝑁 𝑁
𝑗=1 𝑓𝑑𝑖,𝑗 [𝐴𝑗 + 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑗 + 𝑑𝑗 ] − ∑𝑗=1 𝑓𝑑𝑖,𝑗 𝐶𝑗 ()
Where
Aj = cash flow in year j
fdi,j = selected present worth factor for the cash flows with interest rate I in year j
recj = return earning in year j
dj = depreciation charge in year j
Cj = total capital investment in year j
The table below shows the estimation of the NPV value of this project. The NPV
value for this project at a minimum acceptable rate of return, MARR = 0.3, is RM
47,864,354.59, which is positive. Thus, this project is said to earn a return greater than
mar and acceptable.
123
The discounted cash flow rate of return, DCFRR, is the return obtained from an
investment in which all investments and cash flows are discounted. In this method, the
value of the interest rate, i, such that NPV = 0 is found. The table below shows the
summary calculation of the discounted cash flow rate of return, DCFRR.
124
Table 7.6.2 the summarization of estimation of NPV

Yea Productio Expenditure Income (RMmil) Gross Profit (RMmil) Depreciation (RMmil) Taxable Income Tax Payable Net Profit Cash Flow discount factor discounted cash Cumulative
r n Rate (RMmil) (RMmil) (RMmil) (RMmil) (RMmil) at I = MARR flow Discounted Cash
Flow
0 0 0 - 6,220,000 - 0 - - 1 - -
54,697,418.66 54,697,418.66 60,917,418.66 54,697,418.66 60,917,418.66 60,917,418.66 60,917,418.66
1 0.86 6220000 0.70 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 301,743,050.45 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 56,906,891.09 39,834,823.76 121,834,837.33
2 0.86 6220000 0.49 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 301,743,050.45 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 56,906,891.09 27,884,376.63 82,000,013.57
3 0.86 6220000 0.34 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 301,743,050.45 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 56,906,891.09 19,519,063.64 54,115,636.93
4 0.86 6220000 0.24 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 301,743,050.45 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 56,906,891.09 13,663,344.55 34,596,573.29
5 0.86 6220000 0.17 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 301,743,050.45 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 56,906,891.09 9,564,341.18 20,933,228.74
6 0.86 6220000 0.12 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 301,743,050.45 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 56,906,891.09 6,695,038.83 11,368,887.56
7 0.86 6220000 0.08 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 301,743,050.45 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 56,906,891.09 4,686,527.18 4,673,848.73
8 0.86 6220000 0.06
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 301,743,050.45 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 56,906,891.09 3,280,569.03 12,678.45
9 0.86 6220000 0.04
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 301,743,050.45 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 56,906,891.09 2,296,398.32 3,293,247.48
10 0.86 6220000 0.03
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 301,743,050.45 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 56,906,891.09 1,607,478.82 5,589,645.80
11 1 6220000 0.02
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 351,876,570.30 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 67,183,361.73 1,328,434.58 7,197,124.62
12 1 6220000 0.01
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 351,876,570.30 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 67,183,361.73 929,904.20 8,525,559.20
13 1 6220000 0.01
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 351,876,570.30 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 67,183,361.73 650,932.94 9,455,463.40
14 1 6220000 0.01
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 351,876,570.30 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 67,183,361.73 455,653.06 10,106,396.35
15 1 6220000 0.00
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 351,876,570.30 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 67,183,361.73 318,957.14 10,562,049.41
16 1 6220000 0.00
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 351,876,570.30 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 67,183,361.73 223,270.00 10,881,006.55
17 1 6220000 0.00
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 351,876,570.30 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 67,183,361.73 156,289.00 11,104,276.55
18 1 6220000 0.00
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 351,876,570.30 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 67,183,361.73 109,402.30 11,260,565.55
19 1 6220000 0.00
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 351,876,570.30 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 67,183,361.73 76,581.61 11,369,967.85
20 1 6220000 0.00
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 351,876,570.30 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 67,183,361.73 53,607.13 11,446,549.46
21 0 0 0 6220000 -6220000 0 0 -6220000 0.00 -3474
- 11,500,156.58
NPV
11,500,156.58
125
Table 7.6.3 the summarization of estimation of

DCFRR
Year Production Expenditure Income (RMmil) Gross Profit (RMmil) Depreciation (RMmil) Taxable Income Tax Payable (RMmil) Net Profit (RMmil) Cash Flow (RMmil) discount factor at discounted cash flow Cumulative Discounted
Rate (RMmil) (RMmil) I = MARR Cash Flow
0 0 0 - - 0 - - 1 - -
54,697,418.66 54,697,418.66 8,154,465.18 62,851,883.84 54,697,418.66 62,851,883.84 62,851,883.84 62,851,883.84
1 0.86 8154465.182 0.34 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90 18,945,568.92 125,703,767.69
2 0.86 8154465.182 0.20 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90 10,808,451.23 106,758,198.77
3 0.86 8154465.182 0.14 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90 7,766,110.26 95,949,747.54
4 0.86 8154465.182 0.12 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90 6,333,495.43 88,183,637.28
5 0.86 8154465.182 0.10 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90 5,567,809.21 81,850,141.85
6 0.86 8154465.182 0.09 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90 5,126,672.52 76,282,332.64
7 0.86 8154465.182 0.09 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90 4,860,473.85 71,155,660.12
8 0.86 8154465.182 0.09 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90 4,695,075.79 66,295,186.27
9 0.86 8154465.182 0.08 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90 4,590,368.76 61,600,110.48
10 0.86 8154465.182 0.08 -
336,342,632.09 644,305,682.55 307,963,050.45 299,808,585.27 244,836,159.37 63,126,891.09 54,972,425.90 4,523,278.06 57,009,741.72
11 1 8154465.182 0.08 -
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55 5,317,428.11 52,486,463.66
12 1 8154465.182 0.08 -
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55 5,284,048.65 47,169,035.55
13 1 8154465.182 0.08 -
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55 5,262,310.33 41,884,986.90
14 1 8154465.182 0.08 -
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55 5,248,122.46 36,622,676.57
15 1 8154465.182 0.08 -
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55 5,238,849.34 31,374,554.10
16 1 8154465.182 0.08 -
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55 5,232,782.82 26,135,704.76
17 1 8154465.182 0.08 -
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55 5,228,811.66 20,902,921.94
18 1 8154465.182 0.08 -
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55 5,226,211.08 15,674,110.28
19 1 8154465.182 0.08 -
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55 5,224,507.61 10,447,899.19
20 1 8154465.182 0.08 -
391,096,083.83 749,192,654.13 358,096,570.30 349,942,105.11 284,693,208.57 73,403,361.73 65,248,896.55 5,223,391.59 5,223,391.58
21 0 0 - 0 8154465.182 - 0 0 -8154465.182 0.08 -652701
8,154,465.18 0.00
NPV
0.00
8.6.3 Breakeven Analysis
The total income and total expenditure in the design plant at full capacity are considered
to determine the breakeven point, which is 0.3 years, as shown in the figure below:
Breakeven Analysis
600,000,000.00
500,000,000.00
400,000,000.00
300,000,000.00
200,000,000.00
100,000,000.00
-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Year
Expenditure (RMmil) Income (RMmil)
Figure 8. 1 the breakeven analysis curve
The table below shows the summarization of the economic analysis for this plant.
Table 7.12 the summarization of economic analysis for this plant
Method Value Conclusion

Return of Investment, ROI 1.20 The ROI value is higher
compared to MARR, 0.3. Thus,
the project is said to get high-
value payback
Payback period, PBP 1.009 The PBP value is lower than
PBPref,
2.481751825, which is viable
for this plant
Net Return, Rn RM 1,294,195,883.87 The value is positive. Thus this

plant is profitable
Net Present Value, NPV RM 11,500,156.58 The value is positive. Hence
the plant is profitable
Net Discounted Flow Rate of 0.655 The DCFRR value is higher
Return, DCFRR than MARR, 0.3. Thus it is a
sign of good plant
Breakeven Analysis 0.5 years The plant is expected to gain
profit started at 0.3 years
CHAPTER IX
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Possible hazards in any form in the plant must be identified and considered based on
the chemical usage, unit operation and operating conditions. The following subtopics
will elaborate on the legislative requirement and harzard identification in plant design
and hazard materials.
9.2 LEGISLATIVE REQUIREMENTS
Any newly built or plant operating in Malaysia must comply with the government
bodies' legislative requirements. Department of Environment DOE enforces the rules
and regulations) and Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH). It is the
responsibility of both bodies to ensure that every project meets the requirements of the
law.
9.2.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974
Environmental Quality Act 1974 is an act relating to the prevention, reduction, control
of pollution and enhancement of the environment and the purposes connected in
addition to that. During the planning stage, it is required to carry out an Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) to ensure the public's safety is safeguarded, the environment
is protected, and sustainability criteria are considered. EIA is a study to identify, predict,
evaluate and communicate information about impacts on the environment of a proposed
project and detail out mitigating measures before the project approval and
implementation.
128
Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations, 2009 is related to the

discharge or release of effluent or mixed effluent into any soil or inland waters or
Malaysian waters. This regulation states that the acceptable conditions for parameters
like COD, BOD, and pH value for the discharge of industrial effluent are compulsory
to be applied to any premises. It is also stated that an industrial effluent treatment system
shall be supervised by a competent person certified by the Director-General.
9.2.2 Occupational Safety and Health Acts 1994
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 1994 defines the general duties of
employers, employees, self-employed, designers, manufacturers, importers, and
suppliers of plant or substances. This Act provides a comprehensive and integrated
system of law to deal with the safety and health of virtually all people at work and the
protection of the public where they may be affected by the activities of people at work.
CIMAH Regulations 1996 prevent people, property and the environment from major
industrial accidents and mitigate the consequences of a major accident. Guidelines on
Hazard identification, Risk assessment and Risk control (HIRARC) is to reduce the
accidents at workplaces, to identify, evaluate and control its OSH risk on an ongoing
basis, to provide a systematic and objective approach to accessing the hazards and their
associated risks that will provide an accurate measure of an identified hazard as well as
provide a method to control the risk. According to HIRARC, risk control shall be
implemented at the source of the hazard, engineering control, administrative control and
personal protective equipment (PPE).
9.2.3 Factories and Machinery Act 1967 (ACT139)
Based on Factories and Machinery Act 1967 is an act to provide for the control of
factories concerning matters relating to the safety, health and welfare of person therein,
the registration and inspection of machinery, and matters connected in addition to that.
Any factory persons who will be exposed to a wet or dusty process, to noise, to
heat or to any poisonous, corrosive, or other substance which is liable to cause bodily
injury will be provided with suitable and adequate personal protective clothing and
129
appliances, including where necessary goggles, gloves, leggings, caps, footwear and
protective ointment or lotion.
9.3 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
Hazards can be categorized into five types: chemical hazard, health hazard, mechanical
hazard, thermodynamic hazard, electric and electromagnetic hazard. The chemicals
involved in the production of GMO in our plant are glycerol, oleic acid, and tert-butanol.
9.3.1 Identification of Chemical Hazards
Table 9.1 below shows chemicals hazard identification involved in the production plant
of glycerol monooleate. The chemicals involved include glycerol, oleic acid, tert-
butanol, tert-pentanol, glycerol monooleate and glycerol dioleate.
130
Table 9. 1 Chemical hazard identification
Component pH Corrosive Explosiveness Flammability Toxicity Reactivity
Glycerol Weak acid Non- May explode when mixed with Non-flammable Non-toxic substance Incompatible with
corrosive strong oxidizing agents liquid strong oxidizers
substance
Oleic acid Weak acid Non- Peroxides may be formed upon air Flammable Reaction with sulfites, Can form peroxidizable
corrosive exposure and cause an explosion liquid nitrites, thiosulfates and compound
substance dithionites may generate
toxic gases and heat
Tert-butanol Strong Non- May explode when mixed with Highly May cause respiratory Incompatible with
base corrosive strong oxidizing agents and sulfuric flammable liquid irritation strong oxidizers
substance acid and form an explosive mixture and vapour
upon air exposure
Tert-pentanol Weak Low The tendency of vapours to form Highly May cause toxic effect due Reactive with acetyl
base corrosivity explosive flammable liquid to inhalation or material bromide, sulfuric acid,
mixtures with air. and vapour contact can cause irritation hydrogen peroxide, and
chlorine
Glycerol Monooleate Weak Non- Non- explosive substance Non-flammable Non-toxic substance
base corrosive liquid
Reactivity with strong
substance
oxidizers.
Glycerol Dioleate Weak Non- Non- explosive substance Highly Non-toxic substance
base corrosive flammable liquid
Incompatible with
substance
strong oxidizers
Source: CAMEO Chemicals, n.d. 2018

131
9.3.2 Identification of Toxic Materials
The Permissible Allowable Limit (PEL) and Immediate Dangerous to Life and Health
values (IDLH) of the chemicals involved in this plant is shown in Table 9.2 below.
Table 9. 2 Hazardous toxic materials identification
Component Flashpoint (℃) PEL-OSHA (ppm) IDLH (ppm)

Glycerol 160 2.66 2.66
Oleic Acid 14.0 1000 1000
Tert-butanol 15.0 100 100
Tert-Pentanol 20.0 100 100
Glycerol Monooleate 218.0 – 235.0 N/A N/A
Glycerol Dioleate 298.0 N/A N/A
9.3.3 Identification of hazardous, flammable materials
The specified chemicals are categorized based on their flammability, stating their flash
points, Lower Flammable Limit (LFL), Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) and Auto-
Ignition Temperature (AIT), which is tabulated in Table 9.3.
Table 9. 3 Hazardous flammable materials identification
Chemical Description Flash point LFL (v/v %) UFL (v/v %) AIT

(°C) (°C)
Glycerol 160 2.7 19.0 393.0
Oleic Acid 14.0 3.3 19.0 363.0
Tert-butanol 15.0 2.3 8.0 470.0
Tert-pentanol 20.0 1.2 9.0 435.0
Note that:
1. Flashpoint: the lowest temperature at which it can vapourize to form an ignitable

mixture in air
2. LFL: the lower end of the concentration for which air/vapour mixtures can ignite
3. UFL: the upper end of the concentration for which air/vapour mixtures can ignite
4. AIT: Auto-Ignition Temperature: the lowest temperature at which a fuel/oxidant

mixture will spontaneously ignite.
132
9.4 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION, RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK CONTROL

(HIRARC)
Hazard identification, risk assessment, and risk control (HIRARC) are required under
the Occupational Safety and Health Act (Act 514) for employers to secure the health,
safety, and welfare of their employees and the related person. It is a systematic system
to recognise the possible source that may cause injury or harm to the company, assess
the possibilities of injuries or harm if exposed to hazard and introduce safety measures
to eliminate or reduce the risk. This provides an objective approach to an identified
hazard and a method to mitigate the risk based on Table 9.4 and Table 9.5. The reaction
consideration is based on Table 9.6. Table 9.7 shows the risk matrix to decide whether
the risk is either low, medium or high.
Table 9. 4 Description of likelihood
Likelihood Example Rating

Most likely The most likely result of the hazard/event being realized 5
Possible It has a good chance of occurring and is not usual 4
Conceivable It might sometimes be occurring in the future 3
Remote It has not been known to occur after many years 2
Inconceivable It is practically impossible and has never occurred 1
Table 9. 5 Description of severity
Severity Example Rating

Catastrophic Numerous fatalities, irrecoverable property damage and 5
productivity
Fatal Approximately one single fatality major property 4
damage if the hazard is realized
Serious Non-fatal injury, permanent disability 3
Minor Disabling but not permanent injury 2
Negligible Minor abrasions, bruises, cuts, first-aid type injury 1
133
Table 9. 6 Risk Matrix
Severity (S)
Likelihood (L)
1 2 3 4 5
5 5 10 15 20 25
4 4 8 12 16 20
3 3 6 9 12 15
4 2 4 6 8 10
1 1 2 3 4 5
Table 9. 7 Explanation on the risk matrix
Risk Description Action

15- HIGH A HIGH risk requires immediate action to control the hazard as
detailed in the hierarchy of control. Actions taken must be
documented on the risk assessment form, including the date for
completion.
5-12 MEDIUM A MEDIUM risk requires a planned approach to controlling the
hazard and applies temporary measures if required. Actions taken
must be documented on the risk assessment form, which includes the
date for completion.
1-4 LOW A risk identified as LOW may be considered acceptable, and further
reduction may not be necessary. However, if the risk can be resolved
quickly and efficiently, control measures should be implemented and
recorded.
HIRARC is conducted throughout the plant. Following are the HIRARC for
each process and general works involved that support methanol production. In our plant,
HIRARC will be managed on these aspects, including plant-wide storage, compressor,
and chemical reaction, as shown in Table 9.8 below.
134
Table 9. 8 HIRARC study of plantwide
Process unit: General work Location: Plantwide
Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment, Risk Control (HIRARC) Date: 18/12/2020 Prepared by: KK1
Review Date: Approved by:
Hazard Identification Risk Assessment Risk Control
Hazard
Likelihood (L)
Severity (S)
Mechanical hazards,
Electrical hazards, Thermal Existing Control
hazards, Noise, Chemical Measures (What action Additional
Work Substances, Dust, has been taken to reduce Risk control
No. Main process Activity Ergonomics Effect the effect?) (LxS) measures
1 Maintenance Regular Slippery floor Physical injury PPE, work instruction 2 2 4 -
and cleaning maintenance
process
Falling from height Physical injury PPE, work instruction 2 4 8 -
lead to death
Inhalation of toxic chemicals Inhalation injury PPE, medical clinic, work 1 4 4 -
instruction
2 Working in hot Maintenance Heat Stress Fainting, Rotational shift, limit 2 2 4 -
operating work/cleaning Dehydration exposure time at hot
condition area condition
3 Overtime work Work after Physiological stress Physical injury Rotational shift 1 3 3 -
regular Medical clinic
working hours
135
Table 9. 9 HIRARC study of chemical reaction
Overall Glycerol Chemical

Process unit: Location:
Monooleate Production reaction
Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment, Risk Control (HIRARC) Date: 18/12/2020 Prepared by: KK1
Review Date: Approved by:
Hazard Identification Risk Assessment Risk Control
Hazard
Likelihood (L)
Severity (S)
Mechanical hazards,
Electrical hazards, Thermal Existing Control
hazards, Noise, Chemical Measures (What action
Main Substances, Dust, has been taken to reduce Risk Additional
No. process Work Activity Ergonomics Effect the effect?) (LxS) control measures
1 Packed bed Reaction in tank Overheating may cause Reaction not Installation of temperature 3 4 12 Regular
reactor, R- denaturation of the enzyme occur, not achieve controller and indicator maintenance
101 the desired
conversion of
reactant
Overflow of the tank may Overfilled the Installation of level 2 5 10 Installation of
cause flooding tank, rupture of controller, leakage detector high-level alarm
the reactor system and scheduled
inspection and
maintenance
136
2 Vacuum Separation of Overpressure of vessel Rupture of vessel Installation of pressure 2 5 10 Installation of a

evapourator alcohol solvents controller and indicator gas leakage
(V-101, V- in V-101 and V- detection system
102, V-103, 102
V-104, V-
105)
Overheating of the vessel Explosion of Installation of temperature 3 5 15 Scheduled

vessel controller and indicator, inspection and
Emergency Response Plan maintenance
(ERP)
Overflow of the vessel may Overfilled the Installation of level 2 5 10 Scheduled
cause flooding tank, rupture of controller inspection and
the vessel maintenance
Pumping of the mixture into Pipe leakage and The leakage detection 3 5 15 Regular
the vessel release of mixture system, Emergency inspection and
with an ignition Response Plan (ERP) maintenance
source, explosion
Pumping of vapour into the Pipe leakage and Emergency Response Plan 3 5 15 Regular
condenser release of vapour (ERP), leakage detector inspection and
with an ignition system maintenance
source, explosion
Recovery of Overpressure of vessel Rupture of vessel Installation of pressure 2 5 10 Installation of a
unreacted controller and indicator gas leakage
reactant in V- detection system
103
(ERP)
137
source, explosion
source, explosion
Purification of Overpressure of vessel Rupture of vessel Installation of pressure 2 5 10 Installation of a
the main controller and indicator gas leakage
product in V- detection system
104 and V-105
(ERP)
source, explosion
Pumping of vapour out of the Pipe leakage and Emergency Response Plan 3 5 15 Regular
evaporator release of vapour (ERP), leakage detector inspection and
source, explosion
source, explosion
3 Distillation Pumping into Valve malfunction No or less mixture 3 4 12 Scheduled
High flow alarm
column, D- distillation flow inspection and
Low flow alarm
101 column inlet maintenance
138
Pipe leakage No or less mixture Bypass pipelines 3 4 12 Scheduled

flow Automatic shutdown inspection and
system maintenance
Emergency Response Plan
(ERP)
Pumping out Valve malfunction No or less mixture 3 4 12 Scheduled
from distillation flow inspection and
column Overflow mixture maintenance
Pipe leakage No or less mixture 3 4 12 Scheduled

flow inspection and
maintenance
Exposed to an ignition source Explosion 3 5 15 Keep away from
an ignition source
Distillation High operating temperature Column Temperature controller 3 5 15 Scheduled
process overheating High-temperature alarm inspection and
Low-temperature alarm maintenance
Automatic shutdown
system
Accumulation of mixture at Column ruptures High-level alarm 2 5 10 Regular
the trays Low-level alarm inspection and
Automatic shutdown maintenance
system
4 Condenser Converting Overheating of the vessel An explosion of Installation of temperature 3 3 9 Scheduled
(C-101, C- vapour into the vessel fails to controller and indicator, inspection and
102, C-103) liquid form convert vapour Emergency Response Plan maintenance
into liquid (ERP)
5 Extruder (S- Crystallization Overflow of fluid into the Uncomplete Installation of flowrate 3 3 9 Scheduled
11, S-102) of product extruder crystallization of controller and indicator inspection and
the product maintenance
139
6 The heat Heating or Overheating or overcooling Fails to increase Installation of temperature 2 2 4 Scheduled
exchanger cooling the fluid the fluid or reduce the controller and indicator inspection and
(HE-101, temperature of the maintenance
HE-102, fluid
HE-103,
HE-104,
HE105)
140
9.5 CONCEPT OF HAZARD SYSTEM
A Hazard system is a situation that could lead to harm in particular circumstances,

where harm is the loss to a person as a result of damage, and damage is the loss of
inherent quality suffered by an entity. The hazard system concept includes the source
of hazards, receptors, transmission path, and barrier. Table 9.10 shows hazard systems
on chemicals and equipment involved in the production of GMO plants.
141
Table 9. 10 Hazard system based on chemicals and equipment
Hazard source Hazard Hazard Description Transmission Receptors Barriers (Physical) Barrier (non-physical)
Category Path
Glycerol Chemical ▪ It can be harmful by Active hazards a) Oper c) Wall of e) Regular
hazard, inhalation, (Thermal radiation ators unit maintenan
Health hazard ingestion. transmission) and operations ce check
▪ May cause eye, skin, work housing for every
or respiratory ers the pipeline
system irritation on glycerol. and unit
duty d) Personal operation
b) Resi protective f) Training
dent equipment for
s for operators
near operators. g) Emergenc
by y
Response
Plan
(ERP)
Oleic acid Chemical ▪ It can be harmful by Thermal radiation h) Oper j) Wall of l) Regular
hazards, inhalation, ators unit maintenan
health ingestion. and operations ce check
hazards ▪ May cause eye, skin, work housing for every
or respiratory ers the oleic pipeline
system irritation on acid. and unit
duty k) Personal operation
i) Resi protective m) Training
dent equipment for
s for operators
near operators n) Emergenc
by y
Response
Plan
(ERP)
142
Tert- butanol Chemical ▪ It can be harmful by Thermal radiation o) Oper q) Wall of s) Regular
or respiratory ers the tert- pipeline
system irritation on butanol. and unit
▪ Combustible duty r) Personal operation
vapours can form p) Resi protective t) Training
explosive mixtures dent equipment for
with air in a source s for operators
of ignition. near operators u) Emergenc
by y
Response
Plan
(ERP)
Tert-Pentanol Chemical ▪ It can be harmful by Thermal radiation v) Oper x) Wall of z) Regular
or respiratory ers the tert- pipeline
system irritation on pentanol. and unit
▪ Combustible duty y) Personal operation
vapours can form w) Resi protective aa) Training
explosive mixtures dent equipment for
with air in a source s for operators
of ignition. near operators bb) Emergenc
▪ by y
Response
Plan
(ERP)
Glycerol Chemical ▪ May cause eye, skin, Thermal radiation cc) Oper ee) Wall of gg) Regular
Monooleate hazards, or respiratory ators unit maintenan
health system irritation. and operations ce check
hazards work housing for every
143
ers the pipeline

on glycerol and unit
duty monooleat operation
dd) Resi e. hh) Training
dent ff) Personal for
s protective operators
near equipment ii) Emergenc
by for y
operators Response
Plan
(ERP)
Glycerol Chemical ▪ May cause eye, skin, Thermal radiation jj) Oper ll) Wall of nn) Regular
Dioleate hazards, or respiratory ators unit maintenan
health system irritation. and operations ce check
hazards work housing for every
ers the pipeline
on glycerol and unit
duty dioleate. operation
kk) Resi mm) Personal oo) Training
dent protective for
s equipment operators
near for pp) Emergenc
by operators y
Response
Plan
(ERP)
Storage of Equipment ▪ Equipment Thermal radiation qq) Wor rr) Wall of ss) Regular
alcohol solvent hazards explosion kers, storage for maintenan
(Tert-butanol near both Tert- ce
and tert- by butanol tt) Emergenc
pentanol) resid and tert- y
ents, pentanol Response
scho Plan
ol (ERP)
144
child
ren,
com
merc
ial
area
Packed bed Equipment ▪ Pipe leakage Dispersion in air uu) Wor vv) Wall of ww) Regular
reactor, R-101 hazards ▪ Equipment kers, unit maintenan
explosion near operations ce check
by for every
resid pipeline
ents, and unit
scho operation
ol xx) Emergenc
child y
ren, Response
com Plan
merc (ERP)
ial
area
Vacuum Equipment ▪ Pipe leakage Dispersion in air yy) Wor zz) Wall of aaa) Regular
evapourator, hazards ▪ Equipment kers, unit maintenan
V-101, explosion near operations ce check
produce vapour by for every
of alcohol resid pipeline
solvent ents, and unit
scho operation
ol bbb) Emergenc
child y
ren, Response
com Plan
merc (ERP)
ial
area
145
Vacuum Equipment ▪ Pipe leakage Dispersion in air ccc) Wor ddd) Wall of eee) Regular
V-102, explosion near operations ce check
produce vapour by for every
of the solvent resid pipeline
ents, and unit
scho operation
ol fff) Emergenc
child y
ren, Response
com Plan
merc (ERP)
ial
area
Distillation Equipment ▪ Pipe leakage Dispersion in air ggg) Wor hhh) Wall of iii) Regular
column, D-101 hazards ▪ Equipment kers, unit maintenan
separate explosion near operations ce check
alcohol solvent by for every
resid pipeline
ents, and unit
scho operation
ol jjj) Emergenc
child y
ren, Response
com Plan
merc (ERP)
ial
area
Vacuum Equipment ▪ Pipe leakage Thermal radiation kkk) Wor lll) Wall of mmm) Regular
V-1034 contain explosion near operations ce check
highly GDO by for every
resid pipeline
ents, and unit
scho operation
146
ol nnn) Emergenc
child y
ren, Response
com Plan
merc (ERP)
ial
area
The vacuum Equipment ▪ Pipe leakage Thermal radiation ooo) Wor ppp) Wall of qqq) Regular
V-105, contain explosion near operations ce check
highly GDO by for every
resid pipeline
ents, and unit
scho operation
ol rrr) Emergenc
child y
ren, Response
com Plan
merc (ERP)
ial
area
CHAPTER X
DETAIL PROCESS DESIGN
10.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is focusing on detailed design for each unit. The details of each piece of
equipment and dimension shown in this chapter.
10.2 DETAILED DESIGN OF TANK, T-101 (PREPARED BY: MASHITAH BINTI

MOHD HISBAN, A163419)
Figure 10.1 below shows the figure of Tank, T-101, that functions to collect the mixture
of streams after reactor R-101 and R-102 in the production of Glycerol Monooleate
(GMO). The pressure and temperature controllers were unimportant for this component
since no reaction occurs in the tank. The only function is to hold the mixture from
previous units before entering the purification part. Thus, both parameters were
regulated by the previous unit, the packed bed reactor, R-101 unit. Besides, the built-in
tank's design was sufficient and appropriate to accommodate the working circumstances
of the mixture in it. The reactor's outlet consists of a liquid mixture of Glycerol, OA,
GMO, GDO, water, and tert-butanol/tert-pentanol.
148
Figure 10. 1 Tank, T-101
In designing this pressure vessel, stainless steel (SS-316) with nominal

composition 26Cr-3Ni-3Mo is use in fabrication of packed bed reactor, R-102. Stainless
steel (SA-240) is a substance that functioning as corrosion resistance, economical, and
widely available in market. Besides, the selection is also influenced by main use of the
product which is for medical purpose. As the material fulfil minimum content to avoid
corrosion, which is 26% chromium, and contain molybdenum and nickel, which can
improve corrosion resistance. Corrosion allowance, 2 mm is added since tert-pentanol
is corrosive substance. Vertical cylindrical shell is used and hemispherical is used as
top and bottom head in the construction. Hemispherical is chosen as top and bottom
head because this type of head suitable to be used for vessel operating at high pressure.
a. Sizing of Pressure Vessel
By referring to tank sizing in process level 3, the tank volume, V is 16 m3 and diameter,
D is 0.95 m and height, H is 5.68 m. Hence, these are the minimum diameter and height
for sizing of R-102. By consider the safety purpose, the design value for R-102 is D =
2 m and H = 6 m. It is importances to ensure that the T-101 will not explode and safe.
Table 10.1 below shows the design shape for tank, T-101.
Table 10. 1 Design of packed bed reactor

Part Shape
Shell Cylindrical
Head cover Ellipsoidal
Bottom cover Flat
149
i. Design Factor
During designing pressure vessel, design factors such as construction material and joint
efficiency, corrosion allowance and design pressure are considered. The preliminary
designs of T-101 as well as design parameters are shown in the Figure 10.2 and Table
10.1 respectively. The pressure vessel consists of cylindrical shell and ellipsoidal as top
head. Ellipsoidal head is used because this type of head can withstand high pressure
since the pressure in the vessel is divided equally across the surface of the head. The
use of cylindrical shell is due to easier for manufacturing hence it is cheaper than
spherical shell.
The selection of construction material depends on the ease for fabrication,

suitability and construction cost. Stainless steel Type-316 is chosen as the construction
material. This type of stainless steel has high corrosion resistance toward acidic
solution, alkaline solution and chlorine bearing environment. Since the R-102 deal with
fatty acids which are corrosive, so it is suitable to construct it by using stainless steel
Type-316. Besides, it also material that need to be fulfill for GMP requirement.
Cleanliness is maintained in the product being transported as it prevents the
contamination of the product from small particle or rust. Although the cost of this metal
in much higher compared carbon steel, but this material is one of the cheapest materials
among the expensive construction material. At T = 170°C, the design stress, S=24300
psi according to ASME code Subpart 1, Table A1 Stress Table. While the joint
efficiency, E=1 according to ASME code, Table UW-12 because double welding butt
joint is used. Table 10.2 below shows the design specification of packed bed reactor.
Table 10. 2 The design specification of packed bed reactor

Parameter Value (SI unit)
Temperature, T 70 °C
Operating pressure (gage value), Po 200 kPa
Height of vessel, H 6.00 m
Inside diameter of vessel, Di 2.00 m
Height of hemispherical heads, Htop 0.50 m
150
10.2.2 Design Pressure (Internal pressure)
Since the operating pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure (Po ≥ Patm), the design
of pressure vessel is under internal pressure. Firstly, calculate design pressure for each
part of the vessel by using the equation PD = Po +pgh where p is the average density
inside reactor (742.5 kg/m3) h is the height of each part from top shell. In order to
prevent pressure vessel explosion, the safety factor about 10% can be added to design
pressure to allow for probable pressure surges up to the setting of the pressure relieving
devices. So, the new design pressure is PJ = 1.1PD and was tabulated in the Table 10.3.
Table 10. 3 The design pressure of each part of packed bed reactor
Type of parts Height PH= pgh PD=Po+PH PJ=1.1PD
(m) (in) (kPa) (psi) (psi) (psi)
Hemispherical 0.5 19.7 3.6 0.5 25.2 27.8
head
Cylindrical shell
i.Circumferencial 6.5 255.9 47.3 6.9 31.6 34.7
stress
ii.Longitudinal 6.5 255.9 47.3 6.9 31.6 34.7
Stress
10.2.3 Minimum Wall Thickness, tmin
Assuming thin-walled for the cylindrical shell, the thickness can be calculated as below.
All the calculation for top and bottom hemispherical head and cylindrical shell are
according to the steps in UG-27(c) and UG-32(f) respectively based on ASME Code.
According to ASME Code, Table UW-12, the joint efficiency, E is 1 since double
wedding butt joint is used. The highest tmin will choose to compare with nominal
thickness. In this case, no thickness set by user, so maximum allowable working
pressure (MAWPpart) for each part is equal to design pressure for each part. Table 10.4
below shows the minimum wall thickness for each part of packed bed reactor, R-102.
i. Ellipsoidal heads:
PD 27.8 × 2
t= =
2SE − 0.2P 2 × 24300 × 1 − 0.2 × 27.8
151
t = 0.045 in
ii. Circumferential stress:
PR 34.7×39.4
t= =
2SE−0.6P 2×17100×1−0.6×34.7
t =0.028 in
iii. Longitudinal stress:
PR 34.7×39.4
t= =
2SE−0.4P 2×17100×1−0.4×34.72
t = 0.028 in
Table 10. 4 Minimum wall thickness for each part of packed bed reactor, R-102
Parts tmin Heighest tmin + CA tnominal tmin =
tmin tnominal -CA
(in) (in) (in) (mm) (mm) (mm)

Hemispherical 0.045
head
Cylindrical shell
i. Circumferential 0.028 0.124 3.142 5.00 3.00
stress 0.028
ii. Longitudinal 0.028
stress
The highest tmin = 0.028 in (1.14 mm) is chosen. Then, it is compared with
nominal thickness. The value of nominal thickness is tnominal = 5 mm (0.197 in) after
considering 2 mm of corrosion allowance (Atlas Steeks, 2010). Therefore, the minimum
wall thickness in this design becomes, tmin = 3 mm (0.118in).
10.2.4 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure for Vessel (MAWPvessel)
By using tmin = 3 mm (0.118in), new MAWPpart can be calculated. The calculation for
top and bottom ellipsoidal head and cylindrical shell will be based on procedure stated
152
in ASME Code Part UG-27 (c) and UG-32(f) respectively. Table 10.5 below shows
MAWPvessel for each part of tank, T-101.
Hemispherical heads:
2SEt 2×24300×1×0.079
P= =
D+0.2t 78.74+0.2×0.079
P = 72.9 psi
Cylindrical shell:
Circumferential stress:
2SEt 2×24300×1×0.079
P= =
R+0.6t 78.74/2+0.6×0.79
P = 72.8 psi
Longitudinal stress
2SEt 2×24300×1×0.079
P= =
R−0.4t 78.74/2+0.6×0.79
P = 146.6 psi
Table 10. 5 MAWPvessel for each part of packed bed reactor

Parts MAWPvessel MAWPpart-PH The smallest MAWPvessel
pressure at the
top
(psi) (psi) (psi) (kPa)
Ellipsoidal head 48.6 72.3
Cylindrical shell
i. Circumferential stress 48.5 65.9 65.9 454.4
ii. Longitudinal stress 97.3 139.1
The conclusion is the minimum wall thickness, tmin for the packed bed reactor is
tmin = 3 mm (0.118in). MAWPvessel of the reactor is at 65.9 psi which is equal to 454.4
153
kPa. The design thickness of the reactor is 5 mm after considering the corrosion
allowance of 2 mm.
10.2.5 Combined Loading
Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads such as major and subsidiary loads in
addition to pressure. Hence, it must be designed to withstand the worst combination of
loading without failure.
a. Primary Stresses
1) Longitudinal, 𝜎𝐿 and Circumferential, 𝜎ℎ Stresses
P = PD = 220.0 psi = 1.52 N/mm2, t=tDesign= 5 mm
Di = 2000 mm, Do= 2010 mm,
𝑃𝐷𝑖 1.52(2000)
𝜎𝐿 = =
4𝑡 4(5)
= 24.34 N/mm2
𝑃𝐷𝑖 1.52(2000)
𝜎ℎ = =
2𝑡 2(4)
= 48.68 N/mm2
b. Direct Stress, 𝝈𝒘
• Weight of vessel
Assume that only a few internal fittings for vessels, CV=1.08
Dm = Di +t = 2.0 + (5000)
154
= 2.01m
HV = 1/3 Hellipsoidal + Hcylindrical
=1/3 (0.5) + 6 =6.17 m
WV = 240CVDm(HV+0.8Dm)t
= 240(1.08)(2.01)(5.17+0.8x2.01)(5000)
= 20.19 kN
Direct stress,
𝑊 20.19×103
𝜎𝑤 = =
𝜋(𝐷𝑖 +𝑡)𝑡 𝜋(2000+8)(8)
= 0.4 N/mm2
𝜎𝑤 is compressive stress and therefore the value is negative 0.4

N/mm2.
c. Bending Stresses, 𝝈𝒃
Wind load per unit length,
Deff = Di + 2t = 2.0 + 2 (0.005)
= 2.01 m
Dynamic wind pressure, Pw = 1280 N/m2
w = PwDeff = 1280(2.01)
155
= 2572.80 N/m
Distance measured from free end, x = L = 6+1/3(0.5) = 6.17 m
Total bending moment,
Mx = wx2/2 = 2570.24 (6.17 2)/2
= 48918.93 Nm
Second moment of vessel area,
Iv = π/64 (Do4-Di4) = π/64 [20104-20004)]
= 0.032 m4
𝑀 𝐷 41 431.04 2
𝜎𝑏 = ± ( 𝑖 + 𝑡) = ( + 0.004)
𝐼𝑣 2 0.025 2
𝜎𝑏 = 1.54 N/mm2
d. Torsional Shear Stresses, 𝝉
The torsional shear stresses can be neglected in preliminary design

because these loads will normally be small, 𝜏 = 0.
e. Principal Stresses
Total Longitudinal Stresses, 𝜎𝑧
𝜎1 (𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑) = 𝜎𝐿 − 𝜎𝑤 + 𝜎𝑏
= 24.34 – 0.4 +1.54

156
= 25.48 N/mm2
𝜎1 (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑) = 𝜎𝐿 − 𝜎𝑤 − 𝜎𝑏
= 22.40 N/mm2
Since the torsional shear stress negligible,
1
𝜎1 = (𝜎ℎ + 𝜎𝑧 + √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ) =𝜎ℎ =48.68 N/mm2
2
1
σ2 = (σh + σz + √(σh − σz )2 + 4τ2 ) =σz (upwind) = 25.48 N/mm2
2
𝜎3 = 0.5 𝑃 (negligible for thin-walled vessel)
Maximum Stress Intensity
For upwind condition,
(∆𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧
= 48.68-25.48 = 3.08 N/mm2
From ASME code Material Table 1A for stainless steel, the design stress, S=
24300 psi = 167.54 N/mm2.
Since (∆𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < Sdesign, the material construction that we used is acceptable and
elastic stability can be checked.
10.2.6 Elastic Stability
A column design must be checked to ensure that the maximum value of the resultant
axial stress does not exceed the critical value at which buckling will occur when the
∑ 𝜎compressive > 𝜎c.
157
The critical buckling stress,
𝐸 𝑡
𝜎𝑐 = ( )
√3(1−𝑣 2 ) 𝑅𝑝
At the operating temperature, the modulus of elasticity, E is 171 000 N/mm2

with a safety factor of 12, the equation is shown below.
𝑡
𝜎𝑐 = 2 × 104 ( )
𝐷𝑜
= 2x104 (4/2010)
= 49.75 N/mm2
(∑ 𝜎compressive) = 𝜎w + 𝜎b
= 0.40+1.54 = 1.94 N/mm2
Since (∑𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 𝜎𝑐 , thus, the design is elastically stable. From the analysis of
combined loading, the material chosen has fulfilled both requirements of maximum
stress intensity and elastic stability.
From the calculation, (∆𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < Sdesign and (∑𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 𝜎𝑐 shows that the
design is safe.
10.2.7 Vessel Support
The straight skirt supports with welded flush with the shell are chosen for this vertical
structured catalyst reactor because they are recommended for vertical vessels as they do
not impose concentrated loads on the vessel shell and particularly suitable for use with
tall columns subject to wind loading as required in this design (Sinnott 2009).
158
10.2.8 Skirt Thickness Design
The skirt thickness design depends on the skirt thickness that must be sufficient to
withstand the dead-weight loads and bending moment imposed on it by the vessel and
it will not be below the vessel pressure. Table 6.17 below shows the specification
support for packed bed reactor.
Resultant stress
σs (tensile) = σbs − σws
σs (compressive) = σbs + σws
Initially, assume the thickness of the skirt is the same with thickness of the
vessel, 20 mm. Assume skirt height is 2.00 m.
Distance from the free end,
x = effective height of vessel, Hv + height of skirt, Hsk
x = 6.17 + 2.00 = 8.17 m
1) Bending stress in the skirt
Ms = wv x2/2 = 2572.80 (8.17)2/2
= 57197.16 Nm
4𝑀𝑠 4× 57197.16
𝜎𝑏𝑠 = =
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 +𝑡𝑠 )𝑡𝑠 𝐷𝑠 𝜋×(2000+5)×5×2000
= 3.63 N/mm2
2) Dead weight stress in the skirt

159
Wtotal=Vpg+Wvessel = 16(742.5)(9.81) + 2572.80
= 119115.60 N
𝑊 119115.60
𝜎𝑤𝑠 (𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡) = = = 3.78x10-6 N/mm2
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 +𝑡𝑠 )𝑡𝑠 𝜋×(2000+5)×5×2000
𝜎𝑠(𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) = 3.63 −3.78x10-6 =3.63 N/mm2
𝜎𝑠(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) = 3.63 +3.78x10-6 =3.63 N/mm2
𝑓𝑠 𝐽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 = 167.54(1) sin 90𝑜 =149.78 N/mm2
𝑡 5
0.125𝐸𝑦 ( 𝑠 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 = 0.125(200000) ( ) sin(90) =55.87 N/mm2
𝐷𝑠 2000
𝑡
Since 𝜎𝑠(𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) < 𝑓𝑠 𝐽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 and 𝜎𝑠(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) < 0.125𝐸𝑦 ( 𝑠 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠
𝐷𝑠
design skirt thickness of 8 mm is acceptable including the corrosion

allowance at 2 mm.
10.2.9 Base Ring and Anchor Bolt Design
In this design, double plate with gusset is used as the base ring design of the skirt
support. Some of the guidelines for the selection of the anchor bolts are:
Bolts less than 25mm should not be used
Minimum number of bolts is 8
Use multiple of 4 bolts
Bolt pitch should more than 600mm

160
Base on guideline for the selection of anchor bolts: Bolt pitch = 600mm. Number of
bolts required, at minimum recommended bolt spacing,
683𝜋
𝑁𝑏 = = 3.35
600
Pick the minimum number of bolts, Nb=8. The anchor bolts are assumed to share
the overturning load equally, and the bolt area required is given by,
1 4𝑀𝑠
𝐴𝑏 = [ − 𝑊], Db=1.3m, circumference of vessel = 683π, maximum
𝑁𝑏 𝑓𝑏 𝐷𝑏
allowable bolt stress, fb=125 N/mm2.
1 8×57197.16
= ( − 119115.60)
8×125 1.3
= 56.88 N/mm2
The bolt’s diameter is
56.88 (4)
=√ = 8.51 mm
π
Since bolt diameter is less than the minimum requirement 25mm, the bolt is set
to be 25mm. The base ring must be sufficiently wide to distribute the load to the
foundation. The total compressive load on the base ring is determined
4𝑀𝑠 𝑊 4(57197.16) 119115.60

𝐹𝑏 = [ + ]=[ + ]
𝜋𝐷𝑠 2 𝜋𝐷𝑠 𝜋(20002 ) 𝜋(2000)
= 37 183.11 N/m
The minimum width of the base ring
𝐹𝑏 1 37183.11
𝐿𝑏 = × = = 10.62 𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑐 1000 3.5(1000)
161
Table 10.6 below show the value for bolt size and root area based on Ab value
from Figure 13.30, Chemical Engineering Design book (Sinnot 2014).
Table 10. 6 Value of Bolt size and Root Area

Bolt size Bolt A B C D E F G
area
M24 353 45 76 64 13 19 30 36
Actual width required,
Ls = Lr+ts+50mm=76+5+50 =131.00mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation, fc’,
fc’=Fb/Ls = 37183.11/131 =0.28 N/mm2
Given the allowable design stress in the ring material, fr is typically 140 N/mm2.
The minimum thickness, tb.
3𝑓𝑐 ′ 3(0.28)
𝑡𝑏 = 𝐿𝑟 √ = 76√ = 5.93𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑟 140
10.2.10 Design of Flanges Joints
Flange joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessel, for manhole
covers, and for removable heads when ease of access is required. Besides that, it also is
used on the vessel body when it is necessary to divide the vessel into section for
transportation and maintenance and also to connect pipes to other equipment such as
pumps and valve. There is much type of flanges joints but in these design lap-joint
flanges is choose. The lap-joint flanges are used because it is economical when used
with expensive alloy, such as stainless steel. This is the formula for diameter optimum.
Dopt= 293G0.53𝜌-0.37
Where, G = Fluid flow rate, kg/s

162
P=Fluid density, kg/m3
Table 10. 7 Parameters for openings of packed bed reactor

Opening G(kg/s) Density (kg/m3) Dopt (mm)
Inlet 0.88 811.67 128.85

Outlet 0.88 811.67 128.85
The optimum pipe diameter obtain base on calculation is compare with typical
standard of flange design. Table 10.7 below shows the standard dimension of flanges at
stream based on Chemical Engineering Design (Sinnot 2014).
Figure 10. 2 Design of lap-join flange
Table 10. 8 The standard dimension of flanges of streams

Stream Outside Thick of Diameter Length Diameter Fillet No of Diameter Diameter
diameter flange of thru of radius holes of of
of (B) Hub at hub (H) bore (r) holes bolt
flange base (ID) (L) circle
(D) (A) (K)
Inlet, A 254 23.9 163.6 36.6 144.5 11.2 8 215.9 7
Outlet, B 254 23.9 163.6 36.6 144.5 11.2 8 215.9 7
10.2.11 Summary of Detail Design of Tank, T-101
Table 10.9 shows the summary of detailed design of Tank, T-101.

163
Table 10. 9 Summary of tank, T-101 design

Parameter Value
Operating temperature (°C) 70 °C
Operating pressure (kPa) 200 kPa
Material Construction Stainless steel Type-316
Height of vessel, H 6.00 m
Inside diameter of vessel, Di 2.00 m
Height of hemispherical heads, Htop 0.50 m
Corrosion Allowance 2 mm
MAWPvessel 454.4 kPa
Vessel wall thickness (mm) 5 mm
Effective Length (m) 6.17 m
Type of vessel support Skirt support
Type of flanged joint Lap-joint flange
Stress analysis 3.08<167.53 N/mm2
Elastic analysis 3.08<49.75 N/mm2
10.3 DESIGN OF COOLER, E-104 AND E-107 (PREPARED BY: HAZWANI

KHALIESAH BT MAT NAZRI, A164021)
The main purpose of cooler, E-104 is to reduce the temperature of Glycerol Monooleate
(GMO) before entering spray dryer, S-101 since the product must be in solid form. The
temperature of mixture fluid is reduced from 140°C to 25°C. The flow of cold water in
E-104 is co-currently as shown in figure below.
40
CW Out
CW In
E104
39
Figure 10. 3 Cooler, E-104.
Mixture solution will flow through the shell while cold fluid is entered at the
tube for easier in cleaning. Table 10.9 below shows physical properties for cooling
water and mixture in E-104.
Table 10. 10 Physical Properties for Cooling Water and Mixture For Cooler, E-104.
Physical properties Cooling water Mixture
Temperature, °C Tin = 15°C Tout = 90°C Tin = 140°C Tout = 25°C
Heat Capacity, Cp 4.186 1.047
164
(kJ/kg.K)
Density, ρ (kg/m3) 997 1011.2
10.3.1 Design specification of Cooler, E-104
Heat load of mixture, Q

Q = mcp∆T
246.94
= × 1.476 × (140-25)
3600
= 12.66 kW
Assume no heat loss,
Therefore, Heat load of coolant = Heat load of mixture
12.66 = m × 4.186 × (90-15)
mcoolant = 0.0432 kg/s
mmixture = 246.94 kg/hr
= 0.0686 kg/s
For the thermal calculation, kern’s method will be used.
For co-current flow:

T1 = 140°C Mixture
t2 = 90°C T2 = 25°C
Cooling water t1 = 15°C
Figure 10. 4 Temperature profile for Cooler, E-104
Log mean temperature difference:

165
(𝑇1 −𝑡2 )−(𝑇2 −𝑡1 )

∆Tlm = (𝑇1 −𝑡2 )
ln
(𝑇2 −𝑡1 )
(140−90)−(25−15)
= (140−90)
ln
(25−15)
= 24.85 °C
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
R=
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
140 − 25
=
90− 15
= 1.5
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
S=
𝑇1 − 𝑡1
90− 20
=
140−20
= 0.6
Ft = 0.58 (from figure 12.19 in chemical engineering design book)
∆Tm = Ft ∆Tlm = (0.58)(24.85) = 14.41 °C
Assume UO = 250 W/m2 °C (from table 12.1 in chemical engineering design book)
Provisional area, A:
Q
A=
U∆Tm
12.66 × 103
=
750(14.41 )
= 1.17 m2
166
3
Choose 20mm o.d, 16 mm i.d, 3.66 m long tubes ( in × 6ft), duplex stainless steel.
4
For tube thickness,
L = 1.83 – 0.05
= 1.78 m
Area of tube , At
A = πDO L = π(20 × 10−3 )(1.78) = 0.112 m2
Number of tubes, Nt
𝐴 1.17
Nt = = = 10.45 ~ 11 tubes
𝐴𝑡 0.112
𝜋𝐷𝑖2 𝜋(16 × 10−3 )2

Cross sectional area of a tube = = = 2.01 × 10-4 m2
4 4
Using 1 shell, 2 tubes passes, triangular 30° pitch,
Total tube area, AT
𝜋𝐷𝑖2
AT = Nt ( ) = 11(2.0106 × 10-4) = 0.0022 m2
4
1.25 triangular pitch was choosen to calculate the bundle diameter.
From table 12.4 (chemical engineering design book) value for tube passs are
K1 = 0.249 and n1 = 2.207
Bundle diameter, Db
1
𝑁𝑡
Db = do ( )𝑛1
𝐾1
167
1
11
= 20 ( ) 2.207
0.249
= 111.29 mm
Use a pull-through floating head. From the figure 12.10 (chemical engineering design
book), bundle diameter clearance = 88 mm
Shell diameter, Ds = Db + C = 111.29 + 88 = 199.29 mm
10.3.2 Tube-side coefficient
𝜋𝐷𝑖2 𝜋(16 )2
Cross sectional area of a tube = = = 201.1 mm2
4 4
Mass flow rate of cool water in, ṁ = 0.0432 kg/s
ṁ 0.0432
Tube velocity of a pass, ut = = = 0.0204 m/s
ρAt (958.7)(0.0022)
Tube side heat transfer coefficient, hi
𝑢𝑡0.8
hi = 4200 (1.35 + 0.02t )( )
𝑑𝑖0.2
0.02040.8
= 4200 (1.35 + 0.02(22.5))( )
160.2
= 192.70 W/m2 °C
10.3.3 Shell-side coefficient
𝐷𝑆 600.01
Baffle spacing, Baffle spacing, lB = = = 150 mm
5 5
Tube pitch, pt = 1.25do = 1.25(20) = 25 mm
Cross-flow Area,
168
𝑃𝑡 −𝑑𝑜 25−20
As = (Ds)( lB) = (199.3 × 39.86 × 10-6) = 0.0016 m2
𝑃𝑡 25
Mass velocity,
𝑊𝑠 0.0686
Gs = = = 43.18 kg/ m2s
𝐴𝑠 0.001589
𝐺𝑠 43.18
Linear velocity, us = = = 0.0427 m/s
𝜌 958.7
Equivalent diameter,
1.1
dt = (𝑝𝑡2 − 0.917𝑑𝑜2 )
𝑑𝑜
1.1
= (252 − 0.917(202 ))
20
= 14.2 mm
Shell-side heat transfer coefficient, ho
𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑡 43.18(14.2 ×10−3 )
Reynold number, Re = =
𝜇 0.934×10−3
= 656463.9
𝐶𝑝 𝜇 (1.476×103 )(0.934×10−3 )
Prandlt number, Pr = =
𝑘𝑓 0.3
= 0.00326
25% baffle cut has been choosen, neglect the viscosity correction term.
From figure 12.29 (chemical engineering design book), jh = 2.5× 10−3

169
𝑘 1
𝜇 0.14 0.3 1
ho = ( ) 𝑗ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 3 ( ) =( −3
)(2.5× 10−3 )( 656463.9)( 0.0033)3
𝑑 𝑡 𝜇 𝑤 14.2 ×10
= 1.75× 106 W/m2 °C
10.3.4 Overall coefficient
Thermal conductivity of duplex stainless steel, kw = 19 W/m°C
From table 12.2(chemical engineering design book), the fouling factor, hod is 5000
W/m2 °C and hid is 3000 W/m2 °C.
𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 ln 𝑜 𝑑𝑜 1 1
𝑑𝑖
= + + + ( )( + )
𝑈𝑂 ℎ𝑂 ℎ𝑂𝑑 2𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑
20
1 1 20×10−3 ln 20 1 1
16
= + + +( )( + )
1751469 5000 2(19) 16 192.7 3000
= 204.92 W/m2 °C
Well below the initial estimates of U is 250 W/m2 °C.
10.3.5 Tube-side pressure drop
𝜌𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑖 (997)( 0.02037)(16×10−3 )

Reynold number, Re = =
𝜇 9.63×10−4
= 347.89
From figure 12.24 (chemical engineering design book), jf = 7× 10−2
L μ −m ρu2t
∆Pt = NP [8jf ( ) ( ) + 2.5]
di μw 2
1.78 997(0.02037)2
= 2[8(7 × 10−2 ) ( −3
) + 2.5]
16×10 2
170
= 26.81 Pa
= 0.0268 kPa
= 0.0039 psi (acceptable since it is less than 10 psi)
10.3.6 Shell-side pressure drop
Reynold number, Re = 361528.6
From figure 12.30, jf = 1.2× 10−1
Ds L ρu2S μ −0.14
∆Ps = 8jf ( ) ( ) ( )
dt lB 2 μw
268.55 1.78 1011.17( 0.0235)2

= 8(1.2 × 10−1 ) ( )( −3
)
14.2 53.71×10 2
= 167.99 Pa
= 0.1679 kPa = 0.0244 psi
10.3.7 Design summary of Cooler, E-104
Table 10.11 shows the design specification for overall, shell and tube part of
cooler, E-104. The detail calculations are stated in appendix section. Duplex stainless
steel material are used to fabricate cooler, E-104 with outer tube diameter OD is 20 mm
and internal tube diameter ID is 16 mm.
Table 10. 11 Detail design for Cooler, E-104.

Overall E-104 Specification
Tube Arrangement Triangular 30°
Exchanger head type Pull-through floating head
Type of used tube material Duplex stainless steel
Baffle cut 25%
Heat Transfer, Q 12.66 kW
Overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo 175.44 W/m2 °C
Tube - Side Specification
Outside, do and inside diameter, di of tube 20mm o.d, 16 mm i.d
171
Length of tube, L 1.78 m

Tube pass 2
ΔTlm 24.85 °C
R 1.5
S 0.6
Ft 0.58
ΔTm 14.41 °C
Cross sectional area of one tube, At 0.0002 m2
Linear velocity , ut 0.007 m/s
Number of tube 32
Area of tube 0.0064 m2
Heat transfer coefficient, hi 91.58 W/m2 °C
Pressure drop, ΔPt 0.0268 kPa
Shell-Side Specification
Shell diameter,Ds 268.55 mm
Bundle diameter, Db 180.55 mm
Baffle spacing, lB 53.71 mm
Shell area, As 0.0029 m2
Mass velocity, Gs 23.78 kg/ m2s
Equivalent diameter, de 14.2 mm
Shell coefficient, ho 2836.97 W/m2 °C
Pressure drop, ΔPs 0.1679 kPa
10.3.8 Design specification of Cooler, E-107
The main purpose of cooler, E-107 is to reduce the temperature of Glycerol Monooleate
(GMO) before entering spray dryer, S-102 since the product must be in solid form. The
temperature of mixture fluid is reduced from 180°C to 15°C. The flow of cold water in
E-107 is co-currently as shown in figure below.
CW In
49 50
E-107
CW Out
Figure 10. 5 Cooler, E-107

172
Mixture solution will flow through the shell while cold fluid is entered at the
tube for easier in cleaning. Table 10.12 below shows physical properties for cooling
water and mixture in E-107.
Table 10. 12 Physical properties for cooling water and mixture for Cooler, E-107.
Physical properties Cooling water Mixture
Temperature, °C Tin = 14°C Tout = 95°C Tin = 180°C Tout = 15°C
Heat Capacity, Cp 4.186 0.8385
(kJ/kg.K)
Density, ρ (kg/m3) 997 992.9
10.3.9 Design summary of Cooler, E-107
Table 10.13 shows the design specification for overall, shell and tube part of cooler, E-
107. The detail calculations are stated in appendix section. Duplex stainless steel
material are used to fabricate cooler, E-107 with outer tube diameter OD is 20 mm and
internal tube diameter ID is 16 mm.
Table 10. 13 Detail design for Cooler, E-107.

Overall E-107 Specification
Tube Arrangement Triangular 30°
Exchanger head type Pull-through floating head
Type of used tube material Duplex stainless steel
Baffle cut 25%
Heat Transfer, Q 16.53 kW
Overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo 162.08 W/m2 °C
Tube - Side Specification
Outside, do and inside diameter, di of tube 20mm o.d, 16 mm i.d
Length of tube, L 1.78 m
Tube pass 2
ΔTlm 18.91 °C
R 2
S 0.5
Ft 0.54
ΔTm 10.21 °C
Cross sectional area of one tube, At 0.0002 m2
Linear velocity , ut 0.0047 m/s
Number of tube 58
Area of tube 0.0117 m2
Heat transfer coefficient, hi 66.67 W/m2 °C
Pressure drop, ΔPt 0.233 kPa
Shell-Side Specification
Shell diameter,Ds 324.39 mm
Bundle diameter, Db 236.39 mm
173
Baffle spacing, lB 64.88 mm

Shell area, As 0.0042 m2
Mass velocity, Gs 28.38 kg/ m2s
Equivalent diameter, de 14.2 mm
Shell coefficient, ho 125771 W/m2 °C
Pressure drop, ΔPs 0.057 kPa
174
10.4 DETAILED DESIGN OF CONDENSER C-101
(Designed by: Arina Atiqah binti Azhar (A163472))
Cooling water is used as coolant in condenser C-101 at vacuum evapourator V-102. The
inlet stream of the condenser contains mixture of tert-pentanol and tert-butanol. To
change the vapour mixture to liquid, the temperature of the vapour mixture is reduced
from 140°C to 70°C to be return back to be used as solvent.
23a
Cooling Coo lin g

Water Out
Water In
C-101
24
Figure 10. 6 Condenser (C-101)
Table 10.14 show the physical properties of condenser C-101 that is used for
calculation.
Table 10. 14 Physical Properties of Vapour Mixture and cooling water at tube for
Condenser C-101
Properties Vapour Mixture Cooling water
Temperature inlet (°C) 140 30
Temperature outlet (°C) 70 65
Heat capacity, Cp (kJ/kg.K) 100.37 4.18
Heat transfer from medium:
232.03
𝑄= (505.37 − 103.08) = 25.93 𝑘𝑊
3600
175
Cooling water flow:
𝑄 𝑘𝑔
𝑈𝑡 = 𝜌∆𝑇 = 0.1772
3600 𝑠
Mean temperature difference:
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (140 − 70)

𝑅= = =2
(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) (65 − 30)
(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) (65 − 30)

𝑆= = = 0.318
(𝑇1 − 𝑡1 ) (140 − 30)
By using equation 19.8 (Towler & Sinnott, 2013),
Temperature correction factor, Ft = 0.92
Logarithmic mean temperature difference:
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = = 55.68 °𝐶
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
𝑙𝑛 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
True temperature difference:
∆𝑇𝑚 = 55.68 × 0.92 = 24.56 °C
Trial area:
232.03 × 1000
𝐴= = 2.53𝑚2
200 × 51.22
Surface area of one tube:

176
20
𝐴= × 𝛑 × 2.44 = 0.153𝑚2
1000
2.53
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 = = 16 tubes
0.153
Use square pitch, 𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 × 20 = 25𝑚𝑚
Tube bundle diameter:
16 1
𝐷𝑏 = 20( )2.291 = 150.94 mm
0.156
Number of tubes in center row, Nr
𝐷𝑏 150.94
= = 6.04 𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑡 25
10.4.1 Shell-Side Coefficient
Estimate tube wall temperature, Tw. Assume the condensing coefficient as 500
W/m2.°C.
Mean temperature:
140 + 70
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = = 105
2
65 + 30
𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = = 47.5
2
(𝑎 − 𝑇𝑤 )ℎ𝑖 = (𝑎 − 𝑇𝑤 )𝑈
𝑇𝑤 =82 °C
Mean temperature of condensate:

177
105 + 82
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = 93.5°C
2
Physical properties of medium at 93.5°C
𝜇𝐿 = 0.00541 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠
𝜌𝐿 = 873.32 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑘𝐿 = 0.1693 W/m2. °C
Vapour density at mean vapour temperature:
𝑘𝑔
𝑃𝑣 = 1.054
𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
Гℎ = 5.94
𝑠𝑚
2
𝑁𝑟 = × 6.04 = 4 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
3
1
𝜌𝐿 (𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 3 −1
ℎ𝑐 = 0.95𝐾𝐿 [ ] 𝑁𝑟 6
µ𝐿 Г
𝑊
ℎ𝑐 = 556.78
𝑚2 . °𝐶
The value of ℎ𝑐 is 556.78 W/m2°C to the condensing coefficient assumed.

Hence, no correction of Tw is needed.
10.4.2 Tube-Side Coefficient
Tube cross sectional area:
𝜋 𝑁𝑡
× 𝑂𝐷2 × = 0.1257 𝑚2
4 4
Density of water at 30°𝐶 is 925.9 kg/𝑚3

178
Tube velocity:
𝑚
𝑢𝑡 = 0.1523
𝑠
4200(1.35 + 0.02𝑡)𝑢𝑡 0.8

ℎ𝑖 =
𝑑𝑖 0.2
𝑊
= 1231.3
𝑚2 . °𝐶
10.4.3 Overall Coefficient
Medium and water used in the design of condenser are not heavily fouling. Hence, we
assume that fouling factors for outside tube and inside tube fluids as 5000 W/𝑚2 °𝐶 and
6000W/𝑚2 . °𝐶 respectively.
The thermal conductivity for stainless steel tube is 16 W/𝑚2 . °𝐶
Overall coefficient:
𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 ln( 𝑜 ) 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑜 1
𝑑𝑖 𝑜
= + + + 𝑥 + 𝑥
𝑈 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑑 2𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖
The overall coefficient, U = 594.77 W/𝑚2 . °𝐶
10.4.4 Shell-Side Pressure Drop
The head type used in this condenser will be outside packed head. We assume that the
shell diameter is same as the baffle spacing. 45% baffle cut will be used.
From Figure 12.12 (Towler & Sinnott,2013),
Clearance is 89 mm
179
The shell diameter, Ds = 150.94+ 89 = 239.94 mm
Use Kern’s method to make the approximate estimate:
Cross sectional area, As:
(𝑝𝑡 − 𝑑0 )𝐷𝑠 𝑙𝐵 (25 − 20)

𝐴𝑠 = = × 239.94 × 0.4 = 21.59 𝑚2
𝑝𝑡 25
Mass flow rate velocity, based on inlet conditions:
𝑊𝑠 232.03 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = = × 21.59 = 1.39
𝐴𝑠 3600 𝑠𝑚2
Equivalent diameter for a square pitch arrangement:
1.27 1.27
𝑑𝑒 = (𝑝𝑡 2 − 0.785𝑑0 2 ) = (252 − 0.785 × 202 ) = 19.7485 𝑚𝑚
𝑑0 20
Vapour viscosity= 0.035943 Ns/m2
Reynolds number:
𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑒 1.3918 × 19.75
𝑅𝑒 = = = 764.73
𝜇 0.00014623
According to Figure 19.30 (Towler & Sinnott, 2013),
The value for Friction factor, jf = 0.03
𝐺𝑠 𝑐𝑚
𝑢𝑠 = = 38.72
𝜌𝑣 𝑠
The pressure drop at shell-side:

180
𝐷𝑠 𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑠 2
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8𝑗𝑓 ( )( )
𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝐵 2
= 0.9587 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.1390 𝑝𝑠𝑖
10.4.5 Tube-Side Pressure Drop
Viscosity of water at mean temperature = 0.000645 Pa.s
𝑢𝑡 𝜌𝑑𝑖 0.1523 × 925.9 × 0.016

𝑅𝑒 = = = 3498.53
𝜇 0.000645
The value of Friction factor, jf = 0.006
Pressure drop at tube-side:
𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑡 2
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 ( ) + 2.5]
𝑑𝑖 2
= 107.73 𝑁/𝑚2 = 0.0156 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Table 10.15 summaries the design specification of condenser C-101.
Table 10. 15 Design Specification of Condenser C-101

Utility C-101
Type Shell and Tube Condenser
Tube inside diameter (mm) 16
Tube outside diameter (mm) 20
Number of tubes 192
Tube pitch (mm) 25

181
Heat Duty, Q (kW) 407.72
Heat Transfer Area, A(m2) 39.80
Overall coefficient, U (W/m2°C) 779.51
Pressure drop, shell side ΔP (psi) 1.5460
Pressure drop, tube side ΔP (psi) 0.0622
Cooling water is used as coolant in condenser C-102 at vacuum evapourator V-103. The
inlet stream of the condenser contains mixture of oleic acid, glycerol, tert-butanol, tert-
pentanol and water. In order to change the vapour mixture to liquid, the temperature of
the vapour mixture is reduced from 165°C to 90°C to be flow into a distillation column.
28
Cooling Coolin g
Water In Water Out
C-102
29
Figure 10. 7 Condenser C-102
calculation.
Table 10. 16 Physical Properties of Vapour Mixture and cooling water at Tube for
Condenser S-102
182
Heat transfer from medium:
232.03
𝑄= (505.37 − 103.08) = 25.93 𝑘𝑊
3600
Cooling water flow:
𝑄 𝑘𝑔
𝑈𝑡 = 𝜌∆𝑇 = 0.1772
3600 𝑠
Mean temperature difference:
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (140 − 70)

𝑅= = =2
(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) (65 − 30)
(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) (65 − 30)

𝑆= = = 0.318
(𝑇1 − 𝑡1 ) (140 − 30)
By using equation 19.8 (Towler & Sinnott, 2013),
Temperature correction factor, Ft = 0.92
Logarithmic mean temperature difference:
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = = 55.68 °𝐶
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
𝑙𝑛 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
True temperature difference:

183
∆𝑇𝑚 = 55.68 × 0.92 = 24.56 °C
Trial area:
232.03 × 1000
𝐴= = 2.53𝑚2
200 × 51.22
Surface area of one tube:
20
𝐴= × 𝛑 × 2.44 = 0.153𝑚2
1000
2.53
𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 = = 16 tubes
0.153
Use square pitch, 𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 × 20 = 25𝑚𝑚
Tube bundle diameter:
16 1
𝐷𝑏 = 20( )2.291 = 150.94 mm
0.156
Number of tubes in center row, Nr
𝐷𝑏 150.94
= = 6.04 𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑡 25
10.5.1 Shell-Side Coefficient
Estimate tube wall temperature, Tw. Assume the condensing coefficient as 500
W/m2.°C.
Mean temperature:
184
140 + 70
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = = 105
2
65 + 30
𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = = 47.5
2
(𝑎 − 𝑇𝑤 )ℎ𝑖 = (𝑎 − 𝑇𝑤 )𝑈
𝑇𝑤 =82 °C
Mean temperature of condensate:
105 + 82
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = 93.5°C
2
Physical properties of medium at 93.5°C
𝜇𝐿 = 0.00541 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠
𝜌𝐿 = 873.32 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑘𝐿 = 0.1693 W/m2. °C
Vapour density at mean vapour temperature:
𝑘𝑔
𝑃𝑣 = 1.054
𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
Гℎ = 5.94
𝑠𝑚
2
𝑁𝑟 = × 6.04 = 4 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
3
1
𝜌𝐿 (𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 3 −1
ℎ𝑐 = 0.95𝐾𝐿 [ ] 𝑁𝑟 6
µ𝐿 Г
185
𝑊
ℎ𝑐 = 556.78
𝑚2 . °𝐶
The value of ℎ𝑐 is 556.78 W/m2°C to the condensing coefficient assumed.

Hence, no correction of Tw is needed.
10.5.2 Tube-Side Coefficient
Tube cross sectional area:
𝜋 𝑁𝑡
× 𝑂𝐷2 × = 0.1257 𝑚2
4 4
Density of water at 30°𝐶 is 925.9 kg/𝑚3
Tube velocity:
𝑚
𝑢𝑡 = 0.1523
𝑠
4200(1.35 + 0.02𝑡)𝑢𝑡 0.8

ℎ𝑖 =
𝑑𝑖 0.2
𝑊
= 1231.3
𝑚2 . °𝐶
10.5.3 Overall Coefficient
Medium and water used in the design of condenser are not heavily fouling. Hence, we
assume that fouling factors for outside tube and inside tube fluids as 5000 W/𝑚2 . °𝐶and
6000W/𝑚2 . °𝐶 respectively.
The thermal conductivity for stainless steel tube is 16 W/𝑚2 . °𝐶
Overall coefficient:
186
𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 ln( 𝑜 ) 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑜 1
𝑑𝑖 𝑜
= + + + 𝑥 + 𝑥
𝑈 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑑 2𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖
The overall coefficient, U = 594.77 W/𝑚2 . °𝐶
10.5.4 Shell-Side Pressure Drop
The head type used in this condenser will be outside packed head. We assume that the
shell diameter is same as the baffle spacing. 45% baffle cut will be used.
From Figure 12.12 (Towler & Sinnott,2013),
Clearance is 89 mm
The shell diameter, Ds = 150.94+ 89 = 239.94 mm
Use Kern’s method to make the approximate estimate:
Cross sectional area, As:
(𝑝𝑡 − 𝑑0 )𝐷𝑠 𝑙𝐵 (25 − 20)

𝐴𝑠 = = × 239.94 × 0.4 = 21.59 𝑚2
𝑝𝑡 25
Mass flow rate velocity, based on inlet conditions:
𝑊𝑠 232.03 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = = × 21.59 = 1.39
𝐴𝑠 3600 𝑠𝑚2
Equivalent diameter for a square pitch arrangement:
1.27 1.27
𝑑𝑒 = (𝑝𝑡 2 − 0.785𝑑0 2 ) = (252 − 0.785 × 202 ) = 19.7485 𝑚𝑚
𝑑0 20
187
Vapour viscosity= 0.035943 Ns/m2
Reynolds number:
𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑒 1.3918 × 19.75
𝑅𝑒 = = = 764.73
𝜇 0.00014623
The value for Friction factor, jf = 0.03
𝐺𝑠 𝑐𝑚
𝑢𝑠 = = 38.72
𝜌𝑣 𝑠
The pressure drop at shell-side:
𝐷𝑠 𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑠 2
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8𝑗𝑓 ( )( )
𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝐵 2
= 0.9587 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.1390 𝑝𝑠𝑖
10.5.5 Tube-Side Pressure Drop
Viscosity of water at mean temperature = 0.000645 Pa.s
𝑢𝑡 𝜌𝑑𝑖 0.1523 × 925.9 × 0.016

𝑅𝑒 = = = 3498.53
𝜇 0.000645
The value of Friction factor, jf = 0.006
Pressure drop at tube-side:

188
𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑡 2
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 ( ) + 2.5]
𝑑𝑖 2
= 107.73 𝑁/𝑚2 = 0.0156 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Table 10.17 summaries the design specification of condenser C-102

Utility C-102
Number of tubes 165
Tube pitch (mm) 25
Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2°C) 520.84
In condenser C-103, the cooling water is used as coolant. The inlet stream of the
condenser contains mixture of excess water vapour, oleic acid, glycerol, and product
glycerol monooleate (GMO). In order to change the phase of vapour mixture from
vapour to liquid, the temperature of vapour mixture is reduced from 180°C to 110°C
and will be send to spray dryer for drying.
189
35
Cooling Coo lin g

Water In Water Out
C-103
36
Figure 10. 8 Condenser (C-103)
calculation.
Table 10. 18 Physical Properties of Vapour Mixture and cooling water at Tube for
Condenser C-103
Table 10.19 summaries the design specification of condenser C-103.

Utility C-103
Number of tubes 217
Tube pitch (mm) 25

190
10.7 DETAILED DESIGN OF REBOILER B-102
Design by: Arina Atiqah binti Azhar (A163472)
Reboiler (B-102) are used with distillation column (DC-101) to vapourise a fraction of
the bottom product. In the reboiler, liquid flows from the column into the shell where
there is a tube bundle. Boiling taking place from the outside the tube bundle and the
vapour passes back to the column (Hewitt 1983). There is a retaining wall or overflow
weir separating the tube bundle from the reboiler section, where residual reboiled liquid
(bottom product) is withdrawn, so that the tube bundle is kept covered with liquid.
Kettle reboilers are the easiest and reliable type of reboiler to design. It can handle high
vapourization of up to 80% and are easy to maintain.
The liquid circulation through the reboiler is maintained by the difference in

density between the two-phase mixture of vapour and liquid in the reboiler and the
single phase liquid in the base of the column. The component enters the reboiler at a
pressure of 1.5 bar and at temperature of 100℃. The physical properties of mixture is
shown in Table 10.20 below.
B-102
47
Figure 10. 9 Reboiler (B-102)

191
Table 10. 20 Physical properties of mixture in boiler B-102

Parameter Value Unit
Boiling point 106 °C
Latent heat, λ 165.85 kJ/kg
Critical pressure, Pc 87.35 bar
10.7.1 Heat Loads
Sensible heat (maximum) = (106-0)2.28 = 241.68 kJ/kg
594.39
Total heat load = (241.68 + 208.7) × ( ) = 74.36 𝑘𝑊
3600
Add 5% for heat loss
Maximum heat load (duty) = 1.05 × 74.36 = 78.08 𝑘𝑊
From figure 12.1 (Coulson & Richardson 2005), assume value U = 1000 W/m2 °C
Mean temperature difference; both sides isothermal, steam saturation temperature at 1.5
bar = 111.23°C
Mean temperature difference: ∆𝑇𝑚 = 111.23 − 106 = 5.23°𝐶
Area (outside) required can be calculated using 𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴𝛥𝑇𝑚
78.0796𝑥103 = (1000)(5.23)𝐴
A = 14.93 m2
Select 16 mm inner diameter, i.d and 20 mm outer diameter, o.d for plain tubes.
Nominal length of one tube = 3.66 m

192
14.93
Number of tubes = = 64 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
0.02×𝜋×3.66
Use square pitch arrangement, pitch = 1.25 × o.d = 1.25 × 20 = 30 mm
Minimum bend radius = 1.5 × o.d = 1.5 × 20 = 45 mm
Since the number of U-tubes is 64, tube outer limit diameter is 420 mm.
10.7.2 Boiling coefficient and overall coefficient
By using the Mostinski’s equation, the heat flux based on estimated area can be
calculated:
Heat flux, q:
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑞=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)
= 5.23 𝑘𝑊/𝑚2
Nucleate boiling coefficient, hnb:
𝑃 0.17 𝑃 1.2 𝑃 10
ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 0.104𝑃𝑐 0.69 𝑞 0.7 [1.8 ( ) + 4 ( ) + 10 ( ) ]
𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐
ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 783.917 𝑊/𝑚2 °𝐶
Take steam condensing coefficient as 8000 W/m2℃, fouling coefficient 5000

W/m2℃ mixture fouling coefficient, essentially clean, 5000 W/m2℃. The tube material
will be plain stainless steel, kw = 16 W/m℃.
Overall coefficient, Uo
193
0.02
1 1 1 0.02 ln ( )
= + + 0.016 + 20 ( 1 + 1 )
𝑈𝑜 738.917 5000 2 × 16 16 5000 8000
𝑈𝑜 = 494.716 𝑊/𝑚2 °𝐶
10.7.3 Maximum allowable heat flux
Check the maximum allowable heat flux by using the modified Zuber equation.
𝑃 𝜆
Zuber’s equation: 𝑞𝑐 = 𝐾𝑏 ( 𝑡 ) ( ) [𝜎𝑔(𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝜌𝑣 2 ]0.25
𝑑𝑜 √𝑁
𝑞𝑐 = 731.573 𝑊/𝑚2
10.7.4 Reboiler layout design
From tube sheet layout Db = 420 mm
Take shell diameter as twice bundle diameter
Shell diameter: Ds = 2 × 420 = 840 mm
Take liquid level as 500 mm from base, freeboard = 840 – 500 = 340 mm, satisfactory
Figure 10. 10 Cross-sectional of top view of the cylinder reboiler
From Figure, width at liquid level = 0.8 m

194
Surface area of liquid = 0.8 × 2.4 = 1.9 m2
594.39 1 1
Vapour velocity at surface = × × = 0.061 𝑚/𝑠
3600 1.4 1.9
𝜌𝐿 −𝜌𝑣 1/2
Maximum allowable velocity: 𝑢̂𝑣 < 0.2 [ ]
𝜌𝑣
𝑢̂𝑣 = 4.99 𝑚/𝑠
Table 10.21 shows the summary detail design of reboiler (B-102)
Table 10. 21 Summary detail design of reboiler (B-102)

Parameter Value Unit
Inner diameter, di 16 mm
Outer diameter, do 20 mm
Length of tube 3.66 m
Number of tubes 42 Tubes
Pitch (square) 30 mm
Minimum bend radius 30 mm
Outer limit diameter, Db 420 mm
Heat flux, q 5.23 kW/m2°C
Nucleate boiling coefficient, hnb 783.917 W/m2°C
Overall coefficient, Uo 494.716 W/m2°C
Shell diameter, Ds 840 mm
Maximum allowable velocity,uv 4.99 m/s

195
10.8 DETAIL DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN, D-101
Design by : Muhammad Hamizan bin Azman (A163509)
10.8.1 Introduction
In the production of glycerol monooleate (GMO), distillation column is used to

separated three components which is tert-butanol, tert-pentanol and water. D-101 use
sieve plate along with total condenser and partial reboiler. In this column, tert-butanol
and tert-pentanol (light key) will be separated to the top while water (heavy key) is
separated to the bottom. Figure 10.6.1 shows the schematic diagram for distillation
column D-101
C-104
RE-102
45
P-116
44
D-101
B-102
47
c
Figure 10. 11 Distillation Column D-101

196
10.8.2 Design of distillation column
The common plan design of distillation column is utilizing cylindrical shell shape which is round
and hollow. The round and hollow shell is chosen due to the least taken a toll required and simple
to develop and handle compared to the sphere shell. For D-101, these round and hollow shell
columns comprise of to 4 stages which are 3 plates and one partial reboiler. While the top and
bottom head of the distillation column is ellipsoidal head shape. Table 10.22 and Table 10.23
demonstrate the condition of distillation column D-101.
Table 10. 22 Important Parameter of Distillation Column D-101

Parameter Temperature Pressure
Feed 100 °C 150.3 kPa
Distillate 80 °C 150.3 kPa
Bottom 100 °C 150.3 kPa
Table 10. 23 Flow Rate of Distillation Column D-101

Component Feed Flow Rate, Stream Distillate Flow Rate, Bottom Flow Rate,
44 (kg/hr) Stream 45 (kg/hr) Stream 47 (kg/hr)
Tert-butanol 18.23 17.90 0.33
Ter-pentanol 14.92 14.65 0.27
Water 15.94 15.94 0.00
Total 49.09 48.49 0.60
For key component, light key and heavy key is selected based on their volatility and
boiling point. Light key is the component with the most volatile and lower boiling points while
the heavy key is the component with the lowest volatility and highest boiling point. In this
distillation column, tert-butanol and tert-pentanol are chosen as light key since it is most volatile
and water has been taken as a heavy key since it has highest boiling point
197
10.8.3 Type of tray
In industry, there are many sorts of plate tray use within distillation column. Tray is utilized to
expand effectiveness of distillation column. Type of tray is choose based on the on criteria that
required since all trays have its own advantages. For D-101, type of tray used is sieve tray. This
is on account of sieve tray column has a reliable efficiency because of least back mixing. In term
of cost, sieve tray cost is economy and affordable.
Figure 10. 12 Schematic diagram of sieve tray
10.8.4 Material of construction
Material that has to be used to design D-101 distillation column is carbon steel. Distillation
column D-101 is used to separate three components which is tert-butanol, tert-pentanol, and
water. The chemicals are not severe corrosive material. Thus, carbon steel is more economical
compared to stainless steel. For the ease of material to be found in market, standardize material
that follow pressure vessel design codes and standards is chosen. Material chosen to design this
distillation column D-101 is SA-135 Gr. A Carbon Steel
198
10.8.5 Number of stages
a. Minimum number of stages
For the first step, K-value of each component is calculated by with the help of Antoine equation,
K-value is obtained by using Raoult’s law which the solution is assumed at idealgas (Geankoplis
2003).
𝐵 …(10.6.1)
log10 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝐴 −
𝐶+𝑇
𝑷𝒔𝒂𝒕 …(10.6.2)
𝑲=
𝑷
Table 10.24 below shows the constants of each components for Antoine equation. By
using Equation 10.22 and 10.23, Table 10.25 shows the summary of K values and relative
volatility of distillate and bottom.
Table 10. 24 Constants A, B and C for the Antoine Equation
Component A B C
Tert-butanol 7.364 1305.198 173.427
Tert-pentanol 7.182 1287.625 161.330
Water 7.9668 1668.21 228
Table 10. 25 Values of x and K for Feed, Distillate and Bottom in Distillation Column
Component Distillate Bottom
K value 𝑎 K value 𝑎
Water 41.47 1.00 67.73 1.00
Tert-butanol 77.72 1.87 120.54 1.78

199
Tert-pentanol 85.40 1.67 131.21 1.82
Using the specified flow of light key (LK) and heavy key (HK) component, the minimum
number of stages of column is calculated by using the following formula,
𝑥 𝑥 …(10.6.3)
log [(𝑥𝐷 ) (𝑥𝐵 )]
𝐵 𝐷
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
log 𝑎𝑚
Where, Nmin = Minimum number of equilibrium stages
𝑥𝐷 = Mole fraction in distillate product
𝑥𝐵 = Mole fraction in bottom product
αm = Mean relative volatility of rectifying and stripping section while mean relative
volatility can be calculated by using,
𝛼𝑚 = [(𝛼𝐿𝐾,𝐻𝐾)𝑁(𝛼𝐿𝐾,𝐻𝐾)1] …(1.4)
1/2
Thus, minimum number of stages can be determined as shown below,
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2.58
b. Minimum reflux ratio
Reflux ratio of the distillation column can be determined by using Underwood equation to
determine minimum reflux ratio, Rmin where it is consists of first and second Underwood
equation. First Underwood equation is used to determine the theta value and using it to
solve in second Underwood equation in order to obtain Rmin.
200
i. First Underwood equation,
(𝑎𝑖,𝑟 )∞ 𝑧𝑖,𝑓 …(10.6.5)

1−𝑞 =∑
(𝑎𝑖,𝑟 )∞ − 𝜃
𝜃 = 1.183
ii. Second Underwood equation,
(𝑎𝑖,𝑟 )∞ 𝑥𝑖,𝐷 …(10.6.6)

1 − (𝑅∞ )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∑
(𝑎𝑖,𝑟 )∞ − 𝜃
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.494
201
The actual reflux ratio and the number of theoretical stages must be greater than minimumvalues.
The actual reflux ratio considered in this design is 1.2 of the minimum reflux ratio.Hence, the
actual reflux ratio,
R = 1.2RminR = 1.793
c. Number of Stages
Gilliland equation is used to determine the number of theoretical stages. Gilliland correlation for
determination of number of theoretical stages is as shown below:
𝑅 − 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 …(10.6.7)
𝑋=
𝑅+1
𝟏 + 𝟓𝟒. 𝟒𝑿 𝑿−𝟏 …(10.6.8)

𝒀 = 𝟏 − 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [( ) ( 𝟎.𝟓 )]
𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏𝟕. 𝟐𝑿 𝑿
𝑵 − 𝑵𝒎𝒊𝒏
=
𝑵+𝟏
𝒀 + 𝑵𝒎𝒊𝒏 …(10.6.9)
𝑵=
𝟏−𝒀
While the equation for tray efficiency is using the O’Connell correlation,
…(10.7.1)
[50.3(𝑎𝜇) − 0.226]
𝐸0 =
100
202
where, Eo = Stage efficiency µ = Average

viscosity
𝛼 = Average relative volatility
From the definition of fractional overall stage efficiency, actual number of stages can be
determined.
𝑁𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 …(10.7.2)
𝑁𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 =
𝐸0
Table 10.26 below shows the summary of number of stages after calculation.
Table 10. 26 Summary of Number of Stages of Distillation Column
Parameter Values
Stage efficiency, Eo 0.57
Number of theoretical equilibrium stages, N 2.27
Actual number of stages required, Na 3.98
d. Feed Stage Location
Kirkbride empirical equation is used to estimate the optimal feed stage location atdistillation
column. The equation is as shown below:
2 0.206 …(10.7.3)
𝑁𝑅 𝑧𝐻𝐾,𝐹 𝑥𝐼𝐾,𝐵 𝐵
= [( )( ) ( )]
𝑁𝑆 𝑧𝐼𝐾,𝐹 𝑧𝐻𝐾,𝐷 𝐷
𝑵𝑹 + 𝑵𝑺 = 𝑵𝒂 …(10.7.4)
203
where 𝑁R = number of stages above the feed, including any partial condenser
𝑁𝑠 = number of stages below the feed, including the reboiler
By solving the two equations above, the optimal feed stage location is at stage 2 from top
of the distillation column which NR = 1.24 and NS = 2.46.
e. Column Diameter
The column diameter is determined such that vapour velocity in the column is less than
flooding velocity. Assumption:
i. Tray spacing = 0.6 m
ii. Surface tension = 22.7 dyne/cm
iii. Foaming factor, f = 0.9
The flooding velocity can be determined by using formula,
𝑝𝐿 − 𝑝𝑣 0.5 …(10.7.5)
𝑈𝐹 = 𝐶 ( )
𝑝𝑣
where, C = Capacity parameter of Sounders and Brown
𝜌𝐿 = Liquid density
𝜌𝑉 = Vapour density
204
Capacity parameter of Sounders and Brown can be calculated by,
𝐶 = 𝐹𝑆𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐻𝐴 𝐶𝐹 …(10.7.6)
Where, FST = Surface tension factor
𝜎 = liquid surface tensionFF = Foaming factor
FHA = 1.0 for Ah/Aa ≥ 0.1 and 5 (Ah/Aa) + 0.5 for 0.06 ≤ Ah/Aa ≤ 0.1CF = Flooding capacity
Diameter of the tray can be calculated by using the formula below,
…(10.7.7)
0.5
4𝑉𝑀𝑉 − 𝜌𝑉
𝐷𝑇 = ( )
𝐴
𝑓𝑈𝐹 𝜋 (1 𝑑 ) 𝜌𝑉
𝐴
Where, V = Molar vapour flow rate
Mv = Molecular weight of vapour
UF = Flooding velocity
𝜌𝑉 = Density of vapour
f = Fraction of flooding
205
0.1, 𝐹𝐿𝑉 ≤ 0.1

𝐴𝑑 𝐹 − 0.1
= {0.1 + 𝐿𝑉 , 0.1 ≤ 𝐹𝐿𝑉 ≤ 1.0
𝐴 9
0.2, 𝐹𝐿𝑉 ≥ 1.0
Hence, Table 10.27 below shows the summary of column diameter after calculation.
Table 10. 27 Summary of Column Diameter
Parameter Values
Capacity parameter of Sounders and Brown, C 0.46 m/hr
Flooding velocity, UF 13.85 m/hr
Abscissa ratio, FLV 0.02
Column Diameter, DT 1.26 m
f. Height of Distillation Tower
Height of distillation tower,
𝐻𝑂 = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠
= 0.6 × 3.98
= 2.39 𝑚
While the column height,
𝐻𝑆 = 𝐻𝑂 × 1.1
= 2.39 𝑚 × 1.1
= 2.63 𝑚
The ratio between height and diameter is needed to be calculated in order to compare with the
industry distillation column. In industrial practice, the ratio is always between 2 to 3. Thus, the
ratio between height and diameter of this distillation column is 2.09 which is acceptable.
g. Specifications of Distillation column (D-101)
Table 10.28 below shows the summary of specifications for distillation column, D-101
206
Table 10. 28 Specifications of distillation column D-101

Specifications Units Values
Type of column - Tray column
Material construction - SA-135 Gr. A Carbon Steel
Type of tray - Sieve tray
Actual number of stages - 4
Tray spacing m 0.6
Feed location - 19
Column height, H m 2.63
Column inside diameter, DT m 1.26

265
10.8.6 Detail design of heater, E-101
In our plant we used heater to increase the temperature of material before it goes into the reactor.
The temperature is need to increase from 27℃ to 70℃ by using steam as service fluid.
Table 10. 29 Design specification of E-101
Parameter Value
Total flowrate process fluid (kg/hr) 137.40
Temperature Shell Inside (℃) 27
Temperature Shell Outside (℃) 70
Temperature Tube Inside (℃) 75
Temperature Tube Outside (℃) 70
Assumption Overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo 30

(W/m2 ◦C)
Tube Side
Triangular pitch
Outer diameter, do (mm) 20
Inner diameter, di (mm) 16
Length of tube, L (m) 1.28
Area of one tube, At (m2) 0.11
Number of tubes 8
Number of tube passes 2
Linear fluid velocity, ut (m/s) 1.47
Heat transfer coefficient, hi (W/m2 ◦C) 46.25
Pressure drop, ∆Pt (kPa) 0.07

266
Shell Side
Pull through floated head type
Number of shell passes 1
Bundle diameter, Db (mm) 27.55
Shell diameter, Ds (mm) 36.55
Baffle cut (%) 25

267
10.9 DETAIL PROCESS DESIGN FOR SPRAY DRYER S-101
(Designed by: Ho Dany A164216)
10.9.1 Introduction
Spray drying produces a dry powder from a liquid or slurry by rapidly drying with a hot gas. A
liquid is sprayed into a hot gas stream in the midst of fine droplets in a spray dryer. This is
achieved with the use of special nozzles called atomizers. The atomization of the feed creates a
very large surface area, followed by intense contact with hot air. Due to this, rapid evaporation
occurs from the surface of each particle or droplet in the spray (Perry 2008). The water is rapidly
vaporized from the droplets, leaving dry solid particles separated from the gas stream
(Geankoplis 2012). Depending on the process needs, drop sizes from 10 to 500 μm can be
achieved with spray drying. The most common applications are in the 100 to 200 μm diameter
range. The dry powder is free-flowing (Mujumdar 2007).
10.9.2 Column Design Selection and Consideration
Spray Dryer is selected because the fine powders generated from it have uniform particle size.
The major and most successful applications of spray dryers are for slurries that cannot be
dewatered mechanically. It is ideal for heat-sensitive materials and cannot be exposed to high-
temperature atmospheres for short drying periods. A centrifugal-disk dryer is used among the
types of spray dryers, particularly for atomizing suspensions and pastes that erode and plug
nozzles. Due to rotary atomizers can handle high feed rate without clogging, formation of
uniform size particles and higher efficiency, the FS1.5 rotary atomizer was selected (Perry 2008).
The specification of the FS1.5 rotary atomizer is listed in Table 10.30.
Table 10. 30 Specification of FS1.5 Rotary Atomizer
Specification Value
Speed range 10,000-30,000rpm
Atomizer Wheel Diameter 90mm
Maximum Feed rate 0.52t/hr
268
To prevent product degradation due to high temperature and provide low final
temperature, drying air is concurrent to the feed. The insulation material is calcium silicate.
Finally, the drying air is driven by a centrifugal fan, and the specification is listed in Table 10.31.
Table 10. 31 Specification of centrifugal fan
Specification Value Source

Suction Pressure 741.7mmHg Geankoplis, pg150
Pressure increase induced by the 1.2% Chemical Process
fan Equipment: Selection and
Design 3rd Ed. , Pg.130
Efficiency 80% Geankoplis, pg 150
10.9.3 Data and Assumption for Spray Dryer S-101
1. The mass of the entering feed is 246.9kg/hr leaving the dryer is 227.5kg/hr.
2. The initial moisture content of the feed is 7.13% w/w. And final product moisture content
is assumed to be 0% w/w.
3. The density of the feed is 942 kg/m3.
4. Drying air enters at 150℃ (423 K) and leaves at 100℃ (373 K).
5. The densities of air at 150ºC and 81 ºC are 0.867 kg/m3 and 0.947 kg/m3. (Geankoplis
2012).
6. The kinematic viscosity of air at 150ºC is 1.495x10-5m2/s (Geankoplis 2012).
10.9.4 Column Design Calculation
a. Drying Air Requirement (DAR)
The drying air required is dependent on the evapouration rate of water and the moisture removed
per unit mass of air which is determined using the equation below (Suryanarayana 2002):
269
𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝐷𝐴𝑅 =
𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Where,
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = (𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 −

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡) ∗ 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
= (0.0713 − 0)(246.9)
= 17.6𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = (Humidity at T2 − 𝐻𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑇1 )
The data for humidity with respect to the temperature of the air was gathered from the
humidity chart of Perry, pg. 12-7
At T1 = 150℃, H1 = 0.01 kg water / kg d.a.
At T2 = 100℃, H = 0.02486 kg water/ kg d.a.
Moisture removed per kg dry air = (0.02486-0.01) = 0.01486kg water/ kg d.a.
17.6
𝐷𝐴𝑅 = = 1184.8kg d.a./hr
0.014855
b. Operating Air Velocity
The operating air velocity (VA) is estimated based on the settling velocity of the droplets from
the atomized feed inside the drying chamber (Geankoplis 2012).
𝐷𝑝2 (𝜌𝑃 − 𝜌𝐹 )𝑔
𝑣𝑠 =
18𝜇
270
Where,
vs = settling velocity, m/s

DP = Drop Diameter, m
ρp = Density of droplet, kg/m3
ρF = density of air at average temperature, kg/m3
g = Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
μ = viscosity of air at average temperature, m2/s
For rotary atomizers, median droplet sizes in Diameter can be estimated from the
following empirical equation of obscure origin from Perry (2008).
̇ 𝜔 −0.75 𝜇0.07
𝑑50 = 𝐾𝑟 𝑚𝐿0.15 𝐷−0.8 𝑁 −0.05 𝐿
Where
d50 = Mass median droplet size, m

Kr = Empirical factor, 0.008
mL = Liquid feed rate, kg/s
D = Wheel diameter
N = Number of vanes, #
𝜔 = Atomizer wheel speed, rad/s
μL = Liquid viscosity
Let the average of atomizer wheel speed be 24690rpm = 2585.54rad/s, number of vanes
= 25, Liquid viscosity = 80 mm2/s = 80x10-3Pa.s
𝑑50 = 0.008(68.58𝑥10−3 )0.15 (0.09)−0.8 (25)−0.05 (2585.5368)−0.75 (80𝑥10−3 )0.07
𝑑50 = 72.282𝑥10−6 𝑚
271
𝑑50 = 72.28𝜇𝑚
2 942𝑘𝑔
(72.282𝑥10−6 𝑚) ( −0.867𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )(9.81𝑚/𝑠 2 )
𝑚3
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑚2
18(1.495𝑥10−5 𝑠 )
𝑣𝑠 = 0.1793𝑚/𝑠
The operating velocity would be twice the settling velocity to provide turbulence and
maximum contact time between droplets and air:
𝑣𝑎 = 2𝑣𝑠
𝑣𝑎 = 2(0.1793)
𝑣𝑎 = 0.3585𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑎 ≈ 0.4𝑚/𝑠
The operating velocity is 0.4 m/s
c. Chamber Dimensions
i. Column Area
The calculations for chamber dimensions are based on Mass Transfer Operations by
Suryanarayana (2002).
The column area is based on the mass flow rate of the drying air and its operating velocity.
The column must provide enough space for a given mass flow rate of drying air to circulate and
remove most moisture from the droplets as possible. Thus, the equation given below is used:
272
𝑚𝑉̃𝑑𝑎
𝐴𝑐 =
𝑣𝑎
Where,
Ac = Column Area, m2
m = Mass flow rate of dry air, kg/s
𝑉̃𝑑𝑎 = Specific Volume of dry air, m3/kg
va = Operating velocity, m/s
1184.786𝑘𝑔 1.1587𝑚3
3600𝑠 ℎ𝑟
(1ℎ𝑟)( 𝑘𝑔 )
𝐴𝑐 =
0.40
Ac=0.9533m2
By assuming safety factor,
Ac= 2(0.9533)
Ac=1.9066 m2
Use area of 2m2
ii. Column Diameter
The cylindrical column diameter (Dc) is based on the computed column area
which is computed using the equation
4𝐴𝑐
𝐷𝑐 = √
𝜋
273
4(2𝑚2 )
𝐷𝑐 = √
𝜋
𝐷𝑐 = 1.60𝑚
𝐷𝑐 ≈ 2𝑚
Therefore, using a Column Diameter of 2m.
iii. The volume of the Drying Chamber
The total volume of the drying chamber, like the column area, is based on the mass flow rate of
the entering drying air along with the specific volume of the air; which indicates the volume of
air that can be occupied by the moisture removed and the air residence time (T) in the chamber.
The chamber volume must provide enough residence time for the air to be scattered around the
chamber providing efficient drying of the droplets. The volume is computed using the equation:
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑚𝑉̃𝑑𝑎 𝑇
Where,
VT = Total Volume of the Drying Chamber, m3

m = Drying mass air flowrate, kg/s
𝑉̃𝑑𝑎 = Specific Volume of dry air, m3/kg
T = Residence time of drying air in seconds
Let the Residence time of drying air be 50 seconds
1184.786𝑘𝑔
ℎ𝑟
𝑉𝑇 = (12)
3600𝑠
274
1184.786
= (1.1587)(50)
3600
=19.067m3
Use Volume of 20m3
iv. Height of the Drying Chamber
For the height of the cylindrical portion, using a ratio of H=2D:
𝐻𝑐𝑦𝑙 = 2𝐷𝑐
𝐻𝑐𝑦𝑙 = 2(2)𝑚
𝐻𝑐𝑦𝑙 = 4𝑚
For the height of the conical portion, the conical volume is first determined by subtracting
the chamber total volume to the volume of the cylindrical portion of the drying chamber, which
is translated into this equation:
𝜋𝐷𝑐2 𝐻𝑐𝑦𝑙
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑉𝑇 −
4
𝜋(2)2 (4)
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 20 −
4
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 7.43𝑚3
The height of the conical portion is then computed using the equation:
3𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑐2 )
275
3(7.43)
𝜋(2𝑚)
3(7.43)
𝜋(2)
𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 1.77𝑚
𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 ≈ 2𝑚
For the angle of the conical section (α):
𝛼 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

tan ( ) =
2 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2
𝛼 2
tan ( ) =
2 2
𝛼 = 53.13°
The height of the drying chamber is
𝐻𝑇 = 𝐻𝑐𝑦𝑙 + 𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝐻𝑇 = 4𝑚 + 2𝑚
𝐻𝑇 = 6𝑚
The height of the drying chamber is 6m.

276
d. Power Consumption of Rotary Atomizer
The power consumption of the atomizer is computed based on the feed rate of the solution that
is atomized, the rotational speed of the atomizer and the atomizer size in terms of radius, which
is expressed using this equation:
𝑃 = 1.02𝑥10−8 𝐹(𝑁𝑟𝑑 )2
Where:
P = power in hp
F = Feed rate of solution in lb/min
N = Rotational speed in rpm
rd = radius of rotary atomizer in ft
9.072𝑙𝑏
𝑃 = 1.02𝑥10−08 ( ) [(24690𝑟𝑝𝑚)(0.147658𝑓𝑡)2 ]
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑃 = 1.23ℎ𝑝
The power requirement of the atomizer is 1.23hp by using a standard 1.5hp motor.
e. Power Consumption of Centrifugal Fan for drying air inlet
The power consumption of the centrifugal fan is computed using the mechanical-energy-balance
equation (Geankoplis 2012). This equation was used since it gives the power consumption with
respect to the pressure head, velocity head, and mass flow rate of the drying air. To solve the
power consumption, we first assume that the flow is incompressible. The average density of the
flowing gas will be used in the mechanical-energy-balance equation. The density at the suction
of the fan (Point 1) is:
𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟 1𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 273.2 741.7

𝜌1 = (29 )( )( )( )
𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 22.414𝑚3 366 760
277
𝜌1 = 0.940𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
The molecular weight of 29 for air, the volume of 22.414 m3/kg mol at 101.3 kPa, and
273.2 K were obtained from Appendix A.1. The other densities are:
𝜌2 = 0.867 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 at 150℃
𝜌3 = 0.947 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 at 100℃
Getting average density,
0.940+0.867+0.947
𝜌𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
3
𝜌𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0.918𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Since the centrifugal fan has a suction pressure of 741.7 mmHg and a pressure increase
of 1.2%, then the developed pressure head is:
𝑁
𝑝2 −𝑝1 [1.012(741.7)−741.7]𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 2 1
= 760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 (1.01325𝑥105 𝑚 ) ( 𝑘𝑔 )
𝜌𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑎𝑡𝑚 0.918 3
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑚
𝑝2 −𝑝1
= 1292.617𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑎𝑣𝑔
The developed velocity head for v1 = 0, and operating velocity of 0.4 m/s is:
𝑣22 (0.4)2
=
2 2
𝑣22
= 0.08𝐽/𝑘𝑔
2
Writing the mechanical-energy-balance equation:

278
𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
𝑧1 𝑔 + + − 𝑊𝑠 = 𝑧2 𝑔 + + + ∑𝐹
2 𝜌 2 𝜌
Setting z1=0, v1=0, and ΣF=0, and solving for Ws:
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 𝑣22
−𝑊𝑠 = +
𝜌𝑎𝑣𝑔 2
𝐽 0.08𝐽
−𝑊𝑠 = 1292.617 −
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
−𝑊𝑠 = 1292.537𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Substituting into Eq. 3.3-2 of Geankoplis (2012), and with an efficiency of 80% for the
fan, we compute for the brake kW:
−𝑊𝑠 𝑚
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑊 =
1000𝜂
1292.597
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑊 =
0.8(1000)
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑊 = 1.61𝑘𝑊
Solving now for the electric power input, using 90% electric motor efficiency,
substituting into eq. 3.3-5 of Geankoplis, Pg. 145:
𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑊 1.61𝑘𝑊
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑘𝑊) = = = 1.79𝑘𝑊 ≈ 2.4ℎ𝑝
𝜂𝑒 0.90
The power requirement of the centrifugal fan is 2.4 hp, by using a standard 2.5 hp motor
(Silla, pg. 240).
279
10.9.5 Cyclone Introduction
Cyclones are the principal type of gas-solids separator employing centrifugal force. It is used
after the spray dryer for separating the gas and solid to form solid by-products. Cyclones are
suitable for separating particles above about 5 μm diameter, where the spray dryer S-101
produces 72.282μm diameter solid particles which the cyclones are very effective separating the
solid with. Reverse-flow cyclone is used after the spray dryer where the gas enters the top
chamber tangentially and spirals down to the apex of the conical section; it then moves upward
in a second, smaller diameter, spiral, and exits at the top through a central vertical pipe. The
solids move radially to the walls, slide down the walls, and are collected at the bottom (Sinnott
2005).
10.9.6 Cyclone Design calculation
a. Cyclone Dimension
There are various design procedures for cyclones. Examples are given by Constantinescu (1984).
Strauss (1975), Koch and Licht (1977) and Stairmand (1951). Stairmand’s method is chosen as
the cyclone design procedure. Stairmand developed two standard designs for gas-solid cyclones:
a high-efficiency cyclone, and a high throughput design. A high-efficiency cyclone is chosen as
it can effectively separate the gas-solid products in the spray dryer. Figure 10.13 shows a high-
efficiency cyclone.
280
Figure 10. 13 High-Efficiency Cyclone
Given the flow rate of dry air in spray dryer S-101 is 1184.8kg d.a/hr
1184.8𝑘𝑔 𝑑. 𝑎.
𝑥0.947
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = ℎ𝑟
3600
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 0.3117𝑚3 /𝑠
0.3117
Area of inlet duct, at 0.4m/s = = 0.77912𝑚2
0.4
From Figure 10.13, duct area = 0.5𝐷𝑐 𝑥0.2𝐷𝑐
So, Dc=2.7913m
Therefore, the size of the cyclone is shown in Figure 10.14 below based on Figure 10.13
281
Figure 10. 14 The dimension of the spray dryer S-101
b. Pressure Drop calculation for cyclone
Area of inlet duct, A1=1396x558 = 778968mm2
Cyclone Surface area, As= π(2791.3)x(4187+6978)
𝐴𝑠 = 97907309.36𝑚𝑚2
282
The empirical equation given by Stairmand (1949) can be used to estimate the pressure
drop
𝜌𝑓 2𝑟𝑡
∆𝑃 = {𝑢12 [1 + 2𝜙 2 ( − 1)] + 2𝑢22 }
203 𝑟𝑒
Where
ΔP = cyclone pressure drop, millibars,

ρf = gas density, kg/m3,
u1 = inlet duct velocity, m/s,
u2 = exit duct velocity, m/s,
rt = radius of the circle to which the centre line of the inlet is tangential, m,
re = radius of exit pipe, m,
φ =factor from Figure 10.15,
Figure 10. 15 Factor φ and ψ graph
ψ =parameter in Figure 10.15, given by

283
𝐴𝑠
𝜓 = 𝑓𝑐
𝐴1
Where
fc = friction factor, taken as 0.005 for gases,

AS = surface area of cyclone exposed to the spinning fluid, m2.
A1 = area of the inlet duct, m2
0.005𝑥97907309.36
𝜓= =0.6284
778968
558
𝑟𝑡 2791.3−( 2 )
= = 1.7996
𝑟𝑒 1396
From Figure 10.15, 𝜙 = 0.9
0.3117𝑚3 106 0.4001𝑚

𝑢1 = 𝑥 =
𝑠 778968 𝑠
13962
Area of exit pipe = 𝜋 𝑥 = 1530596.5𝑚𝑚2
4
106
𝑢2 = 0.3117 𝑥 = 0.20365𝑚/𝑠
1530596.5
The pressure Drop
0.947
∆𝑃 = {0.42 [1 + 2(0.9)2 (2𝑥1.7996 − 1) + 2(0.20365)
203
= 4.19 millibar
The pressure drop looks reasonable.

284
10.9.7 Summary of Process Design for Spray Dryer S-101
The type of atomizer is F1.5 Rotary Atomizer, with median droplet sizes of 72.28µm in diameter,
and Stainless steel 304 material is used for Spray Dryer S-101.
Table 10. 32 Design Specification for Spray Dryer S-101
Parameter Results
Drying Air Requirement 1184.8kg d.a./hr
Operating Velocity 0.4m/s
Column Diameter 2m
Height of cylinder 4m
Height of cone 2m
Height of Drying Chamber 6m
Power consumption Rotary Atomizer 1.5hp
centrifugal fan Power Requirement 2.5hp
Diameter of cyclone column 2.7913m
Cyclone Pressure Drop 4.19mbar
10.9.8 Summary of Process Design for Spray Dryer S-102
The type of atomizer is F1.5 Rotary Atomizer, with median droplet sizes of 68.39µm in diameter,
and Stainless steel 304 material is used for Spray Dryer S-102
Table 10. 33 Design Specification for Spray Dryer S-102
Parameter Results
Drying Air Requirement 868.39448kg d.a./hr
Operating Velocity 0.41m/s
Column Diameter 2m
Height of cylinder 4m
Height of cone 2m
Height of Drying Chamber 6m
Power consumption Rotary Atomizer 2.5hp
centrifugal fan Power Requirement 2.5hp
Diameter of cyclone column 2.3554m
Cyclone Pressure Drop 4.19mbar
285
10.10 DETAIL PROCESS DESIGN FOR HEAT EXCHANGER (HE-105)
(Designed by: Ho Dany A164216)
10.10.1 Introduction
The type of heat exchanger used is a shell and tube heat exchanger. This is because this type of
heat exchanger can provide a large surface area for a small volume. Besides that, it can be
constructed from many different types of material to avoid corrosion and other circumstances. In
addition to that, a shell and tube heat exchanger can be cleaned and repaired easily as it can be
dismantled and assembled at will without difficulties. The only thermal design will be considered
in this design. Kern’s method is used to design the shell and tube heat exchanger. Shell and tube
exchanger depends on their type. The selected type used in our plant is a pull-through floating
head that is more versatile and suitable for high-temperature differential as the tube can be rodded
from end to end the bundle removed. Figure 10.16 shows the inlet and outlet streams of the shell
and tube heat exchanger. The details in each stream are listed in Table 10.32.
Figure 10. 16 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

286
10.10.2 Dimension of Heat Exchanger
Kern’s method is used to design the Heat exchanger HE-105. The cold stream will be at the shell
side, whereas the hot stream will be at the tube side. The physical properties of the stream are
tabulated in Table 10.34.
Table 10. 34 Properties of Shell and Tube Side Fluid
Tube side (Stream 37 to 49) Shell Side (Stream 43 to 44)

Parameter
Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet
Temperature (℃) 80 100 180 155.131
Density (kg/m3) 1180.683 923.4778
Specific Heat
0.104973 0.127593
(kJ/kg.°C)
Viscosity (Pa.s) 1.116558 0.089952
Thermal
Conductivity 0.515648 0.213065
(W/m.°C)
Flowrate (kg/h) 648.8 430.6
As the hottest cold fluid is smaller than Coldest hot fluid, the heat exchanger is in parallel flow.
a. Area for Cross-flow, As
The heat load in the tube
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
𝑄 = (648.8)(0.104973)(100 − 80)
1362.12
= = 0.378𝑘𝑊
3600
The heat load in the shell
𝑄 = (430.6)(0.127593)(180 − 155.131)
287
1366.341
= = 0.379𝑘𝑊
3600
The log mean temperature difference for Co-current Flow
(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑡𝑐1 ) − (𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑡𝑐2 )

∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
𝑇 − 𝑡𝑐1
ln ( ℎ1 )
𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑡𝑐2
(180−80)−(155.131−100)
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 180−80
ln( )
155.131−100
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 75.35°𝐶
𝑇1 −𝑇2 180−155.131 𝑡𝑐2 −𝑡𝑐1 100−80

𝑅= = = 1.24345 𝑆= = = 0.20
𝑡2 −𝑡1 100−80 𝑇ℎ1 −𝑡𝑐1 180−80
Through the temperature correction factor, the Ft obtained is 1.0
The True Temperature difference,
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡 ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
∆𝑇𝑚 = 1.0(75.35) = 75.35°𝐶
The overall coefficient, Uo, is assumed to be 300W/m2℃
Provisional area,
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝑚
0.378(1000)
𝐴= = 0.0167𝑚2
300(75.35)
288
b. Tube Side Coefficient
10mm outside diameter, do, 8mm inside diameter, di with 0.5m long and triangular pitch of the
carbon steel tube is chosen as a design.
The surface area of one tube, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝐿 = 𝜋(10𝑥10−3 )(0.5) = 0.0157𝑚2
𝐴 0.0167
The number of tubes required: 𝑁𝑡 = = = 1.06 ≈ 1 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
𝐴𝑡 0.0157
𝜋
Cross-sectional area for one tube = (8𝑥10−3 )2 = 5𝑥10−5 𝑚2
4
Total tube area, 𝐴𝑡 = 5𝑥10−5 𝑥1 = 5𝑥10−5 𝑚2
Let the number of passes of the tube be 2
𝑛𝑝 2
4𝑚( ) 4(648.8)( )
𝑛𝑡 1
Tube Velocity,𝑢𝑡 = 2 = = 0.021864𝑚/𝑠
𝜋𝜌𝑑𝑖 𝜋(1180.683)(8)2
Reynolds number in tube side,
𝜌𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑖 (180.6830)(0.021864)(0.008)
𝑅𝑒 = = = 185.51 (𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝜇𝑡 1.116558
Prandtl number in tube side, Pr
𝐶𝑝 𝜇 (0.104973𝑥1000)(1.116558)
𝑃𝑟 = = = 276.28
𝑘𝑓 0.515648
289
Figure 10. 17 Tube-side heat transfer factor
From Figure 10.17, the value of the heat transfer factor,jh=1.5x10-2
The tube side heat transfer coefficient, ht
𝑘𝑓 𝜇 0.14
ℎ𝑡 = 𝑗ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 0.33 ( 𝑤 )
𝑑𝑖 𝜇
0.515648 𝑊
ℎ𝑡 = (0.015)(185.51)(276.28)0.33 = 1.1464
8 𝑚2 𝐾
c. Shell Side coefficient
Figure 10.18 shows the constant for the use of equation bundle diameter, Db
290
Figure 10. 18 Constant Ks and nt
Since 2 passes and triangular pitch is chosen in the design, the constant for
𝐾1 = 0.249 𝑛1 = 2.207
1 1
𝑁 𝑛 1 2.207
The bundle diameter,𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 ( 𝑡 ) 1 = 10 ( ) = 18.78𝑚𝑚
𝐾1 0.249
Figure 10.19 shows the shell bundle clearance relationship with bundle diameter.
291
Figure 10. 19 Shell- bundle clearance
A pull-through floating head is chosen as the heat exchanger design. From Figure 10.19, the
Shell-bundle clearance, C= 86.188mm
The shell diameter, 𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑏 + 𝐶 = 18.78 + 86.188 = 104.96𝑚𝑚
By using 25% cut baffles and baffle spacing of 0.2 shell diameter as our heat exchanger design.
Baffle spacing, 𝑙𝑏 = 0.2(0.10496) = 0.021𝑚
Tube pitch=1.25𝑑𝑜 = 1.25(0.01) = 0.0125𝑚
(𝑝𝑡 −𝐷𝑜 )𝐷𝑠 𝑙𝑏 (0.0125−0.01)(0.10496)(0.021)

Area for cross low, 𝐴𝑠 = = = 0.00044𝑚2
𝑝𝑡 0.0125
𝑊𝑠 0.12 272.72𝑘𝑔
Mass velocity, 𝐺𝑠 = = =
𝐴𝑠 0.00044 𝑚2 𝑠
292
𝐺𝑠 272.72
Linear velocity, 𝑢𝑠 = = = 0.2953𝑚/𝑠
𝜌 923.4778
Side equivalent diameter,
1.10 2 1.10
𝑑𝑒 = (𝑝𝑡 − 0.917𝑑𝑜2 ) = (0.01252 − 0.917(0.01)2 ) = 0.00710𝑚 = 7.1𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑜 0.01
Reynold number in Shell side,
𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑒 271.42(7.1)
𝑅𝑒 = = = 21424.74 (𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝜇 0.089952
Prandtl number in Shell side,
𝐶𝑝𝑠 𝜇𝑠 (0.127593𝑥1000)(0.089952)
𝑃𝑟 = = = 53.867
𝑘𝑓𝑠 0.213065
Figure 10.20 shows the shell side heat transfer factor with segmental baffles
Figure 10. 20 Shell-side heat transfer factors, segmental baffles
For 25% buffer cuts with Reynold number in the shell side, the heat transfer factor, jh
from Figure 10.20 is 4x10-3=0.004
293
The shell side heat transfer,
𝐾 𝜇 0.14
ℎ𝑠 = 𝐽ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 0.33 ( 𝑤 )
𝑑𝑒 𝜇
0.213065
=( ) (0.004)(21424.74)(53.867)0.33
7.1005
9.71𝑊°𝐶
=
𝑚2
d. Overall Heat Transfer coefficient
The thermal conductivity of carbon steel, kw is 51 W/m2℃
By letting the fouling factor be 5000
Overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo
𝐷
1 1 1 𝐷𝑜 ln ( 𝑜 ) 𝐷 1 1
𝐷𝑖 𝑜
= + + + ( + )
𝑈𝑜 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝐷 2𝐾𝑤 𝐷𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑 ℎ𝑖
𝑈𝑜 = 304.87𝑊/𝑚2 °𝐶
The value is near the estimation; therefore, the design has adequate area for the duty required.
e. Tube side Pressure Drop
Figure 10.21 shows the tube side friction factor against the Reynold number of the tube side.
294
Figure 10. 21 Tube-side friction factors
From Figure 10.21, with the tube side Reynold number of 185.51, the tube side friction factor, Jf
obtain is 0.045
The pressure drop in the tube side,
𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑡2 0.5 1180.683(0.02193)2

∆𝑃𝑡 = 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) = 8(0.045) ( ) = 6.3880𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝑖 2 0.008 2
f. Shell Side Pressure Drop
Figure 10.22 shows the shell side friction factor against the Reynold number of the shell side.
295
Figure 10. 22 shell-side friction factor
From Figure 10.22, with the shell side Reynold number of 21424.74, the tube side friction factor,
Jf obtain is 0.040
The pressure drop in the shell side,
𝐷𝑠 𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑠2 𝜇 −0.14
∆𝑃 = 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 𝑤)
𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑏 2 𝜇
104.96 0.5 923.4778(0.294)2
= 8(0.0040) ( )( )( )
7.1005 0.02099 2
= 449.711𝑃𝑎
Both pressure drop on tube and shell is acceptable.
10.10.3 Summary of Process Design for Heat Exchanger HE-105
The type of shell and tube construction material is carbon steel with k= 51W/m℃. Specification
of inside diameter= 8mm, outside diameter =10mm, Length = 0.5m
Table 10. 35 Tube side specifications for Heat Exchanger HE-105

296
Parameter Results
ΔTm 75.35℃
R 1.24345
S 0.20
Ft 1.0
Number of tubes, Nt 1
Linear velocity, ut 0.021864m/s
Heat transfer coefficient, hi 1.1464 W/m2℃
Pressure drop, ΔPt 6.388Pa
Table 10. 36 Shell Side Specifications for Heat Exchanger HE-105
Parameter Results
Bundle diameter, Db 18.78mm
Shell Diameter, Ds 104.96mm
Baffle spacing, lB 0.021m
Shell area,As 0.00044m2
Mass Velocity, Gs 272.72kg/m2s
Linear velocity, us 0.2953m/s
Equivalent diameter, de 7.1mm
Shell coefficient, ho 9.71 W/m2℃
Pressure Drop, ΔPs 449.711Pa
Overall Coefficients, U 304.87 W/m2℃
CHAPTER XI
MECHANICAL DESIGN
11.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter focusing on the mechanical design of unit in GMO production plant.
11.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PACKED BED REACTOR, R-101
(prepared by: mashitah binti mohd hisban, a163419)
Figure 11.1 below shows the packed bed reactor, R-101 in the production of Glycerol
Monooleate (GMO). Both packed bed reactors, R-101 and R-102 are identical and operate
at same condition and function. The reactants oleic acid glycerol and tert-butanol/tert-
pentanol feed into reactor for enzymatic glycerolysis reaction at 70 ͦC. The solid
immobilized lipases (Novozym 435) were used to convert glycerol and oleic acid (OA) into
Glycerol Monooleate (GMO). The by-products in this process are Glycerol dioleate (GDO)
ͦ , 101.3 kPa with 12 hours reaction time. The outlet
and water. The R-101 operates at 70 C
of reactor consisting liquid mixture of Glycerol, OA, GMO, GDO, water and tert-
butanol/tert-pentanol.
266
Figure 11. 1 Packed Bed Reactor
In designing this pressure vessel, stainless steel (SS-316) with nominal composition
26Cr-3Ni-3Mo is use in fabrication of packed bed reactor, R-101. Stainless steel (SA-240)
is a substance that functioning as corrosion resistance, economical, and widely available in
market. Besides, the selection is also influenced by main use of the product which is for
medical purpose. As the material fulfil minimum content to avoid corrosion, which is 26%
chromium, and contain molybdenum and nickel, which can improve corrosion resistance.
Corrosion allowance, 2 mm is added since tert-pentanol is corrosive substance. Vertical
cylindrical shell is used and hemispherical is used as top and bottom head in the
construction. Hemispherical is chosen as top and bottom head because this type of head
suitable to be used for vessel operating at high pressure.
11.2.1 Sizing of Pressure Vessel
By referring to reactor sizing in process level 3, at conversion of 0.86, the reactor volume,
V is 32.85 m3 and diameter, D is 1.574 m and height, H is 4.723 m. Hence, these are the
267
minimum diameter and height for sizing of R-101. By consider the safety purpose, the
design value for R-101 is D = 2 m and H = 5 m. It is importance to ensure that the R-101
will not explode and safe. Table 11.1 below shows the deign shape for packed bed reactor.
Table 11. 1 Design of packed bed reactor

Part Shape
Shell Cylindrical
Head cover Hemispherical
Bottom cover Hemispherical
11.2.2 Design Factor
During designing pressure vessel, design factors such as construction material and joint
efficiency, corrosion allowance and design pressure are considered. The preliminary
designs of R-101 as well as design parameters are shown in the Figure 11.1 and Table 11.1
respectively. The pressure vessel consists of cylindrical shell and hemispherical as top and
bottom head. Hemispherical head is used because this type of head can withstand high
pressure since the pressure in the vessel is divided equally across the surface of the head.
While for the cylindrical shell, we use it because it is easier to manufacture hence it is
cheaper than spherical shell (Lloyd and Edwin 1959).
The selection of construction material depends on the ease for fabrication,

suitability and construction cost. Stainless steel Type-316 is chosen as the construction
material. This type of stainless steel has high corrosion resistance toward acidic solution,
alkaline solution and chlorine bearing environment. Since the R-101 deal with fatty acids
which are corrosive, so it is suitable to construct it by using stainless steel Type-316.
Besides, it also material that need to be fulfill for GMP requirement. Cleanliness is
maintained in the product being transported as it prevents the contamination of the product
from small particle or rust. Although the cost of this metal in much higher compared carbon
steel, but this material is one of the cheapest materials among the expensive construction
material. At T = 158°F, the design stress, S=24300 psi according to ASME code Subpart
1, Table A1 Stress Table. While the joint efficiency, E=1 according to ASME code, Table
268
UW-12 because double welding butt joint is used. Table 11.2 below shows the design
specification of packed bed reactor.
Table 11. 2 The design specification of packed bed reactor

Parameter Value (SI unit) Value (English unit)
Temperature, T 70 °C 158 °F
Operating pressure (gage value), Po 170.3 kPa 24.70 psi
Height of vessel, H 5m 16.40 ft
Inside diameter of vessel, Di 2m 6.56 ft
Height of hemispherical heads, Htop 1m 3.28 ft
Height of bottom hemispherical, Hbottom 1m 3.28 ft
11.2.3 Design of Bed
Take the diameter of the bed, Dbed=Di=2.00m
For the Bed Height, Hbed = 0.6 (Height of vessel, H)
=0.8 (5) = 4m
Catalyst used is immobilized Novozyme-345,
Density catalyst, ρc = 400 kg/m3
Voidage = 0.33
Mass of catalyst required = 129.68 m3
11.2.4 Design of Jacket
Baffled jackets often known as spirally wound baffle jackets. The baffle consists of a metal
strip wound around the inner vessel wall from the jacket utility inlet to the utility outlet.
The baffle directs the flow in a spiral path thus increases the velocity of the liquid flowing
through the jacket and improve the heat transfer coefficient. The heat transfer coefficient
269
can also be increased by introducing the fluid through a series of nozzles spaced down the
jacket. The agitating nozzles cause high turbulence at the point where the fluid is introduced
into the jacket. The spacing between jacket and vessel wall will depend on the size of the
vessel, but will typically range from 50 mm for small vessels to 300 mm for large vessels.
A conventional jacket has the advantage that it covers the full wall and base surface and is
very simple to construct.
For the jacket of the rector, Type 1 jacket is chosen as listed in ASME code. It is a
reactor which confined entirely to the cylindrical shell. The closure of the jacket is type (b-
3) as shown in FIG 9-5, ASME code, Section VIII- Division I. The material of construction
for the jacket reactor is Stainless Steel Type 316, since the corrosion will not be severe. For
jacket closure type (b-3), the trc shall not be less than the following criteria:
𝑃
𝑡𝑟𝑐 = 0.707 𝑗 √
𝑆
Where, trc= required minimum thickness of closure member as determined herein,

in
j = jacket space, in
P = internal design pressure, psi
S = maximum allowable stress value, psi
tc= nominal thickness of closure member, in
According to ASME code Section 9-5 (c) (2), the fillet weld having a minimum
throat dimension of 0.7tc which may also be used to join the closure of the inner vessel on
Type 1 jacketed vessel. For the jacket that is being used, the dimension is as follows:
270
The maximum allowable stress value of Stainless-Steel Type 316 below 100°F, according
to Table UHA-23 is 24300 psi.
Jacket space (in), j = 3 in = 76.2 mm
Required minimum thickness of closure member, trc,
22.1
𝑡𝑟𝑐 = 0.707(3)√
24300
= 0.06 in = 1.62 mm
Nominal thickness of closure member, tc= 1.62 mm + 2mm (CA)
tc =3.62 mm = 0.14 in
Corner radius of torus closures (in), r = 3tc = 3(3.62) = 10.87 mm
Design length of the jacket section, L = 5.00 m
Minimum weld dimensions for attachment of closure member to inner vessel, Y =

0.7
tcY= 0.7(3.62) = 2.54 mm
The jacket is designed on the packed bed reactor. This unit is a vertical cylinder of
diameter D = 2 m and height H= 5 m, with hemispherical shape for both top and bottom
head. Since heat is released during glycerolysis due to heat of reaction, the jacket is
designed to cool down the reactor and maintain the temperature at 70oC.
271
From the energy balance of the reactor, the total heat released during glycerolysis
reaction, Q =-18 360.43 kJ/hr = 5.1 kW. The inlet temperature for cooling water is 25oC
and is limited to an increase of 69oC.
For cooling water flowrate, m= Q/cpΔT
= 5.1/(4.187)(69-25) = 0.027 kg/s
The operating temperature of the reactor is 70oC and the increase in temperature
resulting from the reaction is assumed to be up to 3oC. Assuming U= 500 W/m2K. The
temperature profile for these two services and working fluid is as shown in Figure 11.2
below.
Figure 11. 2 Temperature profile for heat exchange in jacketed vessel
The log mean temperature different, ∆Tlm is calculated using equation below.
(T1 −t2 )−(T2 −t1 ) (70−65)−(73−25)

∆Tlm = (T −t ) = 70−65 = 21.20 oC
ln T1 −t2 ln73−25
2 1
Assuming Ft = 1, and ∆Tm=Ft.∆Tlm

272
Therefore, ∆Tm= 21.20 oC
Heat transfer area required, A is calculated using equation, Q=UA∆Tm. Heat

transfer area required, A= The jacket is fitted to the cylindrical section only.
A= 8.4m2
Take the spacing between the vessel wall and jacket = 127 mm. The jacket is fitted
with spiral baffle and the pitch between spirals is 100 mm.
a. Heat transfer coefficient at the outside wall, hj
The baffles form a continuous spiral channel, section 127 mm × 100 mm
Number of spirals = height of jacket/ pitch = 4/0.1=40
Length of channel = 40 x pi x 0.849 = 106.7 m
Cross-sectional area of channel = 0.0127 m2
Hydraulic mean diameter, de = (4 x cross sectional area)/wetted parameter = 0.112 m
At Tmean= 24.5 oC,
ρ =997.202 kg/m3, μ =0.901 x 10-3 kg/m.s, kf=0.612 W/m.K, Pr=6.299, Cp=4.187 kJ/kg.K
Reynolds number, Re = ρude/ μ = 815. Since chilled water is not viscous Nusselt number
can be computed by denoted C = 0.023 and neglect the viscosity correction term.
Nusselt number, Nu = 0.023Re0.8Pr0.33=hj(de/kf), heat transfer coefficient, hj=

492.46W/m2.K
273
b. Pressure drops of the jacket, ∆P
For Re = 815, the friction factor is jf=0.0092
∆P = 8jf(L/de) ρ(u2/2) = 8(9.2x10-3)(106.7/112)(997.202)(0.00662/2) = 1.5 bar
Since the pressure drop is too small and not exceeds 10 bar, it is acceptable.
c. Heat Transfer Coefficient at the Vessel Wall, hv
For heat transfer coefficient at vessel wall, the Tmean=69oC gives ρ =995.98 kg/m3, μ
=0.8164 x 10-3 kg/m.s, kf=0.627 W/m.K, Pr=5.588, Cp=4.179 kJ/kg.K,
Re = ρND2/ μ = 995.98(2.083)(22)/(0.8164 x 10-3)= 1016475.24
Since Re≥ 400, Using following relation to compute hv and ignore the viscosity correction
term,
Nu = 0.74Re0.67Pr0.3=hv(d/kf)
= 0.74(1016475.240.67)(5.5880.3)(0.627/2)
hv= 19257.59 W/m2.K
d. Overall Heat Coefficient
Wall thickness of the vessel = 0.008 m and vessel wall is made of stainless steel type 316
with thermal conductivity of kf =16.2 W/m.K, overall heat transfer coefficient can be
determined.
1/U = 1/hj + t/kf + 1/hv = 1/492.46 + 0.008/16.2 + 1/19257.59

274
U = 396.49 W/m2.K
The value of U is close enough to the Uassumed = 500 W/m2.K
11.2.5 Design Pressure (Internal pressure)
Since the operating pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure (Po ≥ Patm), the design of
pressure vessel is under internal pressure. Firstly, calculate design pressure for each part of
the vessel by using the equation PD = Po +pgh where p is the average density inside reactor
(742.5 kg/m3) h is the height of each part from top shell. In order to prevent pressure vessel
explosion, the safety factor about 10% can be added to design pressure to allow for probable
pressure surges up to the setting of the pressure relieving devices. So, the new design
pressure is PJ = 1.1PD and was tabulated in the Table 11.3.
Table 11. 3 The design pressure of each part of packed bed reactor
Type of parts Height PH= pgh PD=Po+PH PJ=1.1PD
(m) (in) (kPa) (psi) (psi) (psi)
Hemispherical head 1.0 39.4 7.3 1.1 25.8 28.3
Cylindrical shell
i.Circumferencial 5.0 236.2 36.4 5.3 30.0 33.0
stress
ii.Longitudinal 5.0 236.2 36.4 5.3 30.0 33.0
Stress
Hemispherical 7.0 315.0 51.0 7.4 32.1 35.3
bottom head
11.2.6 Minimum Wall Thickness, tmin
Assuming thin-walled for the cylindrical shell, the thickness can be calculated as below.
All the calculation for top and bottom hemispherical head and cylindrical shell are
according to the steps in UG-27(c) and UG-32(f) respectively based on ASME Code.
According to ASME Code, Table UW-12, the joint efficiency, E is 1 since double wedding
butt joint is used. The highest tmin will choose to compare with nominal thickness. In this
case, no thickness set by user, so maximum allowable working pressure (MAWPpart) for
275
each part is equal to design pressure for each part. Table 6.4 below shows the minimum
wall thickness for each part of packed bed reactor, R-101.
Hemispherical heads:
PL 17.3 × 39.4
t= =
2SE − 0.2P 2 × 171000 × 1 − 0.2 × 17.3
t = 0.023 in
Cylindrical shell: Using thin shells equation because the operating pressure not
exceeds 0.385SE
Po < 0.385SE
380 < 0.385(17100)(1)
380 psi < 6583.5 psi
i. Circumferential stress:
PR 17.3×39.4
t= =
2SE−0.6P 2×17100×1−0.6×236.2
t =0.027 in
ii. Longitudinal stress:
PR 17.3×39.4
t= =
2SE−0.4P 2×17100×1−0.4×236.2
276
t = 0.027 in
Hemispherical bottom head:
PL 17.3×39.4
t= =
2SE−0.2P 2×171000×1−0.2×315.0
t = 0.229 in
Table 11. 4 Minimum wall thickness for each part of packed bed reactor, R-101
Parts tmin Heighest tmin tmin + CA tnominal tmin = tnominal
-CA
(in) (in) (in) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Hemispherical head 0.023
Cylindrical shell
i. Circumferential 0.027 0.308 7.812 8 6
stress 0.229
ii. Longitudinal 0.027
stress
Hemispherical 0.229
bottom head
The highest tmin = 0.229 in (5.81 mm) is chosen. Then, it is compared with nominal
thickness. The value of nominal thickness is tnominal = 8 mm (0.31 in) after considering 2
mm of corrosion allowance (Atlas Steeks, 2010). Therefore, the minimum wall thickness
in this design becomes, tmin = 6 mm (0.24 in).
277
11.2.7 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure for Vessel (MAWPvessel)
By using tmin = 6 mm (0.24 in), new MAWPpart can be calculated. The calculation for top
and bottom hemispherical head and cylindrical shell will be based on procedure stated in
ASME Code Part UG-27 (c) and UG-32(f) respectively. Table 6.4 below shows
MAWPvessel for each part of packed bed reactor.
1. Hemispherical heads:
2SEt 2×17100×1×0.24
P= =
L+0.2t 39.4+0.2×0.24
P = 291.3 psi
Cylindrical shell:
2. Circumferential stress:
2SEt 2×17100×1×0.24
P= =
L+0.6t 39.4+0.6×0.24
P = 44.7 psi
3. Longitudinal stress
2SEt 2×17100×1×0.24
P= =
L−0.4t 39.4−0.4×0.24
P =292.3 psi
Hemispherical bottom head:

278
2SEt 2×17100×1×0.24
P= =
L+0.2t 315.0+0.2×0.24
P = 36.4 psi
Table 11. 5 MAWPvessel for each part of packed bed reacto0072

Parts MAWPvessel MAWPpart-PH The smallest MAWPvessel
pressure at the
top
(psi) (psi) (psi) (kPa)
Hemispherical head 291.3 290.2
Cylindrical shell
i. Circumferential stress 44.7 39.4 29.0 200.3
ii. Longitudinal stress 292.3 287.0
Hemispherical bottom 36.4 29.0
The conclusion is the minimum wall thickness, tmin for the packed bed reactor is tmin
= 6 mm (0.24 in). MAWPvessel of the reactor is at 29.0 psi which is equal to 200.3 kPa. The
design thickness of the reactor is 8 mm after considering the corrosion allowance of 2 mm.
11.2.8 Combined Loading
Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads such as major and subsidiary loads in addition
to pressure. Hence, it must be designed to withstand the worst combination of loading
without failure.
a. Primary Stresses
2) Longitudinal, 𝜎𝐿 and Circumferential, 𝜎ℎ Stresses
P = PD = 35.3 psi = 0.243 N/mm2, t=tDesign= 8 mm
Di = 2000 mm
279
𝑃𝐷𝑖 0.168(2000)
𝜎𝐿 = =
4𝑡 4(8)
= 15.2 N/mm2
𝑃𝐷𝑖 0.168(2000)
𝜎ℎ = =
2𝑡 2(8)
= 30.4 N/mm2
3) Direct Stress, 𝜎𝑤
• Weight of vessel
Assume that only a few internal fittings for vessels, CV=1.08
Dm = Di +t = 2.0 + (8x10-3)
= 2.01 m
HV = 1/3 Hhemisperical + Hcylindrical + 1/3 Hhemispherical
=1/3 (1) + 5 + 1/3 (1) =5.67 m
WV = 240CVDm(HV+0.8Dm)t
= 240(1.08)(2.01)(5.67+0.8x2.01)(8x10-3)
= 30.28 kN
Weight of the jacket,

280
Wj = πDitpg
= π(2.0)(8x10-3)(1000)(9.81)
= 461.20 N
Total weight,
Wtotal = WV + Wj
= 30.28 + 461.20 (10-3)
= 30.74 kN
Direct stress,
𝑊 30.74×103
𝜎𝑤 = =
𝜋(𝐷𝑖 +𝑡)𝑡 𝜋(2000+8)(8)
= 0.61 N/mm2
𝜎𝑤 is compressive stress and therefore the value is negative 0.61

N/mm2.
4) Bending Stresses, 𝜎𝑏
Wind load per unit length,
Deff = Di + 2t = 2.0 + 2 (0.008)
= 2.016 m
281
Dynamic wind pressure, Pw = 1280 N/m2
w = PwDeff = 1280(2.016)
= 2580.48 N/m
Distance measured from free end, x = L = 5+2/3 (1) = 5.667 m
Mx = wx2/2 = 2580.48 (5.6672)/2
= 41 431.04 Nm
Second moment of vessel area,
Iv = π/64 (Do4-Di4) = π/64 [(2000+2(8))4-20004)]
= 0.025 m4
𝑀 𝐷 41 431.04 2
𝜎𝑏 = ± ( 𝑖 + 𝑡) = ( + 0.008)
𝐼𝑣 2 0.025 2
𝜎𝑏 =1.64 N/mm2
5) Torsional Shear Stresses, 𝜏
The torsional shear stresses can be neglected in preliminary design because

these loads will normally be small, 𝜏 = 0.
6) Principal Stresses
282
Total Longitudinal Stresses, 𝜎𝑧
𝜎1 (𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑) = 𝜎𝐿 − 𝜎𝑤 + 𝜎𝑏
= 15.21 - 0.61+ 1.64
= 16.25 N/mm2
𝜎1 (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑) = 𝜎𝐿 − 𝜎𝑤 − 𝜎𝑏
= 12.96 N/mm2
Since the torsional shear stress negligible,
1
𝜎1 = (𝜎ℎ + 𝜎𝑧 + √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ) =𝜎ℎ =30.42 N/mm2
2
1
σ2 = (σh + σz + √(σh − σz )2 + 4τ2 ) =σz (upwind) = 16.25 N/mm2
2
𝜎3 = 0.5 𝑃 (negligible for thin-walled vessel)
11.2.9 Maximum Stress Intensity
(∆𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧
= 28.78 N/mm2
From ASME code Material Table 1A for stainless steel, the design stress, S= 24300
psi = 176.54 N/mm2.
283
Since (∆𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < Sdesign, the material construction that we used is acceptable and
elastic stability can be checked.
11.2.10 Elastic Stability
A column design must be checked to ensure that the maximum value of the resultant axial
stress does not exceed the critical value at which buckling will occur when the ∑ 𝜎compressive
> 𝜎c.
The critical buckling stress,
𝐸 𝑡
𝜎𝑐 = ( )
√3(1−𝑣 2 ) 𝑅𝑝
At the operating temperature, the modulus of elasticity, E is 171 000 N/mm2 with
a safety factor of 12, the equation is shown below.
𝑡
𝜎𝑐 = 2 × 104 ( )
𝐷𝑜
= 2x104 (8/2016)
= 79.37 N/mm2
(∑ 𝜎compressive) = 𝜎w + 𝜎b
= 0.61+ 1.64
= 2.25 N/mm2
284
Since (∑𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 𝜎𝑐 , thus, the design is elastically stable. From the analysis of
combined loading, the material chosen has fulfilled both requirements of maximum stress
intensity and elastic stability.
From the calculation, (∆𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < Sdesign and (∑𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 𝜎𝑐 shows that the design is
safe.
11.2.11 Vessel Support
The straight skirt supports with welded flush with the shell are chosen for this vertical
structured catalyst reactor because they are recommended for vertical vessels as they do
not impose concentrated loads on the vessel shell and particularly suitable for use with tall
columns subject to wind loading as required in this design (Sinnott 2009).
11.2.12 Skirt thickness design
The skirt thickness design depends on the skirt thickness that must be sufficient to
withstand the dead-weight loads and bending moment imposed on it by the vessel and it
will not be below the vessel pressure. Table 11.6 below shows the specification support for
packed bed reactor.
Resultant stress
𝜎𝑠 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 − 𝜎𝑤𝑠
𝜎𝑠 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 + 𝜎𝑤𝑠
Table 11. 6 Specification of the support for packed bed reactor

Elements Specification
Type of support Straight cylindrical skirt
285
Base angle, θs 90◦

Material of construction Carbon steel
Type of weld Lap-joint with the shell
Weld joint factor 1
Young’s modulus, E = J 200 000 N/mm2
Design stress, S = fs 17.14 psi
Diameter of support, Ds 2m
Height of support, hs 2m
Skirt thickness, ts 40 mm
Total weight load, W 60851.88 N
Initially, assume the thickness of the skirt is the same with thickness of the vessel,
20 mm. Assume skirt height is 2.00 m.
Distance from the free end,
x = effective height of vessel, Hv + height of skirt, Hsk
x = 5.67 + 2.00 = 7.67 m
3) Bending stress in the skirt
Ms = wv x2/2 = 2580.48 (7.67)2/2
= 50558.29 Nm
4𝑀𝑠 4× 50.558
𝜎𝑏𝑠 = =
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 +𝑡𝑠 )𝑡𝑠 𝐷𝑠 𝜋×(2000+8)×8×2000
=2.00 N/mm2
4) Dead weight stress in the skirt

286
Wtotal=Vpg+Wvessel = 8(742.5)(9.81)+2580.48
=60851.88 N
𝑊 60851.88
𝜎𝑤𝑠 (𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡) = = =1.21 N/mm2
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 +𝑡𝑠 )𝑡𝑠 𝜋(2000+8)8
𝜎𝑠(𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) = 2.00 − 1.21 = 0.79 N/mm2
𝜎𝑠(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) = 2.00 + 1.21 =3.21 N/mm2
𝑓𝑠 𝐽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 = 167.54(1) sin 90𝑜 =149.78 N/mm2
𝑡 8
0.125𝐸𝑦 ( 𝑠 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 = 0.125(200000) ( ) sin(90) =89.40 N/mm2
𝐷𝑠 1000
𝑡
Since 𝜎𝑠(𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) < 𝑓𝑠 𝐽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 and 𝜎𝑠(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) < 0.125𝐸𝑦 ( 𝑠 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠
𝐷𝑠
design skirt thickness of 8 mm is acceptable including the corrosion

allowance at 2 mm.
In this design, double plate with gusset is used as the base ring design of the skirt support.
Some of the guidelines for the selection of the anchor bolts are:
Bolts less than 25mm should not be used
Minimum number of bolts is 8
Use multiple of 4 bolts
Bolt pitch should more than 600mm

287
Base on guideline for the selection of anchor bolts: Bolt pitch = 600mm. Number of
bolts required, at minimum recommended bolt spacing,
683𝜋
𝑁𝑏 = = 3.35
600
Pick the minimum number of bolts, Nb=8. The anchor bolts are assumed to share
the overturning load equally, and the bolt area required is given by,
1 4𝑀𝑠
𝐴𝑏 = [ − 𝑊] , Db=1.3m, circumference of vessel = 683π, maximum
𝑁𝑏 𝑓𝑏 𝐷𝑏
allowable bolt stress, fb=125 N/mm2.
1 4×50558.29
= ( − 60851.88)
4×125 1.3
=94.91N/mm2
The bolt’s diameter is
189.42 (4)
=√ = 10.98 mm
π
Since bolt diameter is less than the minimum requirement 25mm, the bolt is set to
be 25mm. The base ring must be sufficiently wide to distribute the load to the foundation.
The total compressive load on the base ring is determined
4𝑀𝑠 𝑊 4(50558.29) 60851.88

𝐹𝑏 = [ + ]=[ + ]
𝜋𝐷𝑠 2 𝜋𝐷𝑠 𝜋(20002 ) 𝜋(2000)
= 25 791.16 N/m
The minimum width of the base ring

288
𝐹𝑏 1 25791.16
𝐿𝑏 = × = = 7.37 𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑐 1000 3.5(1000)
Table 11.7 below show the value for bolt size and root area based on Ab value from
Figure 13.30, Chemical Engineering Design book.
Table 11. 7 Value of Bolt size and Root Area

Bolt size Bolt A B C D E F G
area
M24 353 45 76 64 13 19 30 36
Actual width required,
Ls = Lr+ts+50mm=76+8+50 =134 mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation, fc’,
fc’=Fb/Ls = 25 791.16 /7.37x10-3=0.192 N/mm2
Given the allowable design stress in the ring material, fr is typically 140 N/mm2.
The minimum thickness, tb.
3𝑓𝑐 ′ 3(0.192)
𝑡𝑏 = 𝐿𝑟 √ = 76√ = 4.88 𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑟 140
11.2.14 Design of Flanges Joints
Flange joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessel, for manhole covers,
and for removable heads when ease of access is required. Besides that, it also is used on
the vessel body when it is necessary to divide the vessel into section for transportation and
maintenance and also to connect pipes to other equipment such as pumps and valve. There
is much type of flanges joints but in these design lap-joint flanges is choose. The lap-joint
289
flanges are used because it is economical when used with expensive alloy, such as stainless
steel. This is the formula for diameter optimum.
Dopt= 293G0.53𝜌-0.37
Where, G = Fluid flow rate, kg/s
P=Fluid density, kg/m3
Table 11. 8 Parameters for openings of packed bed reactor

Opening G(kg/s) Density (kg/m3) Dopt (mm)
Inlet 0.36 742.50 44.50

Outlet 0.44 811.67 47.61
Cooling water inlet/ 0.24 1000.00 42.09
outlet
The optimum pipe diameter obtains base on calculation is compare with typical
standard of flange design. Table 11.9 below shows the standard dimension of flanges at
stream based on Chemical Engineering Design, 5th, 2005.
Figure 11. 3 Design of lap-join flange

290
Table 11. 9 The standard dimension of flanges of streams

Stream Outside Bolt H T1 T2 RA Bolt
Diameter Circle (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) Hole
(mm) (BC) (B)
(mm) (mm)
Inlet 127.00 98.55 65.02 17.53 22.35 6.35 15.75
Outlet 127.00 98.55 65.02 17.53 22.35 6.35 15.75
Cooling 127.00 98.55 65.02 17.53 22.35 6.35 15.75
water
inlet/
outlet
11.2.15 Summary of mechanical design of packed bed reactor
Table 11.10 shows the summary of mechanical design of packed bed reactor.
Table 11. 10 Summary design of packed bed reactor, R-101

Parameter Value
Operating pressure (kPa) 101.3 kPa
Material Construction Stainless steel Type-316
Type of Head/Bottom Head Hemispherical
Vessel internal Diameter (m) 2m
Vessel Length (m) 7m
Shell length (m) 5m
Head/Bottom Head length (m) 1m
Effective Length (m) 5.67 m
MAWPvessel 200.3 kPa
Direct Stress 0.61 N/mm2
Bending Stress 1.64 N/mm2
Stress Analysis 28.78 <176.54 (N/mm2)
Elastic Stability 28.78<79.37 (N/mm2)
Type of flanged joint Lap-joint flange
291
11.3 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF DOUBLE EFFECT FALLING FILM

EVAPOURATOR, V-101.
(prepared by hazwani khaliesah bt mat nazri, a164021)
11.3.1 Process description
V101 is used in pre-treatment to separate binary solvents, tert-butanol/tert-pentanol from

the liquid mixture after glycerolysis reaction in the main reactor, R-101. The operating
condition for evapourator is under vacuum pressure. V-101 is operating at 55°C, and 10
kPa. Steam is supplied as the heating medium for V-101. The type of evapourator is double
effect falling film evapourator. The top product is tert-butanol/tert-pentanol while the
bottom product is Gly, OA, GMO, GDO, water, and some of the binary solvent. The
concentrated product from V-101 entered the second evapourator while the top product was
entering V-102 as steam to heat up the evapourator. The concentrated product from V-101
containing Gly, OA, GMO, GDO, water and a little trace amount of tert-butanol and tert-
pentanol. V-102 used to further the pretreatment of binary solvents which is tert-pentanol
and tert-butanol. V-102 operate at temperature 55°C with 10 kPa under vacuum condition.
Figure 11.4 below shows the diagram of evapourator.
292
Figure 11. 4 Temperature profile for heat exchange in jacketed vessel
11.4 DESIGN SPECIFICATION OF EVAPOURATOR
Based on calculation utilty design in fep4, the width, area and height of evapourator in our
plant are determined. Table 11.11 shows the parameters for falling film evapourator V-101.
Table 11. 11 Parameter of Falling Film evapourator V-101.

Parameters Symbol Value
Operating Temperature (°C) T 55
Operating pressure (kPa) P 0.005
Feed (kg/hr) F 6455.2
Liquid flowrate (kg/hr) L 1557.9
Vapour flow rate (kg/hr) V 1715.0
Enthalpy of feed (kJ/kg) hF
Steam flowrate (kg/hr) S 1736.6
Heat duty (W) Q 1075.7
Area of evapourator (m2) A 43.0
Width of evapourator (m) W 3.8
Height of evapourator (m) H 11.4
11.4.1 Tube design details
Standard length of tubes in industry from 6, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 ft with the average length
4 to 10 m. Standard size for outside diameter (O.D) of tubes are from ⅝”, ¾”, 1”. For
293
evapourator design in this plant the nominal diameter, O.D ¾”, internal diameter (I.D)
0.63”, 80 schedule, stainless steel tube with 16 ft length.
Table 11. 12 Parameter of Falling Film evapourator V-101

Parameters Unit Value
Outside diameter, O.D mm 19.1
Internal diameter, I.D mm 16.0
Length tube m 4.9
Tube pitch, ∆PT mm 23.9
Surface area of each tube, A m2 0.29
Number of tubes, Nt - 147
Area occupied by tubes, a m2 0.037
Actual area required by factor 0.9 m2 0.041
Downcomer area (50% cross sectional area) m2 0.021
Downcomer diameter m 0.145
Total area of tube sheet in evapourator m2 0.059
Sheet diameter m 0.272
11.4.2 Design parameters of evapourator
Design factors that need to consider when designing evapourator includes construction material
and joint efficiency, corrosion allowance and design pressure. The selection of construction
material will depend on the suitability of the substances in the vessel, ease for fabrication and
construction cost. Figure 11.5 below shows the preliminary design for evapourator where
cylindrical shell is used and torispherical are used as top and bottom head as it more suitable
and economic for process with low operating pressure. Table 1.3 shows the design shape for
each part of falling film evapourator while table 1.4 shows the dimension of vessel in
evapourator.
294
Figure 11. 5 Basic layout for evapourator.
Table 11. 13 Design shape for each part in falling film evapourator.
Part Shape
Head Torispherical
Shell Cylinder
Bottom Torispherical
Table 11. 14 Dimension of vessel in falling film evapourator.

Dimension Value (SI unit) Value (British unit)
Vessel height, H 11.4 m 37.40 ft
Vessel Inside Diameter, Di 1.2 m 47.24 in
Shell Height, hs 10.79 m 424.96 in
Effective Length, hv 10.99 m 432.91 in
Top Head, ho 0.303 m 11.93 in
Bottom Head, ho 0.303 m 11.93 in
The diameter of the evapourator can be calculated as shown below.
A =πDiH
43 m2 = πDi(11.4 m)
Di = 1.2 m
295
11.4.3 Material selection in evapourator vessel design
In GMO production plant, all evapourators must fulfilled certain criteria and easy in
cleaning process as it produce pharmaceutical product that need to follow Good
Manufacturing Practices (GMP) regulations. Component contain in the mixture is mainly
organic and stable, however it can be corrosive to certain material. Hence, austenitic
stainless steels are the suitable for hygienic processes because of high ductile, even at
cryogenic temperatures and have excellent weldability and other fabrication properties. The
material that has been chose is type 316L stainless steel since it is more economical, easy
to fabricate and widely available. Based on American Society of Mechanical Engineering
(ASME) code, stainless steel (SA-240) with nominal composition 18 Cr–2 Mo is used to
fabricate falling film evapourator unit. Austenitic stainless steel Type 316L contains the only
18% of chromium (Cr), 8% of nickel, and also 0.035% molybdenum which is the least
compared to other type of austenitic steels. Corrosion allowance, 2 mm is chosen because the
corrosion condition is not severe. Table 11.17 shows design specification based on operating
condition.
Table 11. 15 Design specification based on operating condition.

Condition Value
Operating condition, psi and °C Po = 0.0007 (gage), 55
Material Stainless steel (SA-240), 18Cr-2Mo
Design stress (S), psi 17100
Corrosion allowance (CA), mm 2
Joint efficiency, E 1 (full radiographic examination)
11.4.4 Wall Thickness of double effect evapourator
The minimum wall thickness, tmin for each part of the pressure vessels should be calculated
to get the overall thickness of the vessels. The thickness calculation method depends on the
operating pressure of the vessels. Since the production of stearic acid only operate at
vacuum pressure, therefore the calculation perform is by using external pressure
calculation.
296
a) Top and Bottom Torispherical Head
Procedure to calculate minimum thickness for torispherical head was based on ASME code:
UG-33 (e). Since Po,abs ˂ Patm where Pvacuum = Patm - Po,abs , the pressure vessel is design
under external pressure.
Assume tmin = 0.2 in

Outside Radius of Torispherical Head,
Ro = Do/2
Since,
Do = Di + 2t
Do = 47.24 + 2(0.2)
= 47.64 in
Thus,
Ro = 47.64/2
= 23.82 in
Using formula factor A,
0.125
A=
Ro
( )
t
A = 0.00105
297
From ASME code Subpart 3, section II, figure CS-2, get the value of factor B from the
calculated factor A previously. Therefore, calculated value of maximum allowable external
working pressure, Pa:
B
Pa =
Ro
( )
t
Pa = 113.35 psi
Since the Pa is not equal to 15 psi, another assumption of t is made. From the calculation
above for next assumption, the minimum thickness obtained is 0.07 in which Pa is 15 psi.
Hence, the thickness for top head and bottom head tmin = 0.12 in = 1.78 mm.
a. Cylindrical Shell
From ASME code part UG-28(c), given P = 15 psi, assume tmin = 0.30 in,
Outside diameter, Do,
Do = Di + 2t
Do = 47.24 + 2(0.3)
= 47.84 in
Thus, ratio of L/Do,
L
= 9.0491
Do
Ratio of Do/t,
Do
= 159.47
t
298
From ASME code figure G, subpart 3, section II, part D, Factor A = 0.000016
From ASME code, figure CS-2. Subpart 3, section II, part D, the factor A do not
intercept with the curve and located at the left side of graph, therefore the value E will be
taken by interpolation at operating temperature which is 328 K. Therefore, E value 27.0 x
106 will be taken in equation to obtained Pa.
2AE
Pa =
3(𝐷𝑜⁄𝑡)
2(0.000016)(27 × 106 )
Pa =
3(159.47)
Pa = 1.81 psi
Pa is smaller than P, new assumption for tmin need to be made and calculate using
same procedure.
Table 11. 16 Iteration for cylindrical shell wall thickness.

tmin (in) Do (in) L/ Do Do/t Factor A Modulus of Pa (psia)
Elasticity,
E
0.8 48.8 8.86 61.05 0.000135 27.0 x 106 39.80
0.6 48.4 8.94 80.73 0.000120 27.0 x 106 26.75
0.4 48.04 9.01 120.10 0.000102 27.0 x 106 15.29
Based on the value obtained in table 11.16, the value of minimum wall thickness for the
cylindrical shell at 15 psi is 0.4 in = 10.16 mm.
11.4.5 Overall wall thickness of double effect evapourator
Overall thickness of the vessel is based on the cylindrical shell because it has the higher
value of wall thickness than torispherical head, top and bottom. Based on the calculation of
299
wall thickness for torispherical head and cylindrical shell, the minimum wall thickness for
the evapourator is 0.4 in or 10.16 mm.
With corrosion allowance, CA = 2 mm
Overall thickness, toverall = tmin + CA
= 10.16 mm + 2 mm
= 12.16 mm
11.4.6 Tube sheet thickness
Material:
Tubes – stainless steel
Modulus elasticity for stainless steel in shell, Es = 2.7 x 107 kg/cm2
Modulus elasticity for stainless stell in tubes, Et = 2.7 x 107 kg/cm2
To find tube sheet thickness,
K = [Es×ts×(Do - ts)]/[Et×Nt× tt ×( do - tt )]
Where,
Es – elastic modulus of shell

Et- elastic modulus of tube
Do – outside diameter of shell = 1212.10 mm
do – outside diameter of tube = 19.10 mm
ts- shell thickness = 12.16 mm
300
tt – tube wall thickness = 3.10 mm

Nt – number of tubes in shell = 147
Therefore,
K = [2.7 x 107 ×12.16×(1212.1 – 12.16)]/[ 2.7 x 107 ×147× 3.1 ×( 19.1 – 3.1 )]
= 2.00
F = √(2 + K)/(2 + 3K) = 0.7071
The effective tube sheet thickness is given below,
ts = FDo√(0.25 × P)/F
= (0.7071)(1212.1)√(0.25 × 1.103)/980
= 14.38 mm
With CA = 2mm, the thickness is taken as 16.38 mm
a. Tube thickness requirements
The tube thickness is given by,
t1 = Pdi /(2fJ – P)
The permissible stress for stainless steel = 1026.48 kg/cm2 and J =1
Therefore, t1 = (1.103 × 16)/[(2 × 1026.48 × 1)- 1.103] = 0.009 mm

301
The provided thickness is 16.38 mm. therefore, chosen tubes have enough strength to
withstand operating conditions.
11.4.7 Combined loading
Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads such as major and subsidiary loads in addition to
pressure. It must have a design which can withstand the worst combination of loading without
failure. Main source of major loads such as dead weight of vessel, wind loads and seismic loads.
1) Longitudinal and circumferential stresses
For design pressure of 15 psia or 0.1013 N/mm2, the thickness of the vessel wall obtained,
t = 12.16 mm
Design pressure, PD = 1.1(0.1013) = 0.11143 N/mm2
𝑃𝐷𝑖
σL =
4𝑡
(0.11143)(1199.9)
=
4(12.16)
= 2.749 N/mm2
𝑃𝐷𝑖
σh=
2𝑡
(0.11143)(1199.9)
=
2(12.16)
= 5.498 N/mm2
302
2) Direct stress
Using formula below to calculate direct stress,
W
σw =
π(Di+t)t
Since the evapourator was fabricated from steel, the weight of the vesel can be calculated
by using following formula:
Wv = 240Cv Dm (Hv +0.8Dm) t
Dm = Di + t
= 1199.9 mm + 12.16 mm
= 1212.06 mm = 1.21 m
Factor to account for the weight of nozzles, manways, internal support, etc. Cv = 1.15
Hv = L = 10990 mm
= 10.99 m
Wv = 240Cv Dm (Hv +0.8Dm) t
= 240(1.15) (1.212) [10.99+0.8(1.212)] (12.16)
= 48650.26 N
Weight for tubes in the vessel,
Wt = 240Cv Dm (Hv +0.8Dm) t
Dm = Di + t
303
= 16 mm + 3.1 mm
= 19.1 mm = 0.0191m
Cv =1.15
Hv = L = 4900 mm
= 4.9 m
Wt = 240Cv Dm (Hv +0.8Dm) t
= 240(1.15) (0.0191) [4.9+0.8(0.0191)] (3.1) (147)
= 11807.8 N
Total weight of the vessel, Wtotal = Wv + Wt
= 48650.26 + 11807.8
= 60458.1 N
W
σw =
π(Di+t)t
60458.1
=
𝜋(1199.9+12.16)(12.16)
= 1.31 N/mm2
3) Bending stress
Bending stresses σb can be determined using below formula:
M D
σb = ± ( i + t)
Iv 2
Di = 1.2 m
304
Deff = Di +2t = 1.2 + 2(0.01216) = 1.22 m
Pw = 1280 N/m2
w = Pw Deff = (1280) (1.22) = 1567.13 N/m
x = Hv = 10.99 m
wx2
Mx =
2
(1567.13)(10.99)2
=
2
= 94639 Nm
π
Iv = (D40 −D4i )
64
𝜋
= (1220.214 − 1199.894 )
64
= 7.07 ×109 mm4
M D
σb = ± ( i + t)
Iv 2
94639 1199.89
=± ( + 12.16)
7.07 ×109 2
= 0.0082 N/mm2
4) Primary stresses
Principal stresses are,

305
1
σ1 = [σh + σz + (√(σh − σz )2 + 4τ
2
1
σ2 = [σh + σz − (√(σh − σz )2 + 4τ
2
The 3rd principal stress is in radial direction. Hence it can be taken as one-half to the
pressure loading.
σ3 = 0.5P
With torsional shear stresses, τ = 0
σ1 = σh
σ2 = σz
For thin wall vessel, σ3 can be neglected
σz (upwind) = σL + σw + σb
= 2.749 + 1.31 + 0.0082 = 4.06 N/mm2
σz (downwind) = σL + σw − σb
= 2.749 + 1.31 - 0.0082 = 4.05 N/mm2
To find maximum allowable stress intensity,
σ1 − σ2 = σh − σz
= 5.498 - 4.06
= 1.438 N/mm2
306
For downwind condition,
σ1 − σ2 = σh − σz
= 5.498 - 4.05
= 1.448 N/mm2
Hence, the maximum allowable stress intensity is 1.448 N/mm2. From Chemical
Engineering Design, Sinnott, R.K. (2009), maximum allowable stress at temperature 55°C
is, S = 17100 psi = 117.9 N/mm2.The maximum allowable stress intensity is lower than the
maximum allowable stress, S.
11.4.8 Elastic stability
The critical buckling stress can be calculated by the following formula.
E t
σc = ( )
√3(1 − v 2 ) R P
For steel at ambient temperature, the modulus of elasticity, E is 200000 N/mm2 with a
safety factor of 12, the equation is shown below.
t
σc = 2 × 104 ( )
DO
12.16
= 2 × 104 ( )
1220.21
= 199.31 N/mm2
(Σ σcompressive ) = σw + σb
= 1.31 + 0.0082 = 1.318 N/mm2

307
(Σ σ)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < σc
Hence, the design is elastically stable.
From the analysis of combined loading, the material chosen has fulfilled both requirements
of maximum stress intensity and elastic stability.
(∆σ)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < S and (Σ σ)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < σc . Therefore, the design is safe.
11.4.9 Design of vessel support
There are a few factors that affect the type of support which are vessel location,
arrangement, pressure, size, shape and weight of vessel. The supports must be designed to
carry the weight of the vessel and contents and any superimposed loads such as wind loads.
In our design of the evapourator, we choose straight skirt to the base of the vessel. This is
because skirt support is recommended for vertical vessels as they do not impose
concentrated loads on the vessel shell and particularly suitable for use with tall column
subject to wind loading.
11.4.10 Skirt thickness
The skirt thickness must be sufficient to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending
moment imposed on it by the vessel and it will not be below the vessel pressure. The
resultant stresses in the skirt are:
4𝑀𝑠
Bending stress in the skirt, σbs =
π(D𝑠 +t𝑠 )t𝑠 D𝑠
308
𝑊
Dead weight stress in the skirt, σws =
π(D𝑠 +t𝑠 )t𝑠
The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and dead
weight loading, the following criteria are not exceeded:
σc (thickness) < fs Jsinθs
t
σc (compressive) < 0.125𝐸( s )sinθs
Ds
To determine the bending stress in the skirt, assume height of skirt, hs = 1 m and skirt
thickness, ts = 0.020 m
w = 1567.13 N/m
Ds = Di = 1.2 m
x = H + hs = 11.4 + 1 = 12.4 m
wx2
Ms =
2
(1567.13)(12.4)2
=
2
= 120480.95 Nm
Bending stress in the skirt,
4𝑀𝑠
σbs =
π(D𝑠 +t𝑠 )t𝑠 D𝑠
4(120480.95 )
=
π (1.2+0.020)(0.020)(1.2)
309
= 5.24 ×106 N/m2 = 5.24 N/mm2
Total weight of the vessel,
Wtotal = Vρg + Wv
= (46.74) (1000) (9.81) + 48650.26
= 507169.7 N
For the dead weight stress in the skirt,
Wtotal
σws (test) =
π(Ds +ts )ts
507169.7
=
π(1.2+0.020)0.020
= 6616275.79 N/m2 = 6.62 N/mm2
Weight of the vessel,
Wv
σws (operating) =
π(Ds +ts )ts
48650.26
=
π(1.2+0.020)0.020
= 634666.34 N/m2 = 0.635 N/mm2

310
Therefore, resultant stresses
= 5.24 - 0.635
= 4.605 N/mm2
= 5.24 + 0.635
= 5.875 N/mm2
The skirt thickness under the worst combination of wind and dead weight loading should follow
the below design criteria:
t
σs (tensile) < Ss Jsinθs and σs (compressive) < 0.125𝐸( s )sinθs
Ds
Assume:
1 welded- joint efficiency, J = 1.0.
2 Using straight cylindrical skirt, hence base angle, θs = 90
3 Maximum allowable design stress, Ss =137.9 N/mm2
4 Young’s modulus, E = 200000 N/mm2
SsJsinθs = 137.9 × 1.0 × sin90°
= 137.9 N/mm2
311
t 0.020
0.125E ( sk) sinθs = 0.125 × 200000 × ( ) sin90°
Ds 1.2
= 416 .7 N/mm2
σc (tensile) < fs Jsinθs = 4.605 N/mm2 < 137.9 N/mm2
t
σs (compressive) < 0.125𝐸( s )sinθs = 5.875 N/mm2 < 416 .7 N/mm2
Ds
Since both criteria are satisfied, the assumed value of skirt thickness ts =0.020 m is
acceptable. With corrosion allowance of 2 mm, the design skirt thickness, ts =0.022 m.
11.4.11 Base ring and anchor bolt design
We use double plate with gusset as the base ring design of the skirt support. The anchor
bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the bolt area required is as
equation below:
1 4Ms
Ab = [ − W]
Nb fb Db
Where, Ab = area of one bolt at the root of the thread (mm2)
Nb = number of bolts
fb = maximum allowable bolt stress (N/mm2) = 125 N/mm2
Ms = bending moment at the base (Nm)
W = weight of the vessel (N)

312
Db = bolt circle diameter (m)
Assume:
• pitch circle diameter, Db = 2.5 m =2500 mm
• circumference bolt circle = 2500π mm = 7853.9 mm
• maximum allowable bolt stress, fb = 125 N/mm2
• Bolt spacing > 600 mm
Number of bolts required at minimum recommended bolt spacing,
2500π
Bolt spacing, Nb = = 654.5 mm
12
Closest multiple of 4 = 8 bolts, Nb = 8
Bending moment at the base, Ms = 120480.95 Nm
1 4(120480.95)
𝐴𝑏 = [ − 60458.1 ]
8×125 2.5
= 132.3 mm2
132.3×4
The bolt’s diameter is = √ = 12.97 mm.
𝜋
313
The base ring must be sufficiently wide to distribute the load to the foundation. The total
compressive load on the base ring is determined.
4Ms W
Fb = [ 2 − ]
πDs πDs
4(120480.95) 60458.1
=[ − ]
π(1.2)2 π(1.2)
= 90491.53 N/m
The minimum width of the base ring with maximum allowable bearing pressure, fc =3.5
N/mm2 is given by,
Fb 1
Lb = × 3
fc 10
90491.53
=
3.5×103
= 25.85 mm
11.4.12 Flanges and joints design
Flanges are available in a range of types, sizes, materials and are used extensively for pipes,
nozzles and other attachments to pressure vessels. In designing evapourator, the type of
flange chosen for inlet and outlet streams is lap-joint flanges. The lap-joint flanges is chosen
in design of evapourator because it is economical when used with expensive alloy pipe, such
as stainless steel, as the flange can be made from inexpensive carbon steel. Figure 11.6 shows
illustration for lap joint flanges while table 11.17 shows the nominal size flanges for manhole.
AND
2
G
1200 mm MANHOLE BLIND FLANGE
314
GLY
TIT
MANHOLE BLIND FLANGE
I
1200 mm
FALL
HT SKIRT TOP VIEW G
H TITLE
I
12.97 mm FALLING
STRAIGHT SKIRT TOP VIEW G
H
12.97 mm
3
2.
3.MA
1000 mm
D1
D2 4.
22 mm H2 Do BT
1000 mm
D1
D2
22 mm H2 Do
Figure 11. 6 Illustration lap joint flanges.
Table 11. 17 Nominal size flanges for manhole.

Label Flange diameter
H
Do (mm) D1 (mm) D2 (mm) H1 (mm) H2 (mm)
BT
Value 228.6 102.4 114.3 23.8 76.2
Des
Desig
11.4.13 Design summary of Vacuum Evapourator, V-101. Des
Desig
Flange Flange diameter
diameter Diam
Diame
LabelLabelTableDo
11.18 below shows
(mm)
D1 ofD2
D1 summary D2
detail design for vacuum evapourator, V-101.
H1(mm) (mm) H2 H2 (mm)
Heigh
Heig
Do (mm) (mm) (mm) H1 (mm) Shell
She
(mm) (mm)
Table 11. 18 Detail design for vacuum evapourator V-101.
Top h
Top
E 228.6 102.4 114.3 23.8 76.2 Bottom
E 228.6Parameters 102.4 114.3 Symbol 23.8 Value 76.2 Bott
Operating temperature (°C) T 55
Operating pressure (kPa) P 10
Height of evapourator (m) H 11.4
Type of head (Top and Bottom) - Torispherical
Vessel inside diameter (m) Di 1.2
Shell height Hs 10.79
Effective length (m) Hv 10.99
Top and bottom head height (m) ho 0.303
Vessel thickness (mm) t 12.16
315
Material - Stainless steel (SA-240), 18Cr-

2Mo
Design stress (psi) S 17100
Corrosion allowance (mm) CA 2
Joint efficiency J 1 (full radiographic
examination)
Type of flange - Lap joint flange
Type of vessel support - Straight skirt support
316
11.5 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF REBOILER (B-102)
Designed by: Arina Atiqah binti Azhar (A163472)
11.5.1 Design specification
Reboiler (B-102) is used to vapourize mixture and return the vapour back to the distillation
column (D-101). Boiling takes place from outside the tube bundle and at maximum
temperature of 100℃ at 1.5 bar. Steam is used as the service fluid of the kettle reboiler at
1.8 bar at tube side. The specification of the vessel is shown in Table 11.19.
B-102
47
Figure 11. 7 Reboiler (B-102)
Table 11. 19 Specification of reboiler (B-102)

Parameters Values
Operating pressure, Po 1.5 bar
Operating Temperature, To 100 °C
Maximum allowable working stress (stainless steel), S 17000
Corrosion allowance, CA 2 mm
Safety factor 10%
Joint efficiency, E 1
317
11.5.2 Maximum allowable working pressure
B-102 is operated at 1.5 bar under internal pressure. Since it is greater than atmospheric
pressure, internal pressure vessel design is required. The vessel is design according to
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
The specifications for design pressure are given in Table 11.20 below.
Table 11. 20 maximum allowable pressure specification

Design parameter Value Formula
Design pressure 26.31 psi PD=Po+PH
Hydrostatic pressure 4.55 psi PH=0.433×h
Design pressure with safety factor 28.94 psi Pj=1.1PD
11.5.3 Minimum wall thickness
Wall thickness depends on how much pressure the vessel is handling and as the pressure
increases the thickness of the wall will increase. The minimum wall thickness, tmin is
calculated according to ASME code UG-32(d) and UG-27 (c). The highest value of tmin
will be compared with nominal thickness, tnominal which is available in the market. Before
that, the original thickness, tcal will be calculated to know the required thickness for each
part as shown in Table 11.21
Table 11. 21 tcalc calculation

Vessel parts Formula Values
Ellipsoidal head 𝑃𝐷 30.85 × 33.07
𝑡= 𝑡= = 0.031 𝑖𝑛
2𝑆𝐸 − 0.2𝑃 (2 × 16700) − (0.2 × 30.85)
Cylindrical shell 𝑃𝑅 28.94 × 16.54
𝑡= 𝑡= = 0.0287 𝑖𝑛
(longitudinal joints) 𝑆𝐸 − 0.6𝑃 16700 − 0.6 × 28.94
Cylindrical shell 𝑃𝑅 28.94 × 16.54
𝑡= 𝑡= = 0.0143 𝑖𝑛
(circumferential joints) 2𝑆𝐸 + 0.4𝑃 2 × 16700 + 0.4 × 28.94
Cylindrical head 𝑃𝑅 28.94 × 16.54
𝑡= 𝑡= = 0.0287 𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝐸 − 0.6𝑃 16700 − 0.6 × 28.94
318
Highest value of tcal will be taken as uniformity and only longitudinal joints will be
considered as circumferential joint results low thickness value. Table 11.22 shows the tmin
calculations by considering corrosion allowance and nominal thickness.
Table 11. 22 tmin calculations

Vessel parts Tcalc (in) tuniformity Tcalc (new) tnominal tmin
Ellipsoidal head 0.0306
Cylindrical shell 0.0287
(longitudinal joints)
0.0287 0.1074 0.1181 0.0394
Cylindrical shell 0.0143
(circumferential joints)
Cylindrical head 0.0287
11.5.4 Maximum allowable working pressure
The MAWP part is the maximum pressure each part can withstand. The calculation is
shown in Table 11.23.
Table 11. 23 MAWP part

Vessel parts Formula Values
Ellipsoidal head 2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2 × 16700 × 0.1181
𝑃= 𝑃 = = 119.20 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝐷 + 0.2𝑡 33.07 + 0.2 × 0.1181
Cylindrical shell 2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2 × 16700 × 0.1181
𝑃= 𝑃 = = 237.56 𝑝𝑠𝑖
(circumferential) 𝑅 − 0.6𝑡 16.54 − 0.6 × 0.1181
Cylindrical shell 2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2 × 16700 × 0.1181
𝑃= 𝑃 = = 239.36 𝑝𝑠𝑖
(longitudinal)l 𝑅 − 0.4𝑡 16.54 − 0.4 × 0.1181
Cylindrical head 2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2 × 16700 × 0.1181
𝑃= 𝑃 = = 239.36 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑅 − 0.4𝑡 16.54 − 0.4 × 0.1181
The lowest calculated pressure, 114.66 psi is minus by hydrostatic pressure. Thus,
MAWPvessel is 114.66 psi
11.5.5 Combined loading
Combined loading is referred to the contribution of one or more loads at a point of state of
stress. It occurs when a set of different types of loads are applied to the vessel therefore the
safety of the vessel must be checked and ensured. The vessel must be designed to withstand
319
worst combination of loading without failure. There are five main sources of major load
consist of design pressure including any significant static head of liquid, dead weight of the
vessel and the contents, wind loads, seismic loads and external loads imposed by piping
and attachment on the vessel. Subsidiary loads can also contribute to the loading such as
local stress caused by supports, shock loads and stresses due to temperature differences and
differences in coefficient expansion of materials.
There are a few types of weight that need to take into account when calculating the total
weight of the vessel. The combined loading and weight analysis are shown in Table 11.24
below.
Table 11. 24 combined loading and weight analysis

Stress Value Formula
Longitudinal stress 36.3 N/mm2 𝑃𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝑤 =
4𝑡
The circumferential stress 72.6 N/mm2 𝑃𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝑤 =
2𝑡
Direct stress 7.04 N/mm2 𝑊𝑣
𝜎𝑤 =
𝜋(𝐷 + 𝑡)𝑡
Weight of the shell, Wv 715.61 N 𝑊𝑣 = 240𝐶𝑣𝐷𝑚(𝐻𝑣 + 0.8𝐷𝑚 )𝑡
Vessel diameter 0.67 m -
Factor to account for vessel 1.15 -
weight with few internal
fittings
Weight of tube, Wt 265.94 kg 𝜋 × 𝜌(𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 ) × 𝐿 × 𝑁𝑡 × 9.81
𝑊𝑡 =
4
Weight of inner fitting, Wi 979.77 kg Wi = Nbaffle × tbaffle × A × baffle cut × 9.81
Weight of shell side, WSF 1287.56 kg Wsf = hs ×A × ρ
Weight of the tube side 22.14 kg 𝜋 × 𝜌(𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 ) × 𝐿 × 𝑁𝑡 × 9.81

fluid, WTF 𝑊𝑡𝑓 =
4
Total weight, W 14859.06 kg 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑡 +𝑊𝑖 + 𝑊𝑠𝑓 + 𝑊𝑡𝑓
Torsional shear stress τ=0 𝑇 𝐷
τ= ( 𝑖 + 𝑡)
𝐼𝑝 2
Torsional shear stresses can be neglected in the preliminary vessel design because
these loads will normally be small. Therefore, τ = 0.
320
11.5.6 Support design
Type of support used is the saddle support which commonly used for shell and tube heat
exchanger. The entire relative stress on the saddle is calculated to ensure it does not exceed
maximum value of the saddle can withstand.
Figure 11. 8 Saddle support dimension
Table 11. 25 Saddle support dimensions

Vessel Maximum Dimension(m) mm
diameter weight
V Y C E J G t1 t2 Bolt Bolt
(m) (kN)
diameter holes
0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5 20 25
11.5.7 Flanged joint
A flange is method of connecting pipes, valves and other equipment to form a piping
system. Flange can also be used to connect vessel parts so that it could provide easy access
for cleaning, inspection and modification. Flanged joints are made by bolting together two
flanges with a gasket between them to provide seal. Welding neck flanges has been chosen
because it is suitable for extreme service conditions where the flange is likely to be
subjected to temperature, shear and vibration loads.
321
Figure 11. 9 Steel welding neck flanges
Table 11.26 shows the dimension of the flanges
Table 11. 26 Dimensions of the flanges

Nom Pipe Flange Raised face Drilling Neck
size o.d.
d1 D b h1 d4 f d2 k d3 h2 r
80 88.9 190 16 45 148 3 18 150 102 10 8
11.6 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN, D-101
Prepare by: Muhammad Hamizan bin Azman (A163509)
11.6.1 Process description
Separation of tert-butanol and tert-pentanol is further carried out in distillation column D-

101 to remove water.The separating mixtures based on differing component volatilities
exhibit by the component unique physical characteristic. Distillation column separate
component by referring to its boiling point. Mixture of water, tert-butanol, and tert-pentanol
enter distillation column at stream 44. Thus, the tert-butanol and tert-pentanol will
discharge as the top product at stream 45 while water as bottom product at stream 47.
322
11.6.2 Operating condition
Distillation column needs to fulfil a list of requirements for it to operate at optimal condition
and achieve convergence. Table 11.27 shows the operating condition of distillation column
D-101.
Table 11. 27 Operating condition of distillation column D-101

Parameters Value
Operating temperature (⁰C) 100
Operating condition (kPa) 150.3

323
11.6.3 Design specification
For distillation column D-101, a vertical cylinder is used as the shell. Ellipsoidal head is
chosen for both top and bottom, since in economic aspects of fabrication and construction
costs. For the top head and bottom head of this distillation column, ellipsoidal 2:1 is chosen
for fabrication. Table 11.28 below shows the summary of types of shape for each parts of
the distillation column.
Table 11. 28 Types of shape for each parts of distillation column D-101
Part Shape
Top Head Ellipsoidal 2:1
Shell Cylindrical
Bottom Head Ellipsoidal 2:1
Corrosion allowance decided for sizing and designing distillation column (D-101) is 2
mm. Uniform corrosion is the corrosion that occur slowly by time because of wall beingscratch by
the moving fluid in it and it make the wall thinner by time. Corrosion allowancehas to be added
to the minimum thickness of the wall to make sure the wall still has it minimum thickness even
after several years.
The components that touched the wall of distillation column are methanol and water. All
of them are not severe corrosive material. Hence, a moderate corrosion allowance is chosen for
consideration. Table 11.29 shows the specifications needed for mechanical design of distillation
column D-101.
324
Table 11. 29 Specifications of distillation column D-101

Specification Values
Operating Pressure 150.3 kPa
Joint Efficiency 0.85
Maximum allowable stress 11500 psi
Material of construction SA-135 Gr. A Carbon Steel
11.6.4 Dimension of distillation column D-101
f. Capacity of distillation column
From Detail Design part:
Height, H = 2.63
m Diameter, Di
= 1.26 m
Ellipsoidal head:
Ellipsoidal 2:1 for top head and bottom head is
used.Ht = Hb = Di/2(2)
= 1.26/4
= 0.32 m
Overall vessel:
Di = 1.26 m
Hs = H – Hb – Ht
325
= 2.63 - 0.32 - 0.32
= 1.99 m
Table 11.30 below shows the dimensions of distillation column D-101.

Table 11. 30 Dimensions of distillation column D-1013
Dimension Value, m
Vessel Height, H 2.63
Vessel Inside Diameter, Di 1.26
Shell Height, Hs 2.85
Top head height, Ht 0.32
Bottom head height, Hb 0.32
11.6.5 Vessel support and flanged joint
In this case, skirt welded flush with the shell was chosen which is the most commonly used.
Skirt supports are recommended for vertical vessels as they do not impose concentrated
loads on the vessel shell and particularly suitable for use with tall columns subject to wind
loading.
The chosen flange joint design is welding-neck flanges. Welding-neck flanges havea long-
tapered hub between the flange ring and the welded joint. This gradual transition of the
section reduces the discontinuity stresses between the flange and branch and increase the
strength of the flange assembly. It is suitable for extreme service conditions, where the
flange is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration loads.
326
11.6.6 Summary of design
Table 11.31 below shows the summary of the mechanical design specifications of
D-101.
Table 11. 31 Summary of mechanical design of D-101

Design Specification Value
Operating condition (kPa) 150.3
MAWP (psi) 130.04
Material of construction SA-135 Gr. A Carbon Steel

Vessel internal diameter, Di (m) 1.26
Vessel Height, H (m) 2.63

Shell Height, Hs (m) 2.85
Top head height, Ht (m) 0.32
Bottom head height, Hb (m) 0.32
Overall minimum thickness, tmin (mm) 2.40
Corrosion Allowance (mm) 2

Longitudinal stress, σL 1.384
Circumferential stress, σh 2.768
Direct stress, σw 0.763
Bending stress, σb ±0.013
Type of flanged joint Welding-neck flange

327
11.7 MECHANICAL DESIGN – SPRAY DRYER S-101
Designed by: Ho Dany A164216
11.7.1 Process Description
Solidifying the product of glycerol monooleate is further carried out in Spray dryer S-
101 to remove water rapidly vaporized from the droplets, leaving dry solid particles
separated from the gas stream. Hence a solid glycerol monooleate is formed in the
product. A solid form will also take advantage of easy storage.
11.7.2 Operating condition
There is a need for an optimal condition for the spray dryer S-101 to operate. Table
11.32 shows the operating condition of Spray Dryer S-101
Table 11. 32 The operating condition of Spray Dryer S-101

Parameter Value
Operating condition (kPa) 110
11.7.3 Design Specification
In a spray dryer, a vertical cylinder is used as the shell. The ellipsoidal head is chosen
for the top, and the conical head is chosen for the bottom part. As the basic layout of
the spray dryer, the bottom is always the conical head, which shown in Figure 11.10.
Besides, the Corrosion allowance decided for sizing and designing the spray dryer S-
101 is 2mm. Uniform corrosion occurs slowly over time because of the wall being
scratch by the moving fluid in it, and it makes the wall thinner over time. Corrosion
allowance has to be added to the minimum thickness of the wall to make sure the wall
still has its minimum thickness even after several years.
328
Figure 11. 10 Layout Spray Dryer
11.7.4 Design Pressure
Since the operating pressure of the Spray dryer (15.95 psi) is more significant than
atmospheric pressure, the distillation column designed under internal pressure, firstly,
the design pressure for each part of the vessel is calculated by using the equation:
𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑜 + 0.433ℎ
where
𝑃D = design pressure
h = height of each part from the top shell
𝑃o = operating pressure
Hence,
Ellipsoidal head Top: 𝑃𝐷 = 15.95 + 0.433(1.64) = 16.66 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Cylindrical shell: 𝑃𝐷 = 15.95 + 0.433(14.76) = 22.341 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Conical head bottom: 𝑃𝐷 = 15.95 + 0.433(21.32) = 25.18𝑝𝑠𝑖
A safety factor of about 10% is added to design pressure for safety purposes. So, the
new design pressure is 𝑃J=1.1𝑃D and is tabulated in Table 11.33.
329
Table 11. 33 Design Pressure with a safety factor of Spray Dryer S-101
Vessel Part PD/psi PJ/psi
Ellipsoidal Head Top 16.66 18.326
Cylindrical Shell 22.341 24.58
Conical Head Bottom 25.18 27.7
11.7.5 Wall Thickness
The calculation for the thickness of the wall of the spray dryer will be based on internal
pressure calculation since operating pressure is more than outside pressure, that is,
atmospheric pressure.
The maximum allowable stress, S= 16700psi
Take double-welded joint and spot note degree of radiographic:
Joint efficiency, E = 0.85
Corrosion allowance of 2mm=0.07874in
The summary of wall thickness on each part of the vessel is shown in Table 11.34
Table 11. 34 The summary of wall thickness on each part of the vessel of Spray Dryer
S-101
Vessel Parts Formula Calculation Minimum
Thickness
/in
Ellipsoidal Head 𝑃𝐷 (18.326)(78.74) 0.05083
𝑡=
Top 2𝑆𝐸 − 0.2𝑃 2(16700) − 0.2(18.326)
Cylindrical Shell 𝑃𝑅 (24.58)(39.37) 0.06824
𝑡=
(Longitudinal) 𝑆𝐸 − 0.6𝑃 (16700)(0.85) − 0.6(24.58)
Cylindrical Shell 𝑃𝑅 (24.58)(39.37) 0.03407
𝑡=
(Circumferential) 2𝑆𝐸 + 0.4𝑃 2(16700)(0.85) + 0.4(24.58)
Conical Head 𝑃𝐷 (27.7)(78.74) 0.1282
𝑡=
Bottom 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼(𝑆𝐸 − 0.6𝑃) 2 cos 53.13 (16700)(0.85) − 0.6(27.7)
For tuniform=(tcalc)max = 0.1282in = 3.256mm
Considering Corrosion allowance,

330
𝑡𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 + 𝐶𝐴
𝑡𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟 = 0.1282 + 0.07874 = 0.20694𝑖𝑛 ≈ 5.25𝑚𝑚
Therefore the nominal thickness, 𝑡𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 6𝑚𝑚 = 0.23622𝑖𝑛
So 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 0.23622 − 0.07874 = 0.1575𝑖𝑛 = 4𝑚𝑚
11.7.6 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP)
The summary of MAWP on each part of the vessel is shown in Table 11.35.
Table 11. 35 The summary of MAWP on each part of the vessel in Spray Dryer S-101
Parts Formula Calculation MAWP Ph
Part
Ellipsoidal Head 2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2(16700)(0.85)(0.23622) 85.12 0.7101

𝑃=
Top 𝐷 + 0.2𝑡 78.74 + 0.2(0.23622)
Cylindrical Shell 2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2(16700)(0.85)(0.23622) 170.955 6.391
𝑃=
(Longitudinal) 𝑅 − 0.6𝑡 39.37 − 0.6(0.23622)
Cylindrical Shell 2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2(16700)(0.85)(0.23622) 170.75 6.391
𝑃=
(Circumferential) 𝑅 − 0.4𝑡 39.37 − 0.4(0.23622)
Conical Head 2𝑆𝐸𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 2(16700)(0.85)(0.23622)𝑐𝑜𝑠53.13 51.0 9.232
𝑃=
Bottom 𝐷 + 1.2𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 78.74 + 1.2(0.23622) cos 53.13
For MAWPvessel=(MAWPpart – Ph)least= 51.0-9.232= 41.77psi
11.7.7 Combine Loading
Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads and pressure and must be designed to
withstand the worst combination of loading without failure. A trial thickness must be
assumed, and the resultant stress from all loads determined to ensure that the maximum
allowable stress intensity is not exceeded at any point. Thus, the main sources of major
load subject to this pressure vessel are the dead weight of the vessel, wind load and
external load.
331
g. Longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to Internal pressure given by
𝑃𝐷𝑖 0.288(200)
Longitudinal Stress: 𝜎𝐿 = = = 2.4𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
4𝑡 4(6)
𝑃𝐷𝑖 0.288(200)
Circumferential Stress: 𝜎ℎ = = = 4.8𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
2𝑡 2(6)
h. Direct Stress
For a steel vessel, the weight of a cylindrical vessel with domed ends and a uniform
wall thickenss , can be estimated from the following equation:
𝑊𝑣 = 240𝐶𝑣 𝐷𝑚 (𝐻𝑣 + 0.8𝐷𝑚 )𝑡
Where Cv=1.08,
𝐷𝑚 = 𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡𝑥10−3
= 2 + 6𝑥10−3 = 2.006𝑚
Hv = Height of cylinder = 6.5m
𝑊𝑣 = 240(1.08)(2.006)(6.5 + 0.8(2.006)(6))
= 25284.8𝑁
𝑊𝑣 25284.8
Hence, 𝜎𝑤 = =
𝜋(𝐷𝑖 +𝑡)𝑡 3.142(2000+6)6
= 0.6686𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
332
i. Torsional shear Stresses
The torsional shear stresses can be neglected in preliminary vessel design because these
loads will normally be small, τ = 0
j. Principal Stresses
Principal Stresses is given by
1
𝜎1 = [𝜎ℎ + 𝜎𝑧 + √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2
1
𝜎2 = [𝜎ℎ + 𝜎𝑧 − √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2
Total Longitudinal Stresses,
𝜎𝑧 = σL + 𝜎𝑤
𝜎𝑧 = 0.6686 + 2.4
= 3.0686𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Since torsional shear stress neglected, therefore
𝜎1 = 𝜎ℎ = 4.8𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑧 = 3.0686𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
k. Allowable Stress Intensity, Δσ
∆𝜎𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 = 4.8𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 − 3.0686𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
= 1.7314𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 < 𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛

333
l. Compressive Stress and elastic Stability
The buckling stress, 𝜎𝑐 is given by
𝐸 𝑡
𝜎𝑐 = ) (
√3(1 − 𝑣 2 ) 𝑅𝑃
For steel, E=200000 and with a safety factor of 12
𝑡
𝜎𝑐 = 2𝑥104 ( )
𝐷𝑜
6
𝜎𝑐 = 2𝑥104 ( ) = 60𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
2000
Maximum allowable compressive stress, ∑(𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑏 + 𝜎𝑤
= (0.91610 + 0) = 0.9161𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
As ∑(𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 𝜎𝑐 , 0.9161𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 < 60𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
From the analysis of combined loading, the material and dimension chose
qualified both requirements of maximum stress intensity and elastic stability. Hence,
the design is safe.
11.7.8 Support Design
Skirt Support is chosen. The resultant stresses in the skirt are given to be
𝜎𝑠 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 − 𝜎𝑤𝑠 ; 𝜎𝑠 (𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 + 𝜎𝑤𝑠
Where
4𝑀𝑠
Bending Stress in the skirt, 𝜎𝑏𝑠 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 +𝑡𝑠 )𝑡𝑠 𝐷𝑠
334
𝑊
Deadweight stress in the skirt, 𝜎𝑤𝑠 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 +𝑡𝑠 )𝑡𝑠
Assuming skirt support height, h=4m, Skirt thickness, ts=6mm, Skirt diameter =
Di=2m, W=4104.586N/m
𝑥 = 𝐻 + ℎ𝑠 = 4 + 2.5 = 8.5𝑚
Weight of the vessel, 𝑊𝑣 = 25284.8𝑁
Maximum deadweight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of
water
𝜋
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = ( 𝑥22 𝑥6.5) 𝑥1000𝑥9.81
4
=200323.65N
Total Weight, 𝑊 = 200323.65 + 25284.8 = 225608.46𝑁
For the ending stress in the skirt, 𝜎𝑏𝑠
𝑊𝑥 2 (4104.58)(8.5)2
Maximum bending moment, 𝑀𝑠 = = = 148277.95𝑁𝑚
2 2
Hence,
4(148277.95𝑥1000)
Bending stress in the skirt, 𝜎𝑏𝑠 = = 7.843𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋(2000+6)(6)(2000)
Deadweight stress in the skirt, σws (hydraulic test)
225608.46
= = 5.9665𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋(2000 + 6)(6)
Deadweight stress in the skirt σws(operating)

335
25284.8
= = 0.6687𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋(2000 + 6)(6)
The resultant Stresses
Maximum 𝜎𝑠 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 − 𝜎𝑤𝑠 = 7.843 − 0.6687 = 7.1743𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜎𝑠 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 + 𝜎𝑤𝑠 = 7.843 − 5.9665 = 1.8765𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Under the worst combination of wind and dead weight loading, the skirt
thickness should not exceed the following design criteria.
𝜎𝑠 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) ˂ 𝑓𝑠 𝐽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠
𝑡𝑠
𝜎𝑠 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) ˂ 0.125𝐸 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠
𝐷𝑠
Assumptions:
maximum allowable stress for skirt material at Tamb =20°C, fs = 135 N/mm2
weld joint factor, J = 0.85;Base angle, θs = 80
Young’s modulus, E = 200000 N/mm2
Therefore,
fs J sinθs = 135(0.85) sin(90°)
= 114.75 N/mm2
0.125E (ts/Ds) sinθs = 0.125(200000)(10/3194.708)sin(90°)
= 78.25441 N/mm2
336
σs (tensile) = 7.1743N/mm2 ˂ fs J sinθs = 114.75 N/mm2
σs (compressive) = 1.8765N/mm2 ˂ 0.125E (ts/Ds) sinθs = 78.255441 N/mm2
Since both criteria are satisfied, thus, the assumed value of skirt thickness, ts =
0.006m is acceptable.
The anchor bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the bolt area
required
1 4𝑀𝑠
𝐴𝑏 = [ − 𝑊]
𝑁𝑏 𝐹𝑏 𝐷𝑏
With,
Ab = area of one bolt at the root of the thread, mm2

Nb = number of bolts
fb = maximum allowable bolt stress, N/mm2
Ms = bending moment at the base, Nm
W = weight of the vessel, N
Db = bolt circle diameter, m
Assumptions:
Bolt circle diameter, Db=2.5m=2500mm
Circumference of bolt circle = 3600π mm
Maximum allowable bolt stress, fb=125N/mm2
Number of bolts as 16
337
𝜋𝑥3600
Bolt Spacing = = 706.85𝑚𝑚
16
Bolt spacing>600mm, The bolt spacing is satisfactory
The bending moment at the base, Ms=148277.95Nm
The weight of the vessel, W=25284.8N
1 4(148277.95)
𝐴𝑏 = [ − 25284.8]
16𝑥125 2.5
𝐴𝑏 = 106𝑚𝑚2
Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length, Fb
4𝑀𝑠 𝑊
𝐹𝑏 = [ + ]
𝜋𝐷𝑠2 𝜋𝐷𝑠
4(148277.95) 25284.8
𝐹𝑏 = [ + ]
𝜋(2)2 𝜋(2)
𝐹𝑏 = 51215.898𝑁/𝑚
Taking the bearing pressure as 3.5N/mm2, the minimum width of the base ring,
Lb
𝐹𝑏 1
𝐿𝑏 = ( )
𝑓𝑐 103
51215.898
𝐿𝑏 =
3.5𝑥103
𝐿𝑏 = 14.63𝑚𝑚
338
The required thickness for thickness base ring is found by treating the ring as a
cantilever beam
3𝑓𝑐′
𝑡𝑏 = 𝐿𝑟 √
𝑓𝑟
With,
tb = base ring thickness, mm

Lr = the distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of the ring,
mm
f’c = actual bearing pressure, N/mm2
fr = allowable design stress in the ring of material, fr = 140 N/ mm2
2500−2000−250
Take 𝐿𝑟 = = 125𝑚𝑚
2
Actual width required = Lr+ts+60mm
= 125 + 6 + 60
= 191𝑚𝑚
𝐹𝑏 51215.898
𝑓𝑐′ = 3
= = 3.5𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐿𝑏 𝑥10 14.63𝑥103
3𝑓𝑐′
Base ring thickness, 𝑡𝑏 = 𝐿𝑟 √
𝑓𝑟
(3)(3.5)
= 125√
140
= 34.23𝑚𝑚
339
Therefore, the base ring thickness, tb=40mm
11.7.10 Summary of Design
Table 11.36 shows the summary of the mechanical design of Spray Dryer S-101
Table 11. 36 The summary of Mechanical Design of Spray Dryer S-101

Parameter Value
Operating pressure (kPa) 110 kPa
Material Construction Stainless steel SA617
Type of Head/Bottom Head Ellipsoidal Head Top, Conical Head Bottom
Vessel internal Diameter (m) 2m
Vessel Length (m) 6.5m
Shell length (m) 5m
Head/Bottom Head length (m) Head 0.5m, Bottom head 2m
MAWPvessel 288 kPa
Longitudinal Stress 2.4N/mm2
Circumferential Stress 4.8N/mm2
Direct Stress 0.6686 N/mm2
Stress Analysis 1.7314 <176.54 (N/mm2)
Elastic Stability 28.78<79.37 (N/mm2)
Type of flanged joint Welding Neck flange
340
CHAPTER XII
CONCLUSION
This report is prepared to present the whole design for producing high purity of glycerol
monooleate (GMO) by using glycerol and oleic acid through enzymatic glycerolysis.
The design includes production capacity, process production, the equipment for the
operation, the control configuration, waste management, design safety, economic
analysis and finally, the plant layout.
The producing plant's plant capacity is 227.52kg/h, fulfilling a 0.1% deficiency

between the demand and supply yearly. The main reaction is between oleic acid and
glycerol to produce glycerol monooleate (GMO), glycerol dilaurate (GDO) and water.
This reaction takes place in a packed bed reactor and undergoes glycerolysis with the
help of an enzyme.
After the heat integration, the recovery of some energy content takes place
between the heat and cold stream by the heat exchanger network. It also effectively
utilises the energy in the hot stream to heat the cold stream. Total energy recovery of
50.95% has been achieved. Simpang Pulai, Perak, is chosen as the plant location. The
price available for the location is RM127,630 per acre with a size availability of 6 acres.
The P&ID shows the control system on the equipment involved in the
production. The controller will make sure that the equipment will operate safely and
properly in the plant. To achieve the optimum process condition and as a measure to
ensure plant safety, a proper control system has been installed in the plant, namely for
temperature control, pressure control and level control.
For the economic analysis, after calculating the total capital cost and total
production cost, the return of investment, ROI is 5.18. It is more than the value of the
minimum acceptable rate of return, MARR. Besides, the payback period value is
0.1687, which is lower than the payback reference. Lastly, the net present value is a
positive value of 39 million. All these values indicate that the plant is visible and
acceptable.
341
Waste generated in this plant is solid waste, lipase Novozymes enzyme from the
main reactor, and wastewater from the recovery of unreacted reactant. The waste
generated falls in the first schedule-SW2 and SW3, based on the Environmental Quality
(Scheduled waste) regulations 2005. All the waste will be sent to Kualiti Alam, while
treated wastewater that fulfilled the discharged limit will be discharge to Sungai
Geruntum, Perak.
To minimize waste products in the plant, the binary solvent is recovered and
recycled back to the main reactor. Besides, unreacted material will be recycled to the
main reactor. A waste treatment plant is established to reduce the COD, BOD, and oil
content of waste below the discharge limit. Skim tanks and a series of floatation tanks
are used to reduce the oil content in wastewater with the efficiency of removing 90 and
95% of oil. Since the COD and BOD is high, 2 aeration tank and 2 clarifiers are needed
to reduce COD and BOD level in wastewater. The sludge produced will enter sludge
thickener and filter press to produce sludge cake which then will be sent to Kualiti Alam.
Final COD, BOD and oil levels are 64.4, 4.2 and 0.96 mg/l, below the discharge limit.
Finally, Hazard and safety analysis also has been done for the plant process. The
hazard and potential health effects of each chemical used are analyzed. FMEA analysis
and HAZOP analysis are carried out on all the major equipment available.
Details design of main unit process is calculated to determine the height,

diameter and type of material used in the process. Mechanical design determines the
thickness of vessel including corrosion allowance and the maximum allowable working
pressure of the unit process design. All design, calculations and drawings regarding this
production has been fully considered and advised by the professionals.
342
REFERENCE
Buchori, L., Djaeni, M., Ratnawati, R., Retnowati, S., Hadiyanto, H., Anggoro, D. D.
& Dag, M. A. G. 2020. Jurnal Teknologi GLYCEROLYSIS USING KF / C A O-
M G O CATALYST : OPTIMISATION AND REACTION KINETICS 5, 109–
116.
Datta, S., Christena, L. R. & Rajaram, Y. R. S. 2013. Enzyme immobilization: an

overview on techniques and support materials. 3 Biotech, 3(1), 1–9.
doi:10.1007/s13205-012-0071-7
Global Glycerol Monooleate Market Research Report 2020. (n.d.).

https://www.themarketreports.com/report/global-glycerol-monooleate-market-
research-report [18 January 2021].
Glycerin Specifications - SRS BiodieselSRS Biodiesel. (n.d.).

http://www.srsbiodiesel.com/technologies/glycerin-purification/glycerin-
specifications/ [18 January 2021].
Jurendić, T. 2014. Applicability of Simple Mass and Energy Balances in Food Drum
Drying. J. Basic. Appl. Sci. Res, 4(1).
Koga, T. 2010. Strict environmental requirements. Hydrocarbon Engineering, 13(8),

55–58.
Malaysia, D. O. E. 2009. Environmental Quality Act 1974; Environmental Quality

(Industrial effluent) Regulations 2009: Standard A and B. Putrajaya, Malaysia:
Department of Environment,.
Milak, S. & Zimmer, A. 2014. Glycerol monooleate liquid crystalline phases used in
drug delivery systems. International Journal of Pharmaceutics,.
doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2014.11.072
Sludge Treatment and Disposal. (n.d.).
Sorour, M. A. 2015. Optimization of multiple effect evapourators designed for fruit

juice concentrate. American Journal of Energy Engineering, 3(2), 6.
Towler, G. & Sinnott, R. K. 2013. Chemical Engineering Design - Principles, Practice

and Economics of Plant and Process Design (2nd Edition). Elsevier,.
Ures, P. 2014. Fs-Pre-002 Technology Fact Sheets for Effluent Treatment Plants on
Textile Industry Equalization Tank / Homogenization Tank Series: Pretreatments
Title Equalization Tank / Homogenization Tank (Fs-Pre-002). Universidade da
coruna, (December). Retrieved from
https://www.wateractionplan.com/documents/177327/558166/Equalization+tank-
Homogenization+tank.pdf/7207cef9-cf75-329b-d070-6c9a1b537334
343
Zeng, F. K., Yang, B., Wang, Y. H., Wang, W. F., Ning, Z. X. & Li, L. 2010. Enzymatic
production of monoacylglycerols with camellia oil by the glycerolysis reaction.
JAOCS, Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 87(5), 531–537.
doi:10.1007/s11746-009-1533-x
Zhu, Q., Li, T., Wang, Y., Yang, B. & Ma, Y. 2011. A two-stage enzymatic process for
synthesis of extremely pure high oleic glycerol monooleate. Enzyme and Microbial
Technology, 48(2), 143–147. doi:10.1016/j.enzmictec.2010.10.009
Zhuang, E. 2016. From processdesign Jump to: navigation, search. Retrieved from
https://processdesign.mccormick.northwestern.edu/index.php/Process_location_a
nd_layout_decisions
344
12.1 APPENDIX A
VACUUM EVAPOURATOR, (V-101)
Determine the total area for evapourator V-101 to remove solvent and water content up
to 85% and concentrated the liquid up to 80%.
Rate of mass in = Rate of mass out
F=L+V
For a balance on the solutes by assuming GMO, GDO, Gly, OA, are one
component as.
FXF = LXL
3272.97(0.38) = L (0.18)
L = 1557.92 kg/h
V = 1715.05 kg/h
Assume there is no heat lost by radiation or convection,
FhF+ SHs = LhL + VHV + Shs
3272.97(0.00245)(100-50) + S(2229.57) = 1715.05(2257.34)
S=1736.59 kg/h
q = Sλ
q = 1736.59(2230)(103)/3600 = 1075720.9 W
345
Area of evapourator can be calculated from
q = UA∆T
1075720.9 = 2500(110-100)A
A = 43.0m
Industrial ratio of height over width for evapourator,
H: D= 3:1
Thus, H x D= Area
3D x D = 3D2 = Area
3 D2 = 43.0
D = 3.8m
H = 11.4m
Determine the total area for evapourator V-102 to concentrated the liquid up to 95%.
F=L+V
For a balance on the solutes by assuming GMO, GDO, Gly, OA, are one
component as their boiling point is much heavier.
FXF = LXL
346
1557.92(0.18) = L (0.94)
L = 1325.89 kg/h
V = 232.03 kg/h
1557.92 (0.00245)(100-50) + S(2229.57) = 232.03 (2257.34)
S = 235.01 kg/h
q = Sλ
q = 235.01(2230)(103)/3600 = 145573.1 W
q = UA∆T
145573.1= 2500(110-100)A
A = 5.8 m
H: D= 3:1
Thus, H x D= Area
3D x D = 3D2 = Area
347
3 D2 = 5.8
D = 1.4m
H = 4.2m
Determine the total area for evapourator V-103 to concentrated the liquid up to 95%
and recover the unreacted reactant, glycerol and oleic acid as top distillate.
F=L+V
For a balance on the solutes by assuming GMO, and GDO are one component
as their boiling point is much heavier.
FXF = LXL
1325.89(0.49) = L (0.95)
L = 677.00 kg/h
V = 648.89 kg/h
1325.89(0.00245)(100-50) + S(2229.57) = 648.89 (2257.34)
S = 657.04 kg/h
348
q = Sλ
q = 657.04 (2230)(103)/3600 = 407000.9 W
q = UA∆T
407000.9 = 2500(110-100)A
A = 16.3m
H: D= 3:1
Thus, H x D= Area
3D x D = 3D2 = Area
3 D2 = 16.3
D = 2.3m
H = 7.0m
Determine the total area for evapourator V-104 to concentrated GDO up to 80% and
separate GMO as vapour distillate.
F=L+V
349
For a balance on the solutes which refer to GDO.
FXF = LXL
677.00(0.60) = L (0.80)
L = 510.74 kg/h
V = 166.26 kg/h
677.00(0.00245)(100-50) + S(2229.57) = 166.26(2257.34)
S = 168.37 kg/h
q = Sλ
q = 168.37 (2230)(103)/3600 = 407000.9 W
q = UA∆T
104296.76= 2500(110-100)A
A = 4.17m
H: D= 3:1
350
Thus, H x D= Area
3D x D = 3D2 = Area
3 D2 = 4.17
D = 1.18m
H = 3.54m
Determine the total area for evapourator V-105 to concentrated GDO up top 95% and
separate GMO as vapour distillate.
F=L+V
For a balance on the solutes which refer to GDO.
FXF = LXL
510.74(0.80) = L (0.95)
L = 430.09 kg/h
V = 80.64 kg/h
510.74(0.00245)(100-50) + S(2229.57) = 80.64(2257.34)

351
S = 81.68 kg/h
q = Sλ
q = 81.68(2230)(103)/3600 = 50593.26W
q = UA∆T
50593.26 = 2500(110-100)A
A = 2.0m
H: D= 3:1
Thus, H x D= Area
3D x D = 3D2 = Area
3 D2 = 2.0
D = 0.8m
H = 2.5 m
352
SPRAY SRYER, S-101
The feed product with initial moisture content of 7% to be dried, the mass
balance for ideal adiabatic dryer (no mass and heat losses) (Jurendić 2014) could be,
Input (mass flow of dry matter) = Output (mass flow of dry matter) +
Evapourated water (mass flow of dry matter)
mi = mo + mw
Assume no dry matter in evapourated water can be found, mw = 0,
mi = mo = mDried product = 229.38 kg/h
mEvapourated water = 17.56 kg/h
SPRAY DRYER, S102
The feed product with initial moisture content of 3% to be dried, the mass
balance for ideal adiabatic dryer (no mass and heat losses) (Jurendić 2014) could be,
Input (mass flow of dry matter) = Output (mass flow of dry matter) +
Evapourated water (mass flow of dry matter)
mi = mo + mw
Assume no dry matter in evapourated water can be found, mw = 0,
mi = mo = mDried product = 417.16 kg/h
mEvapourated water = 12.90 kg/h
DISTILLATION COLUMN, D-101

353
Key components selection and classification
Specification of two key components and the distribution between distillate and bottom
products in distillation column need to be taken into consideration. In distillation
column, D-101 contains mixture such as glycerol, oleic acid, tert-butanol, tert-pentanol
and water. The light key (i) in D-101 is tert-butanol while heavy key (j) is oleic acid.
To determine the number of stages in distillation column for multicomponent mixture,
FUG method is used.
Minimum Number of Stages
To calculate the minimum number of stages, the relative volatility for each component needs to
be determine. The antoine equation for each component is stated below.
Antoine equation constant
Component A B C
Oleic Acid 5.04842 2555.604 -127.258
Glycerol 3.93737 1411.531 -200.566
Tert-butanol 7.15711 1080.55 170.152
Tert-pentanol 4.4667 1261.658 -91.953
Water 5.0768 1659.793 -45.854
Using equation below value of K is determine.
B
log P = A +
C+T
Psat
K=
P
Relative volatility for distillate and bottom product calculated using formula below.
𝐾𝑖
(𝛼𝑖,𝑗 ) =
𝐾𝑗
Mean relative volatility can be calculated using formula below.

354
∝𝑚 = [(∝𝑖,𝑗 ) (∝𝑖,𝑗 ) ]1/2

𝑁 1
𝑑𝑖 𝑏𝑖
To fulfilled Fenske equation, and need to be determine using molar flowrate of each
𝑑𝑗 𝑏𝑗
components. Where:
di = light key at distillate
dj = heavy key at distillate
bi = light key at bottom
bj = heavy key at bottom
For conversion = 0.86
Molar flowrate in distillation column
Components Molar flow rate inlet Distillate (kmol/hr) Bottom (kmol/hr)

(kmol/hr)
Oleic acid 89.25 2.39 86.85
Glycerol 510.54 3.59 506.94
Tert-butanol 18.23 17.90 0.32
Tert-pentanol 14.91 14.64 0.26
Water 15.94 42.21 0
Mole fraction for each component at distillation column
Components Zf xD= yD xB
Oleic acid 0.0441 0.0030 0.0528
Glycerol 0.7742 0.0139 0.9458
Tert-butanol 0.0280 0.0863 0.0007
Tert-pentanol 0.0229 0.0594 0.0005
Water 0.0245 0.8372 0
Using formula below to find Nmin.
𝑑 𝑏𝑗
ln[(𝑑 𝑖 )( 𝑏 )
𝑗 𝑖
Nmin =
ln∝𝑚
355
Minimum and Actual Reflux Ratio
Minimum reflux ratio can be determine using Underwood equation.
(∝𝑖,𝑟 )∞ 𝑧𝑖,𝐹
▪ ∑ =1−𝑞
(∝𝑖,𝑟 )∞ − Φ
Where q is the thermal condition of the feed. Since thermal condition of the feed is at
the bubble point., q is set to equal to 1.
(∝𝑖,𝑟 )∞ 𝑧𝑖,𝐹
▪ ∑ =1−𝑞 =1−1=0
(∝𝑖,𝑟 )∞ − θ
using trial and error method, we get 𝜃 = 0.1809
Using the second Underwood equation to determine Rmin:
(∝𝑖,𝑟 )∞ 𝑥𝑖,𝐷
∑ = 1 − (𝑅∞ )𝑚𝑖𝑛
(∝𝑖,𝑟 )∞ − 𝜃
assuming R = 1.5Rmin
Then using Gilliland correlation to find number of stages, N using,
𝑅−𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
X=
𝑅+1
(1 + 54.4𝑋) (𝑋 − 1)
Y = 1 − exp [( ) ( 0.5 )]
(11 + 117.2𝑋) (𝑋 )
𝑁−𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑌=
𝑁+1
356
Diameter and Height of Distillation Column
table below shows the data for component in liquid and vapour from distillation column.
Component Liquid (kg/hr) Vapour (kg/hr)

Oleic acid 86.8523 2.3991
Glycerol 506.9483 3.5987
Tert-butanol 0.3269 17.9040
Tert-pentanol 0.2674 14.6487
Water 0 42.2190
Total 594.3951 80.7698
The flow parameter, Flv is calculated by using equation below,
L pv 0.5
Flv = ( ) ( )
V pl
where ρv is vapour density (kg/m3), ρl is liquid density (kg/m3). Vapour density is

calculated using molecular weight and mole fraction of each vapour component as
equation below
Mv = yA MA + yB MB +…
PMv
ρv =
RT
For liquid density is the sum of the liquid component
ρL = ρA + ρB +…
Kv at a 24 inch tray spacing from Figure 11.5-3 from the Separation Process Principles
book by Geankoplis C.J is 0.370 ft/s.
357
𝜎 0.2 𝑝𝑙−𝑝𝑣
Vmax = 𝐾𝑣 ( ) √ , σ = 70
20 𝑝𝑣
Then, using the value of Vmax the value of Vdesign is calculated
Downspout area = 0.91, Foaming = 0.95 and Flooding = 0.80 (Geankoplis C.J 2003)
From the Flv flow parameter, the vapour velocity, Vperm is calculated
using Watkins’ correlation
2 +d(lnFlv)3 +E(lnFlv)4
K = eA+BlnFlv+C(lnFlv)
With constants,
A = -1.87747, B = -0.814580, C = -0.187074, D = -0.014523, E = -0.001015
(𝜌𝐿 + 𝜌𝑉
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝐾√
𝜌𝑉
4 𝑉
𝐷=√
𝜋 𝑣𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝜌𝑉
Sizing for Condenser and Reboiler
Area of condenser can be calculated using equation below:
𝑉∆𝐻𝑣 𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑤𝑐 − 𝑇𝑐𝑤𝑖

𝐴𝑐 = ln ( )
𝑈𝑐(𝑇𝑐𝑤𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑤𝑖) 𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑤𝑐 − 𝑇𝑑𝑐𝑤𝑜
where V = vapour flowrate, ∆𝐻𝑣 = heat of vapourization
𝑃2 −∆𝐻𝑣 1 1
ln ( )= ( − )
𝑃1 𝑅 𝑇2 𝑇1
358
where,
𝑚𝐶𝑝
Uc = Overall heat transfer for coefficient for condenser,
𝐴
Tcwo = Temperature for cooling water out
Tcwi = Temperature for cooling water in
Tdewc = Dew temperature for condenser
The area for reboiler can be calculated using equation below:
𝑉∆𝐻𝑣
𝐴𝑅 =
𝑈𝑅 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑤𝑅 )
where,
V = Vapour flowrate
∆𝐻𝑣 = Heat of vapourization
UR = Overall heat transfer coefficient for reboiler
Ts = Temperature for steam
TdewR = Dew temperature for reboiler

359
12.2 APPENDIX B
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
(BEFORE HEAT INTEGRATION)

360
P101 PUMP R101 PACKED BED P109 PUMP V103 VACUUM EVAPORATOR V105 VACUUM EVAPORATOR E104 COOLER
P102 PUMP REACTOR V101 VACUUM EVAPORATOR C103 CONDENSER C-103 CONDENSER S101 SPRAY DRYER
P103 PUMP P107 PUMP P110 PUMP P112 PUMP P114 PUMP P120 PUMP
P104 PUMP R102 PACKED BED C101 CONDENSER V104 VACUUM EVAPORATOR D101 DISTILLATION COLUMN E107 COOLER
E101 HEATER REACTOR V102 VACUUM EVAPORATOR P113 PUMP C-104 CONDENSER S102 SPRAY DRYER
P105 PUMP P108 PUMP P111 PUMP P115 PUMP RE102 REFLUX
P106 PUMP E103 HEATER E105 HEATER P116 PUMP
P105 PUMP T101 TANK B102 REBOILER
E102 HEATER
6
1 DEPARMENT OF CHEMICAL
Tert-pentanol
P-101 20 23 28 32 35
C-103
AND PROCESS ENGINEERING
7 C-101 C-102
2
Tert-butanol GROUP K1
12
P-102 36 PRODUCTION OF GLYCEROL
Air in
8 Steam in
3 Steam in 21a Steam in 27a 31a
Oleic Acid MONOLAURATE FROM GLYCEROL
P-103
32a
40 Air out AND OLEIC ACID.
Steam out 21b 20a Steam out 27b Steam out 31b
5 9
4 GROUP MEMBERS
Glycerol E-104
27 31 34
E-101 38 39 42
P-104 T-101
Vapour
19b 24 S-101 1. HO DANY
E-102 R-101 19 19a 22 V-105
V-102 V-104 (A164216)
V-101 V-103 33
13 21 26 30 P-114
10 10a
11 14 2. MUHAMMAD HAMIZAN AZMAN
P-112 P-113 (A163509)
P-105 P107 P-109 P-110 P-111
25 37 3.MASHITAH MOHD HISBAN
16 Glycerol (A163419)
41
10b Monooleate
(GMO) 4.HAZWANIKHALIESAH BT MAT
46
E-103 Wastewater
NAZRI
15 29
50 (A164021)
C-104 5.ARINA ATIQAH BT AZHAR
E-107
P-106
RE-102 Air in
(A163472)
45
18 DATE:
P-116 P-117
17
R-102 Air out 30TH APRIL 2021
43 44
E-105
P108 P-115 52 Drawn by : MASHITAH MOHD HISBAN
S-102 Vapour
D-101 49
B-102 Checked by :
P-120
48 47
Glycerol (PROF. DATO IR. DR. WAN RAMLI
E-108 51 Diooleate WAN DAUD)
(GDO)
Stream 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10a 10b 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 19a 19b 20 20a 21 21a 21b 22 23 24 25
Temperature (◦C) 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 70 37 37 37 37 70 70 70 37 70 70 70 70 70 70 140 70 140 135 135 140 140 70 70
Pressure (kPa) 101.3 101.3 101.3 101.3 120.3 120.3 120.3 120.3 120.3 120.3 150.3 150.3 170.3 170.3 170.3 200 170.3 170.3 170.3 200 200 101.1 101.1 10 10 10 101.3 101.3 0.005 0.005 101.3 101.3
Phase L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L V L L V V L V L L (DR. ANG WEI LUN)
Mass Flow Rate (kg/h)
Oleic Acid 0.00 0.00 561.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 561.54 0.00 648.39 324.20 324.20 324.20 324.20 45.39 45.39 324.20 324.20 45.39 45.39 90.77 90.77 90.77 0.00 0.00 90.77 0.00 0.00 90.77 0.00 0.00 0.00
Glycerol 0.00 0.00 0.00 126.52 126.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 126.52 633.47 316.74 316.74 316.74 316.74 256.20 256.20 316.74 316.74 256.20 256.20 512.41 512.41 512.41 0.00 0.00 512.41 0.00 0.00 512.41 0.00 0.00 0.00
Tert-Butanol 0.00 17.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 17.90 0.00 0.00 1577.68 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 1577.68 1577.68 1577.68 1435.44 1435.44 142.24 0.00 0.00 142.24 124.01 124.01 1559.45
Tert-Pentanol 14.65 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.65 0.00 0.00 0.00 394.42 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 394.42 394.42 394.42 278.04 278.04 116.38 0.00 0.00 116.38 101.46 101.46 379.50
Glycerol Monooleate 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 117.28 117.28 0.00 0.00 117.28 117.28 234.56 234.56 234.56 0.00 0.00 234.56 0.00 0.00 234.56 0.00 0.00 0.00
Glycerol Dioleate 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 204.29 204.29 0.00 0.00 204.29 204.29 408.59 408.59 408.59 0.00 0.00 408.59 0.00 0.00 408.59 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.88 10.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.88 19.00 9.50 9.50 9.50 9.50 27.27 27.27 9.50 9.50 27.27 27.27 54.53 54.53 54.53 1.56 1.56 52.97 0.00 0.00 52.97 6.56 6.56 8.13
Steam 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1713.61 1713.61 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 14.65 17.90 0.00 137.40 137.40 14.65 17.90 561.54 137.40 2624.57 1312.29 1312.29 1312.29 1312.29 1591.09 1591.09 1312.29 1312.29 1591.09 1591.09 3182.19 3182.19 3182.19 1715.05 1715.05 1467.14 1713.61 1713.61 1467.14 232.03 232.03 1947.08
Stream 26 27 27a 27b 28 29 30 31 31a 31b 32 32a 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

Temperature (◦C) 140 140 135 135 165 90 180 135 135 135 180 110 180 180 180 110 180 110 140 25 30 100 80 100 80 80 100 70 180 15 15 80
Pressure (kPa) 0.005 101.1 101.3 101.3 101.3 101.3 0.005 101.3 101.3 101.3 0.005 101.3 0.005 101.3 0.005 101.3 0.005 101.3 150.3 101.3 101.3 101.3 150.3 150.3 101.3 150.3 150.3 150.3 150.3 150.3 101.3 101.3 INPUT
Phase L L V V V L L L V V V L L L V L L L L L+S S V L L L L L L L+S L+S S V
Oleic Acid 90.77 90.77 0.00 0.00 89.25 89.25 1.52 1.52 0.00 0.00 0.46 0.46 0.44 0.44 0.63 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.00 89.25 89.25 2.40 2.40 86.85 86.85 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.00
Glycerol 512.41 512.41 0.00 0.00 510.55 510.55 1.86 1.86 0.00 0.00 0.56 0.56 1.30 1.30 0.40 0.40 0.90 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.00 510.55 510.55 3.60 3.60 506.95 506.95 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.00
Tert-Butanol 18.23 18.23 0.00 0.00 18.23 18.23 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 18.23 18.23 17.90 17.90 0.33 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
OUTPUT
Tert-Pentanol 14.92 14.92 0.00 0.00 14.92 14.92 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.92 14.92 14.65 14.65 0.27 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Glycerol Monooleate 234.56 234.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 234.56 234.56 0.00 0.00 150.10 150.10 84.46 84.46 77.42 77.42 7.04 227.52 227.52 227.52 227.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.04 7.04 7.04 0.00
Glycerol Dioleate 408.59 408.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 408.59 408.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 408.59 408.59 0.00 0.00 408.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 408.59 408.59 408.59 0.00
Water 46.41 46.41 0.00 0.00 15.94 15.94 30.47 30.47 0.00 0.00 15.14 15.14 15.32 15.32 2.42 2.42 12.90 17.56 17.56 17.56 0.00 17.56 15.94 15.94 15.94 15.94 0.00 0.00 12.90 12.90 0.00 12.90
Steam 0.00 0.00 644.33 644.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 164.54 164.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 1235.11 1235.11 644.33 644.33 559.63 559.63 675.48 677.00 164.54 164.54 166.26 166.26 510.74 510.74 80.67 80.67 430.06 246.94 246.94 246.94 229.38 17.56 648.89 648.89 54.49 54.49 594.39 594.39 430.06 430.06 417.16 12.90
361
12.3 APPENDIX C
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
(AFTER HEAT INTEGRATION)

362
E102 HEATER
39a
E-104 40
1 P-113
39b
DEPARMENT OF CHEMICAL
Tert-pentanol 35
P-101
6 20 23 28 32
C-103
7 C-101 C-102
2
Tert-butanol GROUP K1
12
P-102 36 PRODUCTION OF GLYCEROL
8 Steam in
3 Steam in 21a Steam in 27a 31a
Oleic Acid MONOLAURATE FROM GLYCEROL
P-103
32a 38
AND OLEIC ACID.
E-101 20a
Steam out 21b Steam out 27b Steam out 31b
5 5a 9
4 GROUP MEMBERS
Glycerol 27 31 34
E-101 42
P-104 19 T-101
Vapour
19b 24 S-101 1. HO DANY
E-102 R-101 19a 22 V-105
V-102 V-104 (A164216)
V-101 V-103 33
13 21 26 30
10 10a
11 14 37 2. MUHAMMAD HAMIZAN AZMAN
P-112 P-113 (A163509)
P-105 P107 P-109 P-110 P-111
25
3.MASHITAH MOHD HISBAN
16 Glycerol (A163419)
41
10b 37a Monooleate
48b P-114 (GMO) 4.HAZWANIKHALIESAH BT MAT
P-120
E-103 Wastewater
NAZRI
15 29
51 (A164021)
39 C-104 5.ARINA ATIQAH BT AZHAR
46
RE-102 (A163472)
45
P-106 E-104
18 DATE:
48a P-116 P-117
E-103 10c 17
R-102 30TH APRIL 2021
43 44
50
HE-101 E-105
P-106 P108 P-115 53 Drawn by : MASHITAH MOHD HISBAN
S-102 Vapour
D-101
B-102 Checked by :
48
47
49 Glycerol (PROF. DATO IR. DR. WAN RAMLI
52 Diooleate WAN DAUD)
P-106
(GDO)
P-120
Stream 1 2 3 4 5 5a 6 7 8 9 10 10a 10b 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 19a 19b 20 20a 21 21a 21b 22 23 24 25 26 27 27a
Temperature (◦C) 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 70 37 37 37 37 70 70 70 37 70 70 70 70 70 70 140 70 140 135 135 140 140 70 70 140 140 135
Pressure (kPa) 101.3 101.3 101.3 101.3 120.3 130 120.3 120.3 120.3 130 120.3 150.3 150.3 170.3 170.3 170.3 200 170.3 170.3 170.3 200 200 101.1 101.1 10 10 10 101.3 101.3 10 10 101.3 101.3 10 101.1 101.3
Phase L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L V L L V V L V L L L L V
(DR. ANG WEI LUN)
Oleic Acid 0 0 561.54 0 0 0 0 0 561.54 0 648.39 324.20 324.20 324.20 324.20 45.39 45.39 324.20 324.20 45.39 45.39 90.77 90.77 90.77 0 0 90.77 0 0 90.77 0 0 0 90.77 90.77 0
Glycerol 0 0 0 126.52 126.52 126.52 0 0 0 126.52 633.47 316.74 316.74 316.74 316.74 256.20 256.20 316.74 316.74 256.20 256.20 512.41 512.41 512.41 0 0 512.41 0 0 512.41 0 0 0 512.41 512.41 0
Tert-Butanol 0 17.90 0 0 0 0 0 17.90 0 0 1577.68 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 788.84 1577.68 1577.68 1577.68 1435.44 1435.44 142.24 0 0 142.24 124.01 124.01 1559.45 18.23 18.23 0
Tert-Pentanol 14.65 0 0 0 0 0 14.65 0 0 0 394.42 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 197.21 394.42 394.42 394.42 278.04 278.04 116.38 0 0 116.38 101.46 101.46 379.50 14.92 14.92 0
Glycerol Monooleate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 117.28 117.28 0 0 117.28 117.28 234.56 234.56 234.56 0 0 234.56 0 0 234.56 0 0 0 234.56 234.56 0
Glycerol Dioleate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 204.29 204.29 0 0 204.29 204.29 408.59 408.59 408.59 0 0 408.59 0 0 408.59 0 0 0 408.59 408.59 0
Water 0 0 0 11 10.88 10.88 0 0 0 10.88 19.00 9.50 9.50 9.50 9.50 27.27 27.27 9.50 9.50 27.27 27.27 54.53 54.53 54.53 1.56 1.56 52.97 0 0 52.97 6.56 6.56 8.13 46.41 46.41 0
Steam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1713.61 1713.61 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 644.33
Total 14.65 17.90 561.54 137.40 137.40 137.40 14.65 17.90 561.54 137.40 2624.57 1312.29 1312.29 1312.29 1312.29 1591.09 1591.09 1312.29 1312.29 1591.09 1591.09 3182.19 3182.19 3182.19 1715.05 1715.05 1467.14 1713.61 1713.61 1467.14 232.03 232.03 1947.08 1235.11 1235.11 644.33
Stream 27b 28 29 30 31 31a 31b 32 32a 33 34 35 36 37 37a 38 39 39a 39b 39c 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 48a 48b 49 50 51 52 53
Temperature (◦C) 135 165 90 180 135 135 135 180 110 180 180 180 110 180 100 110 140 140 90 90 25 30 100 80 100 80 80 100 100 70 70 70 70 15 15 80
Pressure (kPa) 101.3 101.3 101.3 10 101.3 101.3 101.3 10 101.3 10 101.3 10 101.3 10 101.3 101.3 10 101.3 80 101.3 101.3 101.3 101.3 150.3 150.3 101.3 150.3 150.3 160.3 160.3 169.3 150.3 160.3 160.3 101.3 101.3 INPUT
Phase V V L L L V V V L L L V L L L L L L L L L+S S V L L L L L L L L L L L+S S V
Oleic Acid 0 89.25 89.25 1.52 1.52 0 0 0.46 0.46 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.44 0.63 0.63 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0 89.25 89.25 2.40 2.40 86.85 86.85 86.85 86.85 86.85 0.63 0.63 0.63 0
Glycerol 0 510.55 510.55 1.86 1.86 0 0 0.56 0.56 1.30 1.30 0.40 0.40 0.90 0.90 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0 510.55 510.55 3.60 3.60 506.95 506.95 506.95 506.95 506.95 0.90 0.90 0.90 0
Tert-Butanol 0 18.23 18.23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18.23 18.23 17.90 17.90 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0 0 0 0 OUTPUT
Tert-Pentanol 0 14.92 14.92 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14.92 14.92 14.65 14.65 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0 0 0 0
Glycerol Monooleate 0 0 0 234.56 234.56 0 0 150.10 150.10 84.46 84.46 77.42 77.42 7.04 7.04 227.52 227.52 227.52 227.52 227.52 227.52 227.52 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.04 7.04 7.04 0
Glycerol Dioleate 0 0 0 408.59 408.59 0 0 0 0 408.59 408.59 0 0 408.59 408.59 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 408.59 408.59 408.59 0
Water 0 15.94 15.94 30.47 30.47 0 0 15.14 15.14 15.32 15.32 2.42 2.42 12.90 12.90 17.56 17.56 17.56 17.56 17.56 17.56 0 17.56 15.94 15.94 15.94 15.94 0 0 0 0 0 12.90 12.90 0 12.90
Steam 644.33 0 0 0 0 164.54 164.54 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 644.33 559.63 559.63 675.48 677.00 164.54 164.54 166.26 166.26 510.74 510.74 80.67 80.67 430.06 430.06 246.94 246.94 246.94 246.94 246.94 246.94 229.38 17.56 648.89 648.89 54.49 54.49 594.39 594.39 594.39 594.39 594.39 430.06 430.06 417.16 12.90
363
12.4 APPENDIX D
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM
(AFTER HEAT INTEGRATION)

364
E102 HEATER
DEPARMENT OF CHEMICAL
TC
40
TT
40
GROUP K1
39a
TC TT
39b E-104 40 PRODUCTION OF GLYCEROL
1 TC TT
P-113 28 28
PC
28
PT
28
Tert-pentanol 23 23
35 Cooling MONOLAURATE FROM GLYCEROL
6 23 28 32
P-101 20 Cooling Cooling
Cooling Cooling Cooling C-103 Water
7 Water C-102 Water Water PC Out
2 PC
Water
In
PC
23a C-101
Water
In
PC
28a
Out PC In
35a AND OLEIC ACID.
20a Out 32a
Tert-butanol PT
PT
12 20a 20a
PT
32a
PT
35a
35a
P-102 TC
22
23a
PT
23a TC
28a 28a
TC
31
32a
36 GROUP MEMBERS
8 Steam in 24 31
3 21a Steam in 31a

27a
Oleic Acid 1. HO DANY
TT
12 PT
P-103 Steam in
E-101 TC
Cooling 32a 38
42
(A164216)
12 Water 20b 31b
5 5a 9 out
21b 27b PC
42 2. MUHAMMAD HAMIZAN AZMAN
4 Steam out
Glycerol TT
19 FT
19 TT
LT
22
Steam out Steam out
LT
LT
34
(A163509)
12
Cooling LT 31 42
P-104 Water
14 T-101
FC
22 LT
27 TT LC
TT
LC
34
34 Vapour 3.MASHITAH MOHD HISBAN
TC
9 In R-101 19 31 31 31 34
S-101
TC
12 LC
V-101
LC
22
V-102
LC 27 V-104 V-105 (A163419)
E-102 13 14
19b 22 27
V-103
TT 11 19a
21 30 33 4.HAZWANIKHALIESAH BT MAT
9
14 26
10 10a 37
P-113 NAZRI
P-105 P-111 P-112 LC LT
P-109 25 31 31
(A164021)
P107 P-110
Glycerol
5.ARINA ATIQAH BT AZHAR
TT 16 41
48b 10b
16
Monooleate (A163472)
PT PC 37a P-114 (GMO)
44 44
TC TT TC
16 44 44 P-120
E-103 Wastewater
15 TT 29 LC
46 DATE:
51
8TH DECEMBER 2020
16
45
TC
Cooling C-104
Water 39 TT
16
18 LT
45 51
out
RE-102 TC
LT
45 51
P-106 18
Drawn by : MASHITAH MOHD HISBAN
48a LC
18 P-116 P-117 E-107
PT
TC R-102 53
10
E-103 10c
17
43 44
Checked by :
PC
TT 53
10
HE-101 E-105
P108 P-115
P-106 53
S-102 Vapour (PROF. DATO IR. DR. WAN RAMLI
LT
D-101 50
48
WAN DAUD)
B-102
LC
48
48
47 (DR. ANG WEI LUN)
49 Glycerol
52 Diooleate
P-106
(GDO)
P-120
INPUT
OUTPUT
365
12.5 APPENDIX E
WASTEWATER TRATMENT PLANT

366
Oil
Flowmeter 1
Influent
1 Flowmeter
Aeration Aeration DEPARMENT OF CHEMICAL AND PROCESS
Floatation Floatation Tank 1 Tank 2 2 ENGINEERING
Tank 1 Tank 2 Clarifier 1 Clarifier 2
GROUP K1
2 Efluent
3 4 9 PRODUCTION OF GLYCEROL MONOOLEATE
7
P-115 5 8 FROM GLYCEROL AND OLEIC ACID.
P-116 6 P-123
P-121 P-122
Equalization P-117 P-118 P-119 GROUP MEMBERS
tank Skim Tank Air Sparger
Air 1. HO DANY
Sparger (A164216)
2. MUHAMMAD HAMIZAN AZMAN
Air Sparger
Air Sparger P-124 (A163509)
P-120 3.MASHITAH MOHD HISBAN
(A163419)
4.HAZWANIKHALIESAH BT MAT NAZRI
(A164021)
Filter Press 5.ARINA ATIQAH BT AZHAR
Sludge (A163472)
cake
DATE:
P-125 30TH APRIL 2021
Sludge Thickener
Checked by :
Stream 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (PROF. DATO IR. DR. WAN RAMLI WAN

COD (mg/l) 481,773.60 481,773.60 337,241.50 134,896.60 53,958.60 1079.2 1079.2 21.58 21.58 DAUD)
BOD (mg/l) 302,289 302,289 181,373.40 54,412.00 16,323.60 326.5 195.9 3.92 2.35
(DR. ANG WEI LUN)
Oil (mg/l) 14,818.09 14,818.09 148.2 7.4 0.37 0.37 0.96 0.96 0.96
367
12.6 APPENDIX F
PLANT LAYOUT
368
LOADING ENTRANCE S
WATER TANK
WEIGHT
BRIDGE
WEIGHT
BRIDGE
STORE
MAINTENANCE & WORKSHOP GUARD
N
HOUSE Wind
direction
STORAGE TANK
GLYCEROL EMERGENCY
ASSEMBLY AREA
2
LOADING BAY
OLEIC ACID CONTROL ROOM FUTURE EXPENSION
MEDICAL
TOILET
ROOM
BINARY
R-101 D-101
SOLVENT
ADMINISTRATION BUILDING
CHANGING ROOM
SCHEDULE WASTE V-101 V-102
V-103 V-104
Utilities
V-105
S-102 S-101
EMERGENCY
SURAU
TOILET
WASTEWATER
CAFETERIA ASSEMBLY
TREATMENT PLANT
AREA 1
GDO GMO
TOILET
TANK TANK
MAIN ENTRANCE
GUARD
HOUSE
LOADING BAY
SAFETY GOGGLES SAFETY GLOVES
TNB SUBSTATION
LABORATORY WAREHOUSE (PRODUCT) PARKING AREA
SAFETY BOOTS NO SMOKING AREA
SAFETY SUITS FIRE EXTINGUISHER
PARKING AREA
369
12.7 APPENDIX G
MECHANICAL DRAWING
a) Packed Bed Reactor, R-101.
b) Vacuum Falling Film Evapourator, V-101.
c) Reboiler, RE-101.
d) Distillation Column, D-101.
e) Spray dryer, S-101.

370
371
1200 mm
VESSEL TOP VIEW TUBE SHEET
81.92 mm
A
19.1 mm
272 mm
B DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL
108.64 mm GROUP K1
PRODUCTION OF
GLYCEROL MONOLAURATE
1200 mm MANHOLE BLIND FLANGE FROM GLYCEROL
C
AND OLEIC ACID.
81.92 mm
TITLE: MECHANICAL DRAWING
I
FALLING FILM EVAPORATOR, V-101
STRAIGHT SKIRT TOP VIEW G
H GROUP MEMBERS:
10990 mm 12.97 mm
1. HO DANY
(A164216)
4900 mm
2. MUHAMMAD HAMIZAN
AZMAN (A163509)
10790mm
3.MASHITAH MOHD HISBAN

(A163419)
4.HAZWANIKHALIESAH
BT MAT NAZRI (A164021)
1000 mm
D1 5.ARINA ATIQAH BT
D2
22 mm H2 Do AZHAR (A163472)
D
DATE:
30TH APRIL 2021
Drawn by :
E
HAZWANI KHALIESAH
BT MAT NAZRI (A164021)
Scale: Not to scale.

All dimension in mm.
Design specificati`on:
F
Design Temperature : 70°C
Design Pressure : 10 kPa
Flange diameter Diameter of vessel : 1.2 m
Label D1 D2 Height of evaporator : 11.4 m
Do (mm) H1 (mm) H2 (mm) Shell : Cylinder
(mm) (mm) Top head : Torispherical
E 228.6 102.4 114.3 23.8 76.2 Bottom head : Torispherical
372
3660
C
WELDING NECK FLANGE TOP VIEW
A
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & BUILT
ENVIRONMENT (FKAB)
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME (JKKP)
FINAL YEAR DESIGN PROJECT

420 SEMESTER 2 2020/2021
DRAWING TITLE:
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF REBOILER B-102
WELDING NECK FLANGE SIDE VIEW PROJECT TITLE:

PRODUCTION OF GLYCEROL MONOOLEATE (GMO)
530 A FROM GLYCEROL AND OLEIC ACID FOR
B D ANTI-BACTERIA AGENT
SUPERVISOR:
d3
h1
d2 PROF. DATO' IR. DR. WAN RAMLI WAN DAUD
DR. ANG WEI LUN
b
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF d4 MR. HAH CHIEW KHEN
k MR. HELMI ASHAR
SIDE VIEW CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA D GROUP K1
DRAWN BY:
OF SADDLE SUPPORT ARINA ATIQAH BINTI AZHAR (A163472)
GROUP MEMBERS:
HO DANY (A164216)
MUHAMMAD HAMIZAN AZMAN (A163509)
DETAILED VIEW OF SADDLE SUPPORT MASHITAH MOHD HISBAN (A163419)
HAZWANI KHALIESAH (A164021)
840 DATE OF SUBMISSION: 3RD MAY 2021

120o Drawing not to scale unit
Dimension in milimeter (mm)
t1
V Design Specification:
Design pressure (psi): 26.31

16 t1
Length of reboiler (m): 6.00
20 G J J
Y Minimum thickness of shell(m): 0.00394
t2 E E
C
Maximum allowable stress(psi): 11400
Joint efficiency: 1 (Full radiography)

Dimension of flange (mm)
MAWP vessel (psi): 114.66
Saddle support dimension
Pipe opening
Label connection diameter
D b h1 Corrosion allowance (m): 0.02
Vessel Dimensions (m)
A Tube inlet 88.9000 190 16 45 Maximum Longitudinal stress: 36.69
diameter
weight (kN)
B Tube outlet 88.9000 190 16 45 (m)
V Y C E J G t1 t2 Circumferential stress: 73.39
C Shell inlet 88.9000 190 16 45 Material: Stainless steel 316
0.8000 50 0.5800 0.1500 0.7000 0.2900 0.2250 0.0950 8 5
D Shell outlet 88.9000 190 16 45
Type of vessel support: Saddle support
Type of flange: Welding neck flange

373
Side View Top View

Distillation Column Cross Sectional View
Distillation Column
45a
Distillation Column
320.67 mm
45b FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME
KKKR 4852
600 mm FINAL YEAR DESIGN PROJECT
2059.27 mm PROJECT TITLE
2082.67 mm 23.40 mm PRODUCTION OF GLYCEROL MONOLEATE
(GMO) FROM GLYCEROL AND OLEIC ACID
AS ANTIBACTERIAL AGENT
Cross Sectional View Top View DRAWING TITLE:

Bottom View MECHANICAL DESIGN OF DISTILLATION
Skirt Support Flange Manhole
O COLUMN D-101
X
GROUP MEMBERS:
A
HO DANY
B
(A164216)
44 MUHAMMAD HAMIZAN BIN AZMAN
(A163509)
1990.20 mm MASHITAH BINTI MOHD HISBAN
(A163419)
2630.86 mm HAZWANI KHALIESAH BT MAT NAZRI
(A164021)
9 mm ARINA ATIQAH BT AZHAR
(A163472)
2000 mm
Y DRAWN BY: MUHAMMAD HAMIZAN BIN AZMAN
104.63 mm
23.21 mm
DATE: 03 MAY 2021
2200 mm tf
2059.27 mm DRAWING NOT TO SCALE

UNITS DIMENSION IN MILLMETER(MM)
DIMENSION OF FLANGES (mm) MAWPVESSEL: 23.08 bar

STREAM NOM. PIPE SIZE FLANGE CLASS O tf X A Y B
47b DESIGN PRESSURE: 1.503 bar
44 152.40 150.00 279.40 23.80 192.02 168.40 88.90 154.05 o
DESIGN TEMPERATURE: 100 C
45a 254.00 150.00 406.40 28.63 304.80 273.05 101.60 254.51
320.67 mm SPECIFICATIONS
47a 45b 203.20 150.00 342.90 26.85 246.13 219.20 101.60 202.72 · Ellipsoidal Heads and Cylindrical Shell
- ASME SA-135 Gr. A Carbon Steel
1000 mm 47a 127.00 150.00 254.00 22.28 163.58 141.22 88.90 128.19 · Skirt Support
47b 330.20 150.00 482.60 30.15 365.25 323.85 114.30 304.80 - ASME SA-516 Gr. 55 Carbon Steel
· Flange
- Welded Neck Flange Class 150
374

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K1 Final Report

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PRODUCTION OF GLYCEROL MONOOLEATE (GMO) FROM

GLYCEROL AND OLEIC ACID FOR ANTI-BACTERIA AGENT

SUPERVISOR: PROF. DATO' IR. DR. WAN RAMLI WAN DAUD

DR. ANG WEI LUN

PROJECT SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT FOR THE BACHELOR’S

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN DAN ALAM BINA

13th July 2021 HO DANY

MUHAMMAD HAMIZAN AZMAN

MASHITAH MOHD HISBAN

HAZWANI KHALIESAH BT MAT

ARINA ATIQAH BINTI AZHAR

Wastewater treatment plant includes sequencing equalization tank, skim tank,

CHAPTER II MARKET ANALYSIS 8

CHAPTER III CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 12

3.1.4 Reaction Conversion 15

3.6.3 Comparison Of Mass Balance

CHAPTER IV HEAT INTEGRATION 54

CHAPTER V PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION 60

CHAPTER VI WASTE MANAGEMENT 75

6.6 Wastewater Treatment Plant 81

CHAPTER VII PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT 91

CHAPTER VIII ECONOMY ANALYSIS 98

8.4 Total Product Cost 105

CHAPTER X DETAIL PROCESS DESIGN 147

10.2.3 Minimum Wall Thickness, Tmin 150

10.6 Detailed Design Of Condenser C-103 188

CHAPTER XI MECHANICAL DESIGN 265

11.2 Mechanical Design Of Packed Bed Reactor, R-101 265

2) Direct Stress 302

11.7.7 Combine Loading 330

CHAPTER XII CONCLUSION 340

Table 1. 1 The physical and chemical properties of Glycerol

Table 3. 14 The economic potential analysis for level 3 29

Table 3. 39 Mass Balance of stream 48

Table 6. 2 Acceptable conditions for industrial discharge effluent

Table 9. 1 Chemical hazard identification 130

Table 10. 18 Physical Properties of Vapour Mixture and cooling

Table 11. 10 Summary design of packed bed reactor, R-101 290

Figure 1. 1 The structural formula of Glycerol Monooleate

Figure 7. 1 Plant location at Kampung Kepayang, Simpang Pulai, Perak 94

Figure 10. 16 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 285

Figure 11. 10 Layout Spray Dryer 328

Figure 1. 1 The structural formula of Glycerol Monooleate (GMO)

Source: Milak & Zimmer 2014

Table 1. 1 The physical and chemical properties of Glycerol Monooleate (GMO)

1.1 SOURCE OF RAW MATERIAL

1.1.1 Oleic acid

Figure 1. 2 The chemical structure of oleic acid

Source: Pubchem 2019

Table 1. 2 The physical and chemical properties of oleic acid

Chemical name 9Z-octadecenoic acid; cis-9-Octadecenoic acid

Physical state Liquid

Odour Peculiar lar-like odour

Molecular weight 282.47 g/mol

Boiling point 286.11oC

Melting point 16.3 oC

Glycerol is a sweet-tasting liquid belonging to the alcohol family of organic compounds.

Table 1. 3 The properties of Glycerin

Properties Crude Glycerin Technical Grade 99.7 -USP Grade

Source: Glycerin Specifications - SRS Biodiesel)

Tert-butanol or commonly known as tert-butyl alcohol, is an anthropogenic compound

Table 1. 4 The physical and chemical properties of tert-butanol

Source: MSDS 2016

Table 1. 5 The physical and chemical properties of tert-pentanol