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DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND METHODS FOR MILITARY

TURBOJET ENGINES

J.P. HERTEMAN, Technical Director

M. GOUTINES, Assistant Director for Research
SNECMA Villaroche
77556 MOISSY CRAMAYEL
France

1. INTRODUCTION - the contribution of the aircraft

The design of turbojet engines for military
aircraft is at present undergoing a
transformation, due among other things to
changing demands from customers, who are
either modifying their initial performance
priorities, or introducing new specifications.
Basing ourselves on this new order, we can
draw up a list of those technologies, methods,
or know-how areas which require research
and development effort.
As far as military aircraft are concerned, the
first thing to note is that the usual five
performance criteria, i.e. specific fuel
consumption, thrust to weight ratio on take-
off, acceleration and deceleration times, flight
envelope limits and reliability, can be
weighted in different ways to produce a
global performance criterion. The individual
weights of the different performances will
vary, depending on the mission or missions
assigned to the aircraft, and this can produce
different engine architectures.
In recent years, armed forces and government
departments have frequently been concerned
with two requirements which initially
appeared less critical, i.e.
- the reduction of costs of all types,
from production costs to the costs of
maintaining equipment with a long service
history;
engine to electromagnetic stealth, both infra-
red and in the radar bands.
As far as costs are concerned, the requirement
is to design hi-tech engines at low cost. In
practice this means that the desirable
technologies are those which provide high
performance at low cost, and not necessarily
those which provide maximum performance.
It should be noted that a given technological
advance, for example, improved blade
aerodynamics, can be used in different ways;
to maximise engine efficiency, to reduce the
number of blades, or as a trade off between
the two.
2. ENGINE ARCHITECTURE
ENHANCEMENT AND
COMPONENT INTEGRATION
2.1 Advanced technology components for
conventional thermodynamic cycle engines
The high level of coupling between the
different modules generally means that the
optimum design is not simply an assembly of
the optimum designs of each module. This is
obviously true for the design of compressors
and turbines linked on the same shaft.
The emphasis placed on cost, electromagnetic
stealth and qualities such as reliability, means
that optimisation work is now based on
overall multidimensional criteria and

The figures are in the French version of this Address

Paper presented at the RTO AVT Symposium on “Design Pn’nciples and Methods for Aircraf Gas Turbine Engines “,
held in Toulouse, France, 11-15 May 1998, and published in RTO MP-8.
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expressed in terms of the engine or
aircraft/engine system.
There is a considerable amount of
aerothermodynamic interaction between
modules. For example, care should be taken
to ensure that the unsteady distortions of
stagnation pressure and velocity vector
produced by the air inlet during high angle of
attack manoeuvres remain compatible with an
acceptable level of deterioration of the surge
line of the low pressure compressor. The
optimum aircraft can only be achieved by a
judicious trade-off of specifications between
the air inlet (maximum permissible
distorsion) and the LP compressor (minimum
surge margin to be ensured). Figure 1 shows
the aerodynamic simulation, measurement
and computation facilities developed to
ensure air inlet/engine compatibility both at
the design stage (computation) and prior to
flight testing ( engine or LP compressor
tested on a ground test rig). The radial
clearance between the casing and the blade
tips of a rotor, or between the rub strip of a
honey comb structure and its sealing fins can
have a critical influence on turbojet engine
performance. This type of interaction and the
way in which it develops is conditioned to a
great extent by the dynamic and thermal
behaviour of the engine considered as a
whole. In addition, under real operating
conditions, engines are subjected to various
types of transient effects : imbalance, deck
landings, high-g manoeuvres etc..
Figure 2 shows a dynamic model of a
complete engine and illustrates how it can be
used to reduce the strain on an engine fastener
during deck landings.This type of calculation
is necessary to ensure that the resulting
engine is both as light as possible and capable
of running for a sufficient number of cycles
under military operating conditions.
Finally, the assembly-disassembly of an
engine and its many accessories and hoses can
be long and costly operations if efforts
towards rationalisation and simplification are
not made right from the design stage.
Previously, this was achieved by means of
scale mock-ups, which in fact were ill-suited
to the job of obtaining an optimal
configuration within a reasonable time frame.
The use of numerical mock-ups produced by
CATIA V4 type 3D design and display
software has enabled spectacular reductions in
removal/installation times as well as in design
costs of the build-up. Figure 3 shows the
numerical mock-up of a subassembly of a
military engine.
2.2 Advanced thermodynamic cycles and
complex architectures
New concepts are being examined to enable
improvements in of performance and
operational qualities. Among others are the
variable cycle or hybrid concepts, which can
be used to produce a variable by-pass ratio
HP compressor, air or power bleeds, vectored
thrust, and in the longer term a fixed or
variable area turbine nozzle. The main
difficulty presented by these new techniques
is to keep costs and reliability at the same
levels as those achieved on conventional
engines. In particular, one of the major
problems is to obtain an acceptable degree of
complexity for the regulation system
responsible for engine management and
control. In the same way, integration of the
different modules into this type of engine will
become more complex.
The future of advanced architecture engines
will depend on the ability of designers to keep
life cycle costs close to those of conventional
engines.
3. TECHNOLOGIES FOR
STRUCTURES AND
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Progress needs to be made to reduce the costs
and improve the reliability of control systems
for variable geometry control surfaces. We

are concerned here with the variable by-pass
ratio of compressors, twin parameter nozzles
(and/or vectoring), variable mixing etc..
New structural materials concepts, with
greater incorporation of different thermal and
mechanical functions, will be used to reduce
engine weight. Figure 4 shows the use of an
organic matrix composite ( “PMR 15”
carbon/resin ) for the fan duct of the Rafale
MW2 engine. This figure also shows the use
of ceramic matrix thermostructural
composites (carbon/Sic) for the outboard
flaps of the nozzle of the SNECMA M 88-2.
Eventually, thanks to their high temperature
tolerance properties, composite materials such
as CERASEP (Sic/Sic), will be used for hot
divergent nozzle flaps and other component
elements of afterburners and afterburner
systems.
More advanced bearing shaft bearings,
bearings and sealing systems will be used in
turbojet engines. The aim will be to stop leaks
while reducing heat generation and of course,
extending the lifetime of these components.
4. REGULATION SYSTEMS
4.1 Numerical systems
Full authority numerical regulation has been
adopted on all recent projects. In the future,
safety and reliability requirements will
necessitate the use of “numerical core”
distribution techniques in preference to the
proliferation of separate processing channels
These technologies will enable us to
reconfigure computers and thus avoid the
consequences of localised failures. It will
therefore be possible to meet safety and
reliability specifications at a lower cost than
is the case with present day architectures, or
alternatively, achieve a higher availability
rate for an equivalent cost.
The most advanced regulation codes simulate
overall thermodynamic operation of the
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engine in real time. This enables the use of
mutivariable regulations, which are not the
same as independent variable regulation
techniques and which enable significant
improvements in the following fields :
- reduction of acceleration and deceleration
times. Figure 5 shows that the time required
to achieve 95% of full thrust has been
reduced by 17%, all other conditions being
equal.
- use of regulation modes adapted to different
aircraft missions. For example, regulation
modes which minimise the infrared emission
created by combustion products and the
temperature of the jet, or so-called “peacetime
modes” which reduce part damage caused by
thermomechanical fatigue.
- reduction of the cost and time required for
debugging regulation systems.
The numerical model of the engine stored in
the onboard computer can also be used to
detect the failure of sensors which monitor
engine status ( rotation speeds, pressures,
temperatures etc..). To a certain extent, an
“alternative” to the basic regulation system
can be implemented to lessen the effects of
these failures and to provide a dramatic
improvement in operational availability.
Figure 5 shows the “compensation” for a
temperature measurement drift T23 (outlet
from LP compressor) during an acceleration.
It will be noted that the visible disturbance is
very moderate and that the rotation speed of
the HP compressor (XN25) increases in
quasi-linear fashion, as required.
4.2 Mechanical and hydraulic systems
Current research work aims at reducing the
weight, cost and the number of parts in the
systems which control the injection of fuel
and actuate engine components. It is, for
example, planned to use a single fuel pump
(instead of a main pump and a pump for the
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afterburner) Effort is also being put into
generally simplifying the mechanical systems
which drive the variable setting stators, and
the nozzle valves and mobile flaps (actuators,
synchronisation systems etc. .)
5. COMPRESSORS
5.1 Design and analysis methods
Aerodynamic analysis shows a general
tendency to use 3D Navier-Stokes equations
in which turbulent phenomena are represented
as a temporal average by means of
sophisticated models (K, E etc...). Modern
compressors are optimised using codes which
are always applied to steady flows, but which
are capable of solving flow through a series
of fixed and variable cascades.Transfer of the
boundary conditions obtaining at the
interfaces between cascades makes use of a
simplification involving circumferential
averaging of the flow. Figure 6 shows the
field of the Mach number for the cascades in
the first stage of an HP compressor (inlet
guide vane + rotor + outlet guide vane).
These results are very useful, not only for
optimising the profiles but also for adapting
each blading to the flow produced by the
upstream cascade. As modern compressors
are subject to increasing aerodynamic loads,
it is important when carrying out digital
analyses to allow for the so-called small scale
effects such as blade tip radial clearance,
leaks through the walls of the duct, hydraulic
jumps etc..Figure 7 gives an example of
quantification of the influence of radial
clearance at the tip of a loaded blade which,
while allowing the fluid under pressure from
the pressure side to escape to suction side of
the neighbouring channel, induces a
significant eddy and reduces compression
efficiency.
The “unsteady” versions of these 3D Navier-
Stokes calculation codes are being developed
and tested with the aim of rapidly qualifying
them for industrial applications. The aim is
to be able to make provision for blading
flutter envelopes and for the dynamic
characteristics of stator wake/rotor blade
aerodynamic excitation and vice versa.
Structural sizing will be more accurate and
the probability of not having to go back and
alter the compressor design will be much
greater.
Finally, the provision of aerodynamic
calculations which allow for unsteady
phenomena should improve compressor
efficiency predictions particularly with regard
to stall and surge limits. The technologies
used for active control of compressor surge
could also benefit from the advances made in
unsteady aerodynamics design methods.
In so far as concerns the structural sizing of
rotors and stators, special efforts are being
made in the fields of :
- modelling of the damage caused by
the intake of foreign bodies (stones, birds
etc..) . The objective here is to be able to
correctly assessthe consequences of impacts
in terms of plastic deformation, fracture and
retention of debris,
- prediction of rotor lifetimes under
real operating conditions and allowing for
minor manufacturing inaccuracies and
imperfections. The aim is to fully understand
the behaviour of materials which are loaded
for long periods in the presence of small
localised irregularities (scratches, welded
areas etc. .)
5.2 Advanced materials and
manufacturing processes
The increase in pressure ratio and therefore in
compressor outlet temperatures explains the
adoption of powder metallurgy nickel based
alloys for parts downstream of the rotor. It is
also planned to use titanium aluminides for
the medium temperature parts of the casings

and guide vanes which are at present made of
steel. The main aim is to reduce weight.
In the medium term, there are some
developments on Sic/Ti type metal matrix
compound materials (CMM). These materials,
which have a high stress to elastic
limit/density ratio, will enable considerable
weight reduction. In this type of architecture,
the conventional disks are replaced by thin
CMM rings which take up the centifugal
strain of the rotating vanes.The ring + blade
assembly forms a one-piece unit.
In the longer term, it is planned to use
intermetallic matrix compound materials
(CMIM), which would produce unequalled
structural performances. One of the major
difficulties lies in the development of
reproducible production processes at
acceptable cost.
5.3 Design trends for future compressors
Cost reduction constraints mean that today’s
compressors must achieve the same efficiency
with less stages. This is accomplished by
using the advances made in aerodynamics to
increase the aerodynamic load factor GIAJZ,
which is between 0.5 and 0.6 on recent
machines. A good illustration of present
trends is the recently produced SNECMA
experimental HP compressor with
a pressure ration of 11.4, in 5 stages (cf. Fig
8). Compared to the state-of-the-art, this
compressor presents an aerodynamic load
(GI/U2) increased by 20% with the same
efficiency, or alternatively an increase in
efficiency of 2 points with the same
aerodynamic load.
Finally, the advanced materials described in
the above paragraph will be used either to
reduce weight or to increase rotational speed
without any weight penalty.
6. COMBUSTION CHAMBER AND
AFTERBURNER
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6.1 Design and analysis methods
Whereas in the past empirical methods were
widely used, today’s combustion chambers are
designed using 3D numerical codes to
simulate the flow of viscous, chemically
reactive fluids. The realistic simulation of jet
fuel combustion phenomena means looking at
two-phase flows (fuel droplets/burnt gases
and air) and ensuring that the turbulence
models are suited to the problem. Figure 9
shows the temperature maps obtained in three
different throughflow sections of a double
headed combustion chamber. This type of
calculation is used in conjunction with a
parametric study to produce a design which
minimises temperature irregularities. It is
important that the use of this type of
calculation includes all the small cooling
devices (perforations, slots generating cold
films etc..), as the prediction of heat flows is
an essential element in the sizing of the walls
which make up the chamber. Research is
under way to develop unsteady combustion
codes capable of predicting the instability
domains. This will be very useful for sizing
afterburner systems, one of the requirements
of which should be the absence of instability
caused by acoustic coupling/combustion
reactions, or “screech”.
Concerning the design of combustion devices,
an effort should be made to generalise
modelling of the viscoplastic behaviour of the
walls, as well as lifetime prediction.
6.2 Design trends for future combustion
chambers
In order to reduce the size and weight of
future engines, combustion exit temperature
will be increased to typically 2100K on outlet
from the HP turbine nozzle. Infrared
discretion requirements will lead to
reductions in the emission of smoke and other
secondary combustion products (NOx etc. .).
One of the architectures which meets these
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specifications is the double headed
combustion chamber (two axially offset
injectors) (cf fig. 9). These combustor
technologies will be combined with new
technology injection systems which will
improve the quality of fuel spray and the
spatial distribution of fuel.
Reduction in chamber wall cooling rates (or
increased lifetime with the same cooling air)
will be achieved by the use of advanced
technologies (multi-perforations, pin tiles
etc. .) associated with zirconate coatings
acting as thermal barriers. The use of ceramic
matrix compound materials (SiC/SiC) for the
chamber walls is another area worthy of
interest.
7. TURBINES
7.1 Design and analysis methods
In the same way as for the design of
compressors, turbine design uses 3D Navier-
Stokes equations with sophisticated
turbulence models. Considerable progress was
made when it became possible to do the
design calculations for several cascades
simultaneously (for example nozzle guide
vane + rotor) and allow for radial clearance at
the blade tips. Figure 10 illustrates the
relative Mach number profile obtained from
an HP turbine stage; the compatibility of
boundary conditions at the guide vane/rotor
interface can only be achieved for
circumferentially averaged values. An
accurate description of cooling fins and
internal flow distributions will shortly be
included in the 3D Navier-Stokes codes to
enable detailed modelling of heat flows in the
guide vanes.
Current research into structural design
methods essentially concerns the use of
viscoplastic damage calculation methods for
improved life cycle prediction.
7.2 Cooling technologies and materials
Cooling technologies play an essential role in
the design of HP compressors. High
temperatures could not in fact be achieved
without very efficient cooling systems to limit
the ventilation flow rates and prevent any
fall-off in efficiency which would otherwise
cancel out the gain achieved on the
thermodynamic cycle. Among the
technologies being considered for future
engines are :
- cooling systems composed of small
channels located near the pressure side and
suction side walls,
- the use of sophisticated internal
disturbance devices producing an increase in
turbulent thermal convection inside the
blades,
- fairing and flare-out of the “cold”
film effusion holes in order to improve their
quality,
- improvement of the properties of
monocrystalline alloys and ceramic thermal
barriers.
Figure 11 shows a prototype of a new
generation casting designed to achieve an 8%
improvement in thermal efficiency on present
state-of-the-art, at the same ventilation flow
rate.
7.3 Design trends for future turbines
The achievement of high specific thrust and
reduced fuel consumption requires high
turbine inlet temperatures (2 1OOK), which, as
we have already menioned, means that
cooling flow rates must be kept to acceptable
levels. The increase in HP compressor
pressure ratios, while keeping rotation speeds
at moderate levels so as not to penalise
weight, will lead to high aerodynamic load
factors for the HP turbine, typically GI/U2>2.
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Advances in aerodynamics will be used to - colocation of operational teams right

reduce the number of moving blades and
guide vanes. The objective is typically to
increase pitch-to-chord ratios by 20%
compared to those produced using
conventional criteria. Three dimensional
designs will be used, with allowance for the
behaviour of the blade boundary layers in the
unsteady environment created by the
alternation of stators and rotors.
Finally, we note that a reduction in the
number of blades on the HP turbine rotor,
together with their unit cost, and an increased
blade lifetime, are decisive factors in the
reduction of maintenance costs. In fact, the
replacement or repair of these parts during
engine overhaul operations represents a major
percentage of maintenance costs.
8. FUTURE TRENDS IN THE
MANAGEMENT OF MILITARY
TURBOJET PROJECTS -
CONCLUSIONS
Even the best technologies can prove quite
worthless unless they are implemented as part
of a suitably controlled and optimised engine
development-production process.
from the initial design phase. These teams are
made
up of members of design,
production, after-sales and logistics support
teams.
- a high level of integration between
engine and aircraft manufacturers.
From a technical point of view, we can no
longer release a design without making full
three-dimensional fluid mechanics and
structures evaluations.
No significant reduction of development lead
times can be achieved without the creation of
“technology nurturing” programmes or
exploratory developments designed to remove
the major risks before the launch of an engine
programme. Figure 12 gives the schedule for
a derived military engine which is being
developed and manufactured in accordance
with this type of approach. It should be noted
that the first engine turn-over is previewed 16
months after the start of the design studies
and flight qualification after a total of 36
months.

In this respect, the application of integrated

multidisciplinary design is of benefit to the
development of military engines, even though
certain constraints, budgetary or otherwise,
may complicate the situation. The essential
results are improved customer satisfaction, a
30% to 40% reduction in non-recurrent costs
and better development/production lead
times.

The three key success factors in such an

approach are :

- stringent project management :

progress charts, phasing, risk identification
etc..