Which areas on the globe are most suitable for growing mungbean?

Name: Jos Smallegange

910313771120
Name supervisor: Bert Rijk
Name chair group: Plant Production Systems
Date: 01-02-2012
Bsc-thesis Ecology and biodiversity
Table of Contents

Abstract……………………………………………………3

1. Introduction……………………………………………….3

2. Material and methods…………………………………….6

3. Results……………………………………………………...7
3.1 Constrains……………………………………………………...7
3.1.1 Plant demands…………………………………………...................7
3.1.2 Agro-ecological aspects……………………………………………12
3.2 Countries………………………………………………………15
3.2.1 Countries where mungbean is already grown…………………...15
3.2.2 Suitable countries………………………………………………….18
3.3 Cultivation……………………………………………………..29
3.4 Yield……………………………………………………………29

4. Conclusion and discussion………………………………………..30

References………………………………………………………….31

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Abstract
Mungbean (Vigna radiata) belongs to the family of the Fabaceae and is grown on all the
continents of the world accept Antarctica for a very long time. The sprout-producing company
“EversSpecials” wants to know which agro-ecological regions are most suitable for growing
mungbean with a good sprouting quality. With this knowledge, they want to find farmers who
produce large amounts of mungbean seed with a homogeneous good sprouting quality, in the
chosen region. For a good sprouting quality they can use the mungbean variety NFM-12-12,
also called “Ramzan”, which is resistance to lodging, which results in a good sprouting
quality. Nowadays mungbean is mainly grown in Thailand, Australia, Burma, China, India,
Kenya and Peru (Poehlman,1991). After this research it is known if it is logical that
mungbean is mainly grown in these regions or that there are more suitable regions for
growing mungbean. To determine which areas are most suitable for growing mungbean
several agro-ecological aspects and plant demands have been investigated. The plant demands
in terms of: photosynthesis, growth period, photoperiod, rhizobium symbioses, mycorrhiza
symbioses, harvest index and variety were investigated. Also the agro-ecological
characteristics: radiation, temperature, precipitation and soil moistness, and soil were
investigated. Temperate environments with high radiation ,with an average daily temperature
of 27˚C, a daily precipitation between 3,2 and 5 mm/day and a soil with a soil moisture level
of 50% and a pH of 6,5 are most suitable for growing mungbean. Mungbean has an average
photoperiod between 46 to 63 days and will flower between 12 and 13 hours. With this
characteristics the global search for suitable areas could begin. First usable areas were chosen
based on climate characteristics. Areas with a Steppe climate were chosen. Those areas were
further restricted by temperature, growth period and photoperiod measurements. This resulted
in three suitable areas: Ciudad Victoria (23˚N99˚W) (Mexico), Ahmedabad (23˚N72˚E)
(India) and Charleville (26˚S146˚E) (Australia). Of those three areas the soil characteristics
were investigated and this resulted in the following suitable soil types: This are the
Kastanozems around Ciudad Victoria; the Eutric, Vertic Cambisols and Calcaric Fluvisols
around Ahmedabad; and the Luvic Yermosols around Charleville. Relay cropping was
probably possible for those areas and the limiting factors, water irrigation and fertilization
were not so big.

1. Introduction
Mungbean (Vigna radiata), also called: mung, moong, mungo, greengram, goldengram,
chickawaw pea or Oregon pea, belongs to the order of the Fabales and the plant family of the
Fabaceae and is a pulse crop grown principally for its protein-rich edible seeds and sprouts.
Mungbean is grown all over the world for a very long time. The progenitor may be found
growing wild on the wastelands of India ( Poehlman, 1991).
The sprout-producing company “EversSpecials” produces sprouts (taugé) grown from
mungbean seeds. It is the biggest sprout-producing company in the Netherlands and maybe
even in Europe. For the production of sprouts, they import mungbean seed from other
countries, mainly from China. The seed is bought from traders, who bought it from local
farmers. Most farmers in China grow mungbean on fields of 3 to 4 ha. “EversSpecials” needs

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lots of mungbean seeds, so the seeds are collected from multiple farms. Those seeds differ in
variety, size, colour, vigour, germination capacity, etc., so you may have a heterogeneous
sprouting quality. All those different seeds may vary in vigour and germinative capacity. But
during the production process, all the seeds get the same time to germinate. This results in
seeds that have not germinated and seeds that have passed an optimal growth stage. This gives
problems in the prosecuting growth process of sprouts. The germination time is only one of
the problems of a heterogeneous product. “EversSpecials” want a homogeneous product to
reduce these problems. To get a homogeneous product they want a one-on-one relation with a
company that produces one variety of mungbean seeds with a good sprouting-quality for
them. “EversSpecials” want to know which parts of the world are most suited for this
company to grow mungbean.
Therefor several agro-ecological aspects and plant demands which determine which areas are
most suitable to grow mungbean have been investigated. The plant demands in terms of:
photosynthesis, growth period, photoperiod, rhizobium symbioses, mycorrhiza symbioses,
distribution of organic matter or harvest index (HI) and variety.
Also the environmental characteristics: radiation, temperature, precipitation and soil moisture,
and soil.
Mungbean plants obtain energy by photosynthesis that uses the energy from the sun. The
radiation use efficiency determines among other things the plant growth. A better
photosynthesis efficiency results in better plant growth. Therefore it was investigated which
photosynthetic pathway the mungbean uses and in which environment photosynthesis was
optimal.

The growth period determines the time needed to produce mungbean seeds, so from seed to
seed. The growth period consists of the emergence, initial growth, development of the
photosynthesis and reproduction apparatus, the photoperiod, flowering period and pod filling
period. Therefore it was investigated how long these periods were.
The photoperiod determines the day length and the amount of days needed to flower. The
incentive to flower is determined by the type of plant. There are short-day, long day and
photoperiod insensitive plants. Short day plants flower when the nights get longer and
longday plants when the nights get shorter. Photoperiod insensitive plants flower
independently from the photoperiod. It was investigated if it is better to use photoperiod
sensitive or photoperiod insensitive plants. It was also investigated what the duration of the
photoperiod is to induce flowering. The photoperiod determines the latitude of the area for
growing mungbean and which part of the year is most suitable for growing mungbean.

Mungbean is of the plant family of the Fabaceae, so they are able to create symbiosis with
rhizobium bacteria. Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is a process of reducing nitrogen (N2)
to ammonia (NH3) through the nitrogenase enzyme present in rhizobium. (Poonam et
al.,2007). Yield increases of 10 to 37 percent following inoculation have been reported by
various research workers. So BNF is very important (Poehlman,2009). It is investigated which
environment is most suitable for bacteria to get the best BNF. And which rhizobium strain is
most effective.

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Mungbean is also able to create symbiosis with the vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi.
Vesicular-arbuscular (VA) is a fungi that invades the root cortex of the plant. This increases
the feeding zone of the plant roots since the external hyphae of the fungus extends out beyond
the root hairs. The hyphae absorbs ions, principally, those containing phosphorus, but to a less
extent those containing micronutrients such as zinc and molybdenum. Mycorrhiza increases
the utilization of available phosphorus in the soil, but does not mobilize the insoluble portion.
Inoculation with the VA fungus is reported to increase phosphorus uptake, growth, nodulation
and nitrogen fixation in mungbean (Munns and Mosse,1980). (Poehlman,1991). It has been
investigated what is the most suitable environment for VA, what is the most suitable VA
fungi to use and how much it contributes to the growth of mungbean.

The harvest index (HI) is the ratio of economic yield to total biological yield (Donald, 1965)
as given HI=(Y/TDM)x100, where Y is grain yield and TDM is total plant dry matter in
kgha-1. (Aziz et al., 2009). Harvest index is a ratio calculated from seed and biological yields,
it is not a physiological process. Harvest index requires both plant and seed weights for its
calculation. It is investigated what the harvest index of mungbean is. This gives us an idea
how efficient growing mungbean is.

“Eversspecials” wants mungbean seeds with a good sprouting quality. This means among
other things that the seeds should be free of diseases. Diseases occur quicker when the seeds
are in contact with the earth surface. So mungbean plants which are resistant to lodging are
preferred. In mungbean lodging is influenced by structural (morphological) plant traits i.e
plant height, inter-nodal length on main stem, thickness and stiffness of main stem, and
conductive environmental conditions for lodging i.e rains and winds (Khattak et al.,2011). It
is investigated which genotypes are most suitable.

Solar radiation supplies light energy required for photosynthesis, modulates temperature,
affects respiration and water loss, and affects the photoperiod. Mungbean is grown both in
summer seasons when there is an abundance of sunshine and in rainy season when the solar
radiation is diminished by cloud cover. Mungbean is grown as a monocrop where it receives
full sunlight and as an intercrop, often in tall crops such as maize or pigeonpea, or among
trees such as coconut or banana where the brightness of the sunlight is reduced by partial
shading (Poehlman,1991). It is investigated which amount of radiation gave the highest
yields, in which period the plant needs radiation the most and what is the best cultivation
method to use.

Like any other plant, also mungbean has an optimal temperature. It is investigated for which
temperature range mungbean is able to grow and what is the optimal temperature.

It is also investigated how much water, precipitation, is optimal for growing mungbean. And
the optimal soil-moisture level and what the range is for soil moisture. It is also investigated
what the water-use-efficiency (WUE), the amount of plant material produced per unit of water
transpired (Webber et al.,2006) is, so that we know how efficient mungbean is.

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Mungbean is grown on a wide range of soil types. On soils with a different density, pH,
salinity,texture, etc. Mungbean is frequently grown on irrigated soils in semiarid regions.
These soils are subject to salt concentrations in the upper soil layer due to capillary rise and
evaporation of soil water during the dry season, or from varying amounts of salinity in the
irrigation water. The salinity impairs seed germination, reduces nodule formation, retards
plant development, and reduces crop yields. With high salinity, germination may be delayed
due to reduced water availability, or to toxic effects per se (Poehlman,1991). It is investigated
what the most suitable soil is for growing mungbean, what the critical salinity level is and
what type of root system the mungbean has.

Nowadays mungbean is mainly grown in Thailand, Australia, Burma, China, India, Kenya
and Peru (Poehlman,1991). After this research it is known if it is logical that mungbean is
mainly grown in these regions or that there are more suitable regions for growing mungbean.
With the knowledge of the agro-ecological aspects and plant demands the area to grow
mungbean can be chosen. First globally the areas were determined based on climate aspects.
This gave us an idea which parts of the world were suitable. Then the area was further
restricted by the temperature. Only areas with optimal temperatures during the growth period
of mungbean were suitable. After that it was further restricted by the photoperiod. This gave
us very precise areas. For those areas the precipitation was investigated to see if it was
possible to grow mungbean there. To narrow our search more, the soil of that area was
investigated whereupon the area with the most suitable soil was chosen.

From the areas that resulted from our investigation the best cultivation for that area was
determined. There was a selection of three cultivation methods: relay cropping, intercropping
and mixed cropping. In relay cropping, mungbean is grown in rotation with other crops,
generally as a secondary crop, both crops being grown within the same year. With
intercropping, crops that differ in height, growth habit, canopy structure and growth duration
are interplanted, so two crops on the same field at the same time. The crops are usually
planted in an alternating row pattern to facilitate planting and harvesting. With mixed
cropping, the seed of mungbean is mixed with seed of one or more companion crops and
broadcast seeded (Poehlman,1991).

When this is all investigated, it is known which areas are most suitable for growing mungbean
with a good sprouting quality. This are the areas that give us the highest potential yield. But
probably the growth is restricted by some limiting and reducing factors. Limiting factors are
factors like water and nutrients. Reducing factors are factors like, weeds, pests and disease. It
is briefly investigated what the limiting factors are for the chosen areas. The reducing factors
are not investigated here.

2. Materials and methods

The research started with an quick search through the world wide web to get an idea what the
mungbean plant was. Next it was necessary to know if there was enough literature about this
subject. Therefore the resources Ovid sp/Agricola and Scopus were used. The search terms

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“mungbean” and “Vigna radiata” were used. This gave a lot of results and good articles, so
the investigation could continue. The book “The mungbean” by John Milton Poehlman was
used to set up a research plan and for the further research, because this book was a kind of
bible about the mungbean. To get a concise picture of the aim of this research there was a
meeting with the chief of “EversSpecials”. After this, the real research could begin. First the
agro-ecological aspects and plant demands were investigated with help of the resources Ovid
sp/Agricola and Scopus, and the book “The mungbean by John Milton Poehlman. The search
terms: “mungbean” and “photosynthesis”, “vigna radiata” and “photosynthesis”, “mungbean”
and “photoperiod”, “vigna radiata” and “rhizobium”, “mungbean” and “rhizobium”,
“mungbean” and “water”, “mungbean” and “water-use-efficiency” , etc. were used.
When all the agro-ecological aspects and plant demands were known the investigation to a
suitable area could begin. The atlases, “The wereld bosatlas” and “de bosatlas van het
klimaat” were used to find suitable areas in the world with the desirable climate for the
growing of mungbean. This resulted in four suitable areas: Southwest North America, Central
Africa 10-15˚ north latitude, West-India and Northeast Australia. Those areas were further
restricted by the optimal temperature to grow mungbean. The data was collected from the
websites: www.wheater.com, dutch.wunderground.com, www.wheaterzone.com.au,
www.worldwheater.org, www.wbuf.noaa.gov/tempfc.htm. This resulted in the suitable areas :
Southwest North-America from Phoenix (USA)(33˚N112˚W) till Ciudad Victoria
(Mexico)(23˚N99˚W), West-India from Ahmedabad (23˚N72˚E) till Hubli (15˚N75˚E),
North-East Australia from Mount Isa (20˚S144˚E) till Charleville (26˚S146˚E). Temperatures
for Africa were not investigated because the other three areas were more suitable because of
the aspect photoperiod.
Mungbean is a short day plant. Flowering is initiated when the days are getting shorter. All
mungbean genotypes usually flower with a photoperiod of 12 to 13 hours (Poehlman,1991).
So from the chosen from the chosen areas the photoperiod for the month’s with the desirable
temperature has been investigated. The websites: ww.sunrise-and-sunset.com and
www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/astronomy.html were used for this. This restricted the
chosen areas further till: India around Ahmedabad (23˚72˚E), Australia around Charleville
(26˚S146E), Southwest North-America around Ciudad Victoria (Mexico)(23˚N99˚W).
The last step was investigating what the soil types around those areas where to see if those
areas were suitable for growing mungbean. Therefore the books: Soil map of the world
volume VII South Asia, Soil map of the world volume X Australasia and Soil map of the
world volume III Mexico and Central America. After this it was known which areas were
suitable for growing mungbean. With the information of the books, “Soil map of the world”,
the best cultivation method and limiting factors for those areas were determined.

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 3. Results
3.1 Constrains
3.1.1 Plant demands

Photosynthesis:
Mungbean is a C3 plant. The plant utilizes the C3 carbon fixation mechanism as the sole
mechanism to convert CO2 into anorganic compound (i.e 3-phosphoglycerate).
The CO2 is first fixed into a compound containing three carbon atoms before it enters the
Calvin cycle of photosynthesis. CO2 is being bound to ribulose biphosphate to produce two
molecules of three carbon compound (i.e 3-phosphoglycerate). The key enzyme that catalyses
carbon fixation is rubisco. C3 plants must grow in areas where CO2 concentration is high,
temperature and light intensity are moderate and ground water is abundant. This is because in
hot areas water loss is prevented by closing of the stomata (biology online,18-12-2011).

Growth period:
For the determination of the growth period, the photoperiod, flowering period and pod filling
period were used. All this periods together determined the growth period.
The photoperiod depends on the latitude, temperature and mungbean strain. But we use an
average of 46 to 63 days as the photoperiod (Poehlman,1991).
In an experiment in Mymensingh, Bangladesh they investigated the flowering period of
different mungbean varieties. They grew plants from the start of March till the end of May in
2006 and 2007. The temperature range was 23 to 30 ˚C.
In those two years the average flowering duration for high yielding varieties was 20-30 days.
And for low yielding varieties this was 10-25 days (Fakir et al.,2011)
There were no results found for the pod filling period.
When all these results are summed up, we have a growth period with a range of 46+20=66
days and 63+30=93 days. This is without pod filling period. So the optimum of 93 days, 3
months, was used as the growth period.

Photoperiod:
The mungbean is a short-day plant, flower initiation being delayed by increases in the length
of the photoperiod. (Allard and Zaumeyer, 1944); Sen Gupta and Mukkerji, 1949; Bashandi
and Poehlman, 1974 ; Aggerwal and Poehlman, 1977; Rawson and Craven, 1979).
The photoperiod differs at different latitudes. The photoperiod response affects the latitude at
which mungbean may be grown. Mungbean genotypes differ in response to photoperiod. All
genotypes usually flower in photoperiod of 12 to 13 hours. As the flowering photoperiod is
lengthened from 12 to 16 hours, flowering in some short-season, early strains may be delayed
only a few days, but photoperiod sensitive strains may be delayed as much as 30 to 40 days.
In long photoperiods some strains may even fail to flower. Strains with low photoperiod
sensitivity are desired where mungbean is planted as a short duration crop in multiple
cropping rotations, or if the same cultivar is to be planted in different seasons. When grown as
a long duration crop, strains with low photoperiod may flower and mature too early for

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production of maximum yield, or cause the mungbean pods ripen before the end of the rainy
season if planted during the monsoon period. At higher latitudes, photoperiod sensitive strains
may flower too late to fully ripen within the growing season. In the field, photoperiod
response cannot be disassociated from other environmental responses including temperature.
Temperature affects the length of the period needed for flower development. Generally, a
higher mean temperature will hasten flowering, or a low mean temperature will delay
flowering, at all photoperiods. In the higher latitudes, lower night temperature during the
period of plant development result in lower mean diurnal temperatures that modulate the
effect of the photoperiod. Photoperiod increase and mean daily temperatures decrease at
higher latitudes. Flowering time is also affected by elevation due to the low night
temperatures at the higher elevations.
Five experimental strains of mungbeans with an average range in days to flowering of 46 to
63 days in a three-year study at Columbia, Missouri, were chosen for the experiment. The
photoperiod studies were conducted in three Sherer plant environmental chambers with a
mean daily temperature of 23˚C (Poehlman,1991).

Figure 1. Photoperiod versus days to flower (Poehlman,1991)

As you can see in figure 1 the days to flower increase with an increasing photoperiod. There
is a big difference between the five mungbean strains in the way they react on the
photoperiod. PI 180311 and PI 271401 are much more sensitive for an increasement in
photoperiod then PI 31290 and PI 36829 which are quite insensitive.

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Figure 2 photoperiod versus height (Poehlman,1991)

As you can see in figure 2 the height of the mungbean plant increases with an increase in
photoperiod. There is again a difference between the five mungbean strains. PI 374250 and PI
271401 increase most in length, until 15 hours. After that PI 3290 which increase first very
slowly, then increases very rapidly. PI 368291 increases fewest with increasing photoperiod.

Rhizobium:
When the mungbean plant is not inoculated with the optimal rhizobium strain it can result in a
significant yield reduction (up to 50 percent) in situations where residual nitrogen levels in the
soil profile are already low. Mungbeans will nodulate with a range of native soil bacteria, but
their nitrogen fixation is very erratic (Jayne,2009). Tropical and subtropical environments
where mungbean is mostly grown are generally less favorable for nodulation than temperate
environments. The physical environment in which nodulation takes place may be affected by:
soil characteristics, water, temperature and other factors.
Low soil pH is inimical to rhizobial activity and nodulation, although rhizobia of tropical
legumes are reported to tolerate soil activity better than rhizobia of temperate legumes. A pH
of 6,5 appears to be optimum for mungbean rhizobial activity (PCARR,1977), with a
minimum for activity of about pH 3,5 to 4 (Poehlman,1991).
Soil moisture stress limits root development and vegetative growth and hinders effective
nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Masefield (1961) observed that moisture stress, of all
physical factors, has the greatest practical effect on nodulation in the field.
Water is required for maintaining turgidity of tissues in the nodule and for transport of the
product from nitrogen fixation. Water stress reduces nodulation, the activity of existing
nodules, and nitrogen fixation. Excess water reduces the oxygen supply in the soil required
for respiration of rhizobial bacteria and reduces the nitrogen supply required for nitrogen

10
fixation. During long periods of waterlogging, nodules and outer root tissue slough off,
causing a temporary nitrogen deficiency. Mungbean is frequently planted after lowland rice.
In this environment natural soil rhizobial populations are generally destroyed over long
periods of flooding. A soil moisture content of 50 percent of the soil dry weight was optimal
for nodule number and nodule dry weight. The soil rhizobia population was largest with 50
and 25 percent soil moisture content and lowest under 100 percent soil moisture
(Poehlman,1991).
High soil temperature restrict nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Cowpea, which nodulates with
the same group of strains as mungbean, nodulates best and fixes the most nitrogen with a day
temperature of 27˚C and a night temperature of 24˚C (Dart,1973). Nodulation decreased as
day temperatures were increased or reduced from 27˚C (Poehlman,1991).
Investigation to the rhizobium varieties that were able to symbiose with mungbean did not
have the desired results.

Mycorrhiza:
At IRRI in the Philippines, mungbean was inoculated with mycorrhizal fungi in a pot
experiment. At 44 days after seeding, shoot-dry-weight of inoculated plants was increased 36
percent and root-dry-weight was increased 82 percent over that of uninoculated plants (IRRI,
1985) (Poehlman,1991).
Rhizobial and mycorrhizal symbioses share the same signaling pathways, indicating intimate
interactions between all three patterns during co-evolution (Guinel and Geil, 2002; Harrison,
1998). They can act synergistically on promoting plant growth and fitness (Jia et al., 2004;
Requena et al., 1997), although, the effects of tripartite symbioses on legume growth and
yield were shown to range from slightly negative to strongly positive as compared to
asymbiotic plants or plants harbouring only a single symbiont such as Cicer arietinum L.
(Nautiyal et al. 2010). In an experiment (Fatma Tajini, Porntip Suriyakup, Jan Jansa and Jean-
Jeacqes Drevon) they investigated synergism between mungbean plants, arbuscular
myccorhiza and rhizobium bacteria. They used the mungbean variety cv CN72, the
Bradyrhizobium sp vigna CB756 and three different AM species. This were G.rosea Beg 9
(Nicolson and Schenck), G. intraradices BEG 157 (Schenck and Smith) and A.mellea NM54
(Spain and Schenck). The AM species where isolated from Kenyan Ferralsol( Mathimaran et
al, 2007). G.rosea Beg 9 (Nicolson and Schenck) is the best option for inoculation. Because
here the root dry mass, nodulation, arbuscular levels and root colonization were increased the
most (Fatma,2011).
The investigation to the most suitable environment for mycorrhizal fungi did not have the
desired results

Distribution of organic matter, harvest index (HI):

The departments of Plant breeding and genetics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan, investigated during 2005-2006 among other things the seed and plant weight of
mungbean (Aziz et al.,2009).
Grain yield per plant was 18,26 g
Total plant dry matter was 381,50 g
This gives us a harvest index of 18,26/381,50*100= 4,8 kgm-3

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In 2004 with another experiment about the water efficiency of greengram (vigna radiata) , at
the recommended and moderate depletion levels, the HI in greengram (vigna radiata) was
0,21 kgm-3. At the severe stress level, HI in greengram (vigna radiata) was 0,34 kgm-3
(Webber et al.,2006)
A HI of 0,21 kgm-3 and 0,34 kgm-3 seems more reasonable than a HI of 4,8 kgm-3 for a pulse
crop.

Variety:
An exotic genotype VC 1482C with high yield potential, inadaptable in the agro-climatic
conditions of Pakistan and highly susceptible to Mungbean Yellow Mosaic Virus (MYMV),
and local mungbean genotype NM92 of short stature and highly resistant to MYMV were
hybridized at the nuclear institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB), Faisalabad during
Kharif 1998 following the crossing technique of Khattak et al. (1998). Selection of the high
yielding recombinant NFM-12-12 from segregating populations, and evaluation in various
replicated yield trials for yield potential and stability test were carried out from 1999 to 2004.
The recombinant NFM-12-12 is also called “Ramzan”.
NFM-12-12 showed early maturity, short stature, more seeds per pod, longer pods, high
harvest index (%), more seed yield kgha-1, large seed size and stiff stem.
During Kharif 2002, NFM-12-12 produced a seed yield of 2100 kgha-1.
NFM-12-12 gave yields of 1944 kgha-1 , 1810 kgha-1 and 630 kgha-1 at NIFA, ARI, D.I Khan
and ARS, Karak in adaptation yield trial conducted during 2004 (Khattak et al.,2006)

3.1.2 Agro-ecological aspects

Radiation:
A progressive reduction in seed yield of mungbean with increasing levels of continuous shade
was reported by Liyanage and Mcwilliam (1981a, 1981b). They grew plants in the greenhouse
with 100, 60 and 30 percent transmission of full daylight. Shade during the flowering period
increased the abscission of flowers and immature pods, resulting in fewer pods-per-plant, and
increased the abortion of ovules resulting in fewer seeds-per-pod. Although seed yield was
reduced by shading during the pre-flowering and flowering periods of development, the
greatest detrimental effect of shading occurred during the pod-filling period due to reduction
in the photosynthetic process and the consequent reduction of assimilate transported to the
developing seeds.
In the subhumid to semiarid suptropics, solar radiation is most persistent and intense during
the dry summer season; mungbean production in this season will require that a dependable
source of irrigation water be available to meet the water requirements of the mungbean crop.
With abundant sunshine, temperatures in the crop canopy increase, thereby increasing
transpiration loss and water usage. The practice of growing mungbean as an intercrop
normally results in varying amounts of shading and reduction in light interception by
mungbean. Insofar as possible, planting patterns and planting dates need to be adjusted to
reduce the shading from the associated intercrop. In addition to the direct effect of reducing
light interception, shading or cloud cover contributes to a favorable environment for
development of foliar diseases (Poehlman,1991).

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Temperature:
Mungbean is a warm season plant, and will grow within a mean temperature range of about
20 to 40˚C. It is sensitive to low temperature and is killed by frost. From observations of the
International Mungbean Nurseries, Poehlman (1978) suggested that a mean temperature of
20˚C may be the minimum for productive growth, with mean temperatures in the range of
28˚C to 30˚C being optimum.
The critical temperature for mungbean as measured by changes in the structure and function
of cellular membranes, is about 15 ˚C (Raison and Chapman, 1976). Below 15˚C, a thermal
transition occurred in the membrane lipids of mitochondria and chloroplasts. Another thermal
transition occurred just below 28 ˚C which suggests that this may be the optimum temperature
for growth. With temperatures above 28 ˚C increases in transpiration and respiration could
offset benefits from increases in photosynthesis and retard plant growth.
Germination is inhibited by low temperature. Mungbean should not be planted until the soil
and air temperatures have warmed up to around 25˚C.
Temperature affects the length of the vegetative growth phase and the initiation of flowering.
Increasing the mean temperature during the vegetative phase hastens flowering (Aggarwal
and Poehlman, 1977; Rawson and Craven, 1979). This progressive acceleration in flowering
when expressed as a rate of progress towards flowering, is a linear function of mean diurnal
temperatures (Summerfield and Lawn, 1988b).
Dry mungbean seeds tolerated exposure for one hour at temperatures up to 70 ˚C without
affecting seedling growth, but seedling growth was retarded if exposure of the seed exceeded
70 ˚C (Vora and Patel, 1975). This is of interest since mungbean seed is often planted in
summer, when the surface soil reaches extremely high temperatures. Exposure of seeds to 40
and 50 ˚C for one to three weeks caused the development of cracks in the raphe, thereby
reducing the number of hard seeds and increasing germination (Manohar et al., 1969)
(Poehlman,1991).

Water:
Varmo and Rao (1975) grew mungbean in an alluvial soil (34,6% waterholding capacity) in a
pot experiment with soil-water levels adjusted to 25,50,75, and 100 percent based on oven-dry
soil weight. Number of pods and seed yield-per-pod were optimum at the 50 percent soil-
water level. Pods and seed yield were reduced sharply with both reduced and excess moisture
levels.
With its short growth duration, mungbean can often produce a crop on a limited soil moisture
supply. Although reported to be a drought-tolerant crop, experimental results suggest that
mungbean may avoid drought damage through, short duration of growth rather than having
the drought tolerance it is sometimes reported to have.
In Taiwan, the water requirement of mungbean was 3,2 mm/day.
In the Philipines, the daily water requirement is reported to be four to five mm/day depending
on the temperature, solar radiation and evapotranspiration rate (PCARR, 1977). Soil drought
stress in pot experiments with mungbean reduced vegetative growth and the initiation and
retention of floral buds (Ali and Alam, 1973), and seed yield (Varma and Rao, 1975).
Experiments on timing of irrigation emphasize the importance of avoiding drought stress
immediately before and during the flowering period if optimum yields are to be obtained

13
(Jana et al, 1975; Sing and Bhardwaj; 1975; Agarwal et al., 1976; Chiang and Hubbel, 1978;
and Trung et al., 1985a).
Soil water deficits hastened flowering; reduced the length of the flowering and pod-filling
periods, and reduced seed yield, pots/plant, seeds/pot, and seed numbers/ha.
Mungbean are generally unsuited in the wet topics where annual precipitation is above
1,000mm (Jain and Mehra, 1980). Mungbean plants are readily damaged by heavy rains and
windstorms. The incidence of foliar diseases is increased with high humidity. Prolonged rainy
periods during pod ripening may result in molding of the seeds, or even sprouting of the seeds
in the pods as mungbean does not possess seed dormancy. Mungbean does not tolerate
waterlogged conditions.
In a pot experiment in Japan (Trung et al., 1985b), seed yields of mungbean plants
waterlogged for three days during the flowering stage of development were reduced 82
percent; waterlogging at the podding stage reduced yields 60 percent; waterlogging at the pod
development stage reduced yields 40 percent; waterlogging at the grain maturity stage
reduced yields 17 percent.
Flooding or waterlogging reduces the oxygen concentrations around the roots of submerged
plants and restrict nodule activity and nitrogen-fixation.
The nitrogen fixation activity by mungbean nodules, as monitored by an acetylene reduction
essay, gradually decreased reaching almost zero during the three days of waterlogging
(Poehlman,1991).
The Water use efficiency of N2 fixed by legumes and grain yield (legumes and wheat) was
calculated according to the procedure followed by Gregory (1991) and Heridge et al. (1995).
WUE= e/ (f-g+h)
Where, e representing grain yield (kgha-1) or N2- fixed (kgha-1). F and g are soil water
contents (mm) to 1.20 m depth measured at planting and at harvest, respectively and h is
growing season rainfall.
The WUE of mungbean was 1,65 kgha-1mm-1 with P fertilization respectively. And 0,08kg N2
fixed ha-1mm-1 with P fertilization (Rifat et al., 2010)

Soil:
Mungbean is grown on a wide range of soil types. For highest yield, a warm, deep, well-
drained loam or sandy loam is desired. Heavy soils and waterlogged soils are unsatisfactory
for the production of mungbean. Sandy soils may be unsatisfactory due to low fertility and
poor soil water retention. On heavy soils, poor stands and low yields are common, due to poor
seedling emergence. Emergence of seedlings on heavy soils may be physically obstructed by
soil crusting, or emerging seedlings may be killed by high temperatures at the soil surface
(Lawn and Ahn, 1985).
It has been stated that mungbean has an extensive and deep root system that contributes to
drought tolerance. The root system was dependent on the environment. Areas where alluvial
soils where moisture supplies were abundant had a shallow mesophytic-type of root system.
Whereas areas with droughty soils had a deep, xerophytic tap root system.
Salinity impairs seed germination, reduces nodule formation, retards plant development and
reduced crop yields. More and Ghonsikar (1982) determined that the critical level of salinity
in irrigation water for injury to seed germination in mungbean was 3,5 mmhos/cm.

14
Germination was neglible at a saline concentration of 12mmhos/cm. The effect of saline
concentrations was also studied by Duong et al. (1988) who grew mungbean cultivars at
several saline concentrations. At 30 days after sowing, plant height was reduced 25 percent,
leaf area 45 percent; and dry-matter production 52 percent by a saline concentration of 8,3
mmhos/cm. Survival was 100 percent at 8,3 mmhos/cm and was reduced to 15,3 percent in a
concentration of 11,2 mmhos/cm (Poehlman,1991).

Table 1. Summary table constrains

Plant demands
Photosynthesis Temperature and light intensity moderate,
ground water abundant
Photoperiod All flower 12 to 13 hours
12-16 hours photoperiod and length increases
by increasing daylength
Growth period Photoperiod= 46-63 days
Flowering period= 20-30 days
Pod filling period=?
Growth period= 66-93 days (2-3 months)
Rhizobium Temperate environments, tropical,
subtropical less favorable
Soil ph: 6,5 optimum
3,5-4 minimum
Soil moisture: moisture content 50% of the
soil dry weight
Temperature: day 27˚C, night 24˚C
Agro-ecological aspects
Soil Warm, deep, wel-drained loam or sandy
loam
Salinity 3,5 mmhos/cm critical level of salinity in
irrigation water for injury to seed
germination
Water 50% soil water level, 3,2 mm/day
precipitation in Taiwan and between 4 to 5
mm/day in the Philippines
Radiation Abundant sunshine, no shade
Temperature 28˚C

3.2 Countries
3.2.1 Countries where mungbean is already grown:

The countries that are the major mungbean exporters are Thailand and Australia and they are
also frequently exported from Burma, China, India, Kenya and Peru (Poehlman,1991).

15
Australia:
Eighty to ninety percent is grown in the subtropical or warm temperate areas of southeast
Queensland and northeast New South Wales (Poehlman,1991).

Thailand:

Burma:

16
China:
Largest production in China is in Henan, Hebei, Shandong, and Ahui Provinces, followed by
Jiangsu, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Hubei, and Guizhou Provinces (Poehlman,1991).

India:
Mungbean is cultivated in all of the states of India, but largest production is in Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and Gujarat
(Poehlman,1991)

Kenya:
Mungbean production is concentrated in the semiarid areas of the eastern and coastal
provinces (Poehlman,1991).

17
Peru:
Mungbean is mainly grown in the northwest area around Trujillo and Chiclayo
(Poehlman,1991).

3.2.2 Suitable countries

Climate:
The steppe climate seems to be most suitable for growing mungbean. The steppe climate (Bs)
is the transition climate between the desert climate and the more moistly tropical and
moderate climates. (Frits,2011)

As you can see on the figure below the world can be divided in different climatic zones:

Figure 3. Climatic regions world

18
All continents were investigated and this resulted in three suitable areas:
- Southwest North-America
- Africa 10-15˚ north latitude (this area was not investigated further, because it was
known that the photoperiod of this area was not suitable for growing mungbean
- West-India
- North-East Australia

Temperature:
The optimal temperature for growing mungbean is an average daily temperature of 27˚C.
Since the growth period of mungbean is about 3 months, only areas which have a temperature
around 27˚C for 3 months are suitable.
Temperatures of cities in the chosen areas had the following average monthly temperatures:

South-west North-America:
April May June July August September
Oklahoma 36˚N95˚W x x 25.6 28.3 27.8 23.3
Phoenix 33˚N112˚W x 24.4 28.9 31.7 31.1 28
San 29˚N98˚W x 25 28 29.4 29.7 26.4
Antonio
Ciudad 23˚N99˚W 26.5 28 29 28.5 28 25.5
Victoria
X= temperatures below 27˚C

Oklahoma: (The weather channel; 11-01-2012)

Phoenix: (The weather channel; 12-01-2012)
San Antonio: (The weather channel; 12-01-2012)
Ciudad Victoria: (wunderground.com; 12-01-2012)

As you can see, that if you move further north than Phoenix, averages temperatures are lower
than 28˚C, so not suitable for growing mungbean. And the more south the temperatures
getting more and more constant. So for temperatures we have an area range from Phoenix
(USA) (33˚27’N 112˚4’W) till Ciudad Victoria (Mexico) (23˚44’0N 99˚08’0W).

West-India:
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
Hubli 15˚N75˚E 25.4 28.2 29.7 29.1 26 x x x x
Pune 18˚N75˚E x 26.1 28.9 29.8 27.4 25.1 x x x
Ahmedabad 23˚N72˚E x 28.5 31 31.5 30 28 27.5 27.5 25.5
X= temperatures below 27˚C

Hubli: (wunderground.com; 12-01-2012)

Pune: (world meteorological organization; 12-01-2012)
Ahmedabad: (wunderground.com; 12-01-2012)

19
For temperatures in India we have an area range from Ahmedabad (23˚02’N 72˚35’E) till
Hubli (15˚21’0”N 75˚10’0”E).

North-east Australia:
November December January February March
Mount Isa 20˚S139˚E 28,85 30,05 30 29,3 28
Longreach 23˚144˚E 28,05 29,4 29,9 29,1 27,45
Charleville 26˚S146˚E 25,3 27,45 28,35 27,6 25,35

Mount Isa: (weatherzone; 12-01-2012)

Longreach: (weatherzone; 12-01-2012)
Charleville: (weatherzone; 12-01-2012)

For temperatures in Australia we have an area range from Mount Isa (20˚27’S 144˚15’E) till
Charleville (26˚24’0”S 146˚15’0”E

Photoperiod:
The areas with the longest period with most suitable temperatures are chosen. So areas with a
desirable temperature for three months in combination with a desirable photoperiod were
chosen. It has to grow in a period where the photoperiod decreases. At the end of the growth
period the photoperiod has to be between 12 and 13 hours.
This gave the following areas:

South-west North-America:
April May June July August September
Oklahoma 36˚N95˚W X X 14h23m- 14h31m- 13h55m- X
14h31m 13h57m 12h57m
Phoenix 33˚N112˚W X X 14h13m- 14h20m- 13h47m- 12h51m-
14h20m 13h48m 12h53m 11h52m
Ciudad 23˚N99˚W 12h24m- 13h02m- 13h30m- 13h34m- 13h12m- 13h12m-
Victoria 13h01m 13h30m 13h34m 13h13m 12h37m 12h37m
X= are not desirable combinations of temperature and photoperiod

Oklahoma: (timeanddate.com; 14-01-2012)

Phoenix: (timeanddate.com; 14-01-2012)
Ciudad Victoria: (sunrise-and-sunset.com14-01-2012)

The best place to grow mungbean is around Ciudad Victoria (23˚44’0N 99˚08’0W) at the
beginning of June till the end of august. They have desirable temperatures (29;28,5;28) and
they will flower at the end of august (12h37m). The other areas have average temperatures
above or below 28˚ for a period of 3 months. In ciudad Victoria the temperature is most
desirable.

20
West-India:
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oc
t
Hubli 15˚ 11h28m 11h50m 12h17m 12h41m 12h58m X X X X
N - - - - -
75˚E 11h49m 12h16m 12h40m 12h50m 13h01m
Pune 18˚ X X 12h18m 12h48m 13h09m 13h13m X X X
N - - - -
75˚E 12h47m 13h09m 13h13m 12h58m
Ahmedaba 23˚X 12h41m 12h23m 13h00m 13h27m 13h27m 13h11m 12h35m X
N - - - - - - -
d 72˚E 12h21m 12h59m 13h26m 13h31m 13h31m 12h36m 11h57m
X= are not desirable combinations of temperature and photoperiod

Hubli: (sunrise-and-sunset.com; 14-01-2012)

Pune: (timeanddate.com; 14-01-2012)
Ahmedabad: (sunrise-and-sunset.com; 14-01-2012)

The best place to grow mungbean is around Ahmedabad(23˚02’N 72˚35’E) at the beginning
of June till the end of August. They have desirable temperatures (30,28,27,5) and they will
flower at the end of august (12h36m).
At lower latitudes you have not a good combination for the temperatures and photoperiod.

North-east Australia:
November December January February March
Mount Isa 20˚S139˚E 12h52m- 13h17m- 13h22m- 13h01m- 12h30m-
13h17m 12h22m 13h02m 12h31m 11h54m
Charleville 26˚S146˚E 13h03m- 13h35m- 13h41m- 13h15m- 12h36m-
(Hervey 13h34m 13h41m 13h16m 12h38m 11h52m
bay data)

Mount Isa: (sunrise-and-sunset.com; 14-01-2012)

Charleville: (sunrise-and-sunset.com; 14-01-2012)
No data found about Longreach.

The best place to grow mungbean is around Charleville(26˚24’0”S 146˚15’0”E) at the

beginning of December till the end of February. They have desirable temperatures (27,45;
28,35;27.6) and they will flower at the end of february (12h38). The other areas have average
temperatures above 28˚C.

Precipitation:

Ciudad Victoria:
Jan Feb Mar Apr may Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Average 14 11 23 35 97 79 63 135 196 100 22 16
precipitation
(mm)
Average 4 4 5 5 8 7 5 7 11 8 4 3
rainfall days
Red marks are months chosen to grow munbean.

21
Ciudad Victoria: (worldweatheronline; 13-01-2012)

Average rainfall per day:

June: 2,63 mm
July: 2,10 mm
August: 4,50 mm

Ahmedabad:
Jan Feb Mar Apr may Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Average 8 1 1 1 9 110 297 277 125 10 3 4
precipitation
(mm)
Average 2 0 0 1 1 10 21 22 10 2 1 1
rainfall days
Red marks are months chosen to grow munbean.

Ahmedabad: (worldweatheronline; 13-01-2012)

Average rainfall per day:

June: 3,67 mm
July: 9,90 mm
August: 9.23 mm

Charleville:
Jan Feb Mar Apr may Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Average 69 69 21 29 27 38 23 15 27 34 54 53
precipitation
(mm)
Average 8 7 5 4 5 5 4 4 4 6 8 8
rainfall days
Red marks are months chosen to grow munbean.

Charleville: (worldweatheronline; 13-01-2012)

Average rainfall per day:

December: 1,77mm
January: 2,30 mm
February: 2,30 mm

Soil-type and soil-usage:

Ciudad Victoria:
The area around Ciudad Victoria consists of Orthic Luvisols, Luvic Kastanozems, Eutric
Regosols, Rendzinas, Luvic Phaezems, a mixture of Lithosols, Kastanozems and renzina, and
a mixture of Lithosols, Eutric Cambisols and Rendzinas.

22
Eutric Cambisols:
The Eutric Cambisols of the region are used principally for three crops such as cocoa,
pastures and subsistence crops (maize and bean). Under traditional management Eutric
Cambisols are among the most popular soils for maize, yielding adequate crops from the same
area at intervals of only three to five years in most countries. Under improved management
they are usually suitable for three crops and pastures. In the more humid localities they are
often successfully used for cocoa and coffee, without recourse to fertilizers (FAO et al.,1975).

Kastanozems:
A large proportion of the soils of the Kastanozems occur on steep mountain slopes as lithic
phases, and their main agricultural value is for extentive grazing. The deeper Kastanozems on
less accentuated landscapes are used for grain crops, potatoes, agave, beans, cotton, and for
pasturage. Tomatoes, peppers, onions, melons, and many other vegetables that appear in
abundance in Mexico city markets, are produced chiefly on Kastanozems, as well as many
fruit crops. At elevations below about 2600 m traditional farmers grow maize and small fruits;
at higher elevations they grow small plots of wheat and potatoes. Under improved
management systems, the Kastanozems are very productive because they have a high natural
fertility and moderately high organic matter content. Crop yields are improved by use of
fertilizers, but the amounts required are usually not large (FAO et al.,1975).

Phaeozems:
Phaeozems are used mainly for rough grazing by traditional farmers (FAO et al.,1975)..

Lithosols:
In the desert areas the Lithosols are not used except for extensive grazing after rain.
Elsewhere they are used where the rocks are fissured and can be readily penetrated by tree
roots. Traditional farmers use Lithosols with lithic phases of other soils for shifting
cultivation, but even under humid tropical conditions the yields of maize are noticeably lower
on the Lithosols than on the lithic phases of the dominant soils. Areas where Lithosols
predominate are usually avoided by farmers (FAO et al.,1975)..

Regosols:
The Eutric Regosols, are commonly used for coconut plantations and in, areas in the humid
tropics close to urban markets, for vegetables, especially melon. Coastal farmers using
traditional methods usually prefer Regosols because they are almost the only soils in the area
that have no drainage problems. The farmers subsist on root crops (such as cassava) and
coconuts, and market their melons, groundnuts and tomatoes. They employ seasonal mulch to
conserve soil moisture. Improved management with irrigation and the use of appropriate
fertilizers can bring these soils into full production. Maintaining full production, however
requires frequent checking to ensure that soluble salts are not building up in the rooting zone
and that wind erosion is not causing excessive loss of surface soil (FAO et al.,1975)..

Rendzinas:
No information found.

23
Luvisols:
No information found.

Endresult:
Based on preceding soil characteristics and soil usage the most suitable place to grow
mungbean near Ciudad Victoria is on the Kastanozems. Because those soils are most fertile
and the amounts of fertilizers used are very low. Also because they are used for many other
crops, so the area is probably also usable for growing mungbean.

Ahmedabad:
The area around Ahmedabad consist of the following soil types: Chromic Vertisols, Gleyic
Solonchaks, Eutric Cambisols, Calcaric Fluvisols, Vertic Cambisols, Orthic Acrisols and
Chromic Luvisols.

Orthic Acrisols:
In India Orthic Acrisols are used for growing poor crops of millet, pulses and mustard.
Heaving reached an advantage stage of weathering, these soils have a low natural fertility and
are especially low in phosphate. Application of phosphate, nitrogen, potassium, and
sometimes lime is required for sustained high production of appropriate crops. Under a
suitable climate they are good soils for tea, coffee, rubber and tropical fruits. In sloping areas
terracing is needed to check erosion (FAO et al.,1977).

Eutric and Vertic Cambisols:

Eutric and Vertic Cambisols occur in subhumid to semiarid climates and are used for rainfed
cultivation of wheat, sorghum and barley, usually followed by a year of fallow. In India they
are used mainly for growing sugarcane, groundnuts, maize, sesame and chillies, and in low-
lying parts for rice. In the state Gujarat the main rainfed crops are millet, paddy groundnuts,
wheat and castor beans. Under irrigation rice, sugarcane, cotton, wheat and sorghum are
grown. In the Ganges plain these soils are mainly under irrigated wheat, rice, sugarcane,
pulses and fodder crops. These soils constitute good agricultural land except in steep
topography. Water erosion and moisture shortage due to inadequate rainfall are the main
problems. Supplemental irrigation is necessary for obtaining high crop yields in areas that do
not have high rainfall. It are quite fertile soils, and need only nitrogen and phosphorus to
produce high crop yields. Potassium is needed where nitrogen and phosphorus have been in

24
use for a number of years. Organic matter is usually sufficient and the soils are easily worked
to good tilth. With supplemental irrigation many crops can be grown, according to the
climate. The Eutric and Vertic Cambisols have a pH that is almost the same at different soil
depths (FAO et al.,1977).

Depth (cm) pH
0-12 5.9
12-32 5.9
32-60 5.9
60-137 6.2

Calcaric Fluvisols:
Calcaric Fluvisols are among the most intensively cultivated and highly productive soils in the
region. On the extensive meander flood plains and the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, cropping
patterns are related to landscape position. The higher, more permeable soils which are subject
to flooding for short periods are commonly used for an early broadcast aus rice crop followed
by mustard, pulses, fodder legumes or sweet potatoes sown from September through October.
Jute and sugarcane are sometimes grown on this land as well. Around homesteads many
different crops are grown: domestic vegetables, spices, tobacco, betel leaf, betel nut, and
various fruit trees, especially mango. On less permeable soils subject to flooding less than
about 90 cm deep, broadcast aus rice, is followed by late transplantated aman rice harvested in
December. The transplantated aman is sometimes followed by dry season crops, usually low-
quality fodder legumes such as Khesari. However, much of the land remains fallow in the dry
season. On land flooded about 1 to 2 metres deep, aus rice is commonly sown mixted with
deep-water aman rice. Jute is also commonly grown on such land, sometimes mixed with
deep-water aman. The deep-water aman is followed by the dry season crops such as mustard,
rapeseed, blackgram and Khesari. The Khesari is often sown before the rice crop is harvested,
where as other crops such as wheat, barley, linseed, lentils, blackgram and onions are sown
after the rice is harvested. Much of this land is in continuous production throughout the year
and remains productive despite the little manuring practiced. On land flooded more than about
2 metres deep, deep-water aman paddy is usually the only crop grown, but it is sometimes
followed by a poor fodder crop, usually Khesari. Although under traditional management crop
yields are generally moderate to low. Many of the Fluvisols in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta
and flood plains have maintained continuous crop production for centuries with low levels of
manuring and whatever nutrients are added by sedimentation or released by weathering. With
modern management, better water control is the major input needed for increased production,
this can be done with irrigation, so that an additional rice crop high-value dryland crop can be
grown in the dry season. In irrigated areas loamy soils are suitable for a wide variety of crops
adapted to the climate, but clay soils are suitable only for rice and a few other crops like
wheat, millet and sugarcane. Salinity and high water table, the major problems under
irrigation, can be controlled by drainage and intensive cropping. Application of nitrogen and
phosphate is necessary for high crop yields. The calcareous Calcaric Fluvisols have a pH that
differs according to soil depth (FAO et al.,1977):

25
Depth (cm) pH
0-12 6.8
12-17 7.8
17-45 8.3
75-105 8.3
105-135 8.3

Chromic Luvisols:
In India Chromic Luvisols are used mainly for rainfed crops of sorghum, millet, groundnuts,
sesame, pulses and mustard. Shallowness and high susceptibility to erosion are the main
limitations of these soils. They have good structure and are easily worked to good tilth. The
deep soils are quite suitable for a variety of crops, including fruits and vegetables appropriate
to the climate, if they are fertilized with phosphorous, nitrogen and some potassium. They
need intensive soil conservation measures such as terracing to protect them from erosion on
slopes. In most areas groundnuts, wheat, sorghum, pulses and oilseeds are the most suitable
crops. Supplemental irrigation is profitable and increases the choice of crops. The pH of the
Chromic Luvisols is almost the same at different soil depths (FAO et al.,1977):

Depth (cm) pH
0-13 6.7
13-56 6.5
56-92 6.5
92-150 6.6

Chromic Vertisols:
Heavy consistence and poor internal drainage are problems encounterd in almost all Vertisol
areas. In some instances, Vertisols show salinity and alkalinity problems in the subsoil.
Irrigation is generally necessary to obtain sustained high crop yields. These soils are not
suitable for tree crop, but can be used for a wide range of arable crops, especially sugarcane,
cotton, rice and the major dryland cereals. Phosphorous and nitrogen seem to be the major
nutrients needed to maintain high crop yields. Ridging and shallow surface drains help
improve drainage conditions and crop production. The Chromic Vertisols have a pH that is
almost the same at different soil depths (FAO et al.,1977):

Depth (cm) pH
0-5 7.70
5-35 7.65
35-60 7.70
60-142 7.75
142-162 7.75

Gleyic Solonchaks:
In northern India Solonchaks generally occur in alluvial plains affected by saline ground
water or by accumulation of salts from collection and evaporation of natural runoff. In general
these soils are either bare or support a scanty halophytic vegetation which provides sparse
grazing for livestock living mainly off better vegetative on adjoining less saline soils. In some

26
spaces they are irrigated, generally for poor crops of barley and rice. Solonchaks are
fundamentally poor soils and in many cases they are not worth improving. For development
under irrigation, drainage is required to lower the water table and large quantities of water are
needed to leach salts from the root zone. Quite often the soils develop an alkalinity problem
after leaching, the clay is dispersed and the soils becomes impervious. Reclamation of the
Solonchak soils may not be economic in areas where the supply of irrigation water is limited
and where there are better soils on which the use of scare water could provide greater benefits,
as in most of the arid and semiarid parts of the region (FAO et al.,1977)..

Endresult:
Based on preceding soil characteristics and soil usage the most suitable place to grow
mungbean near Ahmedabad is on the Eutric and Vertic Cambisols. Because those soils are
fertile and the ground is not to moisty. The pH of the soil is 5.9 and is lower than the optimal
pH of 6.5 so this might be a problem. Some good irrigated parts of the Calcaric Fluvisols
might also be suitable. Although good water management is necessary, because mungbean
doesn’t like flooding and a saline environment. The pH of the soil might be to alkaline.

Charleville:
The area around Charleville consist of semiarid shrub woodlands. Shrub woodlands usually
have an over storey of eucalypts above a shrub layer of species belonging commonly to
Myoparaceae, Leguminosae, and Rutaceae. There are two types of soils in the area around
Charleville: Chromic Vertisols and Luvic Yermosols.

Chromic Vertisols:
Chromic vertisols in Australia have uniform fine-textured profiles that crack open
significantly when dry and have some form of gilgai microrelief. The surface soils range from
grey and grey brown, to brown and red-brown clays that may be finely structured and self-
mulching or coarsely structured and not self-mulching. They are usually deep soils. The area
is very poorly drained. The pH of the soil differs according to the depth (FAO et al.,1978):

27
Depth (cm) pH
0-5 6.9
5-10 6.0
30-46 4.7
60-90 4.4

The greater areas of these soils are natural grasslands and shrublands that have been used for
cattle and sheep grazing for a long time. Grain production, especially wheat and sorghum, is
increasing where the climate permits, and where irrigation is possible rice, cotton, sown
pastures and feed-crops are grown.

Luvic Yermosols:
Luvic Yermosols in Australia have texture profiles that become increasingly clayey with
depth. Surface soils, which show very weak horizon development, range from grey through
grey-brown to red-brown loamy sands to clay loams. Below these surfaces, which are about
10 cm thick, the soil consists dominantly of red-brown, yellow-brown or yellow-massive,
porous, earthy material, in which clay contents gradually increase with depth, usually
reaching sandy clay or clay but sometimes only sandy clay loam in the sandier members. The
area is well drained. The area also contains duripans. A duripan is a diagnostic soil horizon of
the USDA soil taxonomy that is cemented by illuvial silica into a subsurface hardpan. They
can be as hard as concrete, which makes plowing very difficult or impossible.
The pH differs according to soil depth:

Depth (cm) pH
0-11 6,0
11-38 6,4
84-127 7,4
168-178 7,5

In dry areas these soils are used for the grazing of natural vegetation by sheep and cattle.
Cereal cropping and improved pastures have been developed in the wetter areas, while
specialty crops are grown where water is available for irrigation (FAO et al.,1978).

Endresult:
Based on preceding soil characteristics the best area to grow mungbean is Luvic Yermosol.
This area has good irrigated sandy loams and a desirable pH. Although they do have duripan
in this area which is a problem.

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3.3 Cultivation

In the tree chosen areas to grow mungbean relay cropping is probably the best option. Or the
option of growing mungbean as the only crop during the year. Intercropping is not ideal
because when the mungbean plant is grown at the same time with another crop, there will be a
reduction of radiation for the mungbean plant. And the mungbean plant want to have full
sunlight and doesn’t like shade. Mixed cropping is absolutely not ideal because it is
impossible to harvest on large scale.

Ciudad Victoria:
The Kastanozems around Ciudad Victoria are used to grow a lot of different crops. Grain
crops, potatoes, agave, beans, cotton and pasturage are grown here. So relay cropping is
probably possible with one of these crops.

Amedabad:
The Eutric and Vertic Cambisols in the state Gujarat are mianly used for rainfed crops as
millet, paddy groundnuts, wheat and castor beans. Under irrigation, rice, sugarcane, cotton,
wheat and sorghum are grown. So relay cropping is probably possible with one of these crops.

Charleville:
On the wetter areas of the Luvic Yermosols around Charleville cereal cropping and improved
pastures have been developed, while specialty crops are grown where water is available for
irrigation. So relay cropping is probably possible with one of these crops.

3.4 Yield
Ciudad Victoria:
The limiting factors are not so big for the Kastanozems around Ciudad Victoria. The total
amount of rainfall in the months that were chosen to grow mungbean, June, July and August
is 79+63+135=277 mm. That is 277/90= 3mm/day. In Tawain the water requirement was 3,2
mm/day and in the Philipinnes 4 to 5 mm/day. So 3mm/day seems to be enough and irrigation
with water is probably not necessary.

29
The Kastanozems have a high natural fertility and moderately high organic matter content.
Crop yields are improved by use of fertilizers, but the amounts required are usually not large.

Ahmedabad:
The limiting factors are somewhat larger for the Eutric ,Vertic Cambisols and Calcaric
Fluvisols around Ahmedabad than for the Kastanozems around Ciudad Victoria. The total
amount of rainfall in the months that were chosen to grow mungbean, June, July, August is
110+297+277=684 mm. That is 684/90= 7,6 mm/day. This is more than the water
requirement in Tawain of 3,2 mm/day and the water requirement in the Philipinnes of 4 to 5
mm/day. So might be a problem. For the Fluvisols salinity and high water table are the major
problems. The Eutric, Vertic Cambisols and Calcaric Fluvisols are quite fertile soils and need
only nitrogen and phosphorus to produce high crop yields. Probably no nitrogen because the
mungbean plant receives this from the rhizobium bacteria. Potassium is needed where
nitrogen and phosphorus have been in use for a number of years. Organic matter is usually
sufficient.

Charleville:
The limiting factors are biggest for the Luvic Yermosols around Charleville. Total amount of
rainfall in the months that were chosen to grow mungbean, December, January and February
is 53+69+69= 191mm. That is 191/90= 2,12 mm/day. That is lower than the daily water
requirement of 3,2 mm/day in Taiwan and the water requirement of 4 to 5 mm/day in the
Philipinnes. So extra water irrigation is probably necessary for growing mungbean. There is
no information about nutrients that are necessary for growing mungbean.

4 Conclusion and discussion

The main research question of this research is: What are the most suitable places to grow
mungbean to get seeds with a good sprouting quality? After investigation of the agro-
ecological aspects of the mungbean and comparing them with data about climate,
precipitation, photoperiod, growth period, temperature and soil characteristics, three areas
were suitable for growing mungbean. This are the Kastanozems around Ciudad Victoria; the
Eutric, Vertic Cambisols and Calcaric Fluvisols around Ahmedabad; and the Luvic
Yermosols around Charleville. Relay cropping is probably possible for all three areas and the
limiting factors are not too big. The mungbean variety NFM-12-12 or Ramzan will probably
give a good sprouting quality because it is resistant against lodging. Mungbean is already
grown in Queensland Australia and in Gujarat in India. Those areas were also the result of this
research, so they are probably suitable for growing mungbean. But “EversSpecials” was
interested in new areas to produce mungbean. Areas where mungbean wasn’t grown already.
But this is an extra confirmation that those areas are suitable for growing mungbean. It is not
know that mungbean is grown in Mexico. The Kastonozems around Ciudad Victoria might be
the ideal place to grow mungbean. But to know if the Kastanozems around Ciudad Victoria,
the Eutric, Vertic Cambisols and Calcaric Fluvisols around Ahmedabad, and the Luvic
Yermosols around Charleville are really suitable further research is necessary.

30
First of all because the information about the soil and soil usage was dated. Information was
of the year 1970. So it must be investigated if those areas are still usable and were they are
used for nowadays. And if they are still suitable after a new investigation other aspects like
reducing factors, infrastructure and economics must be investigated. And if that is all possible
they also have to find a farmer who wants to produce large amount of mungbean seed for
them. It is also wisely to do new research on the mungbean plant. Because in literature there is
not much known about this plant. That is why old data was sometimes used for this
investigation. The three areas that resulted from this research might not be the only most
suitable areas. Because of lack of enough knowledge about the climate and the mungbean
plant. Especially for the first step that was made based on climate data with help of an atlas
was very blurry. That might be one of the reasons why countries like Burma, China, Kenya
and Peru where mungbean is already grown were not chosen in this research as suitable areas.

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