CHAPTER ONE

LITERATURE

 INTRODUCTION
 DEFINITION OF LITERATURE
 IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE
 KINDS OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

 Literature involves the reading and analysis of written materials of different kinds including fiction and
non-fiction written works in English.
 All learners should be ready to analyze whatever they read critically by the end of this course.

DEFINITION OF LITERATURE

 Literature is derived from a Latin word “litaritura/litteratura” meaning “writing formed with letters”
 Literature can be defined as ‘pieces of writing that are valued as works of art, especially novels, plays
and poems’.
  Literature represents the culture and tradition of a language or a people.

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE

 Sparks empathy and understanding

 Learn about past lives
 Escapism and possibilities
 Literature makes you a wiser and more experienced person by forcing you to judge, sympathize with or
criticize the characters.

FICTION AND NON-FICTION

 Fiction Literature is imaginary composed writing or work of art that is meant to provide information,
education and entertainment to the reader.
 Non-fiction Literature is a factual writing or written work that gives facts that can be proved as it
provides real places, events, characters, times or reality rather than imaginary things.

KINDS OF LITERATURE AND THEIR EXAMPLES

 Examples of Fictional Literature include plays, poems, short stories, novels, oral literature and songs.
 Examples of Non-fictional literature include autobiographies, biographies, essays, diaries and journals,
magazines, newspapers, subject textbooks such as Geography, History and Civic Education.

ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE- STORIES

ELEMENTS OF FICTION

 AUTHOR- This is the writer of any written work of art or fiction.

 SETTING- This is the place and time in which the story unfolds or takes place.
 PLOT- This is the series or chain of related events that tells us “what happens’ in a story.

ELEMENTS OF PLOT

• The plot is how the author arranges events to develop his basic idea.
• It is the sequence of events in the story

Traditional Plot- this the mostly used plot in a story. This type of plot is composed of five different parts.
1. Introduction- the part where the characters and settings are explained comprehensively.
2. Rising Action- The part where scenes eventually become complicated because of the unveiling of
conflict or trouble in the story.
3. Climax- The most exciting part where the interest of the readers or audience is heightened; it is also
referred to as the peak of the story.
4. Falling Action- the part that describes the result of climax.
5. Resolution- the last part of the story where it describes on how the story ended.
In Medias Res (In the middle of)- a type of plot where the story started in the middle or in the climax and will
have a flashback in the beginning as the story progresses.

Circular Plot- unlike the In Medias Res, this type of plot will start at the end of the story and will have
flashbacks as the story progresses.

Streams of Consciousness- this type of plot will start in a particular scene in the story and jumps of to another
scene, and then goes back to another scene.

POINT OF VIEW

• Point of view, or P.O.V. is defined as the angle from which the story is told.
• The mode of narration of the author

THREE TYPES OF POV

• First Person- the narrator is one of the characters in the story and narrates the story from his own
observation.
• Third Person Limited- the narrator is not a participant in the story.
• Third Person Omniscient- the narrator is “all present.” He knows what is going in the minds of the
characters.

THEME- It is the author's underlying meaning or main idea that he is trying to convey.  The theme may be the
author's thoughts about a topic or view of human nature.
• This refers to the controlling, main idea or central insights in the novel or short story. These answers the
question “What does it mean?” “What central Idea or insights into life does the work convey? “How do
other elements reveal this idea or insights?””
• A theme is usually stated in a sentence or statement.

CONFLICT-
 This is the core or basic element of plot in the story. It is conflict or struggle that gives any story its
energy.
 This can be external or internal.
 This conflict can be between one person or animal and nature, or one person or animal and a group of
person or a whole society.

SIX TYPES OF LITERARY CONFLICT

 Character vs. Self

This is an internal conflict, meaning that the opposition the character faces is coming from within.
 Character vs. Character
This is a common type of conflict in which one character’s need or wants are at odds with another’s.
 Character vs. Nature
In nature conflict, a character is set in opposition to nature. This can be mean the weather, the
wilderness, or a natural disaster.
 Character vs. Supernatural
Pitting characters against phenomena like ghost, gods, or monsters raises the stakes of a conflict by creating an
unequal playing field
  Character vs. Technology
In this case, a character is in conflict with some kind of technology.
 Character vs. Society
This is an external conflict that occurs in literature when the protagonists placed in opposition with
society, the government, or a cultural tradition or societal norm of some kind.

CHARACTERS

 These are persons or animals involved in a story in order to show entertain and show us some truth
about human experiences and ourselves.
 The best story is one in which the narrator doesn’t tell much directly about what the character is like.

CHARACTERIZATION

 This refers to the kinds of characters the novel or short story depending on the level of their
development and involvement in the story of the book.
 For example: characters that are flat or round, protagonist or antagonist, major or minor, stars or
backers.

STYLE

 This refers to the way the novel or short story is written in order to have a desired effect on the reader or
audience.
 Also refers to the techniques used by the writer of a literary work such as point of view, humor, fantasy,
flashbacks, tone, and so on.

LANGUAGE

Literary language is often used in fiction writing to ‘relish the story so that it is more clear, educative,
informative, and interesting or entertaining.
Some of these language devices include figures of speech and symbolism such as images,symbols, irony,
metaphors, similes, satire, and so on.

FUNCTIONS OF LITERATURE

Entertainment Function- known as “pleasure reading”. In this function, literature is used to entertain its
readers. Literary works are consumed for the sake of one’s enjoyment.

Social and Political Function- Literature shows how society works around them. It helps the reader “see” the
social and political construct around him/her and shows the state of the people and the world around him/her.

Ideological Function- Literature shapes our way of thinking based on the ideas of other people. Literature also
displays a person’s ideology placed in the text consciously and unconsciously.

Moral Function- Literature may impart moral values to its readers. The morals contained in a literary text,
whether good or bad, are absorbed by whoever reads it, thus helps in shaping their personality.

Linguistic Function- Literature preserves the language of every civilization. They are also evidences that a
certain civilization has existed by recording the language and preserving it through wide span of time.
Cultural Function- Literature orients us to the traditions, folklore and the arts of our ethnic group’s heritage.
Literature preserves entire cultures and creates an imprint of the people’s way of living for others to read, hear
and learn.

Educational Function- literature teaches us many things about human experience. Literature is used to portray
the facets of life that we see, and those that we would never dream of seeing. Literature, therefore, is a conduit
for the chance to experience and feel things where we can learn things about life.

Historical Function- Ancient texts, illuminated scripts, stone tablets etc. keep a record of events that happened
in the place where they originate. Thus they serve as time capsules of letters that is studied by scholars and
researchers of today.

CHAPTER TWO

Objectives:

-Demonstrate knowledge of the key European literary figures of the twentieth century and familiarity with some
of their creative pieces.
-Express an informed opinion and appreciation of modern European literature.
-Undertake critical evaluation of selected European texts in the historical, social,

EUROPEAN LITERATURE

Europe is one of the seven traditional continents of the Earth. Physically and geologically , Europe is the
westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, west of Asia. Europe is bounded to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the west
by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by the Mediterranean Sea, to the southeast by the Caucasus Mountains and
the Black Sea and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. To the east, Europe is
generally divided from Asia by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, and by the Caspian Sea.
See map above for more details

European literature refers to the literature of Europe. European literature includes literature in many
languages; among the most important of the modern written works are those in English, Spanish, French, Dutch,
Polish, German, Italian, Modern Greek, Czech and Russian and works by the Scandinavians and Irish.
Important classical and medieval traditions are those in Ancient Greek, Latin, Old Norse , Medieval French and
the Italian Tuscan dialect of the renaissance.

Western literature, also known as European literature, is the literature written in the context of Western
culture in the languages of Europe, including the ones belonging to the Indo-European language family as well
as several geographically or historically related languages such as Basque and Hungarian. Western literature is
considered one of the defining elements of Western civilization.

The list of works in the Western Canon varies according to the critic’s opinions on Western culture and
the relative importance of its defining characteristics. The Great Books of the Western World   is an attempt to
present the western canon in a single package of 60 volumes.
It’s Better to Live, Licinius
by Horace

Who is Horace?

-Horace, Latin in full Quintus Horatius Flaccus, he was an outstanding Latin lyric poet and satirist under the
emperor Augustus. The most frequent themes of his Odes and verse Epistles are love, friendship, philosophy,
and the art of poetry.

Horace is known for detailed self-portraits in genres such as epodes, satires and epistles, and lyrics. By offering
a poetic persona who speaks to so many human concerns, Horace has encouraged each reader to feel that he or
she is one of the poet's circle, a friend in whom he confides.

It’s Better to Live, Licinius

by Horace

It’s better to live, Licinius, neither

always pressing out on the deep nor, trembling
and cautious, hugging overly close to the
dangerous shoreline.

Whosoever cherishes the golden mean

safely avoids the squalor of a hovel
and discreetly keeps away from a palace
that excites envy.

Most often it’s the huge pine that is shaken

by the wind, and the highest towers that fall
the greatest fall, and the tops of mountains that
attract the lightning.

Hopeful in adversity, apprehensive

in prosperity is the heart that prepares
well for either fate. Zeus brings the winter, but
also takes it back.

Even if times are bad, they won’t always be so:

for Apollo doesn’t always tense his bow,
but sometimes inspires the silent Muses.

When the straits are narrow, show yourself to be

undaunted and bold – yet wisely tuck your sails
when they’re swelled by too strong a following wind.
How Much Land Does a Man Need?
by Leo Tolstoy

Who is Leo Tolstoy?

-Leo Tolstoy, Tolstoy also spelled Tolstoi, Russian in full Lev Nikolayevich, Graf (count) Tolstoy,
born September 9,1828 in Yasnaya Polyana, Tula province, Russian Empire.
He died on November 20,1910 in Astapovo, Ryazan province), Russian author, a master of realistic fiction and
one of the world’s greatest novelists.

Leo Tolstoy, also known as Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy, was a Russian author widely regarded as one of
the greatest authors of all time. Born to an aristocratic Russian family in Czarist Russia, he is best known for his
two iconic novels,War and Peace and Anna Karenina, widely regarded as the two greatest works of fiction ever
to come out of Russia.

He wrote five additional novels, including the trio Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth, loosely based on his own
life. He also has five novellas, dozens of short stories, and six plays to his record, many of which are still widely
read today. He was also a well-regarded philosopher, authoring dozens of papers revealing his thoughts on
government, religion, and Russian society. A dedicated pacifist and advocate for justice, he is widely honored in
both Russia and around the world today.

How Much Land Does a Man Need?

by Leo Tolstoy

“How Much Land Does a Man Need? focuses on the story of a peasant named Pakhom, who lives a
humble existence. As the story opens, he overhears his wife and sister-in-law discussing the benefits of town
life versus farm life. He thinks to himself that if he had plenty of land, he would have nothing to fear—not
even the devil himself. However, unbeknownst to him, Satan is in the house watching him and overhears his
thoughts. Satan decides that he will accept his challenge and give him everything he wants—but then snatch
everything from him. A short timer later, a landlady in the peasant village decides to sell her estate. There is a
frenzy among the peasants of the village to buy her holdings. Pakhom scrapes together enough money to
purchase a small parcel of land. By diligently working on the extra land, Pakhom is able to reap enough extra
money to live a more comfortable existence.

However, the additional money causes Pakhom to become very possessive of his land and paranoid
that it will be taken away from him. He starts to have conflicts with his neighbors, and some, resenting his
success, even threaten to burn his house. The tension makes him decide to move his family to another
commune with more land. There, he is able to grow even more crops and build up a small fortune. However,
he is forced to grow the crops on rented land, which he resents due to wanting to be self-sufficient. He works
hard to buy and sell a lot of fertile land, building up his fortune further. He is soon introduced to the Bashkirs,
a local indigenous group, and learns that they are simple people who own a lot of land. He approaches them
and negotiates with them to buy a large parcel of their land.

However, the Bashkirs’o offer is unusual. They tell him that for one thousand rubles, he can walk
around as large an area as he wants, starting at daybreak, and mark his route with a spade. If he returns to his
starting point by sunset, he gets all the land he marked. However, if he does not reach his starting point, he
loses his money and gets nothing. Pakhom is delighted, believing this will be easy and thinking he is getting
the bargain of a lifetime from these simple people. However, the night before his task, he experiences a
horrific dream in which he sees himself lying dead on the ground, with the devil laughing over his corpse.
The next day, he stays out as late as possible, marking the land until just before the sun sets. As he sees the
sun setting, he realizes he is far from the starting point and breaks into a run as the Bashkirs wait for him. He
arrives at the starting point just as the sun sets, and the Bashkirs congratulate him. Suddenly, exhausted from
the run, his heart gives out, and he drops dead right in front of the landowners. The story ends with his
servant burying him in a simple grave, six feet long—in the end, all the land he needed.

Leo Tolstoy, also known as Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy, was a Russian author widely regarded
as one of the greatest authors of all time. Born to an aristocratic Russian family in Czarist Russia, he is best
known for his two iconic novels, War and Peace and Anna Karenina, widely regarded as the two greatest
works of fiction ever to come out of Russia. He wrote five additional novels, including the trio  Childhood,
Boyhood, and Youth, loosely based on his own life. He also has five novellas, dozens of short stories, and six
plays to his record, many of which are still widely read today. He was also a well-regarded philosopher,
authoring dozens of papers revealing his thoughts on government, religion, and Russian society. A dedicated
pacifist and advocate for justice, he is widely honored in both Russia and around the world today.

Metamorphosis
By Franz Kafka

Who is Franz Kafka?

He was one of the major fiction writers of the 20th century. He was born to a middle-class German-
speaking Jewish family in Prague, Bohemia (presently the Czech Republic), Austria–Hungary. His unique body
of writing—much of which is incomplete, and which was mainly published posthumously—is among the most
influential in Western literature.

Metamorphosis
by: Franz Kafka

Gregor Samsa wakes up and realizes he is now a huge bug and has also missed his train. This makes him
worry about his job as a salesman. His parents and Grete, his sister becomes suspicious and knocks at his door.
However, he is unable to talk nor open the door. Chief Clerk, who is his boss, arrives and reprimands him for
his behavior, threatening to dismiss him. He struggles to open the door and finally succeeds. He then tries to
explain the difficulties he experiences with his job, but nobody comprehends what he is saying. Everyone is
shocked by his new appearance, and Chief Clerk takes to his heels. While attempting to return to his room,
Gregor squeezes himself through the doorway and sustains an injury.
Grete brings Gregor fresh food, but he finds it unappealing. The next morning, Gregor’s sister serves
him rotting food which he eats heartily. He then overhears his parents discussing plans to go back to work since
he can no longer sustain the family. This gets him severely disappointed. Two months passed and Gregor’s
mother decides to take out Gregor’s old furniture to give him more space to crawl. However, Gregor does not
want to lose his furniture and crawls on the wall fixating himself on his “lady with the muff print.” His mother
faints out of shock. Gregor starts panicking in the dining room when his father suddenly comes and pelts him
with apples injuring him with one of them.
After one month, his family decides to earn more by taking on three lodgers. This makes Gregor feel
even more neglected. One night, Grete decides to entertain the lodgers with her violin, but they still feel bored.
Gregor takes this opportunity to strengthen his bond with his sister by crawling out of his room.
However, the lodgers are not happy to see him. They decide to leave without paying for their stay
immediately. Grete then informs their parents of the “cockroach” that has destroyed their lives. Gregor
disappointedly returns to his room and dies out of depression.
Upon discovering his death, Gregor’s parents decide to take leave and go to the countryside. They
happily make plans on how to start a new life. After that, they embark on plans to find Grete a husband.
CHAPTER 3: AFRICA

African Literature consists of a body of work in different languages and various genres, ranging from
oral literature to literature written in colonial languages (French, Portuguese and English).
There are 54 nations which make up Africa. Each of these separate countries have their own history,
culture, tribes, and traditions. That being said, there are some commonalities shared by literature which comes
from the continent as a whole.
African literature means different things to different people. Some consider it a new world literature, a
new genre with new messages. Others regard it as a political document, characterized by the protest against
colonialism’s downgrading of the blacks.
African writers who wrote in English were often accused of addressing themselves to a Western
audience and to some extent, they were engaged in a debate with the West about the Western interpretation of
Africa and in a sense they were directing a message both at the colonizer and the colonized.
Most African literature is an expression of its country’s social change. The writers are concerned about
the past and present history of their country and this concern is reflected in their works.

The History

The first African Literature is Circa 2300-2100 when ancient Egyptians begin using burial texts to
accompany their dead. These include the first written accounts of creation- the Memphite Declaration of Deties.
not only that, but papyrus from which we originate our word for paper was invented by Egyptians and writing
Flourished.
African literature has origins dating back thousands of years to Ancient Egypt and hieroglyphs, or
writing which uses pictures to represent words. These Ancient Egyptian beginnings led to Arabic poetry, which
spread during the Arab conquest of Egypt in the seventh century C.E. and through Western Africa in the ninth
century C.E.
These African and Arabic cultures continued to blend with the European culture and literature to form a
unique literary form. Africa experienced several hardships in its long history which left an impact on the themes
of its literature. One hardship which led to many others is that of colonization.
Colonization led to slavery. Millions of African people were enslaved and brought to Western countries
around the world from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. This spreading of African people, largely against
their will, is called the African Diaspora.
Sub-Saharan Africa developed a written literature during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
This development came as a result of missionaries coming to the area. The missionaries came to Africa to build
churches and language schools in order to translate religious texts. This led to Africans writing in both
European and indigenous languages.

Half A Day
by:Naguib Mahfouz

Introduction

“Half a Day” is a short story by Nobel Prize-winning Egyptian author Naguib Mahfouz. Published as
part of Mahfouz’s 1991 collection The Time and the Place and Other Stories, “Half a Day”. Departs from the
social realism for which Mahfouz became famous, instead employing elements of allegory and surrealism. All
quotes in this guide refer to Denys Johnson-Davies’s English translation of the work.
Summary

The story opens in an unnamed city early in the morning. The narrator, a young boy, is struggling to
keep up with his father, who is walking him to school for the first time. Although his father is cheerful and
reassuring, remarking that the day represents an important step forward in life, the narrator is nervous; he feels
he’s being punished: His anxiety only increases when he arrives at school, where he and the other children are
divided into groups and welcomed by a woman who advises them to accept the school as their new home.
The narrator and the other students do so and find themselves enjoying their new environment; they
attend classes, play games, nap, and make new friends. As time goes on, however, they realize that their new
lives also involve a great deal of hard work and frustration: “And while the lady would sometimes smile, she
would often scowl and scold”
As sunset approaches, the narrator emerges from school expecting to find his father waiting for him as
he promised. When his father doesn’t show up, he begins walking home by himself and runs into a middle-aged
man who greets him familiarly. They exchange pleasantries, and the narrator continues walking, only to find
that the city has changed dramatically since the morning.
He’s now surrounded not by gardens, but by crowds of people, cars, and tall buildings. Increasingly
alarmed and more desperate to reach home than ever, the narrator is trying to cross a busy street when a young
boy approaches to help him, addressing him as “Grandpa".

The Voter
by: Chinua Achebe

Introduction

Chinua Achebe is a renowned Nigerian novelist, poet, professor, and critic. His works highlight the
clash of Western and traditional African values. His style reflects Igbo oral tradition. The narration is peppered
with folk stories, proverbs and oratory. Among his many works, ‘Things Fall Apart’, ‘Arrow of God’ are very
popular.

“The Voter ''is a beautiful story symbolic of the entry of a new system of governance into the innocent
settlements of native people in Africa. It shows how Igbo people fall prey to the snares of the western systems.

The story also depicts how democratic exercise of the west introduced in Africa corrupts the innocent
lgbo folks. Rufus Okeke, the protagonist is very popular in the village Umuofia, for he chose to stay back in his
village instead of a bright future to guide his people in difficult times. Thus he had won their confidence.
When the story opens, it is election time to choose the new government. Rufus Okeke worked for the
People’s Alliance Party headed by Marcus Ibe who had just entered politics. He earlier worked as a Mission
school teacher before being thrown out of the school on a complaint. He plunged into politics and won the
election.
People of Umuofia elected him without any monetary demands on the words of Rufus Okeke. He
became the Minister of Culture in the PAP government. Politics had changed his life phenomenally: he gained
wealth, titles and honors. On the opening ceremony of his new house, he had arranged a great feast for his
villagers.
The people realized the magic of politics. They did not want to vote for him for free this time. Roof was
a loyal follower of Marcus Ibe and very popular in his village. He understood the pulse of the people very well.
He vehemently campaigned for Marcus. He had understood the change of villagers’ mind of late. So, he
convinced the villagers by striking a bargain of 4 shillings.
The Progressive Organization Party had been formed by the tribes down the coast to save themselves from total
political, cultural, social and religious annihilation. They knew that they would not win this time, they still
wanted to make an impact. The campaign team offered Rufus 5 pounds to vote for Maduka. He accepted the
offer swearing on Iyi hoping that his one vote would not make any difference.
 On the voting day, he was in a dilemma. But, as he walked in to cast his vote, he was struck with a
thought. He tore the ballot paper into two pieces and put one half in each box and came out as jauntily as ever.
Rufus Okeke did what he thought would absolve him of all his guilt. This also shows how he manipulated the
people and the situation for his advantage.

ANALYSIS OF THE CONTENT

THEMES

The following issues/themes have been expressed by the writer in this story:

Irresponsibility. This is the situation of failing to fulfil the needs to the people as a leader. In the short story,
Marcus Ibe and other politicians are portrayed as irresponsible leaders because they promise their people many
things like construction of roads but they do not fulfil their promises.

Selfishness. This is a situation where a person only cares for his or her own needs without considering others.
In the short story, Marcus Ibe and Maduka as well as other politicians are examples of the selfish leaders. They
only want to benefit themselves not the people. For example, in the story, Marcus Ibe build a new house and
install it with water and electricity while the whole village has no electricity and it has shortage of water.

Elections and Political campaigns. The author shows how politics is practised in the village of Umuofia and
other contemporary societies. For instance, when the election times approaches, as usual, Roof plays a great role
in the campaign to make sure that Marcus Ibe returns back to his position. In the campaign, Roof collects the
elders in the house of Ogbuefi Ezenwa and bribe them to vote for Marcus Ibe during election. Ezenwa himself
says;
“We shall every one of us drop his paper for Marcus. Who would leave an Ozo feast and go to a poor ritual
meal? Tell Marcus he has our papers and our wives’ papers too.”

Corruption and bribery. It refers to the private gain on the public properties. In the story, most politicians like
Marcus, Maduka, Rufus, and others are all corrupt. They bribe people so that they can vote for them during
election. Even Rufus bribes the elders in the house of Ogbuefi Ezenwa.

Unawareness. It is a situation of not realizing the presence of violation of justices in the society. For example,
in the story, people are unaware that politicians like Marcus Ibe are stealing from them and are irresponsible
leaders.

Betrayal. It is the situation of going against the certain agreement made between two or more people. In the
story, for example, Rufus Okeke betrays Marcus Ibe for voting for Maduka and in the process he destroys his
paper.

Ignorance. The situation of not knowing or not having certain knowledge on something. It is simply defined as
a lack of knowledge on something. For instance, in the story, most villagers are ignorant that they are being
cheated by the politicians. Some of them even believe that even studied Doctorate in Geography or Politics can
mean that the person can also attend the patients. Another example is when people are easily cheated by the
politicians with feasts, money, foods, and fake promises. For example, at Election Day, Roofs says:
“Don’t forget. Our sign is the motor car. Like the one Marcus is sitting inside. It is the same car. The box with
the car shows on its body is the box for you. Don’t look at the other with the man’s head: it is for those whose
heads are not correct”.

African traditions and beliefs. The iyi is often used by the politicians to get more people to vote for them in
this society. For example, POP campaigning team goes to Rufus to bribe him. It also gives him an iyi for him to
swear that he’ll vote for Maduka. The author says;
“The man nudged his companion and he brought forward an object covered with red cloth and proceeded to
remove the cover. It was a fear-some little affair contained in a clay pot with feathers stuck into it. This iyi
comes from Mbanta. You know what that means. Swear that you will vote for Maduka. If you fail to do so, this
iyi to note”.

Civilian and Soldier

By: Wole Soyinka

Akinwande Oluwole Babatunde Soyinka, known as Wole Soyinka, is a Nigerian playwright, novelist,
poet, and essayist in the English language. He was awarded the 1986 Nobel Prize in Literature, the first sub-
Saharan African to be honored in that category. Soyinka was born into a Yoruba family in Abeokuta.

Civilian and Soldier

By: Wole Soyinka

My apparition rose from the fall of lead,

Declared, 'I am a civilian.' It only served
To aggravate your fright. For how could I
Have risen, a being of this world, in that hour
Of impartial death! And I thought also: nor is
Your quarrel of this world.

You stood still

For both eternities, and oh I heard the lesson
Of your training sessions, cautioning
Scorch earth behind you, do not leave
A dubious neutral to the rear. Reiteration
Of my civilian quandary, burrowing earth
From the lead festival of your more eager friends
Worked the worse on your confusion, and when
You brought the gun to bear on me, and death
Twitched me gently in the eye, your plight
And all of you came clear to me.

I hope some day

Intent upon my trade of living , to be checked
In stride by your apparition In a trench,
Signalling, I am a soldier ,No hesitation then
But I shall shoot you clean and fair
With meat and bread, a gourd of wine
A bunch of breasts from either arm, and that
Lone question - do you friend, now, know
What it is all about?
 ANALYSIS OF THE POEM

The basic theme of ‘Civilian and Soldier’ is war, specifically civil war, a topic that speaks to the
chequered past of several African countries. It explores the dilemma of a soldier trying to shoot a civilian. The
civilian, who is the narrator, imagines the soldier’s brutality–his willingness or unwillingness to carry out the
order of his superiors and kill the civilian.
The poem seems to start postmortem, with the civilian's spirit "reasoning" with the soldier who held him
at gunpoint. The civilian identified himself as such upon meeting the soldier, but the soldier’s fright got the best
of him. The civilian imagines the soldier’s thoughts, how the soldier recalls his training not to leave a
questionable individual alive, how he knows he “should” shoot—but does he know why?
The point of the poem is that the soldier knows what he is supposed to do, but it’s likely he has no idea
why he should do it, or even what it would accomplish. This poem is about the pointless civilian murders that
occur during war, and perhaps about the perceived pointlessness of war itself.
The civilian narrator turns the situation around and states that if he were to live, and if he one day were
to surprise by the soldier the way the soldier was surprised by him, he would respond in kindness rather than
violence, and he would dare to verbalize the question: “Do you, friend, even now, know / What it is all about?”
The message of this poem is still applicable today, at a time when many nations are at war with one
another and more specifically themselves. It makes me think of all the protesting and the pros and cons.
Though the scope and details of the interpretation may differ based on the historical and cultural
perspective of the reader, the question of whether a "soldier" knows why he should do what he knows he should
do, and what impact that action has upon the situation, is still a valid consideration.

SOUTH WEST AND SOUTH CENTRAL ASIA

Southwest Asia is often called the Middle East, a region that covers 18 countries.The Middle East includes the
Arabian Peninsula and extends to Iran in the east and Egypt, in Africa, in the west. Middle Eastern nations
range from some of the world’s wealthiest, such as oil-rich Qatar and United Arab Emirates, to among the
poorest, for example, Yemen. Central Asia consists of five republics—Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan—which lie sandwiched between the Middle East, Russia and China. Many
Central Asian people are farmers and livestock herders, but the region also has significant reserves of minerals,
oil and natural gas. 

Southwestern Agriculture Southwestern farmers probably began experimenting with agriculture by

facilitating the growth of wild grains such as amaranth and chenopods as well as gourds for their edible seeds
and shells. The earliest maize known to have been grown in the Southwest was a popcorn varietal measuring
one to two inches long. 
-the people of the Southwest developed a variety of subsistence strategies, all using their own specific
techniques. The nutritive value of weed and grass seeds was discovered and flat rocks were used to grind flour
to produce gruels and breads. 
Family And Religion Paleolithic peoples in the Southwest initially structured their families and communities
into highly mobile traveling groups of approximately 20 to 50 members, moving place to place as resources
were depleted and additional supplies were needed. As cultural traditions began to evolve throughout the
Southwest between 7,500 BCE to 1,550 CE, many cultures developed similar social and religious traditions. 
- Many Southwest tribes during the Post-Archaic period lived in a range of structures that included small family
pit houses, larger structures to house clans, grand pueblos, and cliff-sited dwellings for defense. 
- Many of the tribes that made up the Southwest Culture practiced animism and shamanism. - Shamanism
encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the
spirit worlds. -animism encompasses the beliefs that there is no separation between the spiritual and physical (or
material) world, and that souls or spirits exist not only in humans, but also in some other animals, plants, rocks,
and geographic features such as mountains or rivers, or other entities of the natural environment, including
thunder, wind, and shadows. 
 
Culture of Russia & Central Asia  
The Central Asian countries also share their religion, Islam. Central Asia is where middle-Eastern Islamic
culture meets Russian Soviet culture. - The countries of Central Asia were once the center of multiple nomadic
empires and tribes, including the Scythians, Mongols, and Turks. The influence of the Soviet Union and Russia
is a major factor in Central Asian culture. Russian is spoken in all the countries of Central Asia. Religion is a
big deal in most places, but this is especially true in Russia and Central Asia. The culture of the area cannot be
separated from religious beliefs and practices, especially in Central Asia. The most significant religion in
Central Asia, by far, is Islam. 
 
Language & Ethnicity Central Asia and Russia as a whole are relatively ethnically diverse. This even causes
some conflict in Central Asian countries, and it has got to the point that many Russians have left Uzbekistan and
Tajikistan, afraid of violence and Islamic extremism. 

The Lion makers

(From the Panchantantra)

The author of the story (Panchantantra) by Vishnu Sharma  

The panchantantra is a collection of ancient stories from India that written the exact period of the composition
of the Panchatantra is uncertain, and estimates vary from 1200 BCE to 300 CE. Some scholars place him in the
3rd century BCE. Though the stories themselves are much older than that. They are the first fables ever told in
the world.   
 
 Vishnu Sharma was an Indian scholar and author who is believed to have written the Panchatantra, a collection
of fables.  
I. Setting 
 A certain town in India, the forest 
II. Unlocking of Difficulties 
 Scholarship - intelligence; high level of academic excellence 
 Dullard - short-witted person 
 Ripeness - extent of something; maturity of something 
III. Characters 
 1st Brahman : assemble the skeleton 
 2nd Brahman : supply skin, flesh, and blood 
 3rd Brahman : give life 
 4th Brahman : has nothing but sense 
The Lion makers 
(From the Panchantantra) 
 
In a certain town were 4 Brahmans who lived friendship. Three of them had reached the far shore of
scholarship but lacked sense. The other found scholarship distasteful; he had nothing but sense. 
One day they met for consultation. "What is the use of attainment" they said, "if one does not travel,
win the favour of kings, and acquire money? What ever we do let us all travel." 
But when they had gone a little way, the eldest of them said, "One of us, the fourth, is a dullard
having nothing but sense without scholarship. Therefore, we will not share our earnings with him.
Let him turn back and go home." 
 Then the second said, "My intelligent friend, you lack scholarship. Please go home."But the third
said, "No, no. This is no way to behave. For we have played together since we were little boys.
Come along, my noble friend. You shall have a share of the money we will earn. 
" With this agreement, they continued their journey, and in a forest found the bones of a dead lion.
Thereupon one of them said, "A good opportunity to test the ripeness of our scholarship. Here lies
some kind of creature, dead. Let us bring it to life by means of our scholarship that we have honestly
won. 
" Then the first said, "I know how to assemble the skeleton." The second said, "I can supply skin,
flesh, and blood." The third said, "I can give it life."  
So the first assembled the skeleton, the second provide the skin, flesh, and blood. But while the third
was intent on giving the breath of life, the man sense advises against it, remarking, "This is a lion. If
you bring him back to life, he will kill every one of us." 
 "You Simpleton!" said the other. "It is not I who will reduce scholarship nullity." "In that case,"
came the reply, "wait a moment, while I climb this convenient tree. 
" When this had been done, the lion was brought to life, rose up, and killed all three. But the man of
sense, after the lion had gone else where, climb down and went home. 
IV. Conflict 
Man vs. Man 
The three Brahmans vs. The sensible Brahman during their confrontation about bringing the lion
back to life 
V. Plot 
 Exposition: The four Brahmans went on a journey to test their scholarship. 
 Rising Action: They found the bones of a dead lion and the senseless scholars agreed to
bring it back to life. 
 Climax: The lion was revived and killed the first three Brahmans while the sensible
Brahman saved himself. 
 Falling Action: The sensible Brahman survived because he climbed up the tree. 
 Resolution: The sensible Brahman realized that scholarship is less than sense. 
VI. Theme 
 Sensibility 
 Wisdom 
 Friendship 
VII. Moral 
 “What we think, or what we know, or what we believe, is, in the end, of little
consequence. The only consequence is what we do.” -- John Ruskin 
VIII. Remarkable Line 
 “Senseless scholars, in their pride, 
Made a lion, then they died.” 
--- Sensible Brahman 
 Elegy for a Woman of No Importance  
by: Nazik al-Malaikah 
 
Nazik Al-Malaikah 
-an Iraqi female poet and is considered by many to be one of the most influential contemporary Iraqi
female poets. 
-famous as the first Arabic poet to use free verse. 
-born in Baghdad to a cultured family. Her mother was also a poet, and her father was a teacher. -She
wrote her first poem at the age of 10. 
-suffered from a number of health issues, including Parkinson's disease. 
- She died in Cairo in 2007 at the age of 83. 
 
Vocubulary Words  
  
Hovering – To remain or linger in or near place   
Vague – Not clear in meaning or expression  
Alleyways – narrow passageways  
Lodged – To live in a place temporarily   
Obscurely – So faintly perceptible as to lack clear delineation; indistint  
Shrill – High-pitched and piercing in tone or sound  
Squabbling – To engage in a bad- tempered argument, often over a trivial matter, bicker.  
 
 
Elegy for a Woman of No Importance
by: Nazik al-Malaikah 
 
When she died no face turned pale, no lips trembled 
Doors heard no retelling of her death 
No curtains opened to air the room of grief  
No eyes followed the coffin to the end of the road 
Only, hovering in the memory, a vague form 
 
Passing in the lane 
The scrap of news stumbled in the alleyways 
Its whisper, finding no shelter, 
Lodged obscurely in an unseen corner. 
The moon murmured sadly. 
Night, unconcerned, gave way to morning 
 
 
Light came with the milk cart and the call to fasting 
With the hungry mewing of a cat of rags and bones 
She shrill cries of vendors in the bitter streets 
The squabbling of small boys throwing stones 
Dirty water spilling along the gutters 
Smells on the wind 
Which played about the rooftops 
Playing in deep forgetfulness 
Playing alone 
 THE LAST CURTAIN BY RABINDRANATH TAGORE 
–India 
 
 Last Curtain 
By:  Rabindranath Tagore 
 
I know that the day will come 
When my sight of this earth shall be lost, 
And life will take its leave in silence, 
Drawing the last curtain over my eyes. 
 
Yet stars will watch at night, 
And morning rise as before, 
And hours heave like sea waves casting up pleasures and pains. 
 
When I think of this end of my moments, 
The barrier of the moments breaks 
And I see by the light of death 
Thy world with its careless treasures. 
Rare is its lowliest seat, 
Rare is its meanest of lives. 
 
Things that I longed for in vain 
And things that I got 
---let them pass. 
Let me but truly possess 
The things that I ever spurned 
And overlooked. 

Poem Analysis

The poem ‘Last Curtain’ explains the vulnerability one feels at the time of death. The actual treasures one can
take to the grave are none but his deeds of good. The poem conveys the message that the things that matter the
most at death, are those virtues that are considered as least important by many men during their lives.