Statistics and Probability CMU Mathematics Department

CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Statistics

Below are the topics and objectives to be considered as you going through this chapter.

Topics:
1.1.Population and Sample
1.2.Two Major Areas of Statistics
1.3.Variables
1.4. Levels of Measurement
1.5. Some Mathematical Notation
1.5.1 Summation Symbol
a. Rules of Summation
1.5.2 Factorial Symbol

Objectives:

(1) Define statistics and know some applications of statistics;

(2) Differentiate population and sample;
(3) Differentiate the two major areas of statistics;
(4) Know the types of variables;
(5) Differentiate the four levels of measurement and give some examples of each measurement;
(6) Know the rules of summation; and
(7) Solve problems that has summation and factorial symbols.

In everyday life, whether at home or at work, records are being kept and reports are being
read. An item in a record or a report is a fact that is usually expressed in terms of a numerical value
or described by its quality or kind. That single item or fact is referred to as a datum. All these facts
in a record or report are called data. The brand of the toothpaste you are using, the color of the
hair, your IQ score, the number of students in a class, the number of times you watched Kdrama,
your height and weight, the shooting percentage of your favorite basketball player, the number of
times you were absent from class --- these are all examples of data. Data, and how to handle it
scientifically, is the major reason why we study Statistics.
The word Statistics have two major definitions, a singular form and a plural form.
Statistics, in a plural sense, refers to the data itself or to some numerical computations derived
from a set of data that are systematically collected and analyzed. In a singular sense, Statistics
refers to the scientific discipline consisting of the theory and methods for processing collections
of quantitative and qualitative data useful when making decisions in the face of uncertainty.
Learning the methods in statistics enable us to develop a way of thinking that helps us in
many ways: (1) describe or characterize persons, objects, situations, and some phenomena with
some reliability; (2) make assessments and comparisons in an objective manner; and make
evidence-based decisions.

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Statistics and Probability CMU Mathematics Department
1.1.Population and Sample
Population – is a collection of all the units from which data is to be collected.\
Parameters – are numerical measures that describe the population.
Census – the process in which information is gathered for all units in the population.
Example: Performance of Senior High School (SHS) Students of Central Mindanao
University of the Second Semester, School Year 2019 – 2020 in Statistics.

Sample – is a subset of the population.

Statistics – are numerical measures of a sample.
Sample survey or sampling – the process in which information obtained is only a part of
the population.
Example: Performance of a sample of 50 Senior High School (SHS) Students of Central
Mindanao University of the Second Semester, School Year 2019 – 2020 in
Statistics.

1.2. Major Areas of Statistics

The study of statistics is classified into two major areas, namely: Descriptive Statistics and
Inferential Statistics.
1. Descriptive Statistics deals largely with summary calculations, graphical and tabular
displays, and describing important features of a set of data. It does not attempt to draw
conclusions about anything that pertains to more than the data themselves.
2. Inferential Statistics is concerned with making generalizations for a bigger group of
observations called population based on information gathered from a small group of
observations or sample drawn from the given population.

Example 1. Suppose you want to know if the people like to shop in Robinsons Mall. To gather
information, you might stand in a mall and ask a sample of 100 people if they like shopping at
Robinsons.
Descriptive Statistics: 56 out of 100 people answered YES (they want to shop at
Robinsons Mall).
Inferential Statistics: The results show that around 75% - 80% of the population (all
shoppers) like shopping at Robinsons Mall.

Example 2. You gathered all academic records of the graduating classes in Central Mindanao
University during the past 5 years.
Descriptive Statistics: 72% of the entering freshmen in CMU eventually graduated.
Inferential Statistics: The results show that the chances of the present freshman of
graduating is better than 70%.

1.3.Variables
A variable is a numerical characteristics or attribute associated with the population being
studied. The two types of variables are enumerated and defined below.

1. Categorical or Qualitative Variables are classified according to some attributes or

categories.
Examples: gender, eye color, religion, blood type, civil status, course, and year level
2. Numerical-Valued or Quantitative Variables are variables that are classified according to
numerical characteristics such as height, age, pulse rate, number of children and speed.
Quantitative Variables are classified as:
a. Discreet is a variable whose values are obtained by counting.
Examples: Number of children, number of persons with blue eyes, number of patients
with T.B., number of males and females in Statistics class.
b. Continuous is a variable whose values are obtained by measuring such as temperature,
distance, area, density, age, height, all of which cannot be put into a list because they
can have any value in some interval of real numbers.

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Statistics and Probability CMU Mathematics Department
1.4. Levels of Measurement/Scales of Measurement
In selecting the statistical tool to be used for drawing inferences on a random sample, the
type of measurement scale must be carefully chosen. Measurement is the process of assigning a
number or a numerical value to a characteristic of the object that is being measured. Measurements
are classified into four levels/scales namely nominal, ordinal, ration and interval.

1. Nominal Scale
Nominal is a measurement scale that classifies elements into two or more categories
or classes, the numbers indicating that the elements are different but not according to order
or magnitude.
Examples: gender, religion, species name
2. Ordinal Scale
Ordinal is a measurement scale that ranks individuals in terms of the degree to
which they possess a characteristic of interest.
Examples: Socio-economic status, Likert scales, high or low areas/temperature
(numerical but categorized)
3. Interval Scale
Interval is a measurement scale, in addition to ordering scores from high to low; it
also establishes a uniform unit in the scale so that any equal distance between two scores
is of equal magnitude. There is no absolute zero in this scale.
Examples: Temperature (Degree Fahrenheit, Degree Celsius), IQ
4. Ratio Scale
Ratio is a measurement scale that possess all the properties of identity, order
equality of scales and absolute zero.
Examples: height, weight, area, volume, speed, rate of doing work,
amount of money deposited in a bank.

Note: An absolute zero property means it has nothing of the characteristic that is being
measured.

1.5. Some Mathematical Notation

In the next chapters we will be encountering some special mathematical notations. Two of
the more frequently used symbols, the summation and factorial symbols, are introduced and
explained in the next subsections.

1.5.1. The Summation Symbol

The Greek letter ′ ∑ ′ (sigma) denotes the summation symbol. It is a compact way to write
the sum of a set of data values.
𝒏

𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐧𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 ∑ 𝒙𝒊 𝐢𝐬 𝐝𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝 𝐚𝐬:

𝒊=𝟏
𝒏

∑ 𝒙𝒊 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒙𝒏 .
𝒊=𝟏

𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐲𝐦𝐛𝐨𝐥 ∑ 𝒙𝒊 𝐢𝐬 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐝 𝐚𝐬 “𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒙 𝒔𝒖𝒃 𝒊, 𝒊 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝟏 𝒕𝒐 𝒏”.

𝒊=𝟏
The lower index of the summation is 1 while the upper index is n. The lower
index indicates which variable to start adding and the upper index indicates the last
variable to be added. If the lower index is 4 and the upper index is 30, then the 4th
to the 30th values are to be added.

Example 1. Write each of the following in expanded form.

4

1. ) ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=2
Solution:
4

∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑥2 𝑦2 + 𝑥3 𝑦3 + 𝑥4 𝑦4
𝑖=2

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Statistics and Probability CMU Mathematics Department

2. ) ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑖
𝑖=1
Solution:
8

∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑖 = 𝑥11 + 𝑥2 2 + 𝑥3 3 + 𝑥4 4 + 𝑥5 5 + 𝑥6 6 + 𝑥7 7 + 𝑥8 8
𝑖=1

3. ) ∑(𝑧𝑖+2 )2
𝑖=6
Solution:
9

∑(𝑧𝑖+2 )2 = (𝑧6+2 )2 + (𝑧7+2 )2 + (𝑧8+2 )2 + (𝑧9+2 )2 = 𝑧8 2 + 𝑧9 2 + 𝑧10 2 + 𝑧11 2

𝑖=6

9 2

4. ) [∑(𝑧𝑖+2 )]
𝑖=6
Solution:
9 2

[∑(𝑧𝑖+2 )] = [(𝑧6+2 ) + (𝑧7+2 ) + (𝑧8+2 ) + (𝑧9+2 )]2 = (𝑧8 + 𝑧9 + 𝑧10 + 𝑧11 )2

𝑖=6

Example 2. Write each of the following in a summation notation.

1) 𝑥3 2 + 𝑥4 2 + 𝑥5 2 + 𝑥6 2 3) (𝑥1 + 3) + (𝑥2 + 3) + (𝑥3 + 3) + (𝑥4 + 3)

Answer: Answer:
6 4

∑ 𝑥𝑖 2 ∑(𝑥𝑖 + 3)
𝑖=3 𝑖=1

2) 2𝑧2 + 2𝑧3 + 2𝑥4 + 2𝑧5 4) 𝑥1 𝑦1 2 + 𝑥2 𝑦2 3 + 𝑥3 𝑦3 4 + 𝑥4 𝑦4 5

Answer: Answer:
5 4

∑ 2𝑧𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑖+1
𝑖=2 𝑖=1

• Rules of Summation
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑(𝑥𝑖 ± 𝑦𝑖 ± 𝑧𝑖 ) = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ± ∑ 𝑦𝑖 ± ∑ 𝑧𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑐𝑥𝑖 = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

𝑖=1 𝑖=1

∑ 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

𝑖=1

Second Semester 4 JOBELLE S. SIMBLANTE

Statistics and Probability CMU Mathematics Department
Example 3. Let 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟏, 𝒙𝟐 = −𝟏, 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙𝟒 = 𝟑.
Also, let 𝒚𝟏 = 𝟓, 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒, 𝒚𝟑 = 𝟖 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚𝟒 = 𝟔.
Find the following in a step-by-step manner.
4 3 4 𝑠
2 2) )2
𝑎. ) ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑏. ) ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 𝑐. ) ∑ 2(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑖 𝑑. ) ∑ 𝑡𝑎𝑡
𝑖=1 𝑖=2 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

Solution:
4

𝑎. ) ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑥1 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 𝑦2 + 𝑥3 𝑦3 + 𝑥4 𝑦4 = (1)(5) + (−1)(4) + (2)(8) + (3)(6)

𝑖=1
= 5 + (−4) + 16 + 18 = 35

3 3 3
2 2)
𝑏. ) ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 − ∑ 𝑦𝑖 2 = (𝑥2 2 + 𝑥3 2 ) − (𝑦2 2 + 𝑦3 2 )
2

𝑖=2 𝑖=2 𝑖=2

= ((−1)2 + 22 ) − (42 + 82 )
= (1 + 4) − (16 + 64) = 5 − 80 = −75
4

𝑐. ) ∑ 2(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑖 )2 = 2(𝑥1 + 𝑦1 )2 + 2(𝑥2 + 𝑦2 )2 + 2(𝑥3 + 𝑦3 )2 + 2(𝑥4 + 𝑦4 )2

𝑖=1
= 2[(𝑥1 + 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑥2 + 𝑦2 )2 + (𝑥3 + 𝑦3 )2 + (𝑥4 + 𝑦4 )2 ]

= 2[(1 + 5)2 + (−1 + 4)2 + (2 + 8)2 + (3 + 6)2 ]

= 2[(6)2 + (3)2 + (10)2 + (9)2 ]

= 2[36 + 9 + 100 + 81] = 2(226) = 452

𝑠

𝑑. ) ∑ 𝑡𝑎𝑡 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
𝑖=1

1.5.2. The Factorial Symbol

The symbol "! " denotes the factorial symbol. The factorial notation is a compact
way of writing the product of a sequence of positive integers.
The symbol 𝑛! is defined as 𝑛! = 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ … ∙ 𝑛, where 𝑛 is a positive integer.

Note: 1) 𝑛! is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to 𝑛.

2) By convention, 0! = 1.

Example. Solve 𝑛! for 𝑎. ) 𝑛 = 6 𝑏. ) 𝑛 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐. ) 𝑛 = 9

Solution:
𝑎. ) 6! = 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 720
𝑏. ) 4! = 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 24
𝑐. ) 9! = 9 ∙ 8 ∙ 7 ∙ 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 362,880

Second Semester 5 JOBELLE S. SIMBLANTE

Statistics and Probability CMU Mathematics Department
Practice Exercises:
I. Investigate the following problems/statements and determine what is more appropriate to use –
descriptive statistics or inferential statistics. Write DS if it is a descriptive statistics and IS if it is
inferential statistics.
_____1. CMU Math Department would like to know the number of BS Mathematics students
interested of the newly revised curriculum of the BS mathematics program.
_____2. At least 5% of all fires reported last year in a certain city were deliberately set by arsonists.
_____3. As a result of a recent poll, most Filipinos are in favor of building additional nuclear
power plants.
_____4. CMU Office of Student Affairs would like to predict the number of students who would
like to stay at the University’s dormitories. However, the enrolment period was a week
before the classes start so the said office randomly selected 100 students and the results
were used as an estimate.

II. Identify the following as a qualitative or quantitative variable. If quantitative, classify whether
it is discrete or continuous. Also, indicate the appropriate level of measurement required in each.
1. Citizenship - ______________________3. Tuition Fees-__________________________
2. Color of the skin - __________________4. Blood pressure-________________________
III. Let 𝑤1 = 4, 𝑤2 = −1, 𝑤3 = 5, 𝑤4 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤5 = −2.
Also, let 𝑣1 = 3, 𝑣2 = 2, 𝑣3 = 2, 𝑣4 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣5 = 4. Compute the following:
4

1. ) ∑(𝑤𝑖 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2 ) =
𝑖=2

2. ) ∑ 2𝑖 𝑣𝑖 2 =
𝑖=1

4
−3𝑣𝑖 3 − 2
3. ) ∑ =
(2𝑣𝑖 − 1)2
𝑖=2

IV. Write each of the following in a summation notation.

1.) 2𝑤1 + 22 𝑤2 + 23 𝑤3 + 24 𝑤4 + ⋯ + +27 𝑤7 =

2.) (𝑤1 + 2𝑣1 )2 + (𝑤2 + 2𝑣2 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑤5 + 2𝑣5 )2 =

V. Compute the following:

13! 7!
1) = 2) 10! =
11!

Answers:
I. 1. DS 2. DS 3. IS 4. IS
II. 1. Qualitative, Nominal 2. Qualitative, Nominal 3. Quantitative, Continuous, Ratio
4. Quantitative, Continuous, Ratio
−97
III. 1.) 26 2.) 66 3.)
9
IV.
7 5

1. ) ∑ 2𝑖 𝑤𝑖 2. ) ∑(𝑤𝑖 + 2𝑣𝑖 )2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

1
V. 1.) 156 2.)
720

Second Semester 6 JOBELLE S. SIMBLANTE