GENERAL GEOLOGY
FACTORS ATTECTING WEATHERING
EARTH PROCESSES
The physical processes on Earth create constant change.
These processes — including movement in the tectonic
plates in the crust, wind and water erosion, and
deposition — shape features on Earth's surface.
SOIL FORMATION AND DEPOSITION
ROCK CYCLE
THE FINAL PRODUCTS DUE TO WEATHERING ARE SOILS.
BOWEN'S REACTION SERIES
-the reaction series are similar to the weathering stability
series.
COMPOSITION OF SOME IGNEOUS ROCKS
COMPOSITION OF SOME IGNEOUS ROCKS
WEATHERING AND EROSION
WEATHERING
1. PHYSICAL PROCESSES OF WEATHERING
 Unloading
o e.g. uplift, erosion, or change in fluid
pressure
 Thermal expansion and contraction
 Alternate wetting and drying
 Crystal growth, including frost action organic
activity
2. CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF WEATHERING
 Hydrolysis
o Is the reaction with water
o Will not continue in the static water
o Involves solubility of silica and alumina
 Chelation - involves the complexing and removal
of metal ions
 Cation - exchange is important to the formation
of clay minerals
 Oxidation and reduction
 Carbonation - is the combination of carbonate
ions such as the reaction with CO2
3.
 Many factors can affect the weathering process
such as climate, topography, features of parent
rocks, biological reactions, and others.
 Climate determines the amount of water and the
temperature
PRODUCTS OF WEATHERING
 Weathering produces regolith ("rock blanket")
which is composed of small rock and mineral
fragments.
 When organic matter is mixed into this material,
it is called soil.
EROSION TRANSPORT AGENTS OR FORCES
 Water - rain, streams and rivers, ocean
dynamics, ice in glaciers
 Wind
 Gravity
Streams - flowing water will lift and carry small sediments
such as silt and sand.
Ocean Dynamics
Tidal action and waves carry away weathered materials.
Glaciers
 Glaciers are large ice fields that slowly flow
downhill over time.
 Glacial ice drags rocky material that scours the
surface it flows over. The glacier deposits debris
as it melts.
WIND TRANSPORT OF SEDIMENTS
 Wind will carry fine, dry sediments over long
distances.
 Sahara Desert sand being transported over the
Atlantic Ocean
TRANSPORT BY GRAVITY
 When sediments are weathered, they may be
transported downward by gravity.
 The general term for his is mass wasting.
DEPOSITION FORMATION
Transported sediments are deposited in layers and
generate strata, like those found in the Grand Canyon.
TRANSPORTATION OF WEATHERING PRODUCTS
1. RESIDUAL SOILS - to remain at the original place
 The top layer of rock is decomposed into residual
soils due to the warm climate and abundant
rainfall.
 Engineering properties of residual soils are
different with those transported soils.
 The knowledge of "classical" geotechnical
engineering is mostly based on behavior of
transported soils. The understanding of residual
soils is sufficient in general.
 2. TRANSPORTED SOILS - to be moved and
deposited to other places.
 The particle sizes of transported soils are
selected by the transportation agents such as
streams, wind, etc. Interstratification of silts and
clays.
 The transported soils can be categorized based
in the mode of transportation and deposition (six
types).
o Glacial soils: formed by transportation and
deposition of glaciers
o Alluvial soils: transported by running water
and deposited along streams
o Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in
quiet lakes.
o Marine soils: formed by deposition in the
seas.
o Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by
the wind.
o Colluvial soils: formed by the movement of
soil from its original place by gravity, such as
during landslide.
DECOMPOSITION GRADES (ROCK)
Common Weathering Processes
 The most important chemical processes are
hydrolysis and solution
 The two important physical processes of
weathering are the alternate wetting and drying,
and the exfoliation (sheeting).
Saprolite: rock fabric is retained.
Residual soil: rock fabric is completely destroyed
GROUNDWATER
Hydrosphere - includes water in and on the Earth's crust
- Underground water that fill almost all pores in rock and
sediment
 97% contained in oceans
 90% of freshwater is in the form of polar ice caps
and glaciers
 Ultimate source of all water on land is the oceans
 Infiltration - process where water enters the
ground and becomes groundwater.
 Pores - spaces between fragments of weathered
rock and sediments
 Supplies about 1/5 of freshwater needs
 Groundwater system - area that has connecting
pores
1. Zone of saturation - layer of groundwater where
all the pores are filled with water
o Gravitational water - water that trickles down
due to gravity
o Capillary water - water drawn upward form
the water table.
2. Water table - upper surface of zone of saturation
o Depth varies depending on local conditions
o Topography will follow the topography of the
land above it
o Dependent on precipitation so will vary with
seasonal and other weather conditions
o Rise during wet season, drops during dry
seasons.
3. zone of aeration - lies between water table and
earth's surface
o Uppermost region - holds soil water -forms
film around grains of topsoil
o Middle region - normally remains dry except
during rainfall, mostly air
o Capillary fringe - bottom region
 water drawn up from the zone of
saturation
 capillary action - attraction of water
molecules to other materials
AQUIFERS
A geological unit which can store and supply significant
quantities of water.
PRINCIPAL AQUIFERS BY ROCK TYPE:
 Unconsolidated
 Sandstone
 Sandstone and Carbonate
 Semi-consolidated
 Carbonate-rock
 Volcanic
 Other rocks
OCCURENCE OF GROUNDWATER
 Groundwater occurs when water recharges the
subsurface through cracks and pores in soil and
rock
 Shallow water level is called the water table
GROUNDWATER RECHARGE
 Natural - Precipitation, Melting snow, infiltration
by streams and lakes
 Artificial
o Recharge wells
o Water spread over land in pits, furrows,
ditches;
o Small dams in stream channels to detain and
deflect water
Chapter 2: Rocks and Minerals
PART 1
Earth’s Molten Stage
– During the early formation of the Earth it was molten
– During this stage the heavier elements such as iron and
nickel, sank to the deeper interior of the Earth.
– This left a thin layer of lighter materials on the surface
that is mow called the crust.
– The majority of the Earth’s mass lies below the crust
Chemical Analysis
– 8 elements make up 98.6% of the crust
– These 8 elements make up the solid materials of the
Earth’s crust and are known as rocks and minerals.
– A mineral is solid inorganic material of the Earth that
has both a known chemical composition and a crystalline
structure that is unique to that mineral
– A rock is a solid aggregate of one or more minerals that
have been cohesively brought together by a rock-forming
process.
(A)The percentage by weight of the elements that make
up Earth's crust.
(B) The percentage by weight of the elements that make
up the whole Earth.
Rock Formation
Geological cycle includes many processes acting
simultaneously. The most important of these begin with
molten magma from within the earth forming into rock,
then continues with rocks being broken down into soil,
and that soil being converted back into rock.
EARTH’S CRUST – Rocks and Minerals
 The earth’s crust is composed of rocks.
 Rocks are primarily composed of minerals (but
may also contain organic materials).
 The granite and basalt rocks of the continental
and oceanic crusts were the original, igneous
rocks.
What is a Rock?
 A rock is an aggregate of mineral particles – but
may also contain organic materials
 So, minerals are essentially the building blocks of
rocks
 Bedrock → Outcrop → Regolith → Soils
Rock Classification
 Igneous Rocks - form due to the cooling and
crystallization of magma
 Sedimentary Rocks - form through lithification of
sediments from other rocks
 Metamorphic Rocks - form via recrystallization of
other rocks due to heat, pressure, and chemical
alteration
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous Rocks Are Subdivided into Two Classes:
1. Volcanic (Extrusive) Igneous Rocks - Volcanic
extrusive igneous rocks form on earth's surface
as lava cool.
 Basalt
o Basalt is the most widespread volcanic
rock
o It is a dark, fine-grained rock
o Basalt is the rock of the sea floor
2. Plutonic (or Intrusive) Igneous Rocks - Plutonic
igneous rocks form deep underground where
magma cools slowly; these rocks have a coarse
crystalline texture
 Granite
o Granite is the most widespread of
plutonic igneous rocks.
o It underlies much of the continental
crust.
Classification of Igneous Rock:
Hypabyssal Rock: Hypabyssal rocks are formed when
consolidation of magma takes place very close to the
earth’s surface in the form of smaller sheet like bodies
(known as sills and dykes) that fill cracks inside other
rocks.
Some extrusive generally have finer grained, smoother
surfaces. Some extrusive materials, such as volcanic ash,
bypasses the rock stage and forms directly into sediment
Dike and Sill igneous rocks
Sill: A sill is igneous rock which vary in thickness from a
few centimeter to several hundred meters. The sill is
parallel to the bedding of rock and may be horizontal,
inclined or vertical depending upon the strata.
Dike: A dike is vertical wall-like igneous body that cuts the
bedding of the rock. The thickness of the dike may vary
from a few centimeters to a hundred meter or more.
Common Igneous Rock:
Granite: is coarse grained, an intrusive rock. It is the most
common and familiar igneous rocks. Granite contains
primarily orthoclase feldspar and quartz, with some
biotite and amphibole.
It is mostly light in color with a white or pink tint
according to the color of the feldspar.
 Engineering properties: Granite have absorption
as low as 0.24 per cent. It has an excellent frost
resistance. Because of the minerals composition
 and interlocking of crystals, granite is hard and
abrasion resistant. The compressive strength of
granite is on average 24,500 psi. Granite can be
used to support any load of ordinary structures.
Granite is also used as tiles for flooring in
buildings.
Diorite: is coarse grained, an intrusive rock. It is mainly
composed of plagioclase feldspar (more than 50 %) and
hornblends. However, in some varieties augite and
biotite may be present. It is more abundant than syenites
but less abundant than granite. Diorite has been used for
crushed stone for monumental and decorative purposes
than for structural purposes.
Syenite: is grained igneous rocks composed essentially of
potassium felspare (80-85 %). Biotite and hornblende are
commonly present. Quartz is present in small amount.
The general properties of syenites is similar to granite.
Because of the rarity of syenite, it is of little commercial
use as structural material.
Texture of igneous rocks
 Texture: Texture is size, shape and arrangement
of mineral grains in a rock. Texture of rock can
either of coarse-crystalline or it can be glassy or
amorphous. The texture of the rock is governed
by the cooling time of the magma. Crystallization
is governed by slow cooling, however, glassy
texture or amorphous form is the result of rapid
cooling.
 Types of rock: Holocrystalline, Coarse grained,
fine grained, cryptocrystalline and glassy
(amorphous)
 Igneous rock classification scheme based on
mineral composition and texture. There are
other blends of minerals with various textures,
many of which have specific names.
 Granite is a coarse-grained igneous rock
composed mostly of light-colored, light-density,
nonferromagnesian minerals. The earth's
continental areas are dominated by granite and
by rocks with the same mineral composition of
granite.
 This is a piece of obsidian, which has the same
chemical composition as the granite. Obsidian
has a different texture because it does not have
crystals and is a volcanic glass. The curved
fracture surface is common in noncrystalline
substances such as glass.
The Importance of Igneous Rocks in Engineering
 Plutonic rocks often become resistant to
breakage and pressure when they are fresh and
although the rock is fractured. Therefore they
show high resistance.
 They can be used in material engineering
services when their resistance is between 1500-
2000kg/cm2.
 The resistance of the rock depends on
weathering and hence degradation degree will
vary inversely with the degree of weathering.
 Since the volcanic masses have different physical
properties, it is necessary to thoroughly inspect
them before construction starts.
 Some lavas, agglomerates and volcanic rocks
protect their freshness, so their resistance
maybe as high as deep rocks such as basalt. But
volcanic tuffs and breccias are hollow and
decayed, so they show a drossy structure. At the
same time they lose credibility because they
show clay mineralization.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Most sedimentary rocks are formed of layers of materials
that have washed into lakes, rivers and oceans –
• Sedimentary rocks form strata
• Often layers are tilted by earth movements
• Sedimentary rocks contain fossils
How do sediments turn into hard rock?
 Through Lithification Processes:
o Compaction
o Cementation
o Crystallization
 Sedimentary rock is formed by deposition and
consolidation of minerals and organic materials
and from precipitation of minerals from solution.
 The processes that form sedimentary rock occur
at the surface of the earth and within bodies of
water.
 Rock formed from sediments covers 70-80 % of
the earth’s land area, and includes common
types such as limestone, chalk, sandstone,
conglomerate and shale.
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks:
Consolidation is a process by which soft and loose
sediments are converted into hard and firm rocks.
Consolidation is of three types:
1. Compaction and Dehydration: The squeezing out of
water from the pores of the sediments and its changing
to solid mass by cohesion between the particles and
pressure from overlying rock is called compaction and
dehydration.
2. Cementation: Many coarse grained sediments are
consolidated by cementation, which is the process of
precipitation of some cementing materials, for
example, silica, calcium carbonate, iron oxides and clay
minerals.
3. Crystallization: Chemically formed sedimentary rocks
such as Limestone, dolomites, gypsum etc. are
consolidated chiefly by the crystallization of their
constituents.
Compaction
 As sediments are laid down grain by grain, the
mass becomes greater.
 The increasing mass of the sediment layer above
creates pressure on the layers below.
 Eventually this pressure becomes great enough
to compact the existing layers into a cohesive
rock layer.
Cementation Formation of different types of Sedimentary Rocks
 After, or during, the compaction process, the
spaces between the sediment particles become
filled with a chemical deposit.
 This deposit holds the compacted layers into a
cohesive mass of sedimentary rock.

Sedimentary Rocks - Form from material from previously

existing rock
 Material is provided by weathering of previously
existing rock

Sediments
 Weathered rock materials
 Dissolved rock materials

Clastic sediments
 Another name for weathered rock materials Texture and Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical sediments
 Another name for dissolved rock material.
 The dissolved materials are ions from mineral
and rocks that have been completely broken
down.
 Removed from solution by:
–Chemical precipitation from the solution
–Crystallization from evaporating water.
–Biological sediments.

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks:

1. Clastic: form from bits and pieces of other rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
2. Chemical: consist of minerals deposited from a
solution
3. Organic: consist of organic matter such as plants
and animal remains
Organically-formed sedimentary rocks form from the
remains of plants and animals (fossil limestone, coal)

Mechanically (Clastic) formed: consisting of materials

(gravels, sand, silt and clay) suspended in flowing water.
The suspended materials are then deposited and
consolidated. The mechanically formed sedimentary
rocks are of three types:
o Rudaceous rocks which is the cementing
together of boulders, for example,
conglomerate.
o Arenaceous rocks for example sandstone,
o Argillaceous rocks which is clay rocks for
example shale
Common Sedimentary Rock:
Organically formed: Consisting of accumulated animals Conglomerate: The pebbles and gravels on consolidation
and plants remains. and cementation produce a rock known as
They are: conglomerate. Gravels are deposited for the most part
o Calcarious rocks, lime stone by water. Water circulating through gravel deposits may
o Carbonaceous rocks, coal precipitate out silica, calcium carbonate, or iron oxides,
which act as cements binding the gravels together into
Chemically formed: this type of rocks is formed by conglomerates.
precipitation andaccumulation of soluble constituents.
These are: Sandstones: Most sand is a water deposit. In arid
o Carbonate rocks, Limestone, dolomite regions, widespread sands have been laid down by wind
o Sulphate rocks, Gypsum action. Volcanic eruptions, glacial action, mechanical and
o Chloride rocks, salt chemical weathering, and organisms produce sands. The
sand particles are deposited and then cemented
together by materials like silica, calcite, iron oxide or clay.
Sandstones may be siliceous sandstone that is the
cementing materials is silica; it may be calcarious
sandstone in which the cementing materials is calcium
carbonate; ferruginous sandstone and argillaceous
sandstone having iron oxide and clay as cementing
materials.
 This is a sample of breccia, a coarse-grained
Sedimentary rock with coarse, angular
fragments. Compare the grain sizes to the
centimeter scale.
 This is a sample of sandstone, a sedimentary rock
that formed from sand grains in a matrix of very
fine-grained silt, clay, or other materials. The
grains in this sample are mostly the feldspar and
quartz minerals, which probably accumulated
near the granite from which they were eroded.
The thoroughly cemented sandstone with quartz are
termed as orthoquartzite. Argillaceous rocks: variously
called mudstone, claystone, and shale (compacted or
cemented) are among the most abundant of
sedimentary rocks. It is a laminated fine grained
sedimentary rock which is mainly composed of clay
minerals and some silt-size grains of quartz.
The clay stones, because they are characteristically soft
and weak are not suited to most construction purposes.
The compacted shale lose strength when wet and are
subject to plastic deformation. Underload they are
subject to failure by flow. The cemented shales have
strength comparable to concrete but have a relatively
high elasticity.
 Clay stones underlying the sites of heavy
structures should be test in both wet and dry
conditions. Clay stone has a limited use. It serves
as a raw materials for the ceramic industry in
some places and also used as raw materials for
cement production.
Carbonate rocks: The carbonate rocks are chiefly the
products of marine or fresh water sedimentation. They
are predominantly chemical sediments either formed by
metabolic process of organism or precipitated
inorganically. Mineralogically, the carbonate rocks are
comparatively simple.
There are two main varieties; the limestone composed
chiefly of the calcite, and the dolomite composed chiefly
of dolomite.
 The carbonate rocks, particularly the limestones,
have a very wide use in modern industry. The
largest single use is as crushed stone. Limestone
is one of the leading dimension stones being
utilized both for internal and external work.
Commercial lime is derived from the burning of
limestone.
 This is a sample of limestone, a sedimentary rock
made of calcium carbonate that formed under
water directly or indirectly from the actions of
plants and animals. This fine-grained limestone
formed indirectly from the remains of tiny
marine organisms.
Structural Features of Sedimentary Rocks:
Structural features of sedimentary rocks are of great
value in determining their origin. The main structures are
as follows:
Stratification: The deposition of sediments into layer or
beds is called stratification. The thickness of a single bed
may vary from a few centimeters to many meters. The
stratification is formed due to the following.
I. Difference in the kinds of materials deposited for
example shale and limestone
II. Difference in the size of particles deposited for
example coarse grained and fine grained
sandstone beds
III. Difference in the color of the materials deposited
for example light grey and dark grey layers of
limestone
Lamination: Thin bedding, less than one centimeter in
thickness, are called lamination. It is usually fined grained
sedimentary rocks like shales.
Cross-bedding: It is also called current bedding or false
bedding. Cross-bedding are the minor bedding or
lamination which lie at an angle to the planes of general
stratification. This structure is found in shallow water and
wind formed deposits.
o (A) In compaction, the sediment grains are
packed more tightly together, often by overlying
sediments, as represented by the bricks.
o (B) In cementation, fluids contain dissolved
minerals that are precipitated in the space
between the grains, cementing them together
into a rigid, solid mass.
Textures of Sedimentary Rocks
Grain sorting: Sorting refers to the uniformity of grain
size in a sediment or sedimentary rock.
Rounding: During the transportation process, grains
maybe reduced in size due to abrasion. Random abrasion
results in the eventual rounding off of the sharp corners
and edges of grains. Thus, the degree of rounding of
grains gives us clues to the amount of time a sediment
has been in the transportation cycle.
Sphericity: It is controlled by the original shape of the
grain. The longer the sediment is transported, the more
time is available for grains to lose their rough edges and
corners by abrasion.
Layering(bedding): One of the most obvious features of
sedimentary rocks and sediment is the layered structure
which they exhibit. The layers are evident because of
differences in mineralogy, clast size, degree of sorting, or
color of the different layers. In rocks, these differences
may be made more prominent by the differences in
resistance to weathering or color changes brought out by
weathering.
Cross Bedding: Consists of sets of beds that are inclined
relative to one another. The beds are inclined in the
direction that the wind or water was moving at the time
of deposition. Boundaries between sets of cross beds
usually represent an erosional surface. Cross bedding is
very common in beach deposits, sand dunes, and river
deposited sediment. Individual beds within cross-bedded
strata are useful indicators of current direction and tops
and bottoms. Note how the beds become asymptotic to
the lower boundary on which they were deposited.
 Sedimentary rocks containing clay minerals such
as clay and shale contain water in a small or large
amount depending on the type of minerals they
contain. Their indentations loosen or degrade
according to the water content. As a result,
resistance and handling power are reduced.

Graded Bedding: As current velocity decreases, the
larger or more dense particles are deposited first,
followed by smaller particles. This results in bedding
showing a decrease in grain size from the bottom of the
bed to the top of the bed. This gives us a method for
determining tops and bottoms of beds, since reverse
grading will not be expected unless deposition occurs
under unusual circumstances. Note that reverse graded
bedding cannot occur as current velocity increases,
because each layer will simply be removed as the current
achieves a velocity high enough to carry sediment of a
particular size.
Engineering Properties of Sedimentary Rocks
 Physical and especially mechanical properties of
the existing rocks should be determined by
laboratory tests and tests. The results should be
numbered and used in basic and static
calculations.
 The rocks have a certain carrying power. Rocks
that are overloaded by forces change structure
and shape, so the upper structures can be
damaged.
 The ground that is overloaded on the surface
shows different physical and chemical
properties.
 The factors affecting the cost and safety of the
construction which are known as the
engineering properties of the rocks are the
specific gravity, porosity, water absorption, unit
volume weight, resistance corresponding to the
press, resistance to atmosphere effect, wear,
fragmentation
 Limestones are used as building material for
producing lime, aggregate, gravel and building
stone. The resistance of the lime stones to be
used in this area must be at least 200kg/cm2
with respect to water absorption, less abrasion,
and pore and porosity
 The resistance of the limestones is low and high,
so the stratification of the limestones is effective.
 Cracking systems and melting gaps should be
avoided or minimized in limestones if they are
used in foundation and dam construction.
 Limestones must be cracked and melting space
at ground water investigations. Limestones
which have high porosity and cracked provides
to generate high discharges karstic springs.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed in
form due to heat, pressure, and chemical alteration.
Slate: forms when shale is compressed by heat and
pressure; splits easily
Schist: dominated by platy or needle-like minerals that
form shiny layers
Gneiss: under pressure the minerals in granite
recrystallize to form bands of light and dark minerals

With laboratory experiments; Marble: Limestone recrystallizes into marble – a denser

It should be determined whether they are essential or and more crystalline form of calcite
not according to various rock and soil conditions.
Stability and resistance to depression should be Quartzite: Sandstone changes into quartzite; Sand grains
determined. recrystallize to form a hard mass of quartz
The properties of storage (S) or permeability (K) and
transmissibility (T) of groundwater of various rocks and
soils should be determined. Whether or not the rocks are
suitable for building materials should be determined.

 The resistance of the sedimentary rocks to

breakage and pressures varies depending on the
hardness grades and the susceptibility of the
minerals to water. For example; Clay, marl,
gypsum and limestone cemented sand stones
and conglomerates show little resistance to
water pressures. Silica cemented ones are more
resistant, like granite and basalt. Good cemented
rocks have high porosity and permeability
ratings, so their water storage capacities are
high, while their resistance is low.
Metamorphic Rocks - Rocks changed by heat, pressure,
or hot solutions due to:
 Movement of the Earth’s crust
 Heat generated by intrusion of hot magma
 Pressure can change rock by flattening,
deforming, or realigning mineral grains.
Foliation
 When the pressure on flat crystal flakes tends to
align the flakes into parallel sheets.
 Gives the rock the property of breaking along the
planes between the aligned mineral grains in
what is known as rock cleavage.
Engineering Properties of Metamorphic Rocks
Contact or thermal metamorphism - Driven by a rise in
temperature within the host rock
Regional metamorphism
 Occurs during mountain building
 Produces the greatest volume of metamorphic
rock
Burial metamorphism - Occurs at bottom of thick
sedimentary rock piles
Hydrothermal metamorphism - chemical alterations
from hot, ion-rich water
Effect of temperature in metamorphism
 Increasing metamorphic change occurs with
increasing temperatures and pressures. If the
melting point is reached, the change is no longer
metamorphic, and igneous rocks are formed.
Metamorphic Rock Textures
1. Foliated Rock - Bands of minerals in parallel
layers
Foliation – any planar arrangement of mineral grains or
structural features within a rock
o Parallel alignment of platy and/or elongated
minerals
o Foliation can form through:
o Rotation of platy and/or elongated minerals
o Recrystallization of minerals in the direction of
preferred orientation
o Changing the shape of equidimensional grains
into elongated shapes that are aligned
2. Non-foliated Rock - Without bands
o Metamorphic rocks that lack foliation are
referred to as non-foliated
o Develop in environments where stress
(deformation) is minimal
o Typically composed of minerals that exhibit
equidimensional crystals.
 This is a sample of marble, a coarse-grained
metamorphic rock with interlocking calcite
crystals. The calcite crystals were recrystallized
from limestone during metamorphism.
 This banded metamorphic rock is very old, it is
probably among the oldest rocks on the surface
of the earth.
 Rocks showing foliation should not be preferred
as construction materials in terms of strength.
 The strengths of the foliated metamorphic rocks,
along with the leavening and foliations that
develop as a result of the metamorphism, are
decreasing along the foliage planes due to clay
minerals that swell in water like chlorite and
epidote.
 Marbles from metamorphic rocks are preferred
as a good building material. It is the building
material that is required in the building
coverings.
 The metamorphic masses provide a solid
structure for the foundation of the building, if it
is not separated. Some slip planes can be used
without any support if the slip gaps are not full
with clays.
 Metamorphics can be exposed to change
immediately under favorable climatic conditions.
Due to the changing construction, volume
increases and pressure increases. Such features
should be observed in tunnels and dam
constructions and other constructions.
 Schist rocks along the schistosity plane cause
shifts in the excavations. This is especially the
case for the dissociated regions where the
schistose and cleavage are opened and
weakened and the rock resistance is greatly
reduced.
 Schists and similar rocks create landslide hazards
in road constructions, dam abrasions and
reservoirs lopes.
 Massive gneisses provide very good conditions
for large underground openings. Facilities for
swimming pools, theaters, skating rinks,
industrial warehouses, production plants and
many other activities have been created
economically and safely in large openings to such
rocks.
 Schistosized and competing gneisses can create
stability problems in underground openings.
Even in the ravaged schist and the small tunnels
opened in the phyllite, the ceiling may collapse.
As the metamorphic rocks are cracked and
 contested on the surface, excavations cause the
rock blocks to move.
HOW ROCKS RECYCLE?
 The rock cycle is a general model that describes
how various geological processes create, modify,
and influence rocks
 The origin of all rocks can be ultimately traced
back to the solidification of molten magma
 Magma consists of a partially melted mixture of
elements and compounds commonly found in
rocks
 Magma exists just beneath the solid crust of the
Earth in an interior zone, the mantle
 The Rock Cycle shows how rocks of any rock
class can be recycled into rocks of any other
rock class.
Stages in the Rock Cycle
 All rock types physically and chemically
decomposed by a variety of surface processes
collectively known as weathering
 The debris thus created often transported by
erosional processes via streams, glaciers, wind,
and gravity
 When this debris is deposited as permanent
sediment, the processes of burial, compression,
and chemical alteration over long periods of time
produce sedimentary rocks
 Geologic processes like tectonic folding and
faulting exert heat and pressure on both igneous
and sedimentary rocks, altering them physically
or chemically –rocks modified in this way are
termed metamorphic rocks
 Any of the rock types can eventually be returned
to Earth's interior by tectonic forces at areas
known as subduction zones
 Once in Earth's interior, extreme pressures and
temperatures melt the rock back into magma to
begin the rock cycle again
Driving mechanisms of the rock cycle
 Earth is a dynamic planet with the surface and
interior in a constant state of flux.
– Internal changes alter the surface by moving the
Earth’s plates, building mountains.
– Seas advance and retreat over the continents brining in
new materials and taking other materials away.
– Rocks are continually being changed by Earth’s forces.
 A schematic diagram of the rock cycle concept,
which states that geologic processes act
continuously to produce new rocks from old
ones.
PART 2
What is a mineral?
 A naturally occurring inorganic substance
 With a definite chemical composition and atomic
structure
 Crystalline in nature, displaying consistent
geometric shapes
 Commonly grouped into: Silicates, Oxides and
Carbonates
 Also, metallic and non-metallic minerals
What is a mineral?
Definition – four part definition
 Naturally occurring
 Inorganic substance (non-living)
 Crystalline solid
 Definite chemical composition
There are substances that meet 3 of the 4 criteria, and
are called mineralloids.
 Example: Opal – does not have an orderly
arrangement of atoms
How many minerals are there?
 3500 known minerals in the Earth’s crust
 Minerals combine to form all rocks on Earth
o Rock type depends on mineral
composition
 20 minerals combine to form 95% of all rocks on
Earth.
Physical Properties
 All minerals have at least 9 physical properties
that can be used to define, describe, and identify
them as unique minerals.
Color
 Every mineral has some color and some are
found in multiple colors and could be very
helpful and distinctive, or could be very
ambiguous.
 A visual measure but not very useful for
identification as color of minerals varies
considerably
Luster - The manner in which a mineral reflects light.
 Glassy – reflects light like a piece of glass does
 Metallic – reflects light like a piece of metal does
 Surface sheen
 Pearly – like pearl
 Earthy
Streak
 This is the color of the mineral when it is finely
powdered.
 Rubbed across a piece of tile, leaving a fine
powder of the mineral on the tile.
 The color could be different from the crystal’s
color, and is always distinctive
Hardness
 The scratch ability of a mineral, or a mineral’s
durability
 Resistance of the material to being scratched.
 Measured using the Mohs hardness scale, which
compares the hardness of the mineral to 10
reference minerals.

 Hexagonal
o Three equal axes in the same plane
o Intersect at angles of 60 degrees
o A fourth axis is at a right angle to the other
three

Moh’s Hardness Scale

 Orthorhombic
o Three axes all unequal to each other
o All axes intersect at right angles

 (A)Gypsum, with a hardness of 2, is easily

scratched by a fingernail. (B) Quartz, with a
hardness of 7, is so hard that even a metal file
will not scratch it.  Monoclinic
o Two non-equal axes at right angles to each
Crystal shape / External Crystal Form / Crystal Systems other
 A set of faces that have a definite geometric o A third axis is inclined to one of the first two
relationship to each other.
 This is not always shown clearly when crystals
are growing and competing for space with other
minerals

Common Face Arrangements and Angles

 Isometric – most symmetrical
o Three axes of equal length
o All axes at right angles to each other
 Triclinic
o Three axes
o All axes are inclined with respect to each
other

 Tetragonal – similar to isometric

o Three axes, two equal length, the third is
longer
o All axes at right angles to each other
Crystal Structures
 Can be made up of atoms of one or more kinds
of elements.
 Crystals are classified according to six major
groups, with subdivisions of each.
  A crystal is composed of a structural unit that is
repeated in three dimensions. This is the basic Mineral Cleavage - the ability of a mineral to break, when
structural unit of a crystal of sodium chloride, the struck along specific planes
mineral halite.  Based on the bonding between atoms
 The structural unit for a crystal of table salt,  Where the bonds are weakest = breakage plane
sodium chloride, is cubic, as you can see in the
individual grains.
These quartz crystals are hexagonal prisms.
(A)The geometric shape of a tetrahedron with four equal
sides.
(B) A silicon and four oxygen atoms are arranged in the
shape of a tetrahedron with the silicon in the center. This
is the basic building block of all silicate minerals.

(A) Isolated silicon-oxygen tetrahedra do not share

oxygens. This structure occurs in the mineral olivine.
(B) Single chains of tetrahedra are formed by each silicon
ion having two oxygens all to itself and sharing two with
other siliconsat the same time. This structure occurs in
augite.
(C) Double chains of tetrahedra are formed by silicon ions
sharing either two or three oxygens. This structure
occurs in hornblende.
(D) The sheet structure in which each silicon shares three
oxygens occurs in the micas, resulting in layers that pull
off easily because of cleavage between the sheets.

Silicates and Nonsilicates

Silicates – made of silicon and oxygen and make up 92 %
of Earth’s crust.
 Ferromagnesian Silicates
o Made of iron, magnesium, and silicates
o Form a basic tetrahederal structure.
o Higher density and darker color than other
silicates due to the presence of iron and
magnesium

 Nonferromagnesiam Silicates
o Silicates that do not contain either iron or
magnesium.
 Can have no cleavage (example = quartz)
o Lower density and lighter color than the
 Can have 1 plane of cleavage (ex. = Biotite)
ferromagnesian silicates.
 Can have multiple planes of cleavage (ex. =
Fluorite, Calcite, Halite)
 Compare the dark colors of the ferromagnesian
silicates augite (right), hornblende (left), and
biotite to the light-colored nonferromagnesian
silicates.
 Compare the light colors of the
nonferromagnesian silicates mica (front center),
white and pink orthoclase (top and center), and
quartz, to the dark-colored ferromagnesian
silicates

Fracture - The way a substance breaks where not
controlled by cleavage
 Minerals with no cleavage generally break with
irregular fracture
 If minerals break with curved fracture surfaces,
it is called concoidal fracture.
o This is seen in glass, the igneous rock
Obsidian,
Specific Gravity - the density of a mineral
 Density = mass of an object / volume of the
object
 The ratio of the mass of an object to the mass of
anequal volume of water
 The density of pure water = 1 g / mL
 If the density of the object is < 1 = lighter than
water, and will float to some degree
 If the density of the object is > 1 = heavier than
water,and will sink
Example:
o Quartz = 2.65 g / mL
o Galena = 7.5 g / mL
o Gold = 19.3 g / mL
Other Special Properties
 Taste – a few minerals have a characteristic taste
Halite tastes like salt
 Odor – a few minerals have a characteristic odor
Clay minerals have an “earthy” smell
 Striations – straight parallel lines on the flat
surface of the cleavage directions
 Magnetism – some minerals with large amounts
of iron oxide are attracted to magnets
 Double Refraction – a clear mineral placed over
an image will show 2 images by the light being
split as it enters some crystalline minerals (EX. =
Calcite)
 X-ray fingerprints – when x-rays are directed
through minerals, the x-rays are deflected out at
specific angles (Each mineral has a specific
pattern)
 Chemical tests – how do minerals react to
specific chemicals (Ex. = Carbonate minerals
(calcite) will react tweak hydrochloric acid, they
will fizz to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) gas
 Generally this is the only field chemical test
Other Properties of Minerals
 Translucent, transparent or opaque
 Birefringent
 Luminescence or fluorescence
Mineral-forming Processes
 Magma - Molten rock from which minerals are
formed
 Lava - Magma that is forced to the surface
 Influences on the mineral forming process
o Temperature
o Pressure
o Time
o Availability and concentration of ions
that are in solution
 Rock forming minerals
o Polymerization - The formation of a
complex molecule by the joining of
repeated simpler units
 Accessory minerals – Less common materials
Elements and Compounds
Element - the most fundamental substance into which
matter can be separated using chemical means
Atom – the smallest individual particle that retains the
distinct chemical properties of an element
Isotopes – Atoms with the same atomic number but
different mass numbers
Compounds, molecules and bonding
 Compound - A combination of atoms of one or
more elements in a specific ratio
 Molecule - The smallest chemical unit that has all
properties of a particular compound
 Bond – the force that holds together the atoms
in a chemical compound
o Ionic bonding
- One atom transfers electron to
another, which creates bond
- Table salt (sodium chloride)
- Cubic lattice
- Moderate strength and hardness
 Minerals Formed at High Temperatures
 Bowen’s Reaction Series - Arranged with
minerals at the top that crystallize at higher
temperature and minerals at the bottom that
crystallize out at lower temperature.
- Bowen's reaction series. Minerals at the
top of the series (Olivine, augite, and
calcium-rich plagioclase) crystallize at
higher temperatures, leaving the magma
enriched in silica. Later, the residual
magma cools and lighter-colored, less
o Covalent bonding dense minerals (orthoclase feldspar,
- Electrons from different atoms “pair quartz, and white mica) crystallize. Thus,
up”, which creates a bond granite like rocks can form from a magma
- Does NOT produce ions that would have produced basaltic rocks
- Strongest of chemical bonds had it cooled quickly.

Minerals Formed at Normal Temperatures

 These form at normal temperatures and
pressures and in contact with atmospheric gases
such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water.
 There are most of the non-silicates; carbonates,
sulfates, oxides, halides, and sulfides.

Altered Minerals
o Metallic bonding  These minerals undergo changes in chemistry or
- Electrons shared among several atoms crystal structure as a result of pressure,
- Outer electrons may drift between temperature, or chemical solutions
each other  Similar to minerals that form under high
- Typically good conductors of temperatures with similar physical properties.
electricity
Ore Minerals
 Some minerals are left over after the crystallizing
of magma
 These elements are flushed away in hot water
solutions as the magma crystallizes.
 Usually crystallize in rock fractures to form thin,
flat bodies of mineral material called veins.
 If these minerals have some economic value they
are called ore minerals.

Minerals of Earth’s crust

o Van der Waals bonding  Other mineral families
- Attraction between electrically - Carbonate
neutral molecules with asymmetrical - Sulfates
charge - Sulfides
- Form sheets: - Phosphates
• Considered weak between sheets
• May feel slippery between sheets  Clay minerals
- The results of chemical weathering of rocks
and usually not present as large particles.
- Clay minerals are alumino-silicate, i.e. oxides
of aluminum and silicon with smaller amounts
of metal ions substituted within the crystal.
- Clay minerals are common weathering
products of volcanic ash.
- Organic fractions bonded to mineral soil
surfaces to form the materials that
determines surface characteristics.

Noncrystalline Clay Materials
 Allophane - Allophane is X-ray amorphous and
has no definite composition or shape. It is
composed of hollow, irregular spherical particles
with diameters of 3.5 to 5.0 nm.
Mineral resources in modern society
 Ore deposits - A localized concentration that can
be extracted profitably.
 Mining – Disturbs Earth’s surface
– Damage to environment
The Quartz mineral and Their Uses
 With few exceptions, most early stone tools
were fashioned of quartz.
 Quartz is in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
 Quartz is in the sediments sand and silt,
 The sedimentary rocks sandstone and siltstone,
 As well as their metamorphosed equivalents of
quartzite and slate.
 ‘Chert’ is a term collectively used for all the
quartz varieties that have crystals too small to be
seen without a microscope. Chert color varieties
are:
o onyx (mixed white and black), here with rose
quartz
o jasper (red to red-brown)
o flint (gray to black)
 Chert precipitated from silica-rich groundwater
can replace bone and wood present in sediment
and sedimentary rocks
 Quartz by other names:
o Rose quartz
o Opal: rough and polished
o Chalcedony
o Citrine
o Tiger’s eye
o Amethyst
o Agate
 Historically, the single most important use of
quartz may have been to start fires.
 When chert is struck against iron, it produces a
relatively long-lived spark.
 Quartz is in building stones.
 Quartz is mixed with clay and ground-up
feldspar, and then fired to form a wide range of
ceramic and porcelain products.
 Quartz is used in the manufacture of glass
 Quartz is often in concrete and asphalt as
aggregate and sand.
 Quartz is used as a flux for metallurgy. A flux is a
material that melts easily and can be used to
remove impurities from metal ores, or that
makes the slag produced by metal ore smelting
more fluid.
 Many species of marine plankton, called
diatoms, construct their shells of quartz. As
these microscopic organisms die, they sink down
to cover the deep sea floor with layers of porous
diatom shells.
 Ancient deep sea diatom deposits now exposed
at the Earth’s surface are called diatomaceous
earth.
 Diatomaceous earth is the abrasive part of
toothpaste. Since it is composed of quartz, the
shells are harder than the apatite and calcite
minerals that make up our teeth. When you
polish your teeth, you actually are grinding the
surface down with a very fine abrasive, often the
shells of long dead plankton.
 Quartz is the abrasive in stonecutting,
sandblasting, and scouring soaps
 Pure quartz crystals are piezoelectric –that
means that when put under pressure, the crystal
produces an electric voltage.
 This characteristic allows quartz crystals to be
used to measure pressures or control the
frequency of electric impulses, which led to their
use in radio systems and timepieces.
 Quartz can be a host rocks for gold and other
precious metals.
Coal and Petroleum
Formation of coal
 Organic matter derived mostly from land plants
accumulates in low-energy environment (like a
swamp).
 Oxidative decay uses up lots of oxygen,
rendering the sediment pore waters devoid of
oxygen (anoxic).
  Gentle cooking and pressing (lithification) as a
result of increasing burial depth remove the pore
water and increase carbon content (due to
release of volatile components of the organic
molecules).
 Low grade coal (lignite) cooked very little.
 High grade coal (anthracite) cooked a lot (close
to being a metamorphic rock).
 Lower grade coal tends to contain minerals such
as pyrite, which formed under the reducing (low-
oxygen) conditions.
Coal fields
 Coal fields are mark by regions where swamps
bordered shorelines of ancient seas (similar to
modern mangrove swamps).
 Higher coal grades tends to be found closer to
mountains where organic-rich sediment has
been pressed and cooked more severely.
Uses of Coal
Fuel: Coal is a very important fuel throughout Asia and
remains highly significant in the U.S.A, this country
having the largest known coal reserves in the world.
Coke: Bituminous coal that is cooked (charred) to
remove nearly all of the remaining volatiles is
transformed into a spongy substance called coke (some
of the removed gases, e.g. methane, can themselves be
used as fuel).
- Coke is predominantly burned in blast furnaces
to smelt iron from iron ore because it provides
the high temperature and gases required for the
smelting process (prevents oxidation of the
elemental molten iron). It is also used in the
production of cement (cooking of limestone and
silica).
By-products: A number of by-products from processed
coal are also useful. These include organic substances
used to make some plastics, medicines, and solvents.
Artificial sweeteners such as saccharin and aspartame
are also derived from by-products of coal!
Petroleum
 Oil and natural gas
- Oil and natural gas, consisting of various
hydrocarbon compounds, are produced in a
similar manner though are typically derived from
different sources of organic remains.
- Derived from the remains of marine plants and
animals (mostly plankton).
- Oil and natural gas result from the chemical
breakdown of these remains in the absence of
oxygen, as depth of burial (and therefore
temperature) increases.
- The oxygen and nitrogen in the original organics
are driven off, leaving hydrocarbon compounds
(compounds of carbon and hydrogen).
Formation of petroleum (oil and gas)
 Oil and gas result from the breakdown of organic
molecules (e.g. kerogens) under conditions of
increasing temperature, from large complex
molecules to smaller, -chain molecules
dominated by hydrogen and carbon: a process
called “cracking” or “pyrolysis”. This occurs
largely through the breaking of C-C bonds.
 Some gas is produced by decomposition of
organic matter by microbes (biogenic gas)
 Most oil is produced at temperatures between
about 60O and 120O C (the oil).
 Thermogenic gas is produced as oil is broken
down to very small molecules (the smallest being
methane)
The Oil Window
 T below: Organics remain largely unaltered.
 T above: Thermal cracking transforms the
petroleum into natural gas.
Petroleum Traps
 A geologic environment that allows for
economically significant amounts of oil and gas
to accumulate underground is termed an
oil/petroleum trap
 Oil and gas is contained in a reservoir. A reservoir
must be permeable to oil and gas, and contain
sufficient interconnected pore space to
accommodate the petroleum. Common
examples are poorly lithified sandstones,
carbonate reefs, diagenetic carbonates.
 The roof of the trap must be made of material
that is impermeable to fluids. This is necessary to
prevent the upward escape of oil and gas which
are much less dense than the surrounding rock.
 Common traps include anticline fold traps, fault-
bounded traps (structural traps) as well as
various stratigraphic traps.
Recovery of Oil and Gas
 When the cap rock is penetrated by drilling, the
oil and natural gas, under pressure, migrate from
the pore spaces of the reservoir rock to the drill
hole.
 Note: world’s first commercial oil well was drilled
in 1858 at Oil Springs, Ontario (near Sarnia).
 Before methods were developed to control the
upward flow of oil in wells (e.g. blowout
 preventers), dangerous gushers took place when Plastics
pressure was suddenly released from oil traps.

Geographic distribution of oil and gas

 Major occurrences of oil and gas on continents
mark formerly low-lying regions (basins) that
were covered by seas (remember that oil and gas
is derived from remains of marine organisms).
 Organic matter in these regions were buried
under thick deposits of sediments and gently
cooked.

Distillation of crude oil

 Oil is extracted from the ground as crude oil.
 It is then refined in a distillation tower that is
divided into a series of collecting trays at
different temperature conditions.
 The crude oil is boiled to produce vapour.
 The vapour is allowed to diffuse up the tower to
cool and condense at different temperatures
(lightest compounds will have lowest boiling
temps).
 The different components of crude oil can
therefore be separated.
 Note: the “naptha” fraction is basically gasoline.

Fractions obtained from crude oil

The Versatility of Petroleum

The most obvious use for petroleum is as fuel. In the
world, lots of petroleum is used as fuel for heating,
transportation, cooking, and electricity generation.

But petroleum-derived organic molecules are also used

in an incredible number of other products that include:
o Solvents, used in paints, lacquers, and printing
inks, and cleaners
o Lubricating oils and greases for machinery
o Petroleum (or paraffin) wax used in candy
making, candles, packaging, matches, and
polishes
o Petroleum jelly (Vaseline), used in medical
products and toiletries
o Asphalt, used to pave roads and airfields and to
make roofing materials and floor coverings
o Plastics and synthetic rubber, used in
packaging, casings, fabrics, bubble gum, etc