Physics for Computing (PHC-1003), 3 (2, 1),

Week # 11
Resistance in series and parallel, Electrical measuring instruments,
Capacitors, Resistor, Inductor and its applications
Book: “University Physics” by Young & Freedman 15th edition, page: P-
844”

1
 26.1: RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
Resistors turn up in all kinds of circuits, ranging from hair dryers and space heaters to circuits
that limit or divide current or reduce or divide a voltage. Such circuits often contain several
resistors, so it’s appropriate to consider combinations of resistors.
A simple example is a string of light bulbs used for holiday decorations; each bulb acts as
a resistor, and from a circuit-analysis perspective the string of bulbs is simply a combination
of resistors.
Suppose we have three resistors with resistances R1 , R2 , and R3 . Figure 26.1 shows four
different ways in which they might be connected between points a and b.
Resistors in Series
Applying V = IR to each resistor, we have
The potential differences across each resistor need not be the same (except for the special
case in which all three resistances are equal). The potential difference Vab across the entire
combination is the sum of these individual potential differences:
Resistors in Parallel, P-846:

If the resistors are in parallel, the current through

each resistor need not be the same. But the potential
difference between the terminals of each resistor
must be the same and equal to Vab. Let’s call the
currents in the three resistors I1 , I2 , and I3 . Then from
I = V/R,

OR
The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a parallel combination equals the sum
of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. The equivalent resistance is always less
than any individual resistance.
 For the special case of
two resistors in parallel,

Because Vab = I1 R1 = I2 R2 , it follows that

Thus the currents carried by two resistors in parallel are inversely proportional to their
resistances. More current goes through the path of least resistance.
EXAMPLE 26.1: Equivalent resistance:Find the equivalent resistance of the network in Fig.
26.3a and the current in each resistor. The source of emf has negligible internal
resistance.(Note: solve first then see solution in the last slide)
26.3 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS: P-854

The measuring tools helped establish the science of electrical

engineering. d’Arsonval’s galvanometer, which he invented in 1882 for
measuring weak electric currents, became the basis for almost all panel-
type pointer meters. He was also involved in the industrial application of
electricity.

A moving-coil galvanometer whose coil is

provided with a filament suspension or with
pivots and hairspring and rotates about a
stationary soft-iron core between the poles of a
strong permanent magnet.
Figure 26.13: Both this voltmeter (left) and ammeter (right)
are d’Arsonval galvanometers. The difference has to do with
their internal connections (see Fig. 26.15).

Figure 26.14: A d’Arsonval galvanometer,

showing a pivoted coil with attached
pointer, a permanent magnet supplying a
magnetic field that is uniform in magnitude,
and a spring to provide restoring torque,
which opposes magnetic-field torque.
 Figure 26.15: Using the same meter to
measure (a) current and (b) voltage.
AMMETER: Suppose we want to make a meter with
full-scale current Ifs and coil resistance Rc into an
ammeter with full-scale reading Ia . To determine the
shunt resistance Rsh needed, note that at full-scale
deflection the total current through the parallel
combination is Ia , the current through the coil of
the meter is Ifs , and the current through the shunt is
the difference Ia - Ifs . The potential difference Vab is
the same for both paths, so
Voltmeters: This same basic meter may also be used to measure potential difference or voltage.
A voltage-measuring device is called a voltmeter. A voltmeter always measures the Potential
difference between two points, and its terminals must be connected to these points. an ideal
voltmeter would have infinite resistance, so connecting it between two points in a circuit would
not alter any of the currents. Real voltmeters always have finite resistance, but a voltmeter
should have large enough resistance that connecting it in a circuit does not change the other
currents appreciably.
We can extend this range by connecting a resistor Rs in
series with the coil (Fig. 26.15b). Then only a fraction of
the total potential difference appears across the coil itself,
and the remainder appears across Rs . For a voltmeter
with full-scale reading VV, we need a series resistor Rs in
Fig. 26.15b such that:

VV = Ifs (Rc + Rs ) (for a voltmeter) ------- (26.8)

Ohmmeters: An alternative method for measuring resistance is to use a
d’Arsonval meter in an arrangement called an ohmmeter. It consists of a
meter, a resistor, and a source (often a flashlight battery) connected in
series (Fig. 26.17). The resistance R to be measured is connected between
terminals x and y.
Figure 26.17 Ohmmeter circuit. The resistor Rs has a variable resistance,
as is indicated by the arrow through the resistor symbol. To use the
ohmmeter, first connect x directly to y
and adjust Rs until the meter reads zero.
Then connect x and y across the resistor
R and read the scale.

Figure 26.18 This digital multimeter can be

used as a voltmeter (red arc), ammeter
(yellow arc), or ohmmeter (green arc).
24.1: Capacitors and Capacitance, p-789
24.1 Any two conductors and
insulated from each other form a
capacitor.

In circuit diagrams a capacitor is

represented by either of these symbols

17
 Calculating Capacitance: Capacitors in Vacuum

The simplest form of capacitor consists of two parallel conducting

plates, each with area A separated by a distance d that is small in
comparison with their dimensions (Fig. 24.2a). When the plates are
charged, the electric field is almost completely localized in the region
between the plates (Fig. 24.2b). As we discussed in Example 22.8
(Section 22.4), the field between such plates is essentially uniform, and
the charges on the plates are uniformly distributed over their opposing
surfaces. We call this arrangement a parallel-plate capacitor.
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Application of Capacitor: 24.3 p-790, Inside a condenser
microphone is a capacitor with one rigid plate and one
flexible plate. The two plates are kept at a constant potential
difference Vab. Sound waves cause the flexible plate to
move back and forth, varying the capacitance C and causing
charge to flow to and from the capacitor in accordance with
the relationship C=Q/Vab . Thus a sound wave is converted
to a charge flow that can be amplified and recorded
digitally.

Front plate Back plate

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24.2: Capacitors in Series and Parallel, p-793
Capacitors in Series

26
Capacitors in series:
• The capacitors have the same charge Q.
• Their potential differences add:
Vac + Vcb = Vab.

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Circuit diagram on next slides

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30
Capacitors in parallel:
• The capacitors have the same potential V.
• The charge on each capacitor depends on its
capacitance: Q1 = C1V, Q2 = C2V.

31
Example 24.5 Capacitors in Series and in parallel:
In Figs. below, let C1 = 6.0 µF, C2 = 3.0 µF, and Vab = 18 V. Find the equivalent
capacitance and the charge and potential difference for each capacitor when the
capacitors are connected (a) in series and (b) in parallel.

Capacitors in series:
• The capacitors have the same charge Q.
• Their potential differences add:
Vac + Vcb = Vab.

The charge Q on each capacitor in series is the same as that on the

equivalent capacitor:

Q = CeqV = (12.0 µF)(18 V) = 36µF

32
The potential difference across each capacitor is inversely proportional to its C:

Capacitors in parallel:
• The capacitors have the same potential V.
• The charge on each capacitor depends on its
capacitance: Q1 = C1V, Q2 = C2V.

33
Example 24.6,

Fig. 24.10, p-793

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The physics of a computer keyboard
Keyboard is based on idea of capacitance.
Each key is mounted on one end of a
plunger, the other end being attached to a
movable metal plate . The movable plate is
separated from a fixed plate, two plates
forming a capacitor. When the key is
pressed, movable plate is pushed closer to
the fixed plate, and the capacitance
increases. Electronic circuitry enables the
computer to detect the change in
capacitance, thereby recognizing which key
has been pressed. The separation of the
plates is normally but decreases to when a
key is pressed. The plate area is , and the
capacitor is filled with a material whose
dielectric constant is 3.50. 37
 Application Touch Screens and Capacitance
The touch screen on a mobile phone (or any other instrument etc),,
Behind the screen are two parallel layers, one behind the other, of thin
strips of a transparent conductor such as indium tin oxide. A voltage is
maintained between the two layers. The strips in one layer are
oriented perpendicular to those in the other layer; the points where
two strips overlap act as a grid of capacitors. When you bring your
finger (a conductor) up to a point on the screen, your finger and the
front conducting layer act like
a second capacitor in series
at that point. The circuitry
attached to the conducting
layers detects the location
of the capacitance change,
and so detects where you
touched the screen.
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 The physics of an electronic flash attachment for a camera.

The energy-storing capability of a capacitor is often put to

good use in electronic circuits. For example, in an electronic
flash attachment for a camera, energy from the battery pack is
stored in a capacitor. The capacitor is then discharged between
the electrodes of the flash tube, which converts the energy
into light. Flash duration times range (1/200 to 1/1 000 000)
second or less, with the shortest flashes being used in high-
speed photography. Some flash attachments automatically
control the flash duration by monitoring the light reflected
from the photographic subject and quickly stopping or
quenching (suddenly reducing) the capacitor discharge when
the reflected light reaches a predetermined level.
42
The physics of a defibrillator:
During a heart
attack, the heart produces a rapid,
unregulated pattern of beats, a condition
known as cardiac fibrillation. Cardiac
fibrillation can often be stopped by
sending a very fast discharge of
electrical energy through the heart.
Emergency medical personnel use
defibrillators. A paddle is connected
to each plate of a large capacitor, and
the paddles are placed on the chest
near the heart. The capacitor is charged
to a potential difference of about a
thousand volts. The capacitor is then
discharged in a few thousandths of a second; the discharge current
passes through a paddle, the heart, and the other paddle. Within a few
seconds, the heart often returns to its normal beating pattern. 43
The Two Types of Electronic Devices:
1-Active components 2-Passive components
Active Components:An active component is an electronic component which supplies energy
to a circuit. Common examples of active components include:
• Voltage sources, • Current sources, • Generators (such as alternators and DC
generators), • All different types of transistors (such as bipolar junction transistors,
MOSFETS, FETs, and JFET), • Diodes (such as Zener diodes, photodiodes, Schottky diodes,
and LEDs)
Passive Components: A passive component is an electronic component which can only receive
energy, which it can either dissipate, absorb or store it in an electric field or a magnetic field.
Passive elements do not need any form of electrical power to operate.
As the name ‘passive’ suggests – passive devices do not provide gain or amplification. Passive
components cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate an electrical signal.
Common examples of passive components include:
• Resistors, • Inductors, • Capacitors, • Transformers
An inductor, also called a coil, choke, or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical
component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. An
inductor typically consists of an insulated wire wound into a coil.

30.1: MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

we considered the magnetic interaction between two wires carrying steady currents; the
current in one wire causes a magnetic field, which exerts a force on the current in the second
wire. But an additional interaction arises between two circuits when there is a changing
current in one of the circuits. Consider two neighboring coils of wire, as in Fig. 30.1.
A current flowing in coil 1 produces a magnetic field Mutual inductance: If the
B and hence a magnetic flux through coil 2. If the current in coil 1 is changing,
current in coil 1 changes, the flux through the changing flux through coil 2
coil 2 changes as well; according to Faraday’s law induces an emf in coil 2.
(Section 29.2), this induces an emf in coil 2. In this
way, a change in the current in one circuit can
induce a current in a second circuit.

Figure 30.1 A current i1 in coil 1 gives

rise to a magnetic flux through coil 2.
(For clarity, only one-half of each coil is
shown.)
In Fig. 30.1 a current i1 in coil 1 sets up a magnetic
field B , and some of the (blue) field lines pass through coil
2. We denote the magnetic fluxthrough each turn of coil 2,
caused by the current i1 in coil 1, as B2 . (If the flux is
different through different turns of the coil, then B2
denotes the average flux.) The magnetic field is proportional
to i1, so B2 is also proportional to i1. When i1 changes, B2
changes; this changing flux induces an emf 2 in coil 2, given
by:
--------(30.1)

We could represent the proportionality of B2 and i1 in the form B2 = (constant) i1,
but instead it is more convenient to include the number of turns N2 in the relationship.
Introducing a proportionality constant M21, called the mutual inductance of the two
coils, we write:
--------(30.2)
 where B2 is the flux through a single turn of coil 2. From this,

and we can rewrite Eq. (30.1) as

----------------(30.3)

That is, a change in the current i1 in coil 1 induces an emf in coil 2 that is directly proportional
to the rate of change of i1 (Fig. 30.2). We may also write the definition of mutual inductance,
Eq. (30.2), as
------(30.4)
Figure 30.2 This electric toothbrush
makes use of mutual inductance. The
base contains a coil that is supplied with
alternating current from a wall socket.
Even though there is no direct electrical
contact between the base and the
toothbrush, this varying current induces
an emf in a coil within the toothbrush
itself, recharging the toothbrush battery.
CAUTION Only a time-varying current induces an emf Only a time-varying
current in a coil can induce an emf and hence a current in a second coil.
Equations (30.4) show that the induced emf in each coil is directly
proportional to the rate of change of the current in the other coil, not to the
value of the current. A steady current in one coil, no matter how strong,
cannot induce a current in a neighboring coil.
The SI unit of mutual inductance is called the henry (1 H), in honor of the American
physicist Joseph Henry (1797–1878), one of the discoverers of electromagnetic induction.
From Eq. (30.5), one henry is equal to one weber per ampere. Other equivalent units,
obtained by using Eqs. (30.4), are

Just as the farad is a rather large unit of capacitance (see Section 24.1), the henry is a
rather large unit of mutual inductance. Typical values of mutual inductance can be in the
Milli-henry (mH) or microhenry µH range.
Drawbacks and Uses of Mutual Inductance
Mutual inductance can be anuisance in electric circuits, since variations in current in
one circuit can induce unwanted emfs in other nearby circuits. To minimize these effects,
multiple-circuit systems must be designed so that M is as small as possible; for example,
two coils would be placed far apart.
Happily, mutual inductance also has many useful applications. A transformer, used in
alternating-current circuits to raise or lower voltages, is fundamentally no different from
the two coils shown in Fig. 30.1. A time-varying alternating current in one coil of the
transformer produces an alternating emf in the other coil; the value of M, which depends
on the geometry of the coils, determines the amplitude of the induced emf in the second
coil and hence the amplitude of the output voltage
 30.2: SELF-INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTORS
An important related effect occurs in a single isolated circuit. A current in a circuit sets up a
magnetic field that causes a magnetic flux through the same circuit; this flux changes when the
current changes. Thus any circuit that carries a varying current has an emf induced in it by the
variation in its own magnetic field. Such an emf is called a self-induced emf. By Lenz’s law, a
self-induced emf opposes the change in the current that caused the emf and so tends to make
it more difficult for variations in current to occur. Hence self-induced emfs can be of great
importance whenever there is a varying current.

Self-induced emfs can occur in any circuit, since there is always some magnetic flux through
the closed loop of a current-carrying circuit. But the effect is greatly enhanced if the circuit
includes a coil with N turns of wire (Fig. 30.4). As a result of the current i, there is an average
magnetic flux B through each turn of the coil. In analogy to Eq. (30.5) we
define the self-inductance L of the circuit as (next slide)
 When there is no danger of confusion with mutual inductance, the self-inductance is
called simply the inductance. Comparing Eqs. (30.5) and (30.6), we see that the units of
self-inductance are the same as those of mutual inductance; the SI unit of self-inductance
is the henry.
If the current i changes, so does the flux B ; after we rearrange Eq. (30.6) and differentiate
with respect to time, the rates of change are related by
The minus sign in Eq. (30.7) is a reflection of Lenz’s law; it says that the self-induced emf
in a circuit opposes any change in the current in that circuit.
Equation (30.7) states that the self-inductance of a circuit is the magnitude of the self-induced
emf per unit rate of change of current. This relationship makes it possible to measure
an unknown self-inductance: Change the current at a known rate di/dt, measure the
induced emf, and take the ratio to determine L.
Applications of Inductor:
Figure 30.7: These fluorescent light tubes
are wired in series with an inductor, or
ballast, that helps to sustain the current
flowing through the tubes.

Applications of inductors can be seen in the

following:
Tuning circuits, Sensors, Store energy in a device, Induction
motors, Transformers
Filters, Chokes, Ferrite beads, Inductors used as relays
Inductors are used in tuning circuits:
With the help of inductors, the tuning circuits can select the desired frequency. The
capacitors type along with the inductor are used in various electronic devices such as radio
tuning circuits, a television in order to modify the frequency and help to select within
multiple channels of frequency.

These are used as sensors:

The inductive proximity sensors are very reliable in operation and is a contactless sensor.
Inductance is the main principle behind it in which the magnetic field in the coil will oppose
the flow of electric current. The proximity sensors mechanism is used in traffic lights to
detect traffic density.

It is also used to store energy in a device:

Inductors can store energy for a small period of time because the energy which is being
stored as a magnetic field will be gone when the power supply is removed. Uses of inductors
can be seen in computer circuits where power supplies can be switched.
Inductors are used in induction motors:
In induction motors, the shaft in the motor will rotate due to the presence of the magnetic
field produced due to alternating current. The speed of the motor can be fixed according to
the frequency of the supply of power from the source. The use of inductors into the motor’s
speed can be controlled.

It is used as transformers:
A combination of multiple inductors with a shared magnetic field can be designed into a
transformer. One of the major uses of transformer can be seen in power transmission
systems. These are used in decreasing or increasing the power transmission as step down or
step-up transformers.

Inductors are used as filters:

Inductors when combined with capacitors will be used as filters. The input signal’s frequency
while entering the circuit is limited by the use of these filters. With the increase in the
frequency of supply, the inductor’s impedance increases.
Uses of inductors in chokes:
As we are aware that when AC current flows through inductors, it will create a current flow
in the opposite direction. This results in the inductor choking the AC current flow and
passing the DC current. This mechanism is used in the power source where the AC supply is
converted into DC.
It is used as ferrite beads:
We have seen ferrite beads used in computer parts and in charging cables of mobile.
Inductors used in ferrite beads helps in reducing the frequency of radio interface which the
cable creates.
These are used as relays:
Relay behaves as an electrical switch. With the use of an inductor coil in the switch, there is a
magnetic field produced wherever the switch comes in contact with the flow of AC current.

Ferrite beds : Application of ferrite beds is evident in mobile charging cables as well as
some parts of computers. The role of inductors in ferrite beds is reducing the frequency of
a radio interface that is created by the cables
Working of Inductive sensor:
Inductive sensors working:
Inductors are used in proximity sensors which work on the principle of inductance. We know
that inductance is the phenomenon in which , the magnetic field produced in the coil , will
oppose the flow of current in it. So thus the inductance will restrict the current flow and
reduces the circuit performance.

For better performances we need to amplify the current in the circuit. We use proximity
sensors to find the level of amplification factor at which we need to amplify the current.

The manufacturers design the sensors by twisting the wire into a tight coil. There are 4
components in the inductive proximity sensor; they are an inductor or coil, an oscillator, a
detection circuit and an output circuit.
In the inductive proximity sensor, a fluctuating magnetic field is generated by oscillator
around the winding of coil, which locates in the sensing face of the device.

When an object moves in the field of inductive proximity area of detection, eddy currents
starts building up in the metal object which will reduce the inductive sensor’s magnetic field.

Strength of the oscillator is monitored by the detection circuit and an output is triggered
from the output circuitry , when the oscillations are below the sufficient level.

The inductive proximity sensor is a contactless sensor and is very reliable in operation. The
inductive sensors are used at traffic lights to detect the traffic density.
Circuit diagram of tube light
 Ballast: It may be
electromagnetic ballast
or electronic ballast.
Starter: The starter is a
small neon glow up
lamp that contains a
fixed contact, a
bimetallic strip and a
small capacitor.

A fluorescent lamp tube is filled with a gas containing low pressure mercury vapour and
noble gases.
 (EXAMPLE 30.3: Calculating self-inductance)
Determine the self-inductance of a toroidal
solenoid with cross-sectional area A and
mean radius r, closely wound with N turns
of wire on a nonmagnetic core (Fig. 30.8).
Assume that B is uniform across a cross
section (that is, neglect the variation of B
with distance from the toroid axis).

Figure 30.8 Determining the self-

inductance of a closely wound toroidal
solenoid. For clarity, only a few turns of
the winding are shown. Part of the
toroid has been cut away to show the
cross-sectional area A and radius r.
IDENTIFY and SET UP Our target variable is the
self-inductance L of the toroidal solenoid. We can
find L using Eq. (30.6), which requires knowing the
flux B through each turn and the current i in the
coil. For
this, we use the results of Example 28.10 (Section
28.7), in which we found the magnetic field in the
interior of a toroidal solenoid as a function of the
current.

The flux B is the same through each turn, and

KEYCONCEPT:
The self-inductance L of a coil (or inductor) tells you how much magnetic flux is produced
through that coil by the current that flows in it. Like mutual inductance, the value of L
depends only on the coil’s geometry, not on how much current it carries.
 EXAMPLE 30.4: Calculating self-induced emf
If the current in the toroidal solenoid in Example 30.3 increases uniformly from 0 to 6.0 A in
3.0 µs, find the magnitude and direction of the self-induced emf.
IDENTIFY and SET UP: We are given L, the self-inductance, and di/dt, the rate of change of
the solenoid current. We find the magnitude of the self-induced emf  using Eq. (30.7) and its
direction by using Lenz’s law.