Energy Resources

Energy is simply defined as the capacity to do work

Resources is the general form referring to any item
which is used for a specific purpose.
Renewable Resources
 Can be replenished or regenerated on a human
time scale.
 The five major renewable energy resources are
solar, wind, water (hydro), biomass, and
geothermal.
Geothermal Energy C. Binary Cycle Power Plant
 It is a type of renewable energy taken from the – Hot water from underground is pumped
Earth’s core. through a heart exchanger which heats a
 It comes from heat generated during the second liquid that transforms into steam.
original formation of the plant and the
radioactive decay of materials. This thermal
energy is stored in rocks and fluids in the center
of the Earth.

Hydroelectric Energy
 Hydroelectric energy, also called hydroelectric
power or hydroelectricity, is a form of energy
that harnesses the power of water in motion –
such as water flowing over a waterfall – to
generate electricity.
Types of Geothermal Power Plant
Types of Hydropower Plant
A. Dry Steam Power Plant
1. Dam
– Hot steam from underground id piped directly
into turbines, which powers the generator.

– Hydro Dam utilize the potential energy from

B. Flash Steam Power Plant
– Hot water from underground is pumped into a
cooler temperature creates steam which
powers the generator.
Dam water to produced electricity.
– A Dam is a large barrier constructed to raise
the level of water, and control its flow.
– The elevation, created by the Dam, creates
gravitational force for turning the turbine when
water is realeased.
 – Some Dams, also contain an additional
reservoir at their base for water is stored, to be
pumped to the higher reservoir, for releases
when electricity is in demand. This is referred to
as “Pump Storage Hydro”.
2. Run of River

– Run of river, still uses turbines and generators,

but relies on natural water flow rates of rivers,
diverting just a portion of the water to turbines.
Nonrenewable Resources
 Cannot bet replenished or regenerated on a
human time scale.
 Examples are nuclear energy and fossil fuels.

– Because of run of river hydro is subject to

natural water variability, it is more intermittent
than Dam Hydro.
Fossil Fuels
 Are presently the world’s primary energy
source.
 It provides most of the energy that supports
transportation, electricity production, heating
and cooling of buildings, and various industrial
activities.
 They are derived from the remains of
prehistoric plants and animals that died millions
of years ago and where buried under the right
conditions to form fossils.
Natural Gas
Coal
 Formed from the remains of plants that
once grew in swamps and adjacent forests
millions of years ago.
 Uses:
- It is used to cook food.
- It is used to generate electricity in thermal
plants.
- It is used in industries as fuel.
Oil
 Derived from large quantities of
microscopic aquatic organisms such as
algae and planktons.
 Also known as petroleum or crude.
 Uses:
- It is used to power internal
combustion engines in the form of
petrol.
- It is used in roofing, road pavements,
and as a water repellent.
 Produced from sedimentary rock
formation by forming chemicals, water,
and sand down a well under high
pressure.
 Is a hydrocarbon mostly, made up of
methane (CH4)
 It is the Earth’s cleanest fossil fuel and is
odorless and colorless in its natural
state.
 Uses:
- It can be used are home for cooking.
- It is used as fuels in automobiles.
Exogenic Processes: WEATHERING
 Weathering has dramatically shaped Earth’s land
 Earth is a very dynamic place
Weathering
- Is the breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s surface,
by the action or rain water, extremes of
temperature, and biological activity.
Types of Weathering
1. Physical Weathering
- A.k.a. Mechanical weathering
- Caused by the effects of changing temperature
on rocks, causing rock to break apart
- The process is sometimes assisted by water
- The process that breaks a rock or mineral into
smaller pieces without altering its composition
- Structure lang nagch-change
Types of physical weathering:
a. Freeze-thaw
- A.k.a. frost wedging
- Occurs when water continually seeps into
cracks, freezes and expands, eventually
breaking the rock apart
b. Exfoliation
- Occurs as cracks develop parallel to the land
surface a consequence of the reduction in
pressure during uplift and erosion
c. Abrasion
- occurs when rocks surface is frequently
exposed to water, wind and gravity
2. Chemical weathering
- Caused by rainwater reacting with the mineral
grains in rocks to form new minerals (clays) and
soluble salts.
- These reactions occur particularly when the
water is slightly acidic
- Processes that change the chemical
composition of rocks and minerals
Types of Chemical weathering:
a. Carbonation
- Carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in
rainwater and becomes weakly acidic.
- This weak “carbonic acid” can dissolve
limestone as it seeps into cracks and
cavities
b. Acidification
- Polluting gases, life sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide dissolve in rainwater to
make stronger acids.
- When this rainwater falls, we get acid
rain
- This acid attacks many rock types that
can seriously damage buildings and
monuments
 c. Hydrolysis
- “hydrolysis”- water reacts with minerals and
breaks them down
- It is the breakdown of rock by acidic water
to produce clay and soluble salts.
Ex: breakdown of feldspar (mineral in granite) to kaolin
(china clay)

b. Biological weathering by chemical

compounds
- Living organisms contribute through their
organic compounds that contain molecules
d. Hydration that acidify and corrode rock minerals.
- “hydration” – when water is absorbed into
the crystal structure of the minerals.
- This happens to some types of clays which
absorbs water and experience expansion or
swelling
Ex: water added to anhydrite to form gypsum

Endogenic Process
 An endogenic process is a geological process
that was formed, originated, and located below
the surface of the earth.
 It involves geologic activities such as tectonic
movements, metamorphism, seismic activities
e. Oxidation and magmatism.
- It is the breakdown of rock by oxygen and
water, often giving iron-rich rocks a rusty-
colored weathered surface.
Ex: the statue of liberty was made with copper but due
to oxidation, it changed to green.

3. Biological weathering
- Occurs when rocks are weakened by different
biological agents like plants and animals
Classifications of Biological weathering:
a. Biological weathering by physical means
- Occurs when a force or pressure is applied
to break rocks apart or degrade the
minerals in them.
Earth’s Internal Heat Sources
 Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago
and continue to serve as habitat to diverse
organisms. Its biotic components remain alive
due to proper regulation of internal heat. It has
massive amount of heat that varies from its
layer. The heat increases from the crust down How is Magma formed?
to the inner core due to several reasons. This  Magma are formed under certain
internal heat comes from the following sources. circumstances in special locations deep in
Primordial Heat the crust or in the upper mantle. They are
 Primordial heat is the internal heat energy formed when conditions are right to cause
accumulated by dissipation in a planet preexisting solid rocks to melt.
during its first few million years of
evolution.
 The Main contributions to the primordial
heat are accretional energy – the energy
deposited by infalling planetesimals – and
differentiation energy.

Formation of Magma
1. Decompression Melting
 Decompression melting involves the
Radioactive Heat upward movement of Earth’s mostly-
 Heat produced as a result of absorption of solid mantle.
radiation from decay of radioisotopes, such  It often occurs at divergent boundaries,
as Thorium-232, Potassium-40, Uranium- where tectonic plates separate.
238.  It also occurs at mantle plumes,
 This process of radioactive decay which columns of hot rock that rise from
emits heat energy as one of the products Earth’s high-pressure core to its lower-
prevents the Earth from completely cooling pressure crust.
off.

Magma
 The molten rocks that are found beneath the
Earth’s surface.
 They are less dense than the surrounding solid
rock, and therefore capable of rising the
surface.
2. Flux Melting
 Flux melting occurs when water or
carbon dioxide are added to rock. These
compounds cause the rock to melt at
lower temperatures. This creates
magma in places where it originally
maintained a solid structure.
 Heat
 It plays a crucial role in the process of
metamorphism. The heat affects the rock’s
chemical composition, mineralogy and texture.
 In a nutshell, the higher the temperature, the
higher the metamorphism grade until such time
when temperature is high enough to melt the
rocks resulting to formation of magma.

What happens after magma is formed?

Pressure
Magma escaped in two forms: intrusion and extrusion.
 Pressure is a measure of the stress, the physical
> An intrusion is magma that moves up into a
force, being applied to the surface of a material.
volcano without erupting.
 Like temperature, it changes the composition,
> An extrusion is an eruption of magmatic
mineralogy, and texture of rocks.
materials that cause land formation on the
 Pressure is different in various tectonic setting,
surface of the Earth.
similar to temperature.
There are two types of pressures known also as
stresses that exert force to rocks causing changes.
 Confining pressure or Vertical stress
 Directed or Differential pressure

Metamorphism
 Metamorphism is the process where a rock
changes its chemical make-up or alter its
physical properties. Rock metamorphism occurs
when a rock is subjected to condition very
different from the original condition when the
rock was formed. 2 Types of Pressure
Factors involved in the Process of Metamorphism  Confining pressure or Vertical stress
 Temperature  This type of pressure is the same in
 Pressure all directions and makes the rocks
to fracture or deformed.
  Directed or Differential pressure
 This type of pressure is not equal in
all directions and makes the rocks
to deform.
 These can be found underneath
mountains, subduction zones and
tectonic plate borders.
 Rocks produces are foliated (layered)
and the size of crystal inclusion
becomes larger.

Types of Metamorphism
1. Contact Metamorphism
 Contact metamorphism is the formation
of metamorphic rock due to the contact
of magma.
 Small area.
 Involves contact of a rock with magma.
 Rocks produced are usually non-foliated
and fine grained.
3. Cataclastic Metamorphism
 Cataclastic metamorphism occurs as a
result of mechanical deformation, like
when two bodies of rocks slide past one
another along a fault zone.

2. Regional Metamorphism
 Regional metamorphism is a type of
metamorphism where the formation of
metamorphic rock occurs in a wide
area.
 Larger area.
 Involves a collision between continental
or oceanic plates.
4. Hydrothermal Metamorphism
 Hydrothermal metamorphism occurs
when hot water and dissolved ions
react with rocks to alter their chemical
composition and mineral content.
 Deformation
 It is a process in which rocks change in shape,
size, location, tilt or break due to squeezing,
stretching or shearing.
 When the rocks or plates are pulled or pushed
together, stress may occur.

5. Burial Metamorphism
Seafloor Spreading
 Sedimentary rocks are buried to several
 It is a continuous geologic process in which
hundred meters, weight and
tectonic plates – a large portion of Earth’s
temperature cause metamorphosis.
lithosphere – split apart from each other. It
forms new igneous rock at mid-ocean ridges by
injection of magma that forms in the seafloor.

6. Shock Metamorphism
 When an extraterrestrial body, such as
meteorite or comet impacts with the
Earth causing ultrahigh pressures can be
generated in the impacted rock.
Mid-ocean Ridge
 The longest chain of mountains in the world.
 It extends into all of Earth’s oceans.
 Most of the mountains are hidden under water.
SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging)
 A device that bounces sound waves off
underwater objects and then records the
echoes of these sound waves.
Harry Hammond Hess (1906 – 1969)
 Harry Hess, an American geologist and a Navy
submarine commander during World War II,
was one of the scientists who studied the mid-
ocean ridge.
 In 1960, he suggested that the ocean floors
move like conveyer belts, carrying the
continents along with them.
 Convection currents push new crust that forms
away from the mid-ocean ridge and toward a
deep-ocean trench.
Seafloor Spreading Model
Evidences supporting Seafloor Spreading
 Evidence from Molten Materials
 Scientist traveled to the ocean floor in
Alvin, a submersible built to handle the
crushing pressure.
 They discovered strange rocks shaped
like pillows or like toothpaste squeezed
from tube.
 These rocks can only form when molten
material hardens quickly after erupting
under water.
 Evidence from Magnetic Strips
 Earth’s magnetic poles have reverse
themselves.
 If the poles suddenly reversed
themselves today, your compass
needle would point south.
 Rock that makes up the ocean floor
lies in a pattern of magnetized
“stripes”.
 Geomagnetic reversal is a change in
a planet’s magnetic field such that
the positions of magnetic north and
magnetic south are interchanged.
 Evidence from Drilling Samples
 The Glomar Challenger, a drilling
ship built in 1968, gathered rock
samples by drilling into the ocean
floor.
 Scientist determined the age of the
rock.
  The farther away from the ridge the
samples we taken, the older the
rocks were.
 The youngest rocks were always in
the center of the ridges.
Structure and Evolution of Ocean Basins
Ocean Basin
 Ocean Basins are large geologic basins that are
below sea level.
 The ocean basins are the result of tectonic
forces and processes.
 Note: A “basin” is a large bowl, much like your
kitchen sink. So, an ocean basin can be thought
of as a large bowl that holds ocean water.
Continental Shelf
 It is the shallowest part of the ocean.
Continental Slope
 It connects the shallow continental shelf with
the ocean floor.
Continental Rise
 It is the place where the sediments from land
are washed.
Mid-ocean Ridge
 The seafloor mountain system which is situated
in the middle of the ocean basin.
Rift Valley
 It is the lowland region that forms where Earth’s
tectonic plates move apart, or rift.
Trench
 It is the deepest part of the ocean.
Wilson Cycle
 The Wilson Cycle is a model that describes the
opening and closing of ocean basins and the
subduction and divergence of tectonic plates
during the assembly and disassembly of
supercontinents.
 The model is named after John Tuzo Wilson.
Stages of Ocean Basin Evolution
A. Embryonic
B. Juvenille
C. Mature
 D. Declining
E. Terminal
F. Suturing

Relative Dating
 Relative dating used to arrange geological
events, and the rocks they leave behind, in a
sequence.
 The method of reading the order is called
stratigraphy (layers of rock are called strata).
 Relative dating does not provide actual
numerical dates for the rocks.

History of the Earth

Laws of Stratigraphy
“The Present is the key to the Past” – Charles Lyell
 Superposition
 Younger rock layer sit on top of
older layers
 Original Horizontality
 Layer of sedimentary rock are
originally deposited flat.
 Lateral Continuity
 Layers are continuous until
encounter solid bodies that blocks
their deposition.
 Cross-Cutting Relationships
Geologists use two types of dating methods to interpret
 Any geologic feature that cuts
Earth history
across another geologic feature is
Relative Dating Techniques
younger.
 Geologic events are arranged in chronological
Law of Superposition
sequences using relative dating principles –
 Law of superposition states that the
which came first?
youngest rock is the top layer, and the
 No numerical values are applied.
oldest rock is on the bottom whenever you
Absolute Dating Techniques
have rock layers.
 Radioactive isotopes (unstable elements) decay
into stable atoms – rate of decay is measurable
with a numerical value.
 An actual number (numerical age) can be
applied.
Law of Original Horizontality
 Law of Original Horizontality states that
layers of sediment were originally deposited
horizontally under the action of gravity and
can later be deformed.
Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships
 Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships state
that any rock, fault, or structure that cuts
another rock or structure is younger than
the rock or structure it cuts.

Law of Lateral Continuity

 Law of Lateral Continuity states that the Which is older, the fault or volcanic layer?
layers of rock are continuous until they
encounter other solid bodies that block
their deposition or until they are acted
upon by agents that appeared after
deposition took place such as erosion and
fault movements.
 Which is younger, the dike or country rock?
Absolute Dating
 It is a method of measuring the age of an event
or object in years. To determine the absolute
ages of fossils and rocks, scientists analyze
isotopes of radioactive elements.
Review of the Atom:
 Atomic number = number of protons (+)
charged
 Atomic mass = number of protons +
neutrons
 Isotope = unstable atoms with varying
numbers of neutrons (atomic masses)
Unstable atoms will decay into stable atoms by
losing neutrons and protons at a constant rate.
 How does radiometric dating work, and where
does the age (number) come from?
Parent element
 The “beginning” element that contains
100% of radioactive particles.
Daughter elements
 The element that the parent element
decays into (or turns into over time)
Half Life
 The time required for ½ of the parent to
decay into the daughter element.
Half- Life of Common Isotopes
Radiometric Dating Methods
These are four radiometric-dating methods based on
the estimated age of an object.
1. Potassium-argon method
2. Uranium-lead method
3. Rubidium-strontium method
4. Carbon-14
The Geologic Time Scale is a system of chronological
measurement that relates stratigraphy to time. It is
used by geologists to describe the timing and
relationships between events that have occurred
throughout Earth’s history.
 It combines both relative and absolute dating.
 Created during the nineteenth century in
Western Europe and Great Britain.
 Earth’s 4.6 billion age history is divided into:
age (million of years),
epoch (tens of millions of years),
period (one hundred million years),
era (several hundred million years) and
eon (half a billion years or more).
Proterozoic
 Multi-celled, soft body organisms.
 Cyanobacteria begins producing free oxygen
(photosynthesis)
 Land masses gather to make up a continent
called “Rodinia”
Archean
 Single-cell life developed.
 Most “ancient” rocks found.
 Preserved rocks at the base of the Archean.
Hadean
 Represents the earth’s time of formation.
 No rocks are represented.
 “Hellish” conditions
Cambrian  Mass extinction marks the end of the Mesozoic
 Explosion of life. Era, with the demise of dinosaurs and 25% of all
 Dominant animals: Marine invertebrates marine life.
(trilobites and brachiopods) Tertiary
 Supercontinent Gondwana forms near the  First horses appear (size of cat) and tropical
South Pole. plants dominate (Pleistocene)
Ordovician  Grasses spread and whales, rhinos, elephants
 The 1st animals with bones appear. and other large mammals develop. (Eocene)
 A very cold time in Earth’s history: there was a  Dogs, cats, and apes appear (Oligocene)
great extinction due to ice caps in present-day  Horses, mastadons, camels, and tigers roam
Africa. free in S.C. (Miocene)
Silurian  Hominids develop and the Grand Canyon forms
 First land plants appear, and land animals (Pliocene)
follow. Quaternary
 Coral reefs expand and land plants begin to  Modern humans develop and ice sheets are
colonize barren land. predominant- Ice age (Pleistocene)
 First millipede fossils and sea scorpions  Holocene Humans flourish and beaches and
(Euryptides) barrier islands form (Holocene)
Devonian Precambrian
 Pre-Pangea forms. Dominant animal: fish.
 Amphibians evergreens appear.
Mississippian
 First seed plants appear.
 Much of North America is covered by shallow
seas and sea life flourishes (bryoza,
brachiopods, blastoids) Hadean: formation of Earth by planetesimal accretion
Pennyslvanian
 Lizards and winged insects first appear.
Permian
 Last period of the Palezoic
 Pangea forms.
Archeon Eon was a time of significant change to planet
 The Appalachians rise.
Earth.
 90% of Earth’s species become extinct due to
volcanism in Siberia.
Triassic
 First dinosaurs appear.
 First mammals – small rodents appear.
 Life and fauna re-diversify.
 Rocky Mountains form.
Proterozoic: Supercontinent of Rodinia
 Pangea breaks apart.
Jurassic
 Pangea still breaking apart. Paleozoic
 Dinosaur’s flourish “Golden age of dinosaurs”
 First birds appear.
Cretaceous
 T-Rex develops.
 First snakes and primates appear.
 Angiosperms appear. Supercontinent Gondwana forms
 Mesozoic

Trilobites and brachiopods

Triassic: Pangaea begins to break apart

Mass extinctions at the end of Mesozoic Era Triassic: First mammal

Land colonized by vascular plants Jurassic: Golden age of dinosaurs

Silurian: Euryptides fossils Cretaceous: Tyrannosaurus rex

Occurs when many living things go extinct at the same
time (Impacts plants and animals on land and in sea)
Only happened twice in Earth’s history:
1st: Between Paleozoic and Mesozoic Eras
 Trilobites suddenly went extinct. Think climate
change from continental drift may have caused
extinction. Formation of Pangaea cause deserts
Devonian: Fish thrived and rapidly diversified
to expand in topics. Sheets of ice-covered land
close to South Pole. Organisms could not
survive.
nd
2 : Between Mesozoic and Cenozoic Era
 Wiped out over half of all plant and animals
Pennsylvanian: Lizard and flying insect groups on Earth. No dinosaurs survived.
Two Theories:
1. Asteroid hit earth. Impact threw huge amounts
of dust and water into atmosphere blocking
sunlight. No sun = plants died and plant eating
animals starved. Clouds also caused
Mississippian: Seed plants
temperature to drop.
2. Climate changes were cause by increased
volcanic activity. Volcanic output would block
sun as well and same process would follow.

Permian: Extinction