Nuclear Radiation

Dong Woon Kim

Medical University of Lublin
15.12.2021

Naturally occurring isotopes of elements with atomic numbers 20 and higher can have unstable nuclei in
which the repulsion forces between the protons overwhelm and sometimes overcome the nuclear forces
that bind them. An unstable nucleus of an atom is considered to be radioactive, meaning that it
spontaneously emits small particles of energy, called ionizing radiation, in an effort to lose energy, thereby
becoming more stable. This entire process, also known as radioactive or nuclear decay, commonly involve
the emission of alpha (α) radiation (Fig. 1), beta (β) radiation (Fig. 2) or (3) gamma (γ) radiation (Fig.
3), consisting of helium nuclei, electrons or positrons, and photons, respectively. Less commonly, neutrons
and protons are emitted. All of these types of radiation have the potential to ionize, or to emit electrons
as a result of their collision with matter. Other sources of ionizing radiation––although not a result of
radioactive decay––are ultraviolet (UV) radiation and X-rays.

1 Quantitative assessment of radiation

Figure 1. Alpha (α) decay involves the emission of a helium nucleus.

A A− 4 4
Z X → Z−2Y + 2 He

Figure 2. Beta (β) decay involves the emission of electrons or positrons.

A A 0
Z X → Z +1Y + −1e

A A 0
Z X → Z−1Y + 1e

Figure 3. Gamma (γ) decay involves the emission of photons.

A ¿ A
Z X → Z X +hv

Where hv describes a photon (e.g., gamma (γ) or X-ray)

2 Quantitative descriptions of absorption

Alpha (α) particles exhibit the least degree of penetrance, limited by the mass of the nuclei. Then, in
order of increasing penetrance: beta (β) particles, X-ray photons, gamma (γ) radiation photons, and
neutrons. Energy of radiation is absorbed in matter and the intensity of radiation is weakened. The
interaction of radiation with matter is described by the Absorption law, which states that:

−μx
I =I 0 e
Where, I = intensity of radiation after passing distance, x in the medium, I0 = initial intensity of
radiation, and μ = linear coefficient of absorption.

3 Quantitative assessments of biological effects of radiation

3.1 Effects of corpuscular radiation on matter

Effects of alpha (α) and beta (β) radiation––also known as corpuscular radiation––on matter, involve (1)
ionization, which creates electrons and ionized atoms, (2) electromagnetic radiation, as a result of
interaction of electrons with nuclei of atoms in the matter, and (3) heat production. Alpha (α) radiation is
described as high kinetic energy radiation that is attenuated due to collisions with nuclei and electrons
and therefore a very short range of penetration; the result is ionization or excitation of molecules of the
medium. Beta (β) radiation is described as lower energy (compared to α) that does not react with nuclei
of atoms but rather influence orbital electrons; effective range in air is up to several meters, but in water
and in tissues, is limited to millimeters or centimeters depending on the energy of β-particles.

Linear energy transfer, abbreviated LET, calculates the energy lost, in Joules, by radiation along a unit
distance traveled, and defines the capacity of the medium to absorb the ionizing radiation (Fig. 4).

−d E B Z
= 2ρ
dx v A

Where, B = parameter dependent on the electric charge of the particle, v = velocity of the particle, and
ρ = density of the medium.

3.2 Interaction of neutrons with matter

Neutrons may cause collision with nuclei of atoms, leading to excitation of the nuclei, or absorption of the
neutron by the atom nucleus, both of which results in the emission of gamma (γ) radiation.

3.3 Interaction of gamma (γ) radiation or X-ray with matter

Gamma (γ) radiation and X-rays are emissions of high energy photons that, when interacting with
matter, may cause (1) the photoelectric effect, or (2) the Compton effect. (3) Gamma (γ) radiation may
also induce pair production (electron–positron) when interacting with matter. The photoelectric effect is a
phenomenon that occurs as a result of a photon interacting with an electron of an atom. By transferring
all of its energy, the photon is annihilated and an electron escapes from the atom. After leaving the atom,
the electron induces excitation and ionization of molecules in the medium until its excess energy is lost.
The Compton effect describes the phenomenon in which a photon (of energy 100 keV to 10 MeV)
interacts with an electron, but it transfers only a part of its energy to the electron. The photon continues
moving with a smaller energy in a changed direction. Pair production (electron–positron) is the
phenomenon in which an electron–positron pair is produced by a γ photon (with energy of at least 1.02
MeV, which is equivalent to the resting energies of at least two electrons, each having 0.51 MeV) in the
vicinity of an atomic nucleus.
The main effect nuclear radiation has on matter is its ability to ionize atoms to become ions. High
energy electrons are produced in all processes of interaction of radiation with matter.

3.4 Chemical processes resulting from absorption of nuclear radiation

Exposure of water to high energy of ions and electrons induce radiolysis of water, the decay of water
molecules into H∙ and OH∙ radicals and production of peroxide, H2O2. The products of water radiolysis are
the main factors responsible for biological effects of radiation.

3.5 Biological effects of absorption of nuclear radiation

Indirect effects include (1) the reaction of radicals with biomolecules, such as DNA and proteins. Direct
effects include (2) the breaking of nucleic acid chains and (3) damage of amino acids, negatively impacting
protein synthesis and the activity of enzymes. Temporary effects include radiation sickness, while
permanent effects include damage of genetic material, especially sensitive are the cells of the reproductive
system and bone marrow in young, developing humans. In rare cases, high doses of nuclear radiation in a
short span of time may prove to be lethal.

3.6 Nuclear radiation in medicine

Current radiation protection standards assume that any dose of radiation, no matter how small, involves
a risk to human health. However, radiation plays a key role in modern medicine. Radiation provides
diagnostic information about the functioning of specific organs. Procedures using radioisotopes are now
routine in diagnosis. Radiotherapy is used to treat some medical conditions, especially to weaken or
destroy cancer cells. Tens of millions of nuclear medicine procedures are performed each year, and the
demand for radioisotopes is increasing. Sterilization of medical equipment and grafts (for transplants) is
also an important use of radioisotopes. The dose of radiation absorbed by the patient and location of the
radiation energy as to be precisely controlled.

3.7 Uses of radioisotopes – radiotracers

Radiotracers are complex organic molecules chosen for their affinity for the organ under examination. The
molecules are marked by the presence of a radioactive isotope. A radioactive isotope behaves chemically
like a stable isotope of the element; it can be incorporated into normal metabolic processes in the
organism. Radioisotopes can be traced easily and in small quantities; we have very sensitive methods of
detection of radioactivity. Applications include investigation of metabolic processes, cancer detection (i.e.,
Iodine 131I, Technetium 99Tc), and mainly, cancer treatment––systemic therapy, brachytherapy, and
external beam therapy, also known as teleradiotherapy. Systemic therapy involves ingestion by mouth or
injection of radioactive materials, such as 131I for thyroid cancer, and 89Sr in bone for bone metastases. In
brachytherapy, a sealed radiation source (e.g., radioisotopes 198Au, 192Ir) is placed inside or very close to
the treated area (e.g., near the prostate gland for the treatment of prostatic adenocarcinoma). External
beam therapy (teleradiotherapy) involves the use of sealed sources of gamma (γ) radiation (e.g., 137Cs,
60
Co), beta (β) radiation (e.g., 32P, 90Sr), and photons.