PREFACE

Teaching as a profession has been universally recognized and accepted as a science and

an art. Throughout the ages, it has been practiced by professionals in the field of education as

such. A more serious look at its effects on the population being taught, points to a greater

emphasis on the methodologies and various ways of imparting knowledge to the young. They

search for the facts and information through natural explorations and systematic inquires that

lead to inductive and deductive reasoning. So much attention and discussions have been given to

the ways of teaching rather than the personal dimensions that facilitate learning. The tremendous

influence of the values and attitudes that affect the absorption and assimilation of ideas is

relegated to the sides. The qualities and traits of teachers that create the emotional and

intellectual climate conducive to learning are not given due recognition.

This compilation was written with a strong belief and conviction that teaching is more of

an art than a science. As an art it highlights the human-to-human nature of the teaching process.

As a science the thoughts and actions about teaching adhere to logical step-by-step procedures

which may not easily carried on if the more facilitative attributes of teachers are not elicited to

open the gates towards learning.

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 INTRODUCTION

Teaching, in traditional usage, simply means giving instruction. The act of teaching is

akin to tutoring or training. It is interchangeably used to mean educating as schooling. Some use

the term pedagogy.

Teaching as a profession assumes different meanings and definitions depending on the

practitioner’s ultimate goal. Pursued as a lifetime career, some take it as a solemn vow to offer

enduring love and care for the betterment of the country’s youth. Some are impassioned to share

their acquired knowledge and developed skills to equip the citizenry towards literacy and

enlightenment. Aimed at molding children’s minds and hearts, teaching is pursued as a lifetime

career with passion. Others are moved by compelling life plan to guide the learning, growth and

advancement of children who are entrusted to their tutelage. Still others accept it as the best

means of livelihood leading to a comfortable lifestyle and economic growth. Those with a strong

sense of nationalism feel duty bound to develop, through their teaching, love of country, civic

mindedness and respect for their fellow men.

For s long as teaching is identified as ones chosen, vocation or profession, all endeavors

in terms of time, effort and unwavering dedication are guaranteed to bring forth the fruition of

their dreams and aspirations, definitely a self-fulfilling and a crowning lifetime achievement to

cherish. In the end, successful teaching develops a characteristic culture of a caring-and-sharing

outlook and a passion for learning about life and the world.

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 Modes of Instruction

Theory of Instruction

Jerome Bruner, another psychologist who supports cognitive theories of learning, is more
emphatic than Ausubel in terms of the developmental aspects of learning and its implications for
teacher.

An Understanding of Bruner’s Theory of Instruction depends on an understanding

of three related matters:

a. Modes of Learning
b. Functions of Categorization
c. Principles of Instruction

Modes of Learning

Three modes of learning are:

1. Enactive
2. Iconic
3. Symbolic

Enactive Mode of Learning – is a way of learning by doing, by acting, by imitating and

manipulating objects. This is the ode most often used by young children.

Iconic Mode of Learning – involves the use of image or pictures. This mode becomes
increasingly important as a child grows and is encouraged to learn concepts and principles that
are not easily demonstrated.

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Symbolic Mode of Learning – is nearly synonymous with learning through the use of the
written and spoken word.

Functions of Categorization

Categorization can be defined as a process of organizing and integrating information with

other information that has been learned earlier.

Five disadvantages of being able to classify events in terms of conceptual categories

(according to Bruner, 1956)

1. Classification helps to simplify the environment

2. Classification helps us find similarities
3. Classification eliminates the needs for constant relearning
4. Classification allows eliciting a given behavior under many different conditions.
5. Classification improves our ability to relate object and events.

Principles of Instruction

Burner’s theory of instruction is characterized by four major principles related to

motivation, structure, sequence and reinforcement.

Principles of motivation – emphasizes that learning depends on the learner’s state or readiness
or predisposition towards learning.

Principles of Structure – stresses that learning can be increased by selecting modes of

instruction that fit the learner’s level of cognitive development and level of understanding.

Principles of Sequence – states that the ordering of content influence the ease where the
learning takes place.

Principles of reinforcement – emphasizes that responding favorable to a person affects that

person later behavior.

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 Evaluating Lesson
Is where the teacher evaluates if the learner had learned through giving test or participation.

Levels of Learning Outcomes

1. Knowledge – This refers to the acquisition of facts, concepts and theories.
2. Comprehension – refers to the same concept as understanding of facts and principles,
interpretation of materials.
3. Application – refers to the transfer of knowledge from one field of study to another or
from one concept to another concept in the same discipline.
4. Analysis – refers to the breaking down of concept or idea into its components and
explaining the concept as composition of these concepts.
5. Synthesis – refers to the opposite of analysis and entails putting together the components
in order to summarize concept or principle.
6. Evaluation – refers to the valuing and judgment or putting together the “worth” of a
concept or principle.

Appropriate Assessment Tools and Techniques

Two major issues to consider when choosing on Assessment tools.
1. Direct measure – are those in which the products of student work area evaluated in light
of learning outcomes of the program.
2. Indirect measure – are not based directly on student academic work but rather on the
perception of the student.

Appropriate Assessment Techniques

1. Concept Test – one or more questions are presented during class involving key concepts,
doing with several possible answers.
2. Mathematical Thinking – are designed to promote and assess thinking skills in
mathematics, specially helping students recognize and solve problems that aren’t
identical to the one’s they saw in the book.
3. Minute Test – are concise, written answer by students (individually or in groups).

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 School Services
A. Office of the Counseling and Guidance (OCG)
(Human resources and Development Center)

1. Objectives
a. Helps the pupils/students with the teacher’s cooperation to develop his/her skills and
talents to the fullest, thus become a productive citizen.
b. Helps students/pupils have positive emotional and mental attitudes so as to develop a
wholesome relationship and feeling towards others and to his/her own self.
c. Provides pupils/students profession guidance and counseling to form sound and
acceptable mental and social necessary for healthy development.
d. Provides pupils/students the information and guidelines necessary for career choice.
e. Assists the pupils/students in his/her Christian formation.

2. Services to Students
a. Individual inventory services.
b. Testing services.
c. Counseling formation services.
d. Follow – up service through home visitation.
e. Pear counseling training program.
f. Services to school personnel.
1. for instructional staff
Counseling and information services.
2. for the administration
Information services
Research and evaluation

B. Library
The library plays a vital role in helping students find materials to help them carry out
assignment, task and researches.

C. Medical/ Dental
1. Medical
A school physician is available to attend student with minor ailments.
2. Dental
A school dentist is available to give dental services to students with minor dental
problem.

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D. Office of the Cashier
1. Responsible for the collection of fees and payments from the students.
2. Dispose statement of account of students before every period of time.
3. Issues statement of account to students who want to avail of a scholarship from a
company or prospective agent.

E. Office of the Registrar

1. Serves as the repository of all students’ records.
2. Determines admission/enrolment requirements.
3. Plans and executes registration procedure in coordination with proper school
authorities.
4. Informs students of records deficiencies and enforce graduation requirements.
5. Makes request for transferees and as certain compliance thereof.
6. Attends to promote compliance of requests for permanent records (form 137),
certification. Grades, eligibility to transfer, diplomas, annuals and other pertinent paper.

Teaching Method
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Lardizabel, et.al (1991) state that the concept of method is probably as old as education itself.

A. Inductive Method
Induction is simply defined as the process of arriving at a given generalization. It starts
from the known to unknown, from the specific to the general, from the particular to the
universal, from the simple to the complex, and from the concrete to the abstract.

5 Steps of the Inductive Method

1. Preparation
2. Presentation
3. Comparison and Abstraction
4. Generalization
5. Application
B. Deductive Method
Is a process of starting with a generalization and arriving at a specific statement or
conclusion namely; one which is not applicable to a class of the deductive method.

Steps of the Deductive Method

1. Introduction
2. Statement of generality
3. Explanation of a general idea
4. Illustration
5. Evaluation
C. Integrated Method
Process or practice of combining different elements and presenting them as one unifying
whole.
1. lecture – discussions
2. demonstration – lecture
3. film – showing – discussion
4. reporting – discussion
5. inductive – deductive
D. Lecture Method
It is a teaching method procedure for explaining and clarifying.

Steps of the Lecture Method

1. Preparation
2. Introduction of the Lecture.
3. Giving the body of the Lecture.
4. Conclusion of the Lecture.
E. Type – study Method
It is an inductive procedure except that they only one case is studied.
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 Steps of the Type – study Method
1. Selection of the topic.
2. Apperception and Motivation
3. Statement of a typical case.
4. Study of details.
5. Comparing details.
6. Generalization
F. Problem Method
- gives direction to a discussion and prevents wandering off the topic.
- it stimulates reflective, thinking and furnishes a guide for organizing ideas.

Steps of the Problem Method

1. The selection of the subject matter to be studied.
2. Apperception and Motivation
3. The model or a typical case that will be studied of comparison.
4. Study of details.
5. Comparison of details and other characteristics with the model.
6. Generalization
G. Project Method
It is significance, practical unit of activity of a problematic nature, planned and carried to
completion by the student in a natural manner and involving the use of physical materials to
complete the unit of experience.

Types of Project
1. Construction
2. Employment
3. Problem
4. Learning

Another Classification of Project

1. Physical on material
2. Learning
3. Intellectual or problem

Steps of the Project Method

1. Purposing
2. Planning
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 3. Executing
4. Evaluating
H. Laboratory Method
Is a teaching procedure dealing with firsthand experiences regarding materials of facts
obtained from investigation or experimentation.

Types of Laboratory method

1. Experimental
2. Observational

Steps in Laboratory method

1. Introduction step for orientation and motivation.
2. Work of period.
3. Culminating activities.
I. Demonstration Method
- Basically the showing method.
- it is a learning method through imitation.
- Sometimes called the imitative method.

Steps in Demonstration Method

1. Purposing
2. Planning
3. Demonstration proper
4. Executing
5. Evaluation
J. Expository Method
Is closely akin to the showing of telling method.

Steps of the Expository Method

1. Approach
2. Presentation
3. Application
K. Morrisonian Technique or Unit Method
Process of taking the contests of a particular subject as big blocks and not as isolated and
fragmentary bits of information.

Steps in Unit Method

1. Exploration
2. Presentation
3. Assimilation
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 4. Organization
5. Recitation

Approaches in Teaching
Introduction
Aside from personal and professional characteristics, the student teachers have to acquire
mastery various teaching approaches, strategies and methods of teaching.

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 A teaching profession is a term that indicates the nature of teaching – learning situation.
It indicates how teaching is to be conducted and how learning is to be acquired. It is also a
procedure that employs a variety of strategies to access better understanding and effective
learning.

1. Conceptual approach – is the process of deriving ideas, rules, concepts, principles or

generalizations from a given set related facts.
(According to Garcia) – It is not a particular teaching method with specific steps to
follow.
2. Problem Solving approach – is a teaching approach that employs the scientific method
in searching information.
This approach is used most often in science and mathematics classes.

5 Basis Steps of the Scientific Method

Sensing and defining the problem.
 Formulating hypothesis.
 Testing the likely hypothesis.
 Analysis, interpretation and evaluation of evidence.
 Formulating conclusion.

Advantages of Problem Solving Approach

It is not effective in developing skill in employing the science process.
Develop higher level thinking skills.
The student’s become appreciative and grateful for the achievement of scientists.
The student learns to accept the opinion and evidence shared by others.
It is a general procedure in finding solution to daily occurrences.
3. Brain Based approach
Includes:
1. Authentic Problem solving
2. Using projects to increase meaning and motivation.
3. Simulations and role plays as meaning makers.
4. Classroom strategies using visual processing.
5. Songs, jingles, and raps.
6. Mnemonics strategies – assist student in recalling important information.
7. Writing strategies – it makes students write their own problems and make them
ask their classmates to solve them.
8. Active review – review days are planned and organized to give enough time for
students to prepare for the having of a review.
9. Hands – on activities.

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 Private Schools

Private school – also known as independent school or nonstate school, are not administered by
local, state or national agreement.
Ex. Harvest Christian School International (HCSI)

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 Located at Cebu City.

Mission:
Partnering with parents to aid them in their God given responsibility to “train up their child”
in a Godly and responsible manner.

Vision:
HCSI strive to develop discerning individuals who are spiritually equipped, academically
competitive and globally aware of any cultural differences.

Goal:
HCSI help parents with choices of meeting individual needs of each individual child in the
way the parents’ best see fit.

Teaching method
 ‘’one – on – one” method – where the teacher instructs a number of individual
students at different levels.

Assessment Tool:
The school incorporates individual and group projects to stimulate the development,
creative and imaginative thought of the student which also leads to self – discipline.

Instructional Program:
 Traditional/ Conventional Academic Program – where students grouped
together by chronological grade level progress seldom experienced by all students
in such program.
Grading System
Grade Equivalent
1.5 - 1.0 95 - 100 Superior
2.0 – 1.6 90 - 94 Very Good
2.5 – 2.1 85 - 89 Good
3.0 – 2.6 80 - 84 Average
3.5 – 3.1 75 - 79 Passing
5 Below 75 Failure

W – Official withdrawal from subject.

D (5.0) – Dropped with failure due to violation attendance policies and prescribed procedures on
withdrawal.
Support to Student Learning

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 1.Student Support Office – aims to complement the academic programs in the
promotion of human and Christian Education of the gospel values.

- Offer student related services aimed at developing the total personality

of the student.
2.Campus Ministry Center – aims to foster holistic development of the students
giving them opportunity to share time, talent and treasure in service Christ
as displayed through the school community and society.
Students are provided with the opportunities for:
a. Spiritual formation – through retreats and recollections (as per schedule)
and paraliturgical services.
b. Involvement in the Diocesan activities.

Six Methods of Teaching

Introduction

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 Methods that matter agrees passionately that teaching does matter and that the methods
teachers employ not only affect students achievement but also condition the quality of human
relationships in the classroom and beyond. Teaching methods do matter with reference to the
current national standards of teaching and learning in each of the main curriculum fields. So
there are six key teaching methods or structures used by teachers who are reaching for new
standards.

1. Integrative Units
Asserts the importance of dissolving traditional subject matter boundaries and
engaging students in broad, lifelike, interdisciplinary inquiries. Describe a continuum of
thematic teaching that runs from common teacher created units on topics of perennial
interest to students all the way to purely “negotiated” curriculum, where students,
questions become starting point for extended investigations that may or may not be
“back mapped” to content area or mandates.
2. Small Group activities
Teachers who are reaching for new standards must have ways of descent rating
the classroom, making it smaller, enlisting students, peer, and teachers, forming a variety
partnerships, teams and task forces.
Collaborative Teamwork Skills – are just as important as basic academic skills
in helping people succeed as workers, citizens and parents.
3. Representing – to – learn
In traditional schooling, the students’ job was to receive: to sit still, absorb and
somehow remember information being transmitted by the teacher.
Students to engage deeply in the ideas of the curriculum, they need to act upon
its content – (talking, writing, drawing, dramatizing, singing, and dancing the ideas they
encounter.
4. Classroom Workshop
The workshop is both a metaphor and a model for turning classrooms into
learning laboratories. In the ancient crafts workshops, the teacher was a master
craftsperson. In contemporary classrooms, we borrow the workshop metaphor to create
writing workshops, science workshops, and other workshops across the curriculum.

5. Authentic Experiences
Successful teachers have ways of making school real. They open the classroom
door both ways – bringing the world into the school and getting the kids out.
6. Reflective Assessment
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 Teachers, who are reaching for new standards, systematically help students to
become self – assessors. They are helping them to learn to run their brains.

Teaching Categories and Models of Teaching

This study focuses on the use of and rated importance of four basic categories of
teaching models provided by a large sample of Saskatchewan teachers.

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 1.Information Processing Model – are those which characterize the mission of
education as a facilitation of cognitive development.
2.Personal Instruction Models - characterize the mission of education as one
that assists people in developing their personal potential as human being.
3.Social Interaction Model - it is associated with the social interactions which
are focused on developing concepts and skills needed to work in group.
4.Behavioral Models – the focus of the methods associated with this category is
on observable skills and behaviors.

Process Approach
 The process approach teaches student how to acquire skills.
 Process approach is a powerful way of organizing and managing activities to create
value for the customer and other interested parties.
 The process approach utilizes the principle of learning by doing.

Problem – Solving Method

Problem – solving method – is a sophisticated form of trials – and – error learning,
providing the students a chance to learn from their successes and failures.

Five Basic Steps in Problem – Solving method

1. Selecting the problem.
2. Defining the problem.
3. Searching for clues.
4. Hypothesizing and solving the problem.
5. Testing the proposed solution.

Inquiry Method
 Sometimes know as the “Inquiry education”, it is a student centered method of
education focused on asking questions.
 The method was advocated by Neil Postman and Charles Weingartner in their
book “Teaching as a subversive Activity”

Discover Method
Discover method – is a teaching technique that encourages students to take a more active role in
their learning process by answering a series of questions or solving problems designed to
introduce a general concept.

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 Three principles guided Jerome Bruners
Consideration should be given to “experienced and contexts”
There should be a spiral organization of the material forcing students to build
upon previously acquired information.
The instruction should facilitate extrapolation.

Three levels of Guidance in Teaching

 Pure discovery
 Guided discovery
 Expository

Fieldtrip
A. Fieldtrip
It is a journey by a group of people to a place away from their normal environment. The
purpose of the trip is usually observation for education and non – experimental research.

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Things to consider before having a Fieldtrip
1. Location. Select the location of class fieldtrips based on the topics covered in the
classroom.
2. Making the connection. Creating a strong connection for the students between the
fieldtrip and classroom study increases the educational value of the activity.
3. Extension activities. Plan classroom activities to extend the learning of the fieldtrips.

B. Demonstration
- A method of teaching by example rather than explanation.
- use the demonstration or “doing” method to teach skills.

Characteristics of an Effective Demonstration

 It is clear.
 It is complete.
 It gains confidence.

C. Question and Answer

It is the initial recognition that learning takes place when students are verbally as
well as intellectually involved in the educational situation.

Principles for Improving Questions and Answers

1. Plan in advance.
2. Look out for the teachable moment.
3. Gives the students the question ahead of time.
4. Ask questions understandable to the student.
5. Direct the question to the whole class.
6. Reinforce the response.

The 5E’s in Teaching

1. Engage
This phase of 5E’s starts the process.
2. Explore
This phase of the 5E’s provides with a common based of experiences. They identify
and develop concepts and skills. During this phase, students actively explore their
environment or manipulate materials.
3. Explain
This phase of the 5E’s helps the students explain the concepts they have been
exploring. They have opportunities to verbalize their conceptual understanding or to
demonstrate new skills or behaviors.
4. Elaborate
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 This phase of the 5E’s extends the students conceptual understanding or to
demonstrate and allows them to practice skills and behaviors. Through new experiences,
the learners develop deeper and broader understanding of major concepts, obtain more
information about areas of Interest and refine their skills.
5. Evaluate
This phase of 5E’s encourages learners to assess their understanding and abilities and
lets teachers evaluate students understanding of key concepts and skill development.

The Ground Lund Instructional Model

Ground Lund (1974) views the instructional model as a systematic approach to the
teaching – learning process and as a method of appraising and improving instruction. His
instructional model consists or four components namely:
1. Specify Objectives
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 Specifying instructional objectives in measurable (or behavioral) terms classifies the
type of student performance that is expected to result from the instruction.
2. Administer Pretest
The pretest helps to determine the (1) whether the students have the prerequisite
knowledge and skills needed to profit from the instruction, and (2) what student’s entry levels of
achievement are on the intended learning outcomes.
3. Provide Instruction
The instructional process provides the teaching acts and learning experiences that
enable students to achieve the intended learning outcomes.
4. Evaluate Outcomes
Evaluation of the final outcomes of instruction can be used to determine the extent to
which student performance meets the standards that have been set or to determine the
amount of learning gain that has taken place. Such results provide.
Feedback to the students concerning their learning strengths and
weaknesses,
Information for making needed revisions in the objectives, content,
methods and materials of instructions, and
Information for use in an accountability program.

Specify Objectives Administer Pretest Provide Instruction Evaluate Outcomes

Feedback to student Accountability purpose

Improve instruction

Project Method
Introduction
According to traditional historiography, the project idea is a genuine product of the
American Progressive education movement. The idea has thought to have originally been
introduced in 1908 as a new method of teaching agriculture, but educator William H. Kilpatrick
elaborated the concept and popularized it worldwide in his famous article “The Project Method”

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(1918). More recently, Michael Kroll has traced the project of method to architectural education
in sixteenth – century Italy and to engineering education on eighteenth – century France. This
illustrates that the project of the architect – like the experiment of the scientist; the sandbox
exercise of the staff officer, and the case study of the jurist – originated in the professionalization
of an occupation.

Project method – is an educational enterprise in which children solve a practical problem over a
period of several days or weeks. The method is based in progressive education,
is child – centered, and is in used by teachers worldwide to this day.
Four classes of Projects devised by Kilpatrick for his method
 Construction
 Enjoyment
 Problem
 Specific learning
Two basic approaches for implementing the project method
1. Historically Older approach – the student take two steps.

Instructional Objectives
Lesson 1 – Introduction
Using the Pre – reading strategy, students brainstorm ways in which the earth’s surface
can change. Ask students to share their responses and record them on the overhead, chalkboard
or chart paper.

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 Show students the PowerPoint presentation. Discuss and elaborated on the ideas
presented during the brainstorming.
Students revisit their brainstorming to add, delete or modify ideas. Then, students
generate a list of questions they have about the ways in which the Earth’s surface is changing.
Encourage students to discover the answers to the questions on their list as they complete the
unit.
Lesson 2 – Instruction, large group and independent practice
Introduce the major concepts of the unit by sharing the Inspiration Map. Distribute copies
to the students.
Using the survey technique, students complete a preview of the chapter from the textbook
on constructive and destructive forces.
Students complete the reading from the text.
After students have completed the reading, they create a graphic organizer to differentiate
between constructive and destructive forces.
Lesson 3 – Checking for understanding and small group practice
Student examines the vocabulary from chapter by completing a Feature Analysis matrix on
constructive and destructive forces.
When a group of students has completed the matrix, conference with the group to check if
students have obtained a clear understanding of constructive and destructive forces.
Students create an electronic image collage using images from the American Memory
collection.
Lesson 4 – Instruction and independent practice
Students complete a pre - reading activity in which they identify with a story character to
introduce ways in which human activities have affected Earth’s surface.
Students then read the article from the American memory collection on conservation in
the Progressive Era.
Lesson 5 – Unit Assessment
Students will complete the Web Quest activity in which they investigate ways that human
activities have affected Earth’s surface. Students will then evaluate the measures taken to control
the impact, to conserve natural resources and/or repair environmental damage.

Instructional Method

Madeline Hunter’s Model

Developed a teacher ‘’decision – making model’’ for planning. Her model is called ITIP
(Instructional Theory Into Practice).

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 Three Categories which considered basic to ITIP lesson design:

1. Content 3. Teacher Behaviors

2. Learners Behaviors

Direct Instruction

The framework of planning, the teacher increases his or her effectiveness.

Seven Elements the Teacher needs to consider

1. Learning Objectives – select an objective at an appropriate level of difficulty and

complexity.
2. Anticipatory Set – motivate instruction by focusing the learning task, its importance or
the prior knowledge or experience of the learners.
3. State the lesson objective(s) to the students.
4. (Input) Indentify and teach main concepts and skills emphasizing clear explanations.
5. Check for understanding.
6. Provide guided practice.
7. Assign independent practice.

The following questions are from Madeline Hunter and can guide in making questions.

1. What instructional input in needed?

2. What type of modeling will be most effective?
3. How will I check for understanding?
Some ways of determining when and how?
1. Sampling – means posing questions to total group, allowing them time to think and
then calling in class members’ representative.
2. Signaled – response
3. Group Choral Response – this method usually does not give information about
individuals.
4. Individual Private Response – a brief written or whispered – to – teacher response
makes students accountable for demonstrating possession of, or progress toward,
achievement of the needed information or skills.

4. How will I design guided/monitored practice?

5. What independent practice will cement the learning?

6. Should the students be made aware of the lesson objectives and its value?
7. What anticipatory set will focus students on the objective?

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Rosenshine Model

Classroom instruction

Name and define specific events of instruction that would be included in your model of
direct instruction and give an example of a teacher behavior and a student behavior.

Direct instruction

Most often used measures of student learning are scores on standardized test of basic
skills.

Seven events of Rosenshine’s Model of Direct instruction

1. Provide overview.

2. Review, checking previous day’s work.

3. Present new content and skills.

4. Initial student practice, checking for understanding, feedback and correctives.

5. Independent practice.

6. Frequent test.

7. Homework; weekly, monthly review.

Transactional Model of Direct Instruction – focuses on the interactions of teachers and students.

Developing a Lessons

 Instructional planning

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 -This involves the preparation necessary to meet the individual needs of the classroom
members. A lesson evaluation is included to show the ability to interpret goal, strengths, and
weaknesses of a lesson plan.

-It also provides several opportunities for assessment of the students, understanding of
the concepts that are being presented and the effectiveness of the teaching.

 Organizing the learning content

- It is most focused on the information, meaningful information helps to comprehend and

retain the content as well as helping them quickly find the content they need.

- In organizing learning content it should be in a high level to give it a meaningful

structure.

Steps to be considered in organizing the learning content.

 Alphabetical
A conventional but important organizing principle for content is alphabetical order.
Alphabetical order allows for quiet and easy access to information.
 Categoral
Some content has a flat structure. There is no hierarchies no sequence and all of the topics are
more less at the same level of difficulty with no prerequisites.
 Cause and Effect
Organizing content by cause and effect may not be the first approach you think of, but it can
be effective when used for the right purpose.
 Inherent Structure
Often content has its own structure that is cognitively natural to the subject. If the content
presents events in a timeline, then a chronological order is self- evident.

 Order of Importance
In a flat structure without hierarchy, the most effective approach for organizing content might
be by the order of its importance. Because learners usually pay the most attention to the
beginning and end of the topic, you have quite option for arranging the content.
 Simple to Complex
Instructional content can be organized from the simple to complex even when the simpler
content is not subordinate or prerequisite to the complex content. This strategy provides a slow
initiation into a subject, building the learners confidence and knowledge base.
 Sequential
When you’re representing a process or procedure, it’s often most effective to structure the
content as a series of steps. The structure of sequential content provides hooks for learners to
remember the steps of the procedure.
 Spiral
A spiral approach might be difficult to implement in a single course, but it is certainly
appropriate for a curriculum. A spiral structure revisits its topic in a systematic way at more
detailed and complex level each time.

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  Subordinate to High Level (Hierarchical)
When the content requires that a learner master subordinates skills or knowledge to advance to a
higher level skill, a hierarchical structure is effective. This is one of the well-used structures for
courses because much of what people learn is based on prerequisite knowledge and skills.
 Whole to Parts
An excellent approach to organizing content is to introduce the big picture or system view first
and then to delve into the parts of the system. Providing the big picture helps learners make sense
of information. It is also provides a framework for fitting information together in memory. The
whole parts organization is similar to a general to specific structure.

 Instructional Objectives

Instructional objectives may also as performance objectives, behavioural objective, or simply

objectives. Objectives are specific (this means that they should describe precisely what the
learner is expected to do), outcome based (this means that the objective is going to state what the
learner should be able to do after the instruction is complete), measurable (this means that the
objectives should describe outcomes that can be measured; objectives should be seen or heared).

The Procedure Learning Activities

1. Instructional Strategies
Effective instruction depends on learning experiences appropriately facilitated and designed
by knowledgeable educators.
Learners have different learning styles educators should design activities that address their
modes of learning in order to provide significant experiences for class participant.

Multiple Instructional Strategies

 Learning Contracts
Leaning contracts connect educational needs to individual student and are useful when there is
diversity in learner needs and interest. A learning contract is a formal agreement written by a
learner which details what will be learned, how the learning will be accomplished, the period of
time involved, and the specific evaluation criteria to be used in judging the completion of the
learning. Learning contracts helps the educator and learner share the responsibility for learning.
 Lecture
The lecture is one of the most frequently used instructional methods in education. It assumes
the learners to be the expert and is an efficient way of discriminating information. Educators
agree that the purpose of lecture is to lay foundations as a student works through the subject.

 Discussion

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 Discussion is the instructional strategy most favoured by learners because it is interactive and
encourages active, participatory learning. The discussion encourages learners to analyze
alternative ways of thinking and acting and assist learners in exploring their own experience so
they can become better critical thinkers. The discussion is often the heart of learning.
 Self- Directed Learning
Self- directed is learning initiated and directed by the learner and can be include self-paced,
independent, and individualized learning as well as self-instruction
 Mentorship
The aim of mentorship is to promote learner development drawing out and giving form to
what the student already knows.
 Small Group Work
In small groups learners can discussed content, share ideas, and solve problems. They present
their own ideas as well as consider ideas put by others.
 Project
Project gives the students an opportunity to pursue their special interest and can be done
individually or within groups. Projects also provide students with practical experiences and a
sense of accomplishments.
 Collaborative Learning
Collaborative learning is the process of getting two or more students work together to learn.
 Case Study
The case study is a teaching strategy which requires learners to draw upon their past
experiences, is participatory and has action components which are links to future experience. The
key to a successful case study is the selection of appropriate problem situations which is relevant
both to the interest and experience level of learners and to the concepts being thought.
 Forum
The forum is an open discussion carried on by one or more recourse people and entire group.
 Conclusion
The learning environment allows educators and students to exchange ideas and information,
work together on projects, around the clock, from anywhere in the world using multiple
communication modes.

2. Evaluation or Assessment Procedures

 Setting and Managing Learning Goals

The first step in conducting assessment is setting the learning goals. Once the learning
goals are formulated and agreed upon, multiple forms of assessment will occurs.
 My Learning Contract
Learning goals, each student must fill out his/her learning goals. Student’s commitment is
very important for achieving the learning goal that specifies what is too achieved in the
future.
 Types of Conference
The learning goals are created and discussed in three types; a goal setting conference, a
progress assessment conference, and post-evaluation conference. Tome doesn’t allow
teachers to have conferences to its individual students.
 Test and Examinations

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 Test and examination are given to assess the how much is student knows and what the
students still need to learn.
 Portfolios
A portfolio as an assessment procedure is a collection of a students work in an n area,
showing growth, self reflection, and achievement. Portfolios can also show cooperative
groups.

Lesson Plan

-is a teacher’s detailed description of the course of instruction for one class. A daily
lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class instruction. Details will vary depending on
the preference of the teacher, subject being covered and the need or curiosity of the children.
They maybe requirements mandated by the school system regarding the plan.

Types of Lesson Plans

* Five-Step Lesson Plan

- is a form of daily lesson planning that includes the following component: anticipatory set,
instruction, guided practice, closure or assessment and independent practice.

*Five- E Lesson Plan

-formats ask the teacher to list components that deals with engaging, explaining, exploring,
elaborating, and evaluating.

*Weekly Lesson Plan

- is an ideal format for teachers who are converting a similar a similar topic throughout the
week.

*Unit Lesson Plan

- is a simple way to guide instruction for teachers who do not work well with elaborate plans.
Each day a teacher presents lessons to the students with that unit in mind.

EXEMPLAR LESSON

Exemplar –is the mental conception or image of something to be produced.

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 Personalized learning

David Miliband, minister of state for school standards, made personalized learning the
central plank of his speech to the North England conference in January. He added, means
assessment, teaching to insure that the talents of every individual can be fully realized.

Ofsted Summary Documents

These summary documents of ofsted’s finding provide and excellent reference point for
teacher and seeking to improve the teaching of mathematics and provides a good reference
point against which to measure the quality of teaching while providing guidance of the steps.

Lesson Planning Proforma

This combines the best of practice in Suffolk schools and was based upon a successful
model used for Ofsted in November 2009.

Lesson observation sheet – this is based upon Ofsted’s 2009 criteria.

Ofsted’s Lesson Criteria – this picks out some of the key description from the evaluation
schedule criteria 2009.

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning Approach makes use of a classroom organization where students work
in groups or team to help each other learn.

Two important components:

 A cooperative incentive structure – one where two or more individuals are

interdependent for a reward.

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  A cooperative task structure – is a situation in which two or more individuals are
allowed, encourage or required to work together on some tasks.

Approaches used

1. Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD)

The teacher gives new information to students for a week. The class is divided into four or five
member teams. Each member try to learn the materials and then help each other master the
materials through tutoring, testing one another or carrying on group discussions. Individually,
students take weekly quizzes on the academic materials. The team with the highest scores and
the member with the high improvement scores are recognized.

2. Think-Pair-Share

Thinking Phase

The teacher poses a question about the lesson. Students spend time thinking of the answer
alone.

Pairing Phase

Each student pairs with another and discusses the answer together. This interaction leads
to sharing of ideas.

Sharing Phase

The teacher asks the pair to share their answers with the whole class.

3. Buzz Groups

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 Groups of 3 to 6 discuss al their ideas about a topic. Then a recorder summarizes the
ideas arrived to the class.

4. Jigsaw
The student are assigned to 5 or 6 study teams .then a topic is presented to them and each
is responsible for a portion. Members from different teams with the same topic meet together
t o study and help each other learn their own topic. Then each returns to their home teams
and discuss their topic. After discussions each member takes a quiz. Team’s score are
obtained and the high scoring team and each member are recognized.

Pointers:

1. Heterogeneous grouping has been found out to affect the performance of the members.
High achievers can tutor the other members thus raising the achievement level of the
group.
2. Make sure that the student can work w ell in group situation. This would need an
observation of their social skills and willingness to cooperate.
3. Provide sufficient working tools so as not to be hampered by time that might be spent
wasting.
4. Provide adequate space for ease and speed of movement.

7 E’s of Learning Cycle

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 The model differs from the 5e Learning cycle in two ways. The engage element is
expanded into elicit and engage. This places a greater emphasis on prior experience and eliciting
tacit knowledge that can be used as a foundation for the learning to come.

Elaborate and evaluate are expanded into elaborate, evaluate and extend. This mostly

aims to differentiate between the 2 types of 'elaboration' possible in the 5e model.

The elaboration phase of the 7e Learning cycle is limited to elaborating on the current

situation (e.g. introducing/changing parameters), while the post-evaluation extend phase involves
transferring newly acquired skills and knowledge to new situations within the domain.

The 7e Learning cycle is an expansion of the 5e Learning cycle.

Comparison of the 5e and 7e learning
cycles
7e Learning
5e Learning cycle
cycle
elicit
engage
engage

explore explore
explain explain
elaborate/extend elaborate
evaluate evaluate
extend

Phase 1: Elicit

Determining prior knowledge: “What do you know

about..?”

Phase 2: Engage

Arouse student interest by using a discrepant event,

telling a story, giving a demonstration, or by showing an object, picture, or brief video.

Motivate and capture student interest.

Phase 3: Explore

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 Have students work with manipulative (e.g., natural objects, models) to make

observations, investigate a question or phenomenon. Have students make

predictions, develop hypotheses, design experiments, collect data, draw conclusions,

and so forth. Teacher role is to provide support and scaffolding. Student role is to

construct their own understanding through active experience.

Phase 4: Explain

Students report findings and discoveries to the class. Teacher allows opportunities

to verbalize and clarify the concept; introduces concepts and terms and summarizes

the results of the exploration phase. Teacher explanations, texts, and media are

used to guide learning.

Phase 5: Elaborate

Have students apply the newly learned concepts to new contexts. Pose a different

(but similar) question and have students explore it using the concept.

Phase 6: Evaluate

Use the formative assessment from Elicit Phase and assess: for example, the

design of the investigation, the interpretation of the data, or follow-through on

questions, looking for student growth. Growth is the desired change in the students’

understanding of key concepts, principles, and skills in a differentiated classroom.

Expectations vary according to the student’s beginning point. Summative

assessment may be used here to measure achievement and assign a grade.

Phase 7: Extend

Lead students to connect the concept to different contexts, transfer new learning.

Problem-Base Learning

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 Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn
about a subject in the context of complex, multifaceted, and realistic problems. Working in
groups, students identify what they already know, what they need to know, and how and where
to access new information that may lead to resolution of the problem. The role of the instructor is
that of facilitator of learning who provides appropriate scaffolding of that process by (for
example), asking probing questions, providing appropriate resources, and leading class
discussions, as well as designing student assessments.

Cognitive effects of problem-based learning

The acquisition and structuring of knowledge in PBL is thought to work through the
following cognitive effects (Schmidt, 1993):

 initial analysis of the problem and activation of prior knowledge through small-group
discussion
 elaboration on prior knowledge and active processing of new information
 restructuring of knowledge, construction of a semantic network
 social knowledge construction
 learning in context
 stimulation of curiosity related to presentation of a relevant problem

Other Outcomes of Problem-Base Learning

One of the aims of PBL is the development of self-directed learning (SDL) skills. In Loyens,
Magda & Rikers' discussion (2008), SDL is defined as “a process in which individuals take the
initiative…in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating goals, identifying human and material
resources, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning
outcomes.” By being invited into the learning process, students are also invited to take
responsibility for their learning, which leads to and increase in self-directed learning skills. In
Severiens and Schmidt’s study of 305 first year college students, they found that PBL and its
focus on SDL led to motivation for students to maintain study pace, led to social and academic
integration, encouraged development of cognitive skills, and fostered more study progress then
students in a conventional learning setting (2009). PBL encourages learners to take a place in the
academic world through inquiring and discovery that is central to problem-based learning

INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING

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Writing Lesson Objectives – refers to student mastery of the content such as fact, concepts,
skills and generalization.

Performance Objectives – also called lesson or instructional objectives, behavioral objections

and specific objectives.

Process Objectives – It focus on mental skills like observation, organizing, categorizing,

evaluation, drawing, inference and the like.

Characteristic of Performance Objectives

S – Specific

M – Measurable

A - Attainable

R – result-Oriented and reliable

T – Time-Bound and terminal

Task Analysis – a learner’s task ma y be quite complex thus the need to break it down into
logical sequence of steps to achieve the intended outcome.

Enabling Objectives – Subtasks

Taxonomy of Objectives:

3 Domains:

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1. Cognitive – thinking Ability

a. Knowledge or Recall – knowledge of terminology convention, trends, sequences,

classification, categories, criteria, methodologies, principles, theories, and
structure.
b. Comprehension – relate to translation, interpretation and extrapolation.\
c. Application – use of abstraction in particular situation.
d. Analysis – objectives relate to breaking a whole into parts.
e. Synthesis - putting parts together in a new form.
f. Evaluation – judging in term so interval evidence or logical consisting and
external evidence or consisting with facts developed elsewhere.

2. Affective -interests, attitudes and feelings.

a. Receiving – awareness, attitudes and feelings.
b. Responding – willing response, feelings of satisfaction.
c. Valuing – acceptance, preference, commitment
d. Organization – conceptualization of values, organization of a value system.
e. Characterization – generalized set of values characterization or philosophy of
life.
3. Psychomotor
a. Reflexive movements – relate to reflexes.
b. Fundamentals movement – relate to walking, running, jumping, pushing,
pulling, manipulating.
c. Perceptual Abilities – objectives relate to kinesthetic, visual, auditory, tactile,
and coordination abilities.
d. Physical abilities – relate to endurance, strength, flexibility, agility, and reaction
– response time.
e. Skilled Movements – objectives relate to games, sports, dances and the arts.
f. Non discursive communication – expressive movements through posture,
gesture, facial expressions, creative movement.

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METACOGNITION TEACHING METHOD – this is an instructional method where learners
are trained to become aware of and control over their learning by utilizing metacognition
process.

Five Steps in Teaching Approach

1. Planning – involves the method of thinking out actions and purposes.

2. Deciding – What knowledge and resources are needed?
3. Monitoring – it is important to know whether you are going in the right direction.
4. Evaluating – How am I doing? How well did I do?
5. Terminating – this is the step when the objective have been met.

Metacognition – means reservoir of knowledge

- Means that central idea is to help the individual think about the
nature of learning and develop conscious control over tools of
learning.
- It is sometimes called cognitive strategy instruction (Geskin and
Elliot,1991)

Planning Homework

Function of Homework

Homework – is the last but not the least part of a lesson plan. It is our way of extending
the school day by providing pupils/student the opportunity to refine and extend their knowledge.

Research has proven that for every 30 minutes of additional homework a student does per
night, his or her overall grade point average (GPA) increase about half a point.

Homework – also helps cultivate good study habits.

39
Teacher – it is a tool to assess the learning needs of learners with multiple intelligences and
varied learning styles by way of creative subject requirements and authentic assessment
techniques such as video-tapes, posters, artworks, skills, poetry writing, and song or jingle
composition which cannot be done within the limited class time.

Teachers guide in the use of Homework

For pupils to get the most from homework, the following guidelines may be of help:

1. The amount of homework assigned to students should be different form primary to

intermediate to high school.
2. Parent involvement in homework should be kept to a minimum.
3. The purpose of homework and outcome of homework should be identified and
articulated.
4. It homework is assigned, it should be commented on of what use is homework if it is not
read, evaluated and return?
5. Establish and communicate a homework policy.
6. During PTCA meetings share tips on how to make homework time successful such as the
following:
1. Designate a well lit space for homework.
2. Establish time to do the work or use the calendar to plan when the work can be done if
schedule vary.
3. Ask students specific about the school day and what needs t o be done each night.
4. Tell them the numerous benefits of homework and provide statements that parents can
use with their child.
5. Assure parents that you want to hear if the student needs a lot of coaching from parents.

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 Differentiated Instruction

Programmed Instruction – is a technique of self-instruction. This form of instruction is

considered as one of the novel developments in education, an analysis of the procedure involved
will reveal that there is nothing new in pedagogical concepts and principles, but perhaps only in
application.

Program – refers to a coordinated group of activities to be performed. This planned learning

pattern is presented to the pupils/students in a sequential manner.

Programming – the technique of planning the instructional materials for use in this type of
teaching.

Programmed Instructional materials – the end-product of the planned materials.

Two Types of Programmed Instructional Devices

1. Teaching machine – is a mechanical device which presents the learning material to the
pupils test him on his mastery of this material, and provides for the immediate correction
of his wrong responses.
2. Programmed textbook – presents the programmed exercises not through a machine but
by requiring the pupils/students to read prepared materials in the book.

In the following principles of learning with the use of programmed instruction may be
illustrated in the following learning experiences:

1. Learning by doing is effective.

2. Learning is best facilitated when psychological feed-back are conferred the learners.
3. Pupils/students learn only when they master ideas and skills step by step.
4. Knowledge is facilitated when new techniques for teaching are important.
5. Creativity is promoted because the teacher becomes free from tedious routine and will
have to stimulate pupils/students.
6. The use of programmed learning materials will certainly motivate and encourage “team
teaching”.
7. Programmed learning will allow pupils/students to participate actively in class activities
at all times.

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 Evaluation

Evaluation – is a continuous process of inquiry concerned with the study, appraisal and
improvement of all aspects of the educational program.

Evaluation – is important to the teacher, the child, the parent, the administrator, and the
profession as whole.

General Principles of Evaluation

1. Evaluation should be terms of the extent to which the pupils have attained the
objectives of education. Objectives include not only mastery of the subject matter but
also the major aspects of growth.
2. Evaluation is an integral part of the educative process. The teacher should guide every
experience in terms of the needs and interest of the group as seen in life situations.
3. The evaluation program should be cooperative. Learners, teachers and parents should
participate in the process of evaluating educational objectives.
4. Records should give a complete picture of each child. Records should not be
considered as ends but as services tools to help the teacher understand the learners with
whom he is working, to help the learners to interpret behavior, and to define immediate
and long-term needs.
5. Evaluating should be comprehensive. Records should show the learner’s positive and
negative aspects of development.
6. Evaluation uses a variety of instruments, tools, and techniques. The teacher should
choose the techniques suited to the individual pupil concerned and to the specific purpose
for which the evaluation is being made.
7. Objective measurement and subjective judgment are both essential in evaluation.
Records should be specific and, as far as possible, objective.
8. Diagnosis and remedial work are phases of the evaluative process. Test results should
be carefully interpreted and the necessary follow-up work should be done accordingly.
9. Evaluation should be descriptive. A descriptive concrete statement about the child is
more meaningful and significant to teachers, to parent, and to children than any blanket
judgment that merely indicates that the child has passed.

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Major Aspects of Growth to be evaluated

For evaluation to be improves there must be agreement on what are to be evaluated.

1. Mental and physical health

2. Social adjustment
3. Purposes and activities
4. Intelligence and readiness
5. Quality of thinking
6. Integrative knowledge and skill
7. Interest in many fields of knowledge and endeavor
8. Individual aptitudes and creative arts

Evaluation Devices

1. Self-evaluation techniques. Self-evaluation develops in the child self-control, self-

direction, and wise judgment.

2. Teacher evaluation. Evaluation includes a variety of methods of securing and recording

the evidence needed to provide information on pupil progress.

3. Observational procedures. The teacher, in his daily contacts with pupils, collects
information as revealed in discussions and other situations.
4. Anecdotal records. Designed for two kinds of entries: what happened and what it
probably means.

5. Checklist. A list of the kind of behavior to look for.

6. Rating scales. It is also used aside from checklist in order to record an appraisal along
with behavior observations.

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 Socratic Symposium

Symposium – is a form of meeting or a conference for the discussion of some important

subjects, at which several speakers discus atopic before an audience.

Symposium – is more formal in terms of format and presentation.

Symposium – is a public-speaking program different from a panel discussion. The number of

invited speakers will depend on the numbers of important sources of information that should
be considered.

There are certain points to consider in preparation of symposium program and these
are:

1. The purpose of the Conference

2. Choosing the topic that arouse and sustain interest
3. Choosing the speakers
4. Briefing the speakers on the objectives of the symposium and the procedures to be
observed.
The criteria used in the selection of the speakers are degree of prestige and recognition in his
field, knowledge of the subject and the facility of the language.

Speakers – are presumed to have adequate preparation for the audience expert’s well-organized
and meaty speakers.

Moderator – should arrange a briefing session with the speakers which should include
arrangement of time limit of speeches and the procedures to be observed during the forum.

The purpose of the symposium is to help the listeners analyze the problem.

After the speeches of the speakers, the moderator starts the open forum where questions are
directed to the speakers.

When there are no questions the forum is adjourned.

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 Predict, Observe, Explain (POE)

The POE strategy was developed by White and Gunstone (1992) to uncover individual student’s
prediction, and their reasons for making these, about a specific event.

When to use: POE is a strategy often used in science. It works best with demonstrations that
allows immediate observations, and suits Physical and Material World contexts. A similar
strategy also works well in mathematics, particular in statistics.

 It can be used for finding out student’s initial ideas

 Providing teachers with information about students’ thinking
 Generating discussion
 Motivating students to want to explore the concept.
 Generating investigations

The Theory

Constructivist theories of learning consider that students’ existing understandings should

be considered when developing teaching and learning programmes. Events that surprise create
conditions where students may be read y to start re-examining their personal theories.

How the Strategy works

 Unless students are as ked to predict first what will happen. They may not observe
carefully.
 Writing down their prediction motivates them to want to know the answer
 Asking students t o explain the reasons or their predictions gives the teacher indications
of their theories. This can be useful for uncovering misconceptions or developing
understandings they have. It can provide information for making decisions about the
subsequent learning.
 Explaining and evaluating their predictions and listening to other’s predictions helps
students to begin evaluating their own leaning and constructing new meanings.

45
Step 1: Predict

 Ask the students to independently write their prediction of w hat will happen.
 Ask them what they think they will see and why they think this.

Step 2: Observe

 Carry out the demonstration

 Allow time to focus on observation
 Ask students to write down what they do observe

Steps 3: Explain

 Ask students to amend or add to their explanation to take account of the observation
 After students have committed their explanations to paper, discuss their ideas together to
be doing.

46
 References

 Amador, J.A., Miles, L., & Peters, C.B. The Practice of Problem-Based Learning: A Guide
to Implementing PBL in the College Classroom. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. 2006.
 Armstrong E: A hybrid model of problem-based learning. In: Boud D and Feletti G (editors):
The challenge of problem-based learning, 137-149. London, Kogan Page, 1991
 Barr RD and Tagg J: From teaching to learning - a new paradigm for undergraduate
education. Change, Nov/Dec.1995:13-25
 Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. In
Wilkerson, L, & Gijselaers, W.H. (eds.). New directions for teaching and learning, vol. 68.
Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and pracice, pp. 3-13. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
 Boud, D., & Feletti, G.I. (eds.). The Challenge of Problem-Based Learning, 2nd Ed. London:
Kogan Page Ltd., 1997.
 Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research University for the
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. (1998). Reinventing Undergraduate
Education: A Blueprint for America's Research
Universities. URL: http://notes.cc.sunysb.edu/Pres/boyer.nsf.
 Duch, B.J., Groh, S.E., & Allen, D.E. (eds.). The Power of Problem-Based Learning,
Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2001.
 Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). "Problem-based learning: What and how do students
learn?". Educational Psychology Review 16 (3): 235–
266.doi:10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3.
 Hmelo-Silver, C. E. & Barrows, H. S. (2006). Goals and strategies of a problem-based
learning facilitator. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1. 21-39.
 Loyens, S., Magda, J., & Rikers, R. (2008). Self-Directed Learning in Problem-Based
Learning and its Relationships with Self-Regulated Learning. Educational Psychology
Review, 20(4), 411-427.
 National Research Council (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

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