• Very small organisms can easily obtain oxygen and nutrients by diffusion

from their environment.

• Hence, THEY DO NOT NEED a complex circulatory system like large
organisms.
Importance of
Circulatory System
Two Pathways
• Pulmonary Circulation (circulation between LUNGS and
HEART)
• Carries blood TO THE LUNGS and BACK TO THE HEART
• The blood circulates to and from the lungs, to release the
carbon dioxide and pick up new oxygen.
• Systemic Circulation (circulation between HEART and
BODY)
Carries blood to the body and back to the heart
The blood circulates into the body’s systems, bringing oxygen to
all its organs, structures and tissues and collecting carbon dioxide
waste.

THE SYSTEMIC CYCLE IS CONTROLLED BY THE LEFT

SIDE OF THE HEART
THE PULMONARY CYCLE BY THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE
HEART

Why do large organisms need a circulatory

system?
• Large organisms are MULTICELLULAR; therefore, they will need a
circulatory system to transport food, waste, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.…
 around the body because their surface area to volume ratio is small.

• Because the Surface Area to volume ratio is small, large organisms would not
be able to obtain food and oxygen and get rid of waste via their surface area.

• HENCE, IT IS IMPORTANT FOR LARGE ORGANISMS TO HAVE A

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM TO TRANSPORT SUBSTANCES FROM ONE
PART OF THE BODY TO ANOTHER.
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In humans, red blood cells are small, contain haemoglobin and biconcave
(thinnest in the center, just 777 - 888 μm in size), and DO NOT CONTAIN
MITOCHONDRIA OR A NUCLEUS WHEN MATURE.
How is adapted for its function?!?!
These characteristics allow red blood cells to effectively perform their task of
oxygen transport.
• Small size and biconcave shape- increase the surface area-to-volume ratio,
improving gas exchange.
• Lack of a nucleus- makes additional space for haemoglobin.

• Lack of mitochondria- keeps red blood cells from using any of the oxygen
they’re carrying, maximizing the amount delivered to tissues of the body.
• The haemoglobin- combines loosely with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.
Oxygen can easily be released from oxyhaemoglobin and diffuse into body
cells that need them for respiration.
What is
haemoglobin? It is a key protein used in oxygen transport.
Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes)

Unlike red blood cells, white blood cells have A NUCLEUS.

There are about 10, 000 in every 1mm3 of blood.
WHERE ARE WHITE BLOOD CELLS MADE?
• In bone marrow

• spleen
 • lymph nodes

There are two main types of white blood cells:

1. Phagocytes -These white blood cells can pass through capillary walls and
into tissues to absorb or engulf harmful particles and microorganisms by a
process known as phagocytosis. Tend to be irregular in shape.
2. Lymphocytes- These white blood cells secrete substances known as
ANTIBODIES that destroy disease organisms.
This all means that white blood cells serve to defend the body from infections.

White blood cells (leukocytes)

Platelets
PLASMA IS THE LIQUID PART OF THE BLOOD
90% WATER 10% SOLUTES
Plasma carries out the MAIN TRANSPORT FUNCTIONS of the blood.
• Nutrients from the food we eat DIFFUSES through the villi and into the capillaries.

• These capillaries join back to form small veins that carry the nutrients. These small veins also join
together to form THE HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN which carries the nutrients to the liver and body
cells.

• NITROGENOUS WASTE is also carried in the plasma to the kidney to be excreted.

Hormones are also carried in the blood from the endocrine glands to the organs where the hormones
function.
Plasma
PLATE
LETS AND CLOTTING- A clot consists of a mesh of fibers that trap the blood cells and
platelets at the wound’s surface.
Clotting occurs in a series of stages that REQUIRE CALCIUM SALTS. Hence, calcium salts
are important in the diet.
 • Platelets are small fragments that lack a nucleus.

• There are about 250, 000 in every 1 mm3 of blood.

• They are colourless and they help in BLOOD CLOTTING at wounds. Hence, platelets are
important in preventing too much blood from being loss at open wounds.
EXAMPLE
• If you cut yourself, you will realize you do not bleed long. This is because clumps of blood form at
the open surface preventing any further bleeding as well as restricts the entry of any microorganisms
that may cause harm.

IN SUMMARY
• Plasma is the main component of blood and consists
mostly of water, with proteins, ions, nutrients, and wastes
mixed in.
• Red blood cells are responsible for carrying OXYGEN
and CARBON DIOXIDE.
• Platelets are responsible for BLOOD CLOTTING.
• White blood cells are part of the IMMUNE SYSTEM and
FUNCTION IN IMMUNE RESPONSE.

Circulator
y System – Keeps the body working by delivering oxygen to
body cells and removing waste (CO2) from the cells.

ory or Cardiovascular System Circulat

Functions of the Circulatory System
• Respiration - DELIVERS OXYGEN to the cells and
REMOVING CARBON DIOXIDE from them
• Nutrition - carries digested food substances to the cells of
the body
• Waste Removal - disposes of waste products and poisons
that would harm the body if they accumulated
• Immunity - helps protect the body from disease
• Cellular Communication - the circulatory system provides
a mode of transport for hormones
• Thermoregulation - the circulatory system transports heat
(can both warm and cool body)

The circulatory system in mammals consists of:

• Blood
• Blood Vessels
• Arteries
• Veins
• Capillaries
• Heart
The human circulatory system is a closed circulatory system.
All animals MUST exchange materials with their environment,
including nutrients and wastes, O2, CO2, etc., as such they need
a system that will do this.

Arteries &
Veins
 Aorta
The aorta takes OXYGENATED
BLOOD from the heart to the rest of the body.
The aorta leaves the heart and branches into arteries that supply the
main organs of the body.
That is, the aorta divides to supply the ARMS and HEAD.
The aorta supplies the hepatic artery to the liver, gastric artery to the
stomach, mesenteric arteries to the liver, renal arteries to the kidney
and so on after which it then divides into arteries that supply the legs.

The circulation in the gut is very unusual in that the mesenteric artery has no matching vein.
The blood from the stomach and intestine, empties into the hepatic portal vein which carries the blood with digested
food directly to the liver.
The liver thus has TWO VESSELS carrying blood to it, the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein.

Heart Structure

• BLOOD VESSELS OUTSIDE THE HEART- CORONARY VESSELS

These vessels include coronary arteries and coronary veins.

CORONARY ARTERIES
• supply blood to the cardiac muscles of the heart.
• Supply heart with nutrients and oxygen
• If the coronary artery becomes blocked by a blood clot or something else, it may prevent or restrict
blood flow to the cardiac muscles.
 This, therefore means that the cardiac muscles will be deprived of oxygen and so STOPS
WORKING.
• When the cardiac muscles are unable to contract due this oxygen deprivation, the heart will stop
beating and this is known as a heart attack or cardiac arrest.

• The human heart is a muscular, cone-shaped, hollow organ about the SIZE OF A
FIST (about 12cm in length and 9cm in breadth).
WHERE IS THE HEART FOUND?
• Situated BEHIND THE STERNUM, BETWEEN THE LUNGS (slightly left) in the THORACIC
CAVITY.
WHAT PURPOSE DOES IT SERVE?
• It serves as a pump to push blood to all the parts of the body.
• The right-side pumps blood to lungs
• The left side pumps blood to all over the body
• SO… Right side lungs
• Left Side all over body

Heart Structure

• The atria (singular; atrium) are the receiving chambers.

• The ventricles are the pumping chambers.
• The walls of the atria are LESS MUSCULAR than the walls of the ventricles.
• The left ventricle has the most muscular wall; the chamber has to create the greatest
pressure to push blood around the body.
• The right ventricle only pumps blood to the nearby lung.
• Valves separate the upper chamber from the
lower chambers on each side and ensure that blood flows in one direction only through the heart.
• When the ventricles pump blood into the blood vessels, valves prevent the backflow of blood into
the atria.

• There are tendons which hold the valves in place.

ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES
• Between LEFT ATRIUM and LEFT VENTRICLE
• Also in between RIGHT ATRIUM and RIGHT VENTRICLE
BICUSPID/ MITRAL VALVE
• The valve on the left-hand side of the heart made of two (2) parts
TRICUSPID VALVE
• The valve on the right-hand side and has three (3) parts
• This means that as the ventricles contract, blood is pushed up into the arteries and NOT
BACKWARD into the atria.
• The valves are attached to tough, connective tissues known as tendons
• Tendons prevent the flaps from being forced too far back into the atrium.

VALVES

ARTERIES OF THE HEART

• Arteries start with A takes blood away!!
• Aorta – LARGEST blood vessel in the heart
• Pulmonary Artery – Carries blood containing carbon dioxide from your heart to your lungs

SEMI-LUNAR (ARTERIAL) VALVES

• The semi-lunar (also known as arterial) valves are found at the start of the pulmonary artery
and aorta.
 • It prevents back-flow of blood into the ventricle when they relax.

VEINS OF THE HEART

• Veins start with V brings blood back to me
• 1. Inferior Vena Cava – Where the blood enters the heart from the body.
• 2. Superior Vena Cava – Where the blood enters the heart from the head.
• 3. Pulmonary Vein – Carries blood-containing oxygen from your lungs to your heart.

FUNCTION OF THE HEART

• It pumps blood into the blood vessels to ensure that blood reaches all the parts of the body!
• This is done by the CONTRACTION and RELAXATION of the chambers of the heart. This is
called a heartbeat.
Understanding the heart beat
• The heart beats as the cardiac muscle in its walls contract and relax.
• When it contracts, it gets smaller and so squeezes blood out. This is known as SYSTOLE.
• When it relaxes, it gets bigger and so allows blood to rush in. This is known as DIASTOLE.
Where does the heart beat begin?
In the wall of the right atrium and then spreads throughout the heart.
A group of specialised cells known as the pacemaker or sinoatrial node begins and maintains the
heartbeat.
WHAT ARE THE GROUP OF SPECIALISED CELLS CALLED?
The pacemaker or sinoatrial node

About Artificial Pacemaker

• If the pacemaker becomes defective, an artificial pacemaker can be inserted into the chest.
• It contains a small battery that makes regular shocks to stimulate and control the normal heartbeat.
• Individuals can live very healthy lifestyles; they may just have to get their batteries replaced
approximately every 7 years.
Pacemakers
• Exercise increases respiration which means the body will need more oxygen and need to get rid of
more CO2.
• This excess CO2 will stimulate sensors in the aorta which sends impulses into the medulla that in
turn sends impulses to the pacemaker to produce a faster, stronger heartbeat.
• Fright and stress also increase the heartbeat as these releases the hormone, adrenaline which
stimulates the pacemaker.
WHAT HORMONE STIMULATES THE PACEMAKER?
Adrenaline!!!

THE CARDIAC CYCLE

The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occur during one beat of the heart.
• Diastole- when all the heart’s muscles relax and blood flows into the heart.
• Atrial systole- when the muscles of the atria contract and force blood into the ventricles.
• Ventricular systole- the muscles of the ventricles contract and push blood out of the heart.

• Pulse rate
The pumping of the heart causes the surges of blood in the arteries. We can detect the pulse where an
artery lies above a bone near the body’s surface. You can easily detect your own pulse by applying light
pressure with your middle finger on the radial artery.
 • Blood pressure
Of course, blood in the arteries is under constant pressure as pressure is needed to pump blood all over
the body. The pressure is really the force exerted on the walls of the arteries.
Blood MUST pass through arteries through capillaries to the veins.

Thre
e Kinds of Blood Vessels
blood from the heart gets around the body through blood vessels
• Arteries – Carries blood away from the heart
• Veins – Carries blood back to the heart
• Capillaries – Delivers low-oxygen blood to veins (Smallest)
Arteries carry blood away from the heart and divide again and again to form tiny blood vessels
known as capillaries. Capillaries then gradually join to form large vessels known as vein which
carry blood away from the heart.

BLOOD VESSEL WALLS

The walls of the blood vessels are made up of three layers:
• Inner endothelium (inner) - single layer of cells
• Middle layer- made of smooth involuntary muscles and elastic fibres
• Fibrous layer(outer) - made of elastic white fibres
• Thicker walls than the veins because the blood flows through them under more
pressure.
• It ensures that blood reaches all the parts of the body at the earliest.
• The blood flows through the arteries because of the pressure generated by the heart and maintained by
the action of the arterial muscles.
The blood vessels that take blood away from the
heart are called ARTERIES.
• They carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery that carries deoxygenated blood).
• Arteries carry blood at very high pressure and so therefore need to possess very strong walls to
withstand pressure.
• The colour of fresh blood drawn from the arteries is bright red.
The two main arteries leaving the heart are:
Aorta:
• The branches of which supply blood to different parts of the body
Pulmonary Artery:
• The artery that takes blood to the lungs.

• Therefore, the blood does not flow smoothly throughout the heart but pulses through as the
ventricles contract and relax.
• This means the arteries have elastic tissues in their wall which can expand and contract to
accommodate blood flow, thereby making it smoother.
• Arteries DO NOT HAVE VALVES as the pressure of the blood prevents backflow.
•

• The veins are lined by smooth muscles.

• The blood is not under as much pressure as the arteries of the heart. Valves to prevent blood from
flowing in the wrong direction by the pull of gravity.
• The walls of the veins are not as thick as those of arteries.
• All the veins of the upper body except the pulmonary vein join together to form the superior vena
cava
• The veins of the lower body join together to form the inferior vena cava.
• These two veins pour their blood into the right atrium through separate openings.
• The pulmonary vein brings the blood from the lungs to the heart.
• Veins have a LARGE LUMEN to ensure blood flows through the heart as easily as possible.
• Blood is kept moving in the veins by the contraction of the muscles surrounding them.

• The capillaries are very tiny blood

vessels and penetrate to every part of the body.
• The capillaries carry blood to each cell within the body.
• They are one-cell thick and as such allows carbon dioxide to diffuse out and oxygen in and has a
narrow lumen.
• Therefore, the capillary interact with the cells directly!!

• The capillaries are in touch with the tissues and cells.

• Their walls only have a single layer of endothelial cells…. Therefore?
• The membranes of the endothelial cells are permeable to the nutrients and gases.

CAPILLARIES (5-8 micron)

ces between arteries, Differen

veins and
capillaries
• The smallest blood
vessels are capillaries and they connect the arteries and veins.
• This is where the exchange of nutrients and gases occurs.

Conditions associated
circulatory with the
system
 Pulmonary embolism
• Blood is kept moving in the veins by contractions of the muscles surrounding them.

• For example, large veins in your legs are squeezed by leg muscles when you walk. This helps to
push the blood back to the heart.

• This means if a person is confined to a bed for a long period, there is danger that the blood in
these veins will not be kept moving which may result in a clot being formed.

This clot is known as thrombosis, also called deep vein thrombosis.

If this clot is carried to the lungs, it could get stuck in the arterioles and causes a condition known as
pulmonary embolism. Pulmonary embolism may prevent circulation reaching part of the lungs.

Hypertension (High blood pressure)

Hypertension is one of the major health problems in the Caribbean.

• Hypertension may lead to DEATH by causing heart attacks and strokes.
• Hypertension may cause DAMAGE to the smooth lining of blood vessels, the narrowing
and increased hardening of the arteries all over the body especially in the heart and
kidney.
• Due to these issues, the heart has to now WORK HARDER causing the muscles to
stretch too much or get thick. These stretched heart muscles are now ENLARGED
causing the heart to not obtain adequate blood supply. Hence, the heart is NO LONGER
ABLE to function properly.
HOW HYPERTENSION LEADS TO STROKE
• The overworking of the blood vessels causes the vessels to rupture and a build of
pressure in the brain. The pressure in the brain may lead to a stroke with bleeding in the
brain 🧠.

HOW HYPERTENSION LEADS TO ARTERIOSCLEROSIS

(Hardening of arteries)
• If hypertension is not controlled, fat may deposit in the walls of the arteries. These fat
deposits are known as plaques and it leads to a condition known as arteriosclerosis or
hardening of the arteries.
HOW ARTERIOSCLEROSIS LEADS TO HEART ATTACKS

• As fat deposits in the walls of the hardened arteries, there is less space for blood to flow
through. If the coronary arteries themselves get clogged with plaque, there is a temporary
stop in blood supply to the heart leading the heart to stop beating, thereby causing a
heart attack.

STUDY! STUDY! STUDY!

Because God is with me, and God lives me, I will get through this!!!